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Homework: Week of April 3 - 7
Monday, April 3: Geography envelope is due tomorrow. Make sure you have: Labeled South Asia map in the middle, a geographic feature labeled in each corner, five new facts about each geographic feature, a colored picture for each geographic feature. Feature choices include: Hindu Kush, Khyber Pass, Deccan Plateau, Indus River, Ganges River, Mt. Everest, Himalayas, Eastern and Western Ghats.
In Class Today: Students will learn about the caste system of ancient South Asia.
Warm Up: Collaborative activity on the caste system.
Tuesday, April 4: Finish the Hinduism worksheet.
In Class Today: Students will learn about Hinduism and the role it played in ancient South Asia.
Warm Up: Turn in geography envelope.
Wednesday, April 5: No homework.
In Class Today: Students will go over the Hinduism worksheet and watch a video about Hinduism. We will be viewing the same video series that we have used to learn about Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Warm Up: Analysis of the Ganges River.
Thursday, April 6: Finish the Buddhism worksheet.
In Class Today: Students will learn about Buddhism and the role it played in ancient South Asia.
Warm Up: How does the social hierarchy of India relate to Hinduism?
Friday, April 7: No homework.
In Class Today: Students will watch the video series on Buddhism.
Warm Up: reading on Asoka the Great.
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Full Female Reproductive Organs of the Lower Torso (Cross-section View) Description
[Continued from above] . . . Within the labia minora and superior to the urethra is the clitoris, a sensitive erectile organ that is responsible for producing feelings of sexual arousal and pleasure.
The internal female reproductive organs work together as a conduit for sperm to reach the egg cell during sexual intercourse and for the development and birth of the fetus during pregnancy. A muscular, epithelium lined tube known as the vagina connects the vulva to the cervix of the uterus. The uterus, or womb, is a muscular, pear-shaped, organ found between the vagina and the fallopian tubes. During pregnancy the fetus grows and develops within the protective uterus. Powerful muscle contractions of the uterus are responsible for delivering the fetus during childbirth. The narrow fallopian tubes extend from the left and right sides of the top of the uterus towards the ovaries. Following ovulation, the egg cell travels through the fallopian tubes to reach the uterus. The fallopian tubes also act as the location for fertilization of the egg cell if sperm are present following sexual intercourse. Resting at the end of each fallopian tube is an ovary. The ovaries are small, almond-sized glands that produce ova, commonly called egg cells, as well as the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor
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Living Planet Index
Living Blue Planet Report
This is a special marine edition of WWF’s Living Planet Report. This report uses the Living Planet Index to provide a global picture of the status of marine biodiversity using data from 7,829 populations of 1,234 species of marine birds, mammals, reptiles and fishes. Download the full report here
The main statistic from the report is the global marine LPI which shows a 49% decline between 1970 and 2012. This means that the average population size of these monitored species is roughly half what it was 42 years ago.
Figure 1: The marine LPI shows a 49% decline between 1970 and 2012. The white line shows the index values and the shaded areas represent the 95% confidence intervals surrounding the trend. WWF/ZSL (2015).
Threats to marine populations
Over-exploitation is one of the main drivers behind the decline, particularly for highly commercial species. For example the average decline in Scombridae populations – species of tuna, mackerel and bonito – was 74%.
Important marine habitats are also under threat from climate change, pollution and coastal development. A reduction in the coverage of coral reefs, seagrass habitat and mangrove forests were reported along with an accompanying decline in fish populations in coral reefs and seagrass.
Coral reefs support 25% of marine species; seagrass habitat is an important carbon sink and provides nursery areas for fish; mangroves offer coastal protection from storm surges and are a key spawning and nursery ground for many species. Safeguarding these habitats is vital for the conservation of marine biodiversity, the protection of coastline and the support of people’s livelihoods and food security across the globe.
An index of 17 species of tunas, mackerels and bonitos from the Scombridae family of fish declined by 74% between 1970 and 2010, a trend that shows no sign yet of recovery. These species are important for regional economies, livelihoods and food.
The LPI for reef-associated fish shows a decline of 34% from 1979 to 2010. These are species that live or feed on or near coral reefs. This index is based on 2,501 populations from 352 species. There has been an observed decline in coral reef cover in many areas, particularly the Caribbean and Indo-Pacific. Project levels of warming mean that climate change could cause the loss of reefs by 2050.
Fish populations that are found in seagrass habitat suffered more than a 70% drop in size between 1970 and 2010. This is based on 350 populations of 232 species. Research suggests that 29% of seagrass area has been lost since the end of the 19th century. This important habitat is a carbon sink and provides nursery areas for many marine species.
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London - Dentists have developed an unusual strategy for avoiding the need for root canal treatment — making tiny cuts in the teeth.
Studies suggest that making tiny areas of damage in the nerve root of damaged and infected teeth triggers bleeding, which then forms bloodclots.
These clots appear to stimulate blood supply to the tooth nerve, helping it re-grow and avoiding the need for painful and lengthy treatment.
The treatment is being trialled at the University of Liverpool.
In the centre of each tooth is a network of nerves and blood vessels that run from the top, or crown, down to the root, which is embedded in the jaw.
This network is called the root canal system, and the nerves and blood vessels are collectively referred to as the pulp.
Root canal treatment is necessary when the pulp becomes infected, often as a result of injury, tooth decay or a faulty filling.
Treatment involves extracting the tooth or removing bacteria from the root canal system to prevent further decay and, in severe cases, the loss of the tooth.
Removing bacteria involves a dentist drilling into the tooth, removing the infected pulp, then filling the entire system with a type of sealant.
The tooth is then topped with a filling or a crown.
However, because the procedure is so long that it requires multiple visits to the dentist, usually over the course of around 18 months.
Often this treatment is needed on the large teeth at the back of the mouth, which contain multiple root canal systems.
The new treatment, called revascularisation, can be performed in just two visits.
In the procedure, dentists drill into the tooth and then apply an antibiotic paste to disinfect thecanal. At a second visit two weeks later, the dentist uses a tool to make tiny cuts to the root canal system, until the tissue starts to bleed.
This bleeding quickly triggers a blood clot, which encourages the growth of new blood vessels.
This boosts oxygen and nutrient supply, and helps the pulp repair itself. Exactly how it does this is not clear, but one suggestion is that the blood clot contains a high concentration of growth factors — compounds that help repair damaged tissue.
Early studies have shown that the technique is successful, and scientists at the University of Liverpool are using it on 30patients.
Half will have the new treatment and half will have conventional root canal treatment.
Commenting on the new treatment, Hugh Devlin, professor of restorative dentistry at the University of Manchester, said: “It’s an excellent technique and is getting a lot of interest in the academic journals.
“Traditional treatment eliminates bacteria, but prevents growth of a new blood supply to the root.”
* Meanwhile, scientists say that a substance based on the sticky glue mussels use to cling onto rocks may be a new treatment for sensitive teeth.
Researchers from Hong Kong have developed a similar material to mussel glue that is sticky enough to hold minerals such as calcium against teeth.
Early stage laboratory tests show this helps repair enamel — the tough outer layer that can wear down and trigger sensitivity.
If further trials are successful, the researchers hope to start human trials in the next five years. - Daily Mail
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Children with DCD: At home, at school and in the community (Booklet)
This booklet is designed to help parents and educators identify and manage school-aged children who are demonstrating movement problems typical of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Based on research evidence, the purpose of this booklet is to describe common characteristics of children with motor coordination difficulties, to provide guidance for seeking a referral to a physician, to describe the role of occupational therapists and physiotherapists who may work with these children, and to suggest modifications that may improve the ability of children to function at home, at school, and in the community. Some children only experience coordination difficulties while others have associated learning, speech/language, and attention problems. Management of children with DCD varies greatly due to these differences. As a result, particular techniques and strategies may be more appropriate for one child than another. This booklet describes some of the more common techniques and practical suggestions that may be used. An occupational therapist and/or a physiotherapist may wish to highlight or add specific techniques to personalize it for a particular child/student. The authors gratefully acknowledge the many parents, children, educators, colleagues, students, and service providers who have contributed their knowledge and expertise to the development of this booklet. This booklet was developed with support from the Canadian Occupational Therapy Foundation and funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research to facilitate early identification of children with DCD.
What is Developmental Coordination Disorder?
Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) occurs when a delay in the development of motor skills, or difficulty coordinating movements, results in a child being unable to perform everyday tasks. A diagnosis can be made by a medical doctor who will ensure: 1) that the movement problems are not due to any other known physical, neurological, or behavioural disorders; and, 2) whether more than one disorder may be present. The characteristics of children with DCD, however, are usually noticed first by those closest to the child because the motor difficulties interfere with academic achievement and/or with activities of daily living (e.g., dressing, playground skills, handwriting, gym activities). DCD is believed to affect 5-6% of school-aged children and tends to occur more frequently in boys. DCD can exist on its own or it may be present in a child who also has learning disabilities, speech/language difficulties, and/or attention deficit disorder. In this booklet, the coordination difficulties that are discussed are those that are most often seen in children with developmental coordination disorder.
How Do Coordination Difficulties Occur?
There is no simple answer to this question since coordination difficulties can arise for many reasons. Although we do not know for sure what causes motor coordination problems, research suggests that children can experience difficulties in learning how to plan, organize, perform, and/or modify their movements. One thing we know for certain is that children with DCD have difficulty learning new motor skills. They tend to use their vision more than other types of feedback to guide their movements and, because of this, their motor skills may be more like those of younger children. Children with DCD perform inconsistently from one occasion to the next, and they often perform motor skills in the same way over and over again, even when they are unsuccessful. Typically, children with DCD depend on feedback and are not able to predict the outcome of their movements. As a result, they don’t easily recognize movement errors, learn from their mistakes, or correct their movements.
The characteristics described above have led researchers to believe that the coordination difficulties of children with DCD may lie not only in learning how to move their bodies but also in learning how to use strategies to problem-solve solutions to motor tasks. Because motor skills do not become automatic for these children, they must devote extra effort and attention to complete motor tasks, even those that have been previously learned. Children with DCD often don’t recognize the similarities of particular motor tasks, and this leads to difficulties transferring their motor learning from one activity to another (e.g., catching a large ball and then catching a small ball). They also have difficulty generalizing their motor learning from one situation to another (e.g., a child approaching a sidewalk curb has to figure out that stepping up onto the sidewalk is similar to climbing stairs). Having to respond to a changing environment (e.g., when catching or hitting a moving ball, or when avoiding others during team play) poses an additional challenge for children with DCD because they find it hard to monitor incoming information from the environment and to make their bodies respond in a timely way. The result of any of these problems is the same: children with DCD appear clumsy and awkward, and will have difficulty learning and performing new motor tasks.
Characteristic Features of Children with DCD
When describing children with DCD, it is important to recognize that they are a very mixed group. Some children may experience difficulties in a variety of areas, while others may have problems only with specific activities. The following is a list of some of the more common characteristics that may be observed in a child with DCD.
- The child may be clumsy or awkward in his/her movements. He/she may bump into, spill, or knock things over.
- The child may experience difficulty with gross motor skills (whole body), fine motor skills (using hands), or both.
- The child may be delayed in developing certain motor skills such as riding a tricycle/bicycle, catching a ball, jumping rope, doing up buttons, and tying shoelaces.
- The child may show a discrepancy between his/her motor abilities and his/her abilities in other areas. For example, intellectual and language skills may be quite strong while motor skills are delayed.
- The child may have difficulty learning new motor skills. Once learned, certain motor skills may be performed quite well while others may continue to be performed poorly.
- The child may have more difficulty with activities that require constant changes in his/her body position or when he/she must adapt to changes in the environment (e.g., baseball, tennis).
- The child may have difficulty with activities that require the coordinated use of both sides of the body (e.g., cutting with scissors, stride jumps, swinging a bat, or handling a hockey stick).
- The child may exhibit poor postural control and poor balance particularly in activities that require balance (e.g. stair climbing, standing while dressing).
- The child may have difficulty with printing or handwriting. This skill involves continually interpreting feedback about the movements of the hand while planning new movements, and is a very difficult task for most children with DCD.
- The child may show a lack of interest in, or avoid, particular activities, especially those that require a physical response. For a child with DCD, performing motor skills requires significant effort. Fatigue and repeated failure may cause the child to avoid participating in motor tasks.
- The child may demonstrate a low frustration tolerance, decreased self-esteem, and a lack of motivation due to difficulties coping with activities that are required in all aspects of his/her life.
- The child may avoid socializing with peers, particularly on the playground. Some children will seek out younger children to play with while others will play on their own or follow the educator or playground supervisor. This may be due to decreased self-confidence or avoidance of physical activities.
- The child may seem dissatisfied with his/her performance (e.g., erases written work, complains of performance in motor activities, shows frustration with work product).
- The child may be resistant to changes in his/her routine or in his/her environment. If the child has to expend a lot of effort to plan a task, then even a small change in how it is to be performed may present a significant problem for the child.
Other Common Characteristics
- The child may have difficulty balancing the need for speed with the need for accuracy. For example, handwriting may be very neat but extremely slow.
- The child may have difficulty with academic subjects such as mathematics, spelling, or written language which require handwriting to be accurate and organized on the page.
- The child may have difficulty with activities of daily living (e.g., dressing, using a knife and fork, brushing teeth, doing up zippers, organizing a backpack).
- The child may have difficulty completing work within an expected time frame. Since tasks require much more effort, children may be more willing to be distracted and may become frustrated with a task that should be straightforward.
- The child may have general difficulties organizing his/her desk, locker, homework, or even the space on a page.
If a child exhibits any number of the above characteristics and if these problems are interfering with the child's ability to participate successfully at home, at school, or in the community, then it is important to have the child seen by a family doctor or paediatrician. The medical practitioner may then refer the child to a health service provider at a local children’s hospital or treatment centre or to another community agency.
It is not uncommon for parents or educators to be told that a child will "grow out" of their difficulties. However, studies have now shown quite conclusively that most children do not outgrow these problems. While children do learn to perform certain motor tasks well, they will continue to have difficulty with new, age-appropriate tasks. It is important to recognize these motor difficulties because children with DCD are more likely to develop academic and behavioural problems, demonstrate low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety, and they are at greater risk of becoming overweight.
The Role of Therapists
Occupational therapists (OTs) and physiotherapists (PTs) are educated and trained in analyzing motor skill development and also in determining the ability of a child to cope with the demands and activities of everyday life. Both are uniquely suited for making recommendations for the management of a child with movement problems. In today’s health care environment, OTs and PTs often function in the role of consultant; this is particularly true of therapists working within school settings. In a consultant role, the therapist will observe the child performing tasks that are difficult for him/her and make recommendations to his/her parents and educators. These recommendations may include: strategies or accommodations to assist with tasks at home, at school, or in the community; modifications to the child’s environment; ways to promote physical activity and increase participation; guidelines on choosing community leisure and sports activities that are matched to the child’s interests and abilities; and assistance with setting appropriate expectations to ensure success.
OTs and PTs can help parents, educators and the child to develop a better understanding of the coordination difficulties that the child is experiencing. It is important that parents and educators identify and learn to manage these problems early in order to prevent secondary complications. The child may need to be taught strategies to compensate for his/her motor problems and must be given adequate opportunities to practice those motor skills that need to be learned.
It is important to educate children with DCD so they become aware of their strengths, as well as their limitations, and so that they gain an understanding of ways in which they may compensate for any difficulties. Children will then be more likely to experience success and may be more willing to attempt activities that they find difficult.
If a child is experiencing a great deal of difficulty or is demonstrating secondary emotional and behavioral problems, the OT or PT may decide to work with the child individually. The therapist may do some direct skill teaching of motor tasks that the child needs or wants to learn. S/he may also use a cognitive approach that teaches the child problem-solving strategies that will help the child learn new motor tasks (this type of approach requires a therapist to have extra training). In either case, the reasons and plan for treatment will be discussed with the parent and child. Although in most cases the coordination difficulties do not disappear, children can show considerable improvement in their ability to perform specific tasks and can be helped to participate successfully at home, at school, and in the community.
The Role of Educators and Parents
There are many small modifications that can make life easier for a child with DCD. Here are a few ideas that may be useful; an OT or PT may have additional suggestions.
- Encourage the child to participate in games and sports that are interesting to him/her and which provide practice in, and exposure to, motor activities. Physical activity and enjoyment should be emphasized rather than proficiency or competition.
- Try to introduce the child to new sports activities or a new playground on an individual basis, before he/she is required to manage the activity in a group. Try to review any rules and routines that are associated with the activity (e.g., baseball rules, soccer plays) at a time when the child is not concentrating on the motor aspects. Ask the child simple questions to ensure comprehension (e.g., "What do you do when you hit the ball?"). Private lessons may be helpful at certain points in time to teach the child specific skills.
- The child may exhibit a preference for, and perform better at, individual sports (e.g., swimming, running, bicycling, skiing) rather than team sports. If this is the case, then try to encourage the child to interact with peers through other activities that are likely to be successful (e.g., cubs, music, drama, or art).
- Encourage the child to wear clothing to school that is easy to get on and off. For example, sweat pants, sweat shirts, t-shirts, leggings, sweaters, and Velcro shoes. When possible, use Velcro closures instead of buttons, snaps or shoelaces. Teach the child how to manage difficult fasteners when you have more time and patience (e.g., on the weekend, or over the summer) rather than when you are pressured to get out the door.
- Encourage the child to participate in practical activities that will help improve his/her ability to plan and organize motor tasks. For example, setting the table, making lunch, or organizing a knapsack. Ask questions that help the child focus on the sequence of steps (e.g., “What do you need to do first?”). Recognize that, if your child is becoming frustrated, it may be time to help or to give specific guidance and direction.
- Recognize and reinforce the child’s strengths. Many children with DCD demonstrate strong abilities in other areas – they may have advanced reading skills, a creative imagination, sensitivity to the needs of others, and/or strong oral communication skills.
Educators and parents can work together to ensure that the child with DCD experiences success at school. Parents may find it helpful to meet with the educator near the beginning of the school year to discuss their child’s specific difficulties and to make suggestions about strategies that have worked well. An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) may be needed for some children; however, the following accommodations may be sufficient for others.
In the Classroom
- Ensure that the child is positioned properly for desk work. Make sure that the child's feet are flat on the floor, and that the desk is at an appropriate height with the shoulders relaxed and the forearms comfortably supported on the desk.
- Set realistic short-term goals. This will ensure that both the child and educator continue to be motivated.
- Provide the child with extra time to complete fine motor activities such as math, printing, writing a story, practical science tasks, and artwork. If speed is necessary, be willing to accept a less accurate product.
- When copying is not the emphasis, provide the child with prepared worksheets that will allow him/her to focus on the task. For example, provide children with prepared math sheets, pages with questions already printed, or 'fill in the blank' for reading comprehension questions. For study purposes, photocopy notes written by another child.
- Introduce computers as early as possible to reduce the amount of handwriting that will be required in higher grades. Although keyboarding may be difficult initially, it is a very beneficial skill and is a skill at which children with movement problems can become quite proficient.
- Teach children specific handwriting strategies that encourage them to print or write letters in a consistent manner. Use thin magic markers or pencil grips if they seem to help the child improve pencil grasp or to reduce pencil pressure on the page.
- Use paper that matches the child's handwriting difficulties. For example: i) widely spaced lines for a child who writes with very large lettering; ii) raised, lined paper for a child who has trouble writing within the lines; iii) graph paper for a child whose writing is too large or improperly spaced; iv) graph paper with large squares for a child who has trouble keeping numbers aligned in mathematics.
- Focus on the purpose of the lesson. If a creative story is the goal, then accept messy handwriting, uneven spacing and multiple erasures. If the goal is to have the child learn to set up a math problem correctly, then allow time to do it even if the math problem does not get solved.
- Consider using a variety of presentation methods when asking the child to demonstrate comprehension of a subject. For example, encourage children to present a report orally, use drawings to illustrate their thoughts, type a story or report on the computer, or record a story or exam on a tape recorder.
- Consider allowing the child to use the computer for draft and final copies of reports, stories and other assignments. If it is important to see the “non-edited” product, ask the child to submit both the draft and final versions.
- When possible, encourage the child to dictate stories, book reports, or answers to comprehension questions to the educator, a volunteer, or another child. For older children, voice recognition software can be introduced as soon as the child’s voice patterns have matured enough that they are consistent.
- Provide additional time, and/or computer access, for tests and exams that require a lot of written output.
In Physical Education
- Break down the physical activity into smaller parts while keeping each part meaningful and achievable.
- Choose activities that will ensure success for the child at least 50% of the time and reward effort, not skill.
- Incorporate activities that require a coordinated response from arms and/or legs (e.g., skipping, bouncing and catching a large ball). Encourage children to develop skills using their hands in a dominant/assistant fashion (e.g., using a baseball bat or a hockey stick).
- Keep the environment as predictable as possible when teaching a new skill (e.g., place a ball on a T-ball stand). Introduce changes gradually after each part of the skill has been mastered.
- Make participation, not competition, the major goals. With fitness and skill-building activities, encourage children to compete with themselves, not others.
- Allow the child to take on a leadership role in physical education activities (e.g., captain of the team, umpire) to encourage them to develop organizational or managerial skills.
- Modify equipment to decrease the risk of injury to children who are learning a new skill. For example, Nerf balls in graduated sizes can be used to develop catching and throwing skills.
- When possible, provide hand-over-hand guidance to help the child get the feel of the movement - for example, by asking the child to help the educator demonstrate a new skill to the class. Also, talk out loud when teaching a new skill, describing each step clearly.
- Focus on understanding the purpose and the rules of various sports or physical activities. When a child understands clearly what he/she needs to do, it is easier to plan the movement.
- Give positive, encouraging feedback. If providing instruction, describe the movement changes specifically (e.g., “you need to lift your arms higher”).
In the Community
- Encourage exposure to physical activities for fun and participation, with an emphasis on health and fitness.
- Consider lifestyle sports such as swimming, skating, cycling, and skiing to maintain or improve strength and overall endurance.
- Keep in mind the potential need for extra support or individual lessons with sporting activities, especially as higher skill levels must be reached.
- Ensure safety through the use of protective gear (wrist guards, helmets) with physical activities.
- Help coaches, sports instructors, and community leaders understand the child’s strengths and challenges so they can support and encourage them to be successful.
- Encourage children to engage in activities that are non-motor based such as music, drama, clubs to promote social experiences and the benefits of social participation.
Developmental Coordination Disorder is a motor skill disorder that interferes with children's ability to perform many tasks that are required every day. Children with DCD are a mixed group. Any given child may present with a variety of different problems.
Educators and parents who are with a child every day may be the first to notice the difficulties that the child is experiencing. It is important for the child to be seen by a physician at an early age to rule out other medical reasons for their motor difficulties. Children with DCD who are not recognized may experience failure and frustration, are often perceived to be lazy or unmotivated, and may develop additional physical, social, and behavioural problems.
Intervention for children with DCD may include referral to an occupational therapist or physiotherapist. An OT and/or PT will help the child learn to perform daily tasks more successfully and will make recommendations to parents and educators regarding the participation of children with DCD at home, in the classroom, on the playground, and in leisure activities in the community.
Contrary to the widely accepted belief that children with DCD will outgrow their problems, studies have demonstrated that children may acquire certain skills with extra practice but new motor skills will still be a problem. Children with DCD require early intervention to help them learn strategies to compensate for their coordination difficulties, to feel better about themselves as individuals, and to prevent other secondary issues from developing.
Many resources about children and youth with DCD can be found on the CanChild website at: www.canchild.ca (click on “Developmental Coordination Disorder”).
- Information for Physicians and other Health Professionals
- Flyers and Resources for Educators
- Typing/Keyboarding and School-Related Recommendations
- Encouraging Physical Activity
- List of Books/Other Resources
If you have found this booklet to be helpful, please let us know:
School of Rehabilitation Science
1400 Main St. West, IAHS Bldg, Rm 408
Hamilton, ON L8S 1C7
Tel: (905) 525‐9140 ext 27850
© C. Missiuna, L. Rivard & N. Pollock, 2011; CanChild Centre for Childhood Disability Research, McMaster University
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Biodiversity and conservation at Kew
Biodiversity describes the variety and variability of all living things on Earth. Find out more about biodiversity and why it matters to all of us.
Snow protea (Protea cryophila) is critically endangered and confined to two of the highest peaks in the Cederberg Wilderness area of South Africa.
Definition of biodiversity
Biological diversity, or biodiversity for short, is a word used to describe the variety and variability of all living things on Earth. The biodiversity of the planet is therefore made up of all the living organisms, from the smallest bacteria to the mighty giant redwood tree and includes humans too. For example, the biodiversity of a woodland includes the trees, the plants and fungi that grow on and under the trees and in the soil, the insects, the birds, the mammals and any other living things that make woodlands their home.
Why plant diversity matters
This video explains why plant diversity matters, and how Kew's conservation work around the world is helping to safeguard plants at risk
Areas that are low in biodiversity support only a small number of different species, even though individual species may occur in large numbers. For example, a polluted lake may be low in biodiversity, only containing a few species, but there may be thousands of algal cells covering the water surface, or large numbers of breeding midges.
Some areas of the planet are naturally low in biodiversity, for example deserts and mountain tops. Such regions can contain unique biodiversity, and these organisms are usually specially adapted to their local environmental conditions. So, even areas of low biodiversity can be important.
Areas that are high in biodiversity support many species and offer lots of variability too. For example, the Amazon rainforest is one of the most diverse natural areas on the planet and can contain many thousands of species of plants, animals and microorganisms in just one hectare.
Plants found nowhere else on Earth
Plants found in some regions of the world are described as endemic, meaning they do not occur anywhere else. Madagascar is one example of a region containing many endemic plants.
The world’s fourth largest island, Madagascar is recognised as one of the world’s top ten hotspots for biodiversity. It is estimated that there are about 10,000 plant species on the island. Of these, 80% or more occur nowhere else on Earth. Man arrived in Madagascar just 2,000 years ago, and since then has cleared much of the island’s forest. The uniqueness of plant life in Madagascar makes the region a priority for international conservation efforts.
Adopt a seed for just £25
For £25 you can adopt a seed in Kew's Millennium Seed Bank, or you can save an entire plant species from £1,000.
Kew's Millennium Seed Bank Partnership has successfully banked 10% of the world's wild plant species and we have set our sights on saving 25% by 2020.
Without plants there could be no life on earth, and yet every day another four plant species face extinction.
Help Kew protect the future of the world's plant life.
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Did you know? Marine plants, specifically photosynthetic algae, produce between 70 and 80 percent of the oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere.
While trees get most of the credit, it’s also thanks to seaweed and algae that we can continue to survive! Similar to the important role plants play on land, marine plants are heavily relied on in the ocean as a source of food and protection.
There are over 7,000 different identified species of algae that live in both fresh and salt water environments. Together, these algae produce over 300 BILLION tons of oxygen every year!
In recent years, scientists have discovered that dissolved oxygen is a critical indicator of how climate change is impacting our ocean.
To learn more about the critical role algae plays in our lives, click here.
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Dear Trinity Families,
Please talk with your children about race and racism. They are never too young - or too old - for age-appropriate conversation. And don't stop at talking! Help them understand and actively participate in social justice. Below are lots of resources. You will find something to help you engage in this conversation and this work. And don't neglect your own education! Children learn what you teach them, both intentionally and unintentionally. Think about the unspoken messages you send as you react to people and situations around you. Our young generations are our hope and our future. Help them to grow up knowing what it really means to love one's neighbor. -Charissa
Anti-Racism Resources for Families
Your Kids Aren't Too Young to Talk About Race: Resource Roundup This blog post by Christian educator Wendy Claire Barrie is full of good resources. Here's How To Raise Race-Conscious Children Teaching kids not to "see" race actually isn't the best approach for raising anti-racist children. Lest we forget: Children are watching this racism, violence and our reactions: an article about children and the media by Nia Heard-Garris. A Kids Book About Racism by Jelani Memory - read by the author. An example of how to talk to children about racial justice.
Jillian is an educator who trains preschool teachers for social and racial equity in classrooms. Teaching Your Child About Black History, from PBS kids Anti-racism resources for all ages Not My Idea: A Book About Whiteness by Anastasia Higginbotham
Free to download as a PDF through June 19.
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Software designers are responsible for creating new ideas and designing prepackaged and customized computer software. Software designers devise applications such as word processors, front-end database programs, and spreadsheet programs that make it possible for computers to complete given tasks and to solve problems. Once a need in the market has been identified, software designers first conceive of the program on a global level by outlining what the program will do. Then they write the specifications from which programmers code computer commands to perform the given functions.
Software Designer Career History
“In 1983, software development exploded with the introduction of the personal computer. Standard applications included not only spreadsheets and word processors, but graphics packages and communications systems,” according to “Events in the History of Computing,” compiled by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Computer Society.
Advances in computer technology have enabled professionals to put computers to work in a range of activities once thought impossible. Computer software designers have been able to take advantage of computer hardware improvements in speed, memory capacity, reliability, and accuracy to create programs to do almost anything. With the extensive proliferation of computers in our society, there is a great market for user-friendly, imaginative, and high-performance software. Business and industry rely heavily on the power of computers and use both prepackaged software and software that has been custom-designed for their own specific use. Also, with more people purchasing computer systems for home use, the retail market for prepackaged software has grown steadily. Given these conditions, computer software designing will be an important field in the industry for years to come.
The software industry has many facets, including packaged applications for personal computers (known as “shrink-wrapped software”); operating systems for stand-alone and networked systems; management tools for networks; enterprise software that enables efficient management of large corporations’ production, sales, and information systems; software applications and operating systems for mainframe computers; and customized software for specific industry management.
Packaged software is written for mass distribution, not for the specific needs of a particular user. Broad categories include operating systems, utilities, applications, and programming languages. Operating systems control the basic functions of a computer or network. Utilities perform support functions, such as backup or virus protection. Programming software is used to develop the sets of instructions that build all other types of software. The software familiar to most computer users is called application software. This category includes word-processing, spreadsheets, and email packages, commonly used in business, as well as games and reference software used in homes, and subject- or skill-based software used in schools.
The Job of Software Designers
Without software, computer hardware would have nothing to do. Computers need to be told exactly what to do, and software is the set of codes that gives the computer those instructions. It comes in the form of the familiar prepackaged software that you find in a computer store, such as games, word processing, spreadsheet, and desktop publishing programs, and in customized applications designed to fit specific needs of a particular business. Software designers are the initiators of these complex programs. Computer programmers then create the software by writing the code that carries out the directives of the designer.
Software designers must envision every detail of what an application will do, how it will do it, and how it will look (the user interface). A simple example is how a home accounting program is created. The software designer first lays out the overall functionality of the program, specifying what it should be able to do, such as balancing a checkbook, keeping track of incoming and outgoing bills, and maintaining records of expenses. For each of these tasks, the software designer will outline the design details for the specific functions that he or she has mandated, such as what menus and icons will be used, what each screen will look like, and whether there will be help or dialog boxes to assist the user. For example, the designer may specify that the expense record part of the program produce a pie chart that shows the percentage of each household expense in the overall household budget. The designer can specify that the program automatically display the pie chart each time a budget assessment is completed or only after the user clicks on the appropriate icon on the toolbar.
Some software companies specialize in building custom-designed software. This software is highly specialized for specific needs or problems of particular businesses. Some businesses are large enough that they employ in-house software designers who create software applications for their computer systems. A related field is software engineering, which involves writing customized complex software to solve specific engineering or technical problems of a business or industry.
Whether the designer is working on a mass-market or a custom application, the first step is to define the overall goals for the application. This is typically done in consultation with management if working at a software supply company, or with the client if working on a custom-designed project. Then, the software designer studies the goals and problems of the project. If working on custom-designed software, the designer must also take into consideration the existing computer system of the client. Next, the software designer works on the program strategy and specific design detail that he or she has envisioned. At this point, the designer may need to write a proposal outlining the design and estimating time and cost allocations. Based on this report, management or the client decides if the project should proceed.
Once approval is given, the software designer and the programmers begin working on writing the software program. Typically, the software designer writes the specifications for the program, and the applications programmers write the programming codes.
In addition to the duties involved in design, a software designer may be responsible for writing a user’s manual or at least writing a report for what should be included in the user’s manual. After testing and debugging the program, the software designer will present it to management or to the client.
Software Designer Career Requirements
If you are interested in computer science, you should take as many computer, math, and science courses as possible; they provide fundamental math and computer knowledge and teach analytical thinking skills. Classes that focus on schematic drawing and flowcharts are also very valuable. English and speech courses will help you improve your communication skills, which are very important to software designers who must make formal presentations to management and clients. Also, many technical/vocational schools offer programs in software programming and design. The qualities developed by these classes, plus imagination and an ability to work well under pressure, are key to success in software design.
A bachelor’s degree in computer science plus one year’s experience with a programming language is required for most software designers.
In the past, the computer industry has tended to be pretty flexible about official credentials; demonstrated computer proficiency and work experience have often been enough to obtain a good position. However, as more people enter the field, competition has increased, and job requirements have become more stringent. Technical knowledge alone does not suffice in the field of software design anymore. In order to be a successful software designer, you should have at least a peripheral knowledge of the field for which you intend to design software, such as business, education, or science. Individuals with degrees in education and subsequent teaching experience are much sought after as designers for educational software. Those with bachelor’s degrees in computer science with a minor in business or accounting have an excellent chance for employment in designing business or accounting software.
Certification or Licensing
Certification in software development is offered by companies such as Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, and Oracle. While not required, certification tells employers that your skills meet industry education and training standards.
Software design is project- and detail-oriented, and therefore, you must be patient and diligent. You must also enjoy problem-solving challenges and be able to work under a deadline with minimal supervision. As a software designer, you should also possess good communication skills for consulting both with management and with clients who will have varying levels of technical expertise.
Software companies are looking for individuals with vision and imagination to help them create new and exciting programs to sell in the ever-competitive software market. Superior technical skills and knowledge combined with motivation, imagination, and exuberance will make you an attractive candidate.
Exploring Software Designer Career
Spending a day with a professional software designer or applications programmer will allow you to experience firsthand what this work entails. School guidance counselors can often help you organize such a meeting.
If you are interested in computer industry careers in general, you should learn as much as possible about computers. Keep up with new technology by talking to other computer users and by reading related magazines, such as Computer. You will also find it helpful to join computer clubs and use online services and the Internet to find more information about this field.
Advanced students can put their design ideas and programming knowledge to work by designing and programming their own applications, such as simple games and utility programs.
Software designers are employed throughout the United States. Opportunities are best in large cities and suburbs where business and industry are active. Programmers who develop software systems work for software manufacturers, many of whom are in Silicon Valley, in northern California. There are also concentrations of software manufacturers in Boston, Chicago, and Atlanta, among other places. Designers who adapt and tailor the software to meet specific needs of end-users work for those end-user companies, many of which are scattered across the country.
Software design positions are regarded as some of the most interesting, and therefore the most competitive, in the computer industry. Some software designers are promoted from an entry-level programming position. Software design positions in software supply companies and large custom software companies will be difficult to secure straight out of college or technical/vocational school.
Entry-level programming and design jobs may be listed in the help wanted sections of newspapers. Employment agencies and online job banks are other good sources.
Students in technical schools or universities should take advantage of the campus placement office. They should check regularly for internship postings, job listings, and notices of on-campus recruitment. Placement offices are also valuable resources for resume tips and interviewing techniques. Internships and summer jobs with such corporations are always beneficial and provide experience that will give you the edge over your competition. General computer job fairs are also held throughout the year in larger cities.
There are many online career sites listed on the World Wide Web that post job openings, salary surveys, and current employment trends. The Web also has online publications that deal specifically with computer jobs. You can also obtain information from computer organizations such as the IEEE Computer Society. Because this is such a competitive field, you will need to show initiative and creativity that will set you apart from other applicants.
In general, programmers work between one and five years before being promoted to software designer. A programmer can move up by demonstrating an ability to create new software ideas that translate well into marketable applications. Individuals with a knack for spotting trends in the software market are also likely to advance.
Those software designers who demonstrate leadership may be promoted to project team leader. Project team leaders are responsible for developing new software projects and overseeing the work done by software designers and applications programmers. With experience as a project team leader, a motivated software designer may be promoted to a position as a software manager who runs projects from an even higher level.
Salaries for software designers vary with the size of the company and by location. Salaries may be slightly higher in areas where there is a large concentration of computer companies, such as the Silicon Valley in northern California and parts of Washington, Oregon, and the East Coast.
The National Association of Colleges and Employers reports that average starting salaries for graduates with a doctoral degree in computer science were $93,050 in 2005. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science averaged $50,820.
Median salaries for computer and information scientists (which include software designers) were $85,190 in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates. Salaries ranged from less than $48,930 to $132,700 or more annually. At the managerial level, salaries are even higher and can reach $145,000 or more.
Most designers work for large companies, which offer a full benefits package that includes health insurance, vacation and sick time, and a profit sharing or retirement plan.
Software designers work in comfortable environments. Many computer companies are known for their casual work atmosphere; employees generally do not have to wear suits, except during client meetings. Overall, software designers work standard weeks. However, they may be required to work overtime near a deadline. It is common in software design to share office or cubicle space with two or three co-workers, which is typical of the team approach to working. As a software designer or applications programmer, much of the day is spent in front of the computer, although a software designer will have occasional team meetings or meetings with clients.
Software design can be stressful work for several reasons. First, the market for software is very competitive and companies are pushing to develop more innovative software and to get it on the market before competitors do. For this same reason, software design is also very exciting and creative work. Second, software designers are given a project and a deadline. It is up to the designer and team members to budget their time to finish in the allocated time. Finally, working with programming languages and so many details can be very frustrating, especially when the tiniest glitch means the program will not run. For this reason, software designers must be patient and diligent.
Software Designer Career Outlook
Jobs in software design are expected to grow much faster than the average through 2014, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Employment will increase as technology becomes more sophisticated and organizations continue to adopt and integrate these technologies, making for plentiful job openings. Hardware designers and systems programmers are constantly developing faster, more powerful, and more user-friendly hardware and operating systems. As long as these advancements continue, the industry will need software designers to create software to use these improvements.
Business may have less need to contract for custom software as more prepackaged software arrives on the market that allows users with minimal computer skills to “build” their own software using components that they customize. However, the growth in the retail software market is expected to make up for this loss in customized services.
The expanding integration of Internet technologies by businesses has resulted in a rising demand for a variety of skilled professionals who can develop and support a variety of Internet applications.
For More Information:
- Computer Science Careers
- Association for Computing Machinery
- IEEE Computer Society
- Software & Information Industry Association
- International Institute for Software Testing (IIST)
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Today (April 12) is the first day of the Ludi Cereales, another spring vegetation festival, this one in honor of the goddess Ceres, goddess of grains and cereal crops. It lasts for eight days, and like the Megalesia before it, the Cerealia culminates on its final day.
During Roman times, one of the symbolic rituals of the final day was the release of foxes into the Circus with flaming brands attached to their tails despite the fact that Ceres is notoriously a peaceful goddess and most often accepts offerings of spelt cakes and salt, as well as incense.
In the countryside, people offer milk, honey, and wine on the Cerealia (particularly the final day), after bearing them thrice around the fields.
More About This Festival
Ceres is the Goddess of agriculture, and was credited with the discovery of spelt wheat, the yoking of oxen and ploughing, the sowing, protection and nourishing of the young seed, and the gift of agriculture to humankind; before this, it was said, man had subsisted on acorns, and wandered without settlement or laws. She was the first to “break open the earth”, and all activities of the agricultural cycle were protected by her laws. She held the power to fertilize, multiply and fructify plant and animal seed, whose offspring were the physical incarnations of her power.
Her first plough-furrow opened the earth (Tellus’ realm) to the world of men and created the first field and its boundary; she thus determined the course of settled, lawful, civilized life. She mediated between plebeian and patrician factions. She oversaw the transition of women from girlhood to womanhood, from unmarried to married life and motherhood and the growth of children from infancy. Despite her chthonic connections to Tellus, she was not, according to Spaeth, an underworld deity. Rather, she maintained the boundaries between the realms of the living and the dead.
Given the appropriate rites, she would help the deceased into afterlife as an underworld shade (Di Manes): otherwise, the spirit of the deceased might remain among the living as a wandering, vengeful ghost.
The goddess was worshiped in many ways. There was the porca praecidanea, which involved sacrificing a fertile female pig and was necessary before a harvest. Cato indicates that sacrifices of any large food item will do, however, and suggests a pumpkin as an acceptable substitute for a pig, since it can be cut open and the seeds offered to Ceres in much the same way the entrails of the pig would be. After the offering of the porca praecidanea, it was customary to also give the goddess a libation of wine.
The poor could offer wheat, flowers, and a libation. The expectations of afterlife for initiates in the sacra Cereris may have been somewhat different, as they were offered “a method of living” and of “dying with better hope”.
Ceres’ major festival was the Cerealia – the ludi cereales, culminating on April 19 to celebrate the growth of grain and other agricultural products. Its original form is unknown; it may have been founded during the regal era. During the Republican era, it was organised by the plebeian aediles, and included ludi circenses (circus games). These opened with a horse race in the Circus Maximus, whose starting point lay just below the Aventine Temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera. In a nighttime ritual after the race, blazing torches were tied to the tails of live foxes, who were released into the Circus. The origin and purpose of this ritual are unknown; it may have been intended to cleanse the growing crops and protect them from disease and vermin, or to add warmth and vitality to their growth
Religiously, the purpose of the races and the games were to make the goddess favorably disposed toward the Roman people, so that she would give them a good harvest.
Visual depictions of Ceres were largely derived from Greek portrayals of Demeter. On two coin types, a bust of Ceres was pictured on one side, while a yoke of oxen was on the other. On other coins, she wears a crown of grain stalks called a corona spicea, holds stalks of wheat, and is occasionally pictured with wheat and barley grains. One coin actually portrayed her wearing a modius, an instrument used to measure grain, on her head. Another pictures a bust of series on one side, and a pair of seated male figures with a wheat stalk to their side on the other. The seated men represent the official distribution of grain to the people. Annona, the goddess who personified the wheat supply, appears alongside Ceres on several coins from the imperial period. Reliefs from the Augustan period have even gone so far as to depict her as a plant growing out of the ground. In one her bust emerges from the earth, holding bunches of poppies and grain in her upraised hands while two snakes twine about her arms.
Ceres also assimilated the visual symbols of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which most Romans observed in her name. Ceres is depicted with symbols of the Mysteries, such as riding in a chariot drawn by snakes while holding a torch in her right hand.
Persephone’s Return ~ A Ritual For The Cerelea
Most often celebrated on the last day of the Ludi Cereales (or April 19).
- Color: Green
- Element: Earth
- Offering: Flowers. Begin something new.
- Daily Meal: Dark, coarse bread. Root vegetables. Poppy seeds. Millet. Nuts and seeds.
Altar: Upon a green cloth set as many spring flowers as possible, a bowl of earth saved from the day of Persephone’s descent, and the figure of a girl’s head emerging from the earth.
Invocation to Persephone’s Return
Let the Earth take joy!
Demeter’s heart is warmed,
For her beloved daughter,
The maiden of Spring,
Has returned to the upper world!
Let all upon the Earth take joy!
Flowers spring from her footsteps,
Grass spreads between her toes,
The promise of the summer wind
Falls like butterflies newly loosed
From her hair the color of poppies and clay.
Let us all take joy!
She who descended in the autumn,
She who is married to Death
And yet arises in the bringing of Life,
She who has passed the bodies
Of a thousand corpses,
She who has sung with the shades
Of a thousand ancestors,
She rises to greet the morning sun
For as long as it is her time.
Then, like all things, she will descend again,
Into the depths of the Earth,
And we, we shall learn to love that cycle
Of rising and falling, of birth and death,
And truly call it a blessing.
Kore Kore Kore Proserpina
Let one chosen for the work of the daily ritual carry the bowl of earth from person to person about the hall, and let each one take a bit of the earth and rub it on their faces, and let it remain until the evening ablutions.
~Info collected from various sources, including the Pagan Book of Hours
This festival marks the start of Spring in the old Roman calendar. Each year the Feriae Marti was held, beginning on the Kalends of March and continuing until the 24th. Dancing priests, called the Salii, performed elaborate rituals over and over again, and a sacred fast took place for the last nine days. The dance of the Salii was complex, and involved a lot of jumping, spinning and chanting. On March 25, the celebration of Mars ended and the fast was broken at the celebration of the Hilaria, in which all the priests partook in an elaborate feast.
March is the third month of the year in the Gregorian calendar system, but was actually the first month on the Roman calendar. Originally named Martius, this month in Ancient Rome was characterized by religious festivals and preparations for war. Mars, the Roman god of war was responsible for protecting Rome and securing victory in military campaigns. He is not to be confused with Ares, the impulsive Greek god of war; Mars was depicted as a more “level-headed” and “virtuous” deity than his Grecian counterpart.
General frivolity was characterized by large processions, animal sacrifices, athletic competitions, and musical performances. Courts were closed, and some agricultural chores were suspended to honor the deities. Merry-making with seeds wasn’t restricted though. Some accounts say Romans tossed seeds in the air during the festival to honor the pending thrust of spring.
During the months of March and October, specially-trained religious leaders, called flamen Martialis, led several Mars-centered festivals including:
- Feriae Marti (celebrating the new year)
- Equirria (the blessing of war horses)
- Tubilistrum (to cleanse and favor trumpets)
One of the most important rituals performed during this time was the rousing of Mars before battle. This critical ritual was performed by the commander of the Roman army who “shook the sacred spears,” shouting, “Mars, vigilia!.”
Because early Roman writers associated Mars with not only warrior prowess, but virility and power, he is often tied to the planting season and agricultural bounty.
Ritual For The Feriae Marti – Festival of Mars
- Color: Red
- Element: Fire
Altar: Set out a red cloth and lay crossed weapons, such as spears and swords, upon it. Lay a helm in the center, a horn, and a burning red candle or torch.
Offerings: Candles. Finger-shaped cakes (strues). Acts of courage, especially those which force one to fight for the defense of another or of one’s beliefs. In the morning, the exercise of Gymnastika shall be hard aerobic movements.
Daily Meal: Finger-cakes. Spicy foods, such as cayenne and chilies. Meat from uncastrated male animals.
Invocation to Mars:
Mars, warrior god, Fire that leaps
And dances, Protector of cities
And of this house, and our spirits,
Courageous one, mirror us back
Some of your courage.
Fearless one, show us a path
Through our many fears.
Armored one, give us protection
From all who would harm us.
And may your sword turn away
All danger from our flesh,
Our bones, our house, our home,
Our hearth and our hearts
Our eyes and our spirits.
Protect us from destruction and ruin,
O fiery god of the shining spear.
We hail you, eternal warrior,
And ask that you grant us
Some small measure
Of your boundless fiery heart.
Chant: (To be accompanied by drums and people clashing blades against shields in the manner of the Salii of ancient times)
Gloria Martial! Gloria Martial! Gloria Martial!
Honoria et Gloria Honoria et Gloria!
A libation of red wine is poured out for Mars. One person lifts the horn and winds it, long and slow, five times, and the rite is ended.
The festival of the Robigalia is celebrated to appease the God Robigus (or perhaps the Goddess Robigo; the gender of this deity, who originated as one of the numinae, is uncertain), who is the deity of wheat-rust, mildew, and blight.
It is an ancient festival of the agricultural calendar, and is celebrated by the Flamen Quirinalis. Both a red dog and sheep are sacrificed to Robigus, along with wine and incense; prayers are then spoken to protect the crops. There is some connection with the ascension of the star Sirius, but it is unclear.
Games (ludi) in the form of “major and minor” races were held. The Robigalia was one of several agricultural festivals in April to celebrate and vitalize the growing season, but the darker sacrificial elements of these occasions are also fraught with anxiety about crop failure and the dependence on divine favor to avert it.
Verminus, a God who protects cattle against worm disease, might also be honored on this day.
The Robigalia has been connected to the Christian feast of Rogation, which was concerned with purifying and blessing the parish and fields and which took the place of the Robigalia on April 25 of the Christian calendar.
Nowadays, whenever we hear the term Bacchanalia getting thrown about it is typically used to describe wild partying that has gotten way out of control. In the popular imagination, the Bacchanalia are often characterized by frantic participants moshing together in a pit of sexual orgies.
The Bacchanalia were free-spirited and sexually charged festivals that involved pagan mysticism, wild sex and divine communion which allowed its celebrants’ to achieve states of euphoria that hovered between divine ecstasy and the oblivion of nothingness. Those who have spent a week at one of the Hedonism resorts in Jamaica would probably find the sexually charged atmosphere of the Bacchanalia remarkably familiar.
The cult of Bacchus was a mystery religion that originated in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey) and spread throughout Greece and into southern Italy where it became extremely popular among the Romans. Despite their notoriety, not much is known about the Bacchanalia. This is largely due to the fact that mystery religions were closed to the uninitiated and their inner-workings kept secret from the outside world. However, scholars have managed to piece together fragments from ancient legal documents, historical texts and plays that can help give us a glimpse into the bacchanalian festivities.
The Bacchanalia first appeared in Greece around 700 BC and eventually found their way into Italy around the fourth century BC. The first bacchanals were held twice yearly in the middle of winter and were reserved for girls and women who performed their rites naked. By the time Rome had become the preeminent power in the Mediterranean after their victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War (202 BC), the rituals had opened up considerably making them quite popular with the natives.
Admission was extended to men and people of all social classes; even slaves could even join in on the fun. With the increased popularity, celebrations were taking place as often as five times a month.
The time and location of the bacchanals were usually closely guarded secrets. Priests and priestesses preferred to hold their gatherings in secluded forests where their privacy could be ensured. On the day of the festival, devotees would prepare some goats by painting their horns gold. Special torches dipped in sulphur and charcoal was also made. Devotees often wore fawn skins that emulated forest animals. Skimpy outfits or even complete nudity was also par for the course. Participants would often carry along their favorite sex toy; women would bring sexy wands while men might bring along a wooden phallus.
After nightfall celebrants would proceed to a forest clearing by dancing to the sounds of crashing cymbals and loud music. Once the celebrants arrived at the appointed place, they could be seen quaffing down wine, dancing, leaping, whirling, screaming and generally working themselves up into a frenzied state. They would inspire each other into ever greater acts of ecstasy, whereby the whole scene would descend into a writhing mosh pit of sexual orgies.
The aim was to achieve a heightened state of ecstasy in which the devotee’s souls would be temporarily freed from their physical existence. It was in these moments that the worshipers hoped to commune with Bacchus and obtain a glimpse of what they would someday meet in the afterlife after their resurrection.
The festival would reach its climax with frantic feats of strength and ecstasy, such as ripping trees out of the ground and eating the raw flesh of their sacrificial animals. The latter act was a sacrament similar to communion where the devotees assumed the identity of Bacchus. By symbolically drinking his blood and eating his body, the devotees believed they became one with Bacchus.
The euphoric devotees would then rush over to the banks of a nearby river with their flaming torches and dip them into the water. Since their torches were made with sulfur and charcoal, they would emerge from the water still burning, a symbol of Bacchus’s power.
Source: The Bacchanalian
Termini in Roman mythology began as boundary markers between wilderness settings. The termini were rural boundary stones marking property lines between fields and neighbors. There was an annual ceremony each 23rd day of February called the Terminalia when first fruits were offered and libations of oil and honey were poured over the termini to renew the power or forces within the boundary stones between properties. Ovid presents the story as follows
When night has passed, let the god be celebrated
With customary honour, who separates the fields with his sign.
Terminus, whether a stone or a stump buried in the earth,
You have been a god since ancient times.
You are crowned from either side by two landowners,
Who bring two garlands and two cakes in offering.
An altar’s made: here the farmer’s wife herself
Brings coals from the warm hearth on a broken pot.
The old man cuts wood and piles the logs with skill,
And works at setting branches in the solid earth.
Then he nurses the first flames with dry bark,
While a boy stands by and holds the wide basket.
When he’s thrown grain three times into the fire
The little daughter offers the sliced honeycombs.
Others carry wine: part of each is offered to the flames:
The crowd, dressed in white, watch silently.
Terminus, at the boundary, is sprinkled with lamb’s blood,
And doesn’t grumble when a sucking pig is granted him.
Neighbours gather sincerely, and hold a feast,
And sing your praises, sacred Terminus:
‘You set bounds to peoples, cities, great kingdoms:
Without you every field would be disputed…
These rural termini and feast of landmarks had their state counterpart in Terminus. The story told by Ovid about the sacred boundary stone which stood, in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, continues:
What happened when the new Capitol was built?
The whole throng of gods yielded to Jupiter and made room:
But as the ancients tell, Terminus remained in the shrine
Where he was found, and shares the temple with great Jupiter.
Even now there’s a small hole in the temple roof,
So he can see nothing above him but stars.
Since then, Terminus, you’ve not been free to wander:
Stay there, in the place where you’ve been put,
And yield not an inch to your neighbour’s prayers …
~Ovid, Fasti Vol II
A Simple Terminalia Celebration
- Themes: Earth; Home
- Symbols: Owl; Geranium
- Presiding Goddess: Minerva
This Etruscan/Italic goddess blended the odd attributes of being a patroness of household tasks, including arts and crafts, and also being the patroness of protection and war. Today she joins in pre-spring festivities by helping people prepare their lands for sowing and embracing the figurative lands of our hearts, homes, and spirits with her positive energy.
To Do Today:
In ancient times, this was a day to bless one’s lands and borders. Gifts of corn, honey, and wine were given to the earth and its spirits to keep the property safe and fertile throughout the year. In modern times, this equates to a Minerva-centered house blessing.
Begin by putting on some spiritually uplifting music. Burn geranium-scented incense if possible; otherwise, any pantry spice will do. Take this into every room of your home, always moving clockwise to promote positive growing energy. As you get to each room, repeat this incantation:
Minerva, protect this sacred space
and all who live within.
by your power and my will,
the magic now begins!
Wear a geranium today to commemorate Minerva and welcome her energy into your life.
The Feralia was the closing festival of the ancient Roman festival of Parentalia. During the Feralia, families would picnic at the tombs of their deceased family members and give libations to the dearly departed. It was believed that the shades of the dead could walk upon the earth above their graves during Feralia.
Roman citizens were instructed to bring offerings to the tombs of their dead ancestors which consisted of at least “an arrangement of wreaths, a sprinkling of grain and a bit of salt, bread soaked in wine and violets scattered about.” Additional offerings were permitted, however the dead were appeased with just the aforementioned.
Ovid tells of a time when Romans, in the midst of war, neglected Feralia, which prompted the spirits of the departed to rise from their graves in anger, howling and roaming the streets. After this event, tribute to the tombs were then made and the ghastly hauntings ceased.
“And the grave must be honoured. Appease your fathers’ Spirits, and bring little gifts to the tombs you built. Their shades ask little, piety they prefer to costly offerings: no greedy deities haunt the Stygian depths. A tile wreathed round with garlands offered is enough, A scattering of meal, and a few grains of salt, and bread soaked in wine, and loose violets: Set them on a brick left in the middle of the path…
…and hide the gods, closing those revealing temple doors, Let the altars be free of incense, the hearths without fire. Now ghostly spirits and the entombed dead wander, Now the shadow feeds on the nourishment that’s offered. But it only lasts till there are no more days in the month Than the feet that my metres possess. This day they call the Feralia because they bear [ferunt] Offerings to the dead: the last day to propitiate the shades.” – Ovid
To indicate public mourning, marriages of any kind were prohibited on the Feralia, and Ovid urged mothers, brides, and widows to refrain from lighting their wedding torches. Magistrates stopped wearing their insignia and any worship of the gods was prohibited as it “should be hidden behind closed temple doors; no incense on the altar, no fire on the hearth.”
Februalia, Februa, and also Februatio, was the Roman festival of ritual purification, later incorporated into Lupercalia. The festival, which is basically one of Spring washing or cleaning (associated also with the raininess of this time of year) is old, and possibly of Sabine origin. According to Ovid, Februare as a Latin word which refers to means of purification (particularly with washing or water) derives from an earlier Etruscan word referring to purging.
The Roman month Februarius (“of Februa,” whence the English February) is named for the Februa/Februatio festival, which occurred on the 15th day of the Roman month. A later Roman god Februus personified both the month and also purification, and is named for them. Thus, the month is named for the festival and not for the god.
- Color: White
- Element: Earth
- Altar: Spread with a clean white cloth and place thereupon four white candles and a bowl of water, very simply.
- Offerings: Clean something externally, and at the same time clean something internally.
- Daily Meal: Fasting for the day. Drink plenty of water.
The winter has lain heavily upon us,
Juno Februata, Queen of the new light,
And we are sunk in layers of thought
Like a hibernating mole
Beneath layers of earth.
Bring us forth into the light, Lady!
Let us remove all filth
From our bodies and our souls,
Making them a place of clarity.
Februus Februus Lucina Lucina
(There is no further ritual; all silently take cleaning tools and being to thoroughly clean the entire building, ending with a ritual bath. As each cleans, they should meditate on what part of the mind or spirit needs cleansing, and let the physical cleansing aid in the spiritual aspect.)
The Goddess Carmenta is celebrated on two dates of the Roman calendar, (January 11 and 15), each day called Carmentalia. These dates should be considered as two separate festivals, rather than one festival extending over this period, yet it is not clear to us today, any more than it was during the Late Republic, why two such holidays should be in such close proximity in one month.
The festival, chiefly observed by women, celebrates Carmenta, who is the Goddess of women’s health, birthing, and prophecy. She is the inventor of letters, as Minerva is the inventor of numbers. She tells the future through Her sister Porrima and reveals the past through Her sister Postvorta, while Carmenta knows all that happens in the present.
Together the three Carmenae sisters are the Good Fates, the Three Mothers, and the Muses. The very name of Carmenta was given to song (carmen) and Latin terms for poetry, charms, and speaking-in-tongues. With Her songs she would soothe the ill and taught women how to care for themselves and their children. Her sanctuaries thus became places for women and children to receive traditional medical treatments using herbs and music.
Carmenta takes us back to a very early period, a time well before the beginnings of Rome around three thousand years ago, back into the Italian Bronze Age. She takes us back to the ecstatic tradition of the female priestesses called vates in which Latin religion began and in which the Religio Romana was first founded.
The sacred grove of Carmenta, the most ancient sanctuary in all of Rome, was located at the foot of the Capitoline Hill. It is still visited today where people gather waters from Her sacred spring. It was in this very grove that Carmenta appeared to Numa Pompilius in his dreams as the nymph Egeria. She instructed Numa on how to commune with the Gods.
With Egeria’s instruction, Numa Pompilius then established rituals for the Gods, festivals, and a calendar by which the Romans could attend these. Numa set out sanctuaries for Gods and Goddesses and he created colleges of priests and priestesses to serve the Gods and Goddesses. Egeria taught Numa the laws which he handed down to the Romans and which still govern our sacramental rituals today.
One of the laws of Numa states:
“The Gods are not to be represented in the form of man or beast, nor are there to be any painted or graven image of a deity admitted (to your rites).”
As one of the oldest Goddesses of Rome, whose worship was established by Numa, Carmenta was never represented by an image. It was sufficient to feel Her presence in the sacred grove below the Capitoline. In the same way, Vesta, Goddess of the Hearth, is never represented by an image but only by living fire.
Another law of Numa holds that:
“Sacrifices are not to be celebrated with an effusion of blood, but consist of flour, wine, and the least costly of offerings.”
The restriction against the use of blood sacrifices was so strong in the worship of Carmenta that no one was allowed to enter Her sacred grove wearing anything made of leather or animal hide. It is not right to take the life of another creature in worshiping the Goddess who helps birth life into the world. And thus it follows that today we offer Carmenta bay leaves as incense, a libation of milk, and popana cakes made of soft cheese and flower.
Invocation to Carmenta
Goddess of Women’s Health
Come, be present, Carmenta.
May Your sisters Porrima and Postvorta attend You.
With joyful mind come, Mother Carmenta, on You I call,
Come, stand by me, stay, and listen to my pleas.
Speak to me once more, in Your own words, as You did before.
In Your sacred grove where Egeria counseled King Numa,
bear forth now Your soothing songs to dispel our sorrows.
Come forth! I call to You, Good Goddess,
Great Goddess of charms.
Give voice, happy Voice of song,
With soothing songs as will cure our ills, or whatever else we fear.
Spare our daughters heavy with child, spare our wives in their pangs of labor,
Care for the mothers who worry over their children.
With pious rite I call out, I summon,
I entice with songs that You come forth, Carmenta,
And look favorably upon the matrons of our families.
In You, dearest Mother, in Your hands we place our safekeeping.
In offering to You this cake of cheese I pray good prayers
in order that, pleased with this offering of popana,
May You be favorable towards our children and to us,
Towards our homes and our households.
More About The Festivals:
According to legend, the cult of Carmenta predated Rome itself. In some accounts She was known as Nicostrate, the mother of Evander, who was fathered by Mercurius. Evander was the legendary founder of Paletum, a village that gave its name to the Palatine Hill. Her sacred grove, therefore, may have originally lain beneath the Palatine Hill as some ascribe it.
Indeed, it may be that it was in Her sacred grove beneath the Palatine that Romulus and Remus were said to have been discovered being suckled by a she-wolf, since Carmentis was so closely associated with the care of infants.
It was said that later Numa Pompilius founded a sacred grove for Her beneath the Capitoline Hill. The dedication of two groves to Carmentis is one possible reason why there were two days celebrated as Carmentalia in the month of January.
It was proposed by Huschke that the two festival days represented the Latins of Romulus and the Sabines of Titus Tatius, just as there were two companies of Luperci and two companies of Salii. Were that the case we might expect that She once had a sacred grove on the Esquiline Hill, and that Numa’s dedication beneath the Capitoline represented a union of the two culti Carmentalis.
The fasti Praeneste suggests that the second date was added by a victorious Roman general who had left the City by the Porta Carmentalis for his campaign against Fidenae. The gate received its name from its proximity to the sacred grove of Carmentis.
Yet another story was told by Ovid, linking the two dates to a protest by the matrons of Rome in 195 BCE. During the fourth century the Roman Senate had granted patrician matrons the privilege of riding in two- wheeled carriages in reward for their contribution in gold to fulfilling a vow to Apollo made by Camillus. The privilege was later to be temporarily revoked during the Second Punic War (215 BCE) along with sumptuary laws that limited the use of colored cloth and gold that women could wear, in order to save on private expenses and war materials (horses) and thus help in the war effort.
But the Senate did not at first renew the privileges at war’s end. In 195 Tribunes Marcus Fundanius and Lucius Valerius finally called for the repeal of this lex Oppia, but they were opposed by the brothers Marcus and Publius Junius Brutus.
Supporters for repealing the lex Oppia, and those who supported its remaining in effect, gathered daily on the Capitoline to argue over the matter. Soon women began to join in the disputes, their numbers increasing daily, even so much as women from the countryside entered into the City to advocate for their rights. The natural place for them to first congregate would have been at the grove of Carmentis. This may be what Ovid indicates by linking the protest to the Carmentalia.
Consul Marcius Porcius Cato spoke out against repealing the lex Oppia. The women then resolved to “refuse to renew their ungrateful husbands’ stock” until their privileges were restored, Ovid referring to the women resorting to abortion as their means of protest.
In a later period the Temple of the Bona Dea would become associated with the use of abortive herbs, and Carmentis associated with the use of the same herbs in birthing. In actuality both Carmentis and the Bona Dea were associated with birthing or prevention of pregnancy, and the difference between the Capitoline and Aventine temples may have been one of class distinction. Eventually the matrons of Rome regained their rights and, according to Ovid, the second Carmentalia was then begun in thanks to the Goddess for Her support. Ovid’s story is the least likely and most fanciful to account for the two Carmentaliae of January.
The notion that there may have earlier been two groves dedicated to Carmentis prior to the known grove beneath the Capitoline is a reasonable speculation, but still would not account for the two festivals. We are left then with the information provided by the Fasti Praeneste, although the inscription is mutilated and uncertain. This source may indicate that while the Carmentalia held on 11 January was dedicated to Carmentis, that of 15 January was intended to honor Janus as guardian of the Porta Carmentalis.
Different aspects of Carmentis related to Janus, and thus it is possible that a festival for Him would include Carmentis in similar fashion as festivals for Ops and Consus. The fact remains that we don’t know today why the month of January has two separate festivals for Carmentis.
Ritual for the Festival of Carmenta
- Color: Red
- Element: Earth
- Offerings: Give gifts to pregnant women in need.
- Daily Meal: Eggs.
- Altar: Upon a red cloth place seven red candles and the figure of a pregnant woman. If possible, a woman who is with child should be present and honored on this day.
All things grow in the dark place
Safe within the womb of the Mother,
Safe within the dream of the Mother.
The Earth lies now asleep
Full with big belly,
Each seed pregnant with hopes
Waiting for the return of the Sun.
So we are each of us,
Pregnant with hopes and dreams,
Big-bellied in our minds,
Waiting to for the moment
To begin our sacred labor.
This is the time of waiting,
Feeling the child within come to fruition,
Feeling it grow and change,
Feeling the faint motions
That signify the oncoming flood of life.
Call: May Life burst forth in a flood of joy!
Response: May Life come forth through the gate of eternity!
Call: We hail the Mother beneath our feet!
Response: We hail the Mother within our souls!
Call: We hail the Mothers from whence we descended!
Response: We hail the Mothers that are yet to bring forth!
Call: We hail the growth of possibility!
Response: We hail all that it yet to come!
Call: We hail the growth of the future!
Response: We wait for the birthing-time with open arms!
Mother I feel you under my feet
Mother I hear your heart beat
In ancient Roman culture, felicitas is a condition of divinely inspired productivity, blessedness, or happiness. Felicitas could encompass both a woman’s fertility, and a general’s luck or good fortune. The divine personification of Felicitas was cultivated as a goddess.
Although felicitas may be translated as “good luck,” and the goddess Felicitas shares some characteristics and attributes with Fortuna, the two were distinguished in Roman religion. Fortuna was unpredictable and her effects could be negative, as the existence of an altar to Mala Fortuna (“Bad Luck”) acknowledges. Felicitas, however, always had a positive significance.
In Ancient Rome
Felicitas had a temple in Rome as early as the mid-2nd century BC, and during the Republican era was honored at two official festivals of Roman state religion, on July 1 in conjunction with Juno and October 9 as Fausta Felicitas.
Felicitas continued to play an important role in Imperial cult, and was frequently portrayed on coins as a symbol of the wealth and prosperity of the Roman Empire. Her primary attributes are the caduceus and cornucopia. The English word “felicity” derives from felicitas.
On July 1 and October 9, Felicitas received a sacrifice in Capitolio, on the Capitoline Hill, on the latter date as Fausta Felicitas in conjunction with the Genius Publicus and Venus Victrix. These observances probably took place at an altar or small shrine, not a separate temple precinct.
The Acts of the Arval Brothers (1st century AD) prescribe a cow as the sacrifice for Felicitas. Pompey established a shrine for Felicitas at his new theater and temple complex, which used the steps to the Temple of Venus Victrix as seating. Felicitas was cultivated with Honor and Virtue, and she may have shared her shrine there with Victory, as she did in the Imperial era as Felicitas Caesaris (Caesar’s Felicitas) at Ameria.
Celebrating Felicitas Today:
“Felicitas’ themes are kindness, charity, love, romance, joy, success and luck. Her symbols are greetings (greeting cards). This Roman Goddess brings happiness, success, and good fortune whenever someone salutes another with good words or amiable deeds. She comes to us today to energize late fall and early winter with the transformational power of kindness.
Her festival day gives us an opportunity to shower anyone and everyone with cheerful trinkets, kind acts, and gentle words to lift people’s spirits. By looking for Felicitas for help, we can bring joy to people who might otherwise be feeling a case of autumn blues.
Here is an idea:
Look for, or make, some humorous greeting cards to send to folks you know would appreciate the thought. Lay your hands on them and invoke Felicitas’s blessings in any way that feels right.
To improve the effect further, anoint the cards with rejuvenating aromatic oils that match the recipient’s needs (such as pine for money, rose for love or peace, cinnamon for luck, sandalwood for health, and lavender to combat depression). This way, when they open that card, the magic and the aroma will be released together to bless, energize, and bear Felicitas’s greetings along with your heartfelt wishes!”
Sources: 365 Goddess, and Wikipedia
In ancient Rome on July 7th, the Feria Ancillarum or Festival of Handmaids was held. This was the maids’ day out, when the maids of Rome were beyond the control of their mistresses.
Also known as the Caprotinae, when free and slave women made offerings to her beneath wild fig trees outside Rome’s city limits, this feast day was in honor of Juno Caprotina, Juno of the Wild Figs. Fig trees were venerated, with feasting beneath them in honor of Caprotina, an aspect of the Goddess Juno.
In this aspect of the goddess, Juno is seen as dressed in goatskins and driving a chariot pulled by goats. Enslaved women made up a large proportion of her devotees.
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Sun and Moon
The Last Quarter phase of the Moon falls on 2nd of January, at 7h30. The New Moon occurs on the 10th of January, at 3h30. The First Quarter falls on the 17th of January at 01h26 and the Full Moon occurs on the 24th of January at 03h46
On the 2nd at 13h53, the Moon will be at apogee (furthest from Earth) at a distance of 404 300 km. The Moon will be at perigee (closest approach to Earth) at a distance of 369 600 km on the 15th at 14h10.
Planetary and Other Events – Morning and Evening
The only naked eye planet visible at sunset is Mercury and it’s only for the first week. Uranus and Neptune can be seen as sunset for the entire month. Jupiter is prominent at midnight and is joined by Mars at month end. From the 26th to 30th, before sunrise, Venus, Mars, Jupiter , Saturn and Mercury can be seen and this one of the best opportunities to view all the five naked eye planets together.
Several meteor showers are active in January. The Puppid-Velids are active from December 5th 2015 to January 7th 2016, peaking on the 29th of December 2015. The alpha Crucids, in the constellation of the Southern Cross (Crux) are active from the 6th January – 28th January, peaking on the 19th. The alpha Centaurids, in the constellation of Centaurus are active from the 28th January to the 21st February, peaking on the 7th of February. They are best viewed between 00:00 AM and 03:30 AM looking towards the constellation of Crux. Hourly rates are expected to be around 5 meteors per hour at the maximum.
The Evening Sky Stars
Low in the north in the evening are the stars variously known as the Seven Sisters, the Pleiades, or IsiLimela. There are six stars in this cluster which are fairly easily visible to the naked eye, and hundreds that can be seen through a telescope. Located about 420 light years away, this is a group of stars which formed from a cloud of interstellar dust and gas about 120 million years ago. The Pleiades stars easily visible to the naked eye are all more than a 100 times as bright as our Sun – our own Sun only looks brighter because it is 27 million times closer to us! Above and to the right of the Pleiades is another cluster of stars called the Hyades, making up the muzzle of Taurus the Bull. The Hyades are about 150 light years away, and about 600 million years old. Bright orange Aldebaran looks as though it ought to be part of this loose group, but is only located in the same direction and, at only 64 light years away, is less than half as distant. It is, however, the most luminous star within a hundred light years of us.
Low on the northern horizon glitters Capella, brightest star in Auriga the Charioteer. As with other bright stars, the effects of atmospheric refraction can cause it to twinkle vigorously when near the horizon, appearing to flash in multiple colours. In July 1951, a pilot in northern Michigan chased Capella for half an hour under the impression that it was a UFO. Given that Capella is 42 light years away, it is not surprising he did not catch it.
High in the NNE are the brilliant stars of Orion, with the twins (Castor and Pollux), lower in the NE. Below Orion in the ENE (below Orion and to the right of the twins) is Procyon, brightest star in Orion’s smaller hunting dog. At only 11 light years away, Procyon is one of our nearest neighbours. Sirius is even nearer, high in the East in January evenings, at only 9 light years distant, and both have dim companions called “white dwarfs”, which are no larger than planets. The diameter of Procyon’s companion is only about 30% larger than the diameter of our Earth, while Procyon’s diameter is millions of kilometers! A white dwarf is a star that has used up its nuclear fuel, and is slowly cooling down until its crystallises, which typically takes billions of years. It still glows, but only with stored energy. Procyon’s companion, for example, is only 0.06% as bright as the Sun.
Canopus, the second brightest star in the Earth’s skies, is a bit SE of the zenith (the point overhead). South of the zenith is Achernar at the Southern end of the Celestial River, while Fomalhaut is the brightest star in the SW. In the southern half of the sky in January there is a curious blend of birds and water creatures (including the Southern Fish, the Crane, The Toucan, The Phoenix, The Peacock, the Bird of Paradise, the Flying Fish, the Swordfish and the Water Snake), mixed with mechanical and scientific constellations such as the Octant, the Pendulum Clock, the Chemical Furnace, the Microscope, the Engraving Tool and the Eyepiece Reticle. The Southern Cross and Pointers are very low in the SW even from the Cape and invisible from northern South Africa.
The Morning Sky Stars
Bright stars in the northern half of the sky include Regulus and Procyon in the northwest, orange Arcturus in the northeast. Blue-white Spica is much higher in the northeast. Spica is the brightest of the stars in Virgo, which represents a goddess of ancient mythology. Which goddess is a bit more mysterious, as some claim she was a goddess of the harvest, others a goddess of justice.
The Cross and the Pointers (the two brightest stars in Centaurus) are high in the south in the predawn January sky, with the three stars of the imaginatively named Southern Triangle directly below the Pointers. The Keel, the Sails, the Poop Deck (constellations seen to the right of the Southern Cross while facing south) were once part of the single giant constellation of Argo Navis, the Argonaut’s Ship that sailed to find the Golden Fleece. Just above the Southern Cross and the Housefly are the stars of the great ship Argo as it sails along the Milky Way, accompanied by the dim stars of the Flying Fish. The Milky Way stretches across the morning sky from east to west, a bit south of the zenith, with the bright stars of the Scorpion now rising in the east before dawn. Look out for the brightest star in Scorpio, Antares (‘rival of Mars’) .
Still very high in the January predawn sky is Hydra the Water Monster, with the Cup mounted on its back and the Crow flying nearby. The brightest star in Hydra is Alphard, high in the NW in the January predawn sky. At a distance of 175 light years away, Alphard is a giant star 40 times the diameter of our Sun, and would stretch halfway to the orbit of Mercury if placed where the Sun is. Since Alphard is also 400 times as bright as the sun, we’d be crispy is a jiffy!
Sivuyile Manxoyi January 2016
PDF version (two pages, including the full text)
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What is saliva? Basically, it’s mostly water secretion in your mouth. Beyond water, saliva consists of mucin, organic salts and digestive enzymes.
Under healthy conditions, you’ll produce in excess of a couple of cups of this fluid daily. This flow is slowest while you sleep and surges during a meal.
Saliva is discharged into your mouth via your salivary gland system. And salivary secretion is controlled by your autonomic nervous system.
You have three sets of major salivary glands. One type of gland is the parotid, which is located between your jaw and ear. The saliva that originates out of this gland tends to be watery in its consistency.
The other two salivary glands are labeled sublingual and submandibula. Sublingual produces the thickest, stickiest version of saliva through numerous ducts in your mouth’s floor.
Submandibular gland is found under your tongue and shoots out saliva of a texture that’s in between watery and sticky. Salivary gland placement is also in various spots throughout your mouth, ejecting saliva similar sublingual’s.
Salivary gland flow decreases during periods of dehydration. And it’s that subsequent dry mouth that causes your sensation of thirst. Thus, causing you to seek sources of hydration, which is just one of saliva’s health benefits.
Saliva has various other health benefits. Some of it’s more notable benefits is it serves as a moisturizer for your mouth, it kicks off starch and fat digestion, it’s a moistening aid for chewing and its stickiness binds food into a bolus for swallowing.
However, saliva benefits your health in other ways as well, like:
- lower pH helps neutralize acids in food
- provides a defensive barrier against bacteria, fungi, viruses
- bicarbonate buffer protects teeth against bacteria producing acids
- dissolves substance in food to make them more accessible to taste buds
When salivary flow is too low, xerostomia (aka dry mouth) becomes an issue. When this happens, you’ll likely have difficulty chewing, swallowing or speaking. And a substantial cut in saliva has a negative impact on dental and oral health, i.e. increases risk of cavities, gingivitis and periodontal disease.
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Smoking is one of the biggest risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, increasing the risk of heart attacks, strokes and vascular disease in the limbs. It damages the inner lining of the arteries, causing them to narrow , which in turn decreases the blood flow, that can lead to, among other things, heart attacks and strokes. Cigarettes also increase the heart rate and blood pressure in the body, making you more vulnerable to cardiovascular diseases.
Passive smoking or second-hand smoking is also harmful as the non-smoker inhales nicotine and toxic chemicals same as the smokers do, placing him or her at risk of lung cancer, and voice box and throat cancers. Passive smoking has been associated with increased risk of respiratory conditions like asthma and COPD as well. In fact, smoking in the presence of a pregnant woman increases the risk of her delivering a low weight baby, having a still-born or having a premature baby
Passive smoking can affect children negatively, making them prone to respiratory disorders like wheezing, even asthma, allergies, sudden infant death and respiratory tract infections.
Most of the passive smoking occurs in colleges, homes and workplaces, when a non-smoker interacts with a smoker. While we cannot stop someone from smoking, we can take steps to protect ourselves by maintaining a distance from smokers to avoid inhaling the smoke, by ensuring that the children’s day care centres and schools are tobacco-free, choosing safe and environment -friendly places for outings and dining and by educating our children and loved ones to avoid smoking and passive smoking.
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Writing to a certain style guideline, or standardized format, is required by many professional and academic entities today. Generally, you begin to learn these styles in high school by writing papers that follow certain formats under one of the main style guides. The most widely accepted and used guides are MLA, APA, Chicago/Turabian, and CSE. Proper citation is especially important to avoid plagiarism.
Fortunately, there are many online resources guides to check your writing against. BestOnlineCollege.org has compiled a plethora of online resources for double checking the format and content of your writing, as well as creating a bibliography or works cited page.
APA style is mainly used in the study of psychology. The official site for APA has free tutorials, links to the books, style guides, instructional aids, and online courses. The site also has a large section on the latest psychology news and events.
MLA is used mainly in the study of humanities, such as English, literature, art, music, philosophy, foreign languages, religion, and architecture. The official site of the MLA, or Modern Language Association, promotes their most recent publications, gives a short overview of MLA style, and discusses MLA membership qualifications, events and conventions.
CSE style was produced to provide the scientific writing community with more specific writing standards in relation to the subjects and topics discussed in the scientific realm.
A set of style rules developed by the University of Chicago Press beginning over a hundred years ago to aid printing technicians and continuing today to provide a writing and formatting standard through The Chicago Manual of Style.
Turabian style is a slight variation on Chicago style specifically designed for student writers and their scholastic writing needs.
AAA style offers a style guide based on the combination of The Chicago Manual of Style and Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary and provides lots of information and examples.
Free Bibliography Generators
EasyBib lets you generate a free MLA style bibliography or works cited page. Just enter your sources into the field and get your free works cited page.
Noodle Tools is the one of the original works cited generators. NoodleBib Express allows you to create a free MLA, APA, or Chicago style works cited page. They have other software that costs money, so be careful.
Son of Citation Machine lets you select which style you want to use and pick which kind of source, then fill in the blanks and, in a few seconds, Son of Citation Machine will create a correctly formatted bibliography or works cited page for you.
WorksCited4U allows you to choose the style you wish to use and then gives you instructions on how to successfully write and cite according to the style of your choice.
APA Lite for College Papers gives an overview of APA style and includes topics such as editing, page formatting, documenting research, and provides examples of reference or works cited styles.
APA Style Essentials has examples of APA style documents, and information on general guidelines, title pages, citations, quotes, references, footnotes, and tables and links to websites where you can purchase the APA style book.
Bedford / St. Martin’s MLA Updates allows you to view portions of the MLA handbook for free by downloading their PDFs.
Chicago Citation Style is a two page downloadable Chicago style guide that covers the basics of citation, including footnotes and endnotes.
Chicago Style Crib Sheet offers a quick overview of Chicago and Turabian style, including how to use style, page formatting, and using footnotes and endnotes.
The Chicago Manual of Style Online goes over things like, how to format tables, quotations, how to write numbers and deal with unusual word usage.
Council of Science Editors is the official site and the best resource for understanding what CSE, or Council of Science Editors, style is and how to properly use it.
The Online Writing Center (OWL) at Purdue has great information to use, such as example papers, work cited, and bibliographies. There is also information on where to purchase Chicago style guides.
Online Citation Guide gives us a short introduction and examples on how to properly cite sources, including using abbreviations parenthetical in-text citations, and different types of paper formats.
Research and Documentation Online discusses how to find sources for your work, and then document them in your work. The site will take you to examples and descriptions, according to your choice of several different disciplines.
Writing at CSU’s “Writing Guide” is Colorado State University’s writing style guide and has more information on CSE style guidelines and how to use proper citations at the conclusion of your paper.
Library Quick Guide: Citing Electronic Resources with MLA has some great links to style resources and offers a useful list of examples for electronic source citations.
MLA Style Lite offers guides for page and document formatting, writing mechanics, citing references and text and block quotations.
Psychology with Style: A Hypertext Writing Guide offers a variety of example APA style research papers so you can go over such topics as the use of quotations, abbreviations, and usage details.
Research and Documentation Online allows you to choose from a variety of disciplines and then select what type or area of your project you need to style or format. It then generates a nicely formatted page designed to give you examples for all of your writing needs.
American Academy of Art offers tutorials, videos, websites, books, PDFs, examples and other resources for writing and citing according to MLA style.
Anne Arundel Community College has guides and links to resources, as well as examples for every style you may need to write a bibliography.
Long Island University Post’s APA Citation Style Guide offers clear, easy-to-follow examples for a variety of APA source citations.
Camosun College gives detailed examples of electronic sources, print sources and other links.
Capital Community College focuses on MLA and APA style and has examples of tables and figures, a FAQ, quotation tutorials, how to perform last minute corrections, and how to write a works cited.
Capital Community College provides examples of works cited, grammar, writing tips, paper formats, writing lessons, and plagiarism rules for MLA style.
Concordia University Libraries includes a section on parenthetical references and then an extensive list of examples of work citations.
Cornell University Library has fantastic examples and descriptions of how to write a proper works cited page in APA, MLA, and Chicago style.
Dakota State University discusses end references and in-text citation and shows examples for both.
Georgia Southern University is an excellent PDF with examples of APA style standards for referencing articles, books, and electronic media.
North Seattle Community College offers examples, and links to games and other resources for learning how to write to APA style.
The Ohio State University has articles, books and electronic resources available for most of the standard styles, including MLA, APA, CSE, CBE, Chicago, and Turabian.
Southwestern College Library gives writers links to excellent citation sources and style guides for MLA and APA style.
The Ohio State University offers articles books and other resources for citing according to scientific style and format, as well as MLA and APA.
UNC University Libraries discusses how to cite your sources, including print sources and online sources, and includes examples of bibliographies. Also offers information about why we use citation.
The University of Illinoisat Urbana-Champaign has a Center for Writing Studies online. This easy to navigate site offers APA tutorials that breaks down how to cite sources. Also included are a grammar handbook, writing tips, and ESL resources.
University of Maryland University College has examples for how to include authors, dates and titles in citations.
The University of Southern Mississippi Libraries has a huge list of examples for citing all kinds of sources in Turabian style.
The University of Wisconsin–Madison has fantastic resources for writing according APA style, including parenthetical citations, references, and a writer’s handbook.
Washington State University provides great download-and-printable MLA style guide resources and has links to other great resources.
Westmont College has a psychology section that offers easy-to-understand examples of APA style guidelines and how to successfully achieve these results in Microsoft Word.
William Paterson University of New Jersey is a site that has great examples of correctly written APA citations.
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Today we live in a DIY world. From furniture building manuals to becoming a chef, we can do all. In this rush of standardizing teaching for everyone, which they can access anytime they want, we ignore the importance of individual attention each learner needs.
Watching YouTube tutorials of swimming, reading a few articles about various tips will not necessarily enable you to become a swimmer. We need that human touch too, a mentor who will carefully study our weaknesses, guide us towards confidence, notice and enhance the wrong strokes, even motivate us when we don’t have the will – and gradually lead us towards perfection.
Similarly, in brain training, self-training tools like videos and online games might work to an extent, but these tools show the best results when handled and modified by trainers to suit each child differently. They know when, how, and with whom to use it. And that makes a vast difference in the outcomes of cognitive training.
Sudoku, puzzles, and other mind games might help, but they don’t usually lead to noticeable improvements in everyday attention to detail, real-life memory tasks, or smoother relationships. We might notice boosted attention as they occur on the computer items, but these performance gains don’t consistently move past the computer, where people want them. This is where expert trainers are required. They not only polish the decision-making power in the brain but also enable us to apply it when we are in a four-way traffic situation.
THE SCIENCE OF COGNITIVE TRAINING.
To be able to understand the need for a physical trainer who caters to every child individually, we need to first look into the science of cognitive training.
Brain training aims to enhance a person’s cognitive functions. The basic tasks of acquiring, processing, storing, and using information are achieved through fun hands-on training. Some examples of these functions include attention, memory, visual perception, reading comprehension, and language production.
The level on which our brain functions can vary in every individual, and external factors such as stress, traumas, or accidents can also lead to weak functioning.
In brain training, we train these functions in a carefully structured and controlled environment to improve the brain’s capacity. For example, training in attention includes intentional concentration on just one stimulus for an extended amount of time to increase the ability to focus and ignore distractions.
Take the example of a car wash with 10 different brushes and mops to work together from all angles to give you a shiny new look. Similarly, the fun environment, the emotionally supportive trainers, the different techniques, and the tools used all coalesce and train a child’s brain. In this clinical and academic manner, many skills are being groomed consciously and unconsciously.
Personal training thus offers a few primary benefits that self-training or brain training games might not be able to provide.
1) Personal training develops cognitive skills like memory and attention and trains to apply the acquired skill in day-to-day life.
2) Having a personal trainer helps a child deal with his own different needs through custom-built specifically tailored exercises, rather than tutoring him in a generalized manner.
3) Expert trainers identify the underlying issue a child is facing, and rather than seeing him as a weak student, they address his problem. This builds confidence in the child, and they feel an urge to strive.
4) Trainers understand each child is different, and so is each day for the same child as well. Keeping this in mind, they challenge the child by studying their capacity.
5) You might not always have the motivation to attempt the IQ-building puzzle and end up skipping it. Trainers are known to bring that motivation back and keep us on track until we reach our goal.
6) Sessions with trainers are more engaging and rewarding as they address the diverse needs of children.
At the Brainnovation center, our vision is to develop a child’s cognitive skills using a blend of both techniques. One is to challenge them one-on-one with training from expert trainers, and the second is to teach them the balance of self-training through virtual and online programs. The combination of the two helps them with the right mix of having someone to look up to while also being self-built to DO IT THEMSELVES.
Hence, we do not believe in giving our clients a cloak that says “one size fits all”. To put it in a nutshell – according to years of research and brain science, training the underlying weak skills through consistent, intensive, and 1:1 personalized training has reflected optimum long-lasting gains to both kids and adults.
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Measuring acid neutralizing capability. You really want to measure the amount of stomach acid neutralized, not the change in pH. Prepare a solution of a base that is similar in concentration to the acid (0.1 M NaOH would be ideal). Determine what volume of base solution is necessary to neutralize 1) a measured volume of fresh acid, and 2) the same volume of acid which has a weighed, crushed antacid tablet dissolved in it. The difference between volumes of base in 1) and 2) is a good, reproducible measure of how much acid was actually neutralized by the antacid.
You might find the Utah State Office of Education's page on comparative studies of common household solutions helpful as you design this part of your experiment. Also see S. Phillips' Chemistry in the Modern World Laboratory pages for ideas.
Detecting complete neutralization. You'll need some way of determining when the acid has been completely neutralized. Add an indicator to the acid before adding any base or antacid. An indicator is a dye that changes color when the pH of the solution changes. Bromothymol blue is a good choice for this experiment. It changes from yellow in acidic solution to blue in basic solution:
Author: Fred Senese [email protected]
Copyright © 1997-2010 by Fred Senese
Comments & questions to [email protected]
Last Revised 02/23/18.URL: http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/acidbase/faq/print-antacid-titration.shtml
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List of Good Carbs & Bad Carbs
Carbohydrates provide your body with glucose it needs to function properly. Two types of carbohydrates exist: complex carbohydrates and simple carbohydrates. Foods rich in complex or "good" carbohydrates take time to break down into glucose, while foods high in simple or "bad" carbohydrates convert to glucose very quickly. "Bad" carbohydrates cause blood sugar levels to spike, so knowing which foods to eat and which to avoid can play a role in maintaining your overall health.
Whole-grain products such as brown rice, whole-grain pasta, beans, whole wheat bread, whole oats, buckwheat, millet, whole rye, whole-grain barley and whole-grain corn are considered good carbohydrates. These foods are rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients that are beneficial to your health. Also, they have a low glycemic index because they cause a slower change in blood sugar levels. Diets rich in high glycemic index foods cause a rapid rise in blood glucose levels, thereby increasing the risk for diabetes and heart disease. By contrast, foods with a low glycemic index help you achieve a more stable blood sugar and improve weight loss and control Type 2 diabetes.
Fruits, Vegetables and Legumes
Fruits and vegetables are loaded with vitamins, nutrients and carbohydrates. People who consume about 2,000 calories per day should eat 2 cups of fruit and 2.5 cups of vegetables daily. Legumes such as beans, peas and lentils are high in fiber, carbohydrates and protein and low in fat. Legumes may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and prostate cancer, reports the Linus Pauling Institute. On a 2,000-calorie daily diet, you should eat 3 cups of legumes a week, according to USDA ChooseMyPlate.gov.
Refined Grains, Sweets and Biscuits
Refined grains such as white bread, pizza crust, pretzels, hamburger buns and megamuffins are bad carbohydrates. During the refining process, these grains are stripped of B-vitamins, fiber and certain minerals. In addition, they also have a high glycemic index, negatively affecting blood sugar levels. Other examples of bad carbohydrates include chips, cookies, sodas, bagels, cake, pastries, pancakes, soda, high fructose corn syrup and baked goods. These foods are low in nutrient density as they have little or no nutritional value and supply a large amount of calories.
According to researchers at Yale University, bad carbohydrates such as sweets and biscuits cause falls in blood sugar, affecting the part of the brain that controls impulse. This leads to a loss of self-control and a desire for unhealthy, high-calorie foods. A diet high in calories contributes to weight gain, which increases the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.
Include beans in your diet as they are a good source of protein and slowly digested carbohydrates. Harvard School of Public Health suggests eating whole wheat or whole oats for breakfast, using whole-grain breads for lunch or snacks and trying brown rice, wheatberries or millet with dinner. In this way, you can add more good carbohydrates to your diet. The recommended serving sizes for breads and cereals are 1 slice of bread, 1 ounce of ready-to-eat cereal, ½ cup of cooked cereal or ½ cup of cooked dry beans.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbohydrates
- Harvard School of Public Health: Carbohydrates: Good Carbs Guide the Way
- ChooseMyPlate.gov: Home
- Linus Pauling Institute: Legumes
- The New York Times: Eating Well; It's Better to Be Whole Than Refined
- Daily Mail: Could Your Sweet Tooth be a Warning Sign That You're Ill?
- American Diabetes Association: Diabetes Myths
- MedlinePlus: Carbohydrates
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Tutorial: Rounded Corners
Open up a new file. Create one or more layers with text on it. The written text should be relatively big in size so that you can see the final effect clearly.
Now render the text (Layer / Discard Text Information) and apply a Gaussian Blur. → Filter / Blur / Gaussian with a value of 15. The higher the value the more rounded are the edges at the end. It should look like that now:
Click right on on this layer, apply Colors / Curves. At the top left set the channel to “Alpha”. After that move the point at the bottom left to the middle, the one top right move at the opposite direction, also towards the middle.
What happens here? The transparent part (the socalled alpha-channel) is moved together as far as possible until there is no half-transparent space left in the layer. The result of this is that there are either totally visible (100% transparency) pixels or totally invisible pixels (0% transparency).
Thats it! The final result should look like this:
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Degenerate art or Entartete Kunst From the 1920s and onwards the German Nazis applied the term Entartete Kunst to pretty much all art from the avant garde art movements. E.g. expressionism. But even more conventional and traditional art was considered wrong and deemed unhealthy for the public to view. Any art which did not conform to Nazi goals and agendas failed the test. Much art was thus considered non-German, perverse, Jewish, Bolschewik and Communist by the National Socialist party. In summary the art was accused of degenerating German culture to a primitive and and unhealthy state of affairs. Under direct supervision of Adolf Hitler, the art was confiscated and exhibited in Dresden, Weimar, Karlsruhe, Munich, Berlin and Stuttgart The sole aim of the exhibitions was large-scale defamation of the art to prevent further and irreversible damage of society. The idea was to educate the public by showing exactly how bad and damaging the art was. In reality the scapegoating and displaying of Enteartete Kunst helped create respect for the avant garde movements. Ironically, then, Hitler acted as a great PR campaigner for degenerate art, though he wanted to achieve the opposite. However, it was not all good news. The Nazis either pursecuted artists via Gestapo or disallowed them to work. Emil Nolde was officially banned from creating art, and much of Nolde’s work from period is called ‘unpainted paintings’. Emil Nolde’s water colours, drawings and oils were kept in hiding until the end of WW2. So-called degenerate artists were: Emil Nolde, Heinrich Zille, Ernst Barlach, Otto Dix to name but a few. See perhaps also article on expressionism.
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Doctor of History, researcher at ESPE Aix-Marseille and member of the teaching team at the Master of European Studies at Aix-Marseille University, Mauve Carbonell talks about the reasons that led to the resurrection of the European idea after World War II.
When did the idea of building a united Europe appear?
The idea of a united Europe as we know it today was developed in the 20th century. Up until 1945, it was marginal in the conceptions of the world put forward by States, political parties, intellectuals and society, although we can find some hints of a European consciousness among the 18th-century humanists or with Victor Hugo, who is often quoted for having mentioned the creation of the "United States of Europe" as early as 1849. The political project for European unity has its roots in the first half of the 20th century. After World War I, Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi founded the Pan-Europa movement, or the Paneuropean Union, calling for peace through the creation of a federation of European States. He influenced the French Minister Aristide Briand when he proposed the creation of a European union in 1929. The project did not see the light of day, but it was still one of the first pacifistic political attempts to unite the European States. After World War II, European federalist ideas took on new meaning and a new dimension. In 1948, the Hague Congress, under the honorary presidency of Winston Churchill, brought together over 800 pro-European militants (political personalities, journalists, trade unionists, etc.) and adopted several resolutions calling for the creation of a politically and economically united Europe. Above and beyond the ideological aspirations of part of the European élites, the international political and economic context was central to the concrete implementation of these ideas in the early 1950s.
What were the main motivations behind the resurrection of the "European idea" after the war?
World War II devastated the European continent. The bloody failures of the nationalist ideology pushed beyond its limits brought new ideologies to the fore, from Christian Democracy to Communism, which were founded on democracy, brotherhood, solidarity and freedom. The union of Europe was just one aspect among others in this ideological renewal. The decisive factor in the progression of pro-European ideas, above and beyond their ideological bases, lies in the international geopolitical context after 1945. Liberated by the Allied Armies in the West and by the Red Army in the East, the European continent was quickly divided into two opposing camps. In the West, where liberal democracy (re)occupied its rightful place, the Communist threat quickly replaced the fear of the Nazis. Countering the "red menace" became a necessity. An economically strong and politically stable Western Europe was seen as indispensable for the United States, the big winner of the war, and its allies. The United States offered its financial support to rebuilding Europe (Marshall Plan, 1947) on the condition that the States united and worked together to coordinate aid distribution, giving rise to the OEEC (Organisation for European Economic Co-operation). At the end of the 1940s, it was a question in the West of uniting Europeans, even though they were just coming out of a terrible conflict, to return to prosperity, peace and stability, and to contain Communism. In this context, pro-European ideas were not popular – anti-German feelings still ran strong in many countries – and were imposed from above, with European leaders speeding up the reconciliation process through the launch of European construction in 1950.
What were its founding acts ?
At the origin of a community-based Europe lies the proposal by French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Robert Schuman, to pool French and German coal and steel production in a supranational organisation. At the end of the 1940s, several European cooperation bodies (Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, Western Union Defence Organisation, Council of Europe) and regional economic integration organisations (Benelux) were formed. But the Schuman Declaration, the resulting Treaty of Paris of 18 April 1951 and the European Coal and Steel Community that came out of it gave a conception of Europe that went beyond simple cooperation between States. The founding of the ECSC was not at the origin of European ideas or achievements – other organisations came before it, but it was indeed the founding act of the European community and of institutions that still exist today within the European Union. A few years after the formation of the ECSC, the second founding act was the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 with the goal of establishing a common market between the Member States, of which there were six.
Who were the founding fathers of Europe?
We call the "founding fathers" of Europe those political leaders who worked in favour of post-war European unity, who took part in the first major steps in European construction and who, in their respective countries and with their fellow citizens, embodied the very idea of Europe. The duo Robert Schuman – Jean Monnet were the emblematic leaders, as they were behind the ECSC. We can mention other "founding fathers": German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, Italian Premier Alcide de Gasperi, the head of the Luxembourg government Joseph Bech, Belgian Minister and MP Paul-Henri Spaak, Dutch Minister and diplomat Johan Willem Beyen, etc. They all took part in the first stages of European construction: the ECSC and the EEC. Other personalities were later included in the European "pantheon", such as the German Walter Hallstein. The "founding fathers", a legitimate and legitimising affiliation, were often showcased by the European institutions themselves. But the human component of the history of European construction is much wider and goes beyond the six countries present at the start of European construction: members of the ECSC's High Authority, European commissioners (EEC, then EU), Members of the European Parliament, Judges at the European Court of Justice, civil servants, diplomats, men and women in the community administration, etc., have been the basic building blocks of European venture through its successive expansions.
"Europe didn't happen. We ended up with war." said Robert Schuman in his speech on 9 May 1950. In what way is the idea of peace inseparable from European construction?
Peace, along with democracy, is the strongest value put forward by united Europe. In the past, the European continent had been the theatre of many wars and conflicts whose causes were territorial, economic, political and ideological. In the 20th century, the two world wars pushed human and material destruction to new heights. In 1945, the expression "never again" was taken up by all levels of society. The means for establishing lasting peace in Europe – an absolute condition for political and economic recovery – appeared to be few and far between, especially in the face of the international tensions related to the start of the Cold War; the fear of a Third World War was palpable. Starting with the Schuman Declaration, the idea of peace was put forward in European projects, even if they were mainly economic in nature: linking French and German coal and steel production, "the sinews of war" in the 20th century, would de facto prevent war from breaking out between France and Germany. Moreover, this was a way of reintegrating Germany into the concert of nations while controlling its (re)development. The European leaders involved in the process in the early 1950s emphasised the political promise of economic union: establishing peace, reconciliation, strengthening democratic Europe, a political union going all the way to a federation for some, etc.
Peace as a founding value of united Europe should, however, be analysed with care. Of course, peace between the States of Western Europe – for a long time just a small part of Europe – appeared to be ensured, but the European Union was unable to stop horrific conflicts from breaking out on the continent (wars in the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s) or on its borders (Ukraine), even today.
How was the ECSC the "first stage of the European federation"?
The Schuman Declaration and the ECSC that it brought about contained a fundamental ideological originality that help us to understand later developments in European construction. The very principals of the ECSC included abandoning part of national sovereignty in favour of the Community. Executive power was in the hands of a High Authority that was headquartered in Luxembourg, theoretically independent and in charge of decision-making, ensuring that its decisions are applied in a concern for the general welfare. The product of federalist ideas, the ECSC was, in Jean Monnet's mind, just a first step in gradual economic integration, by sector, that was to lead to a political federation. But in practice, the ECSC was quite alone in this and European construction took a very different direction after the failure of the European Defence Community project in 1954 and the ensuing change of course.
How do you explain the failure of the EDC in 1954? What were the consequences (economic integration/political integration)?
In 1950, the United States backed rearming the Federal Republic of Germany in the context of a worsening Cold War. Rearming the former enemy pure and simple was still unacceptable for France, which proposed creating a European defence system that would include Germany. In the wake of the Schuman Declaration, the Pleven Plan – named after French Prime Minister René Pleven – drawn up by Jean Monnet – was presented to the French National Assembly. The project was ambitious and was in keeping with the federalist line of the ECSC: an integrated European army headed by a European Minister of Defence. Following this proposal, there were heated debates in France and Western governments were mostly wary. The treaty signed in May 1952 created a European Defence Community (EDC) that was much less supranational than initially planned. Between the treaty's signing and the ratification vote at the National Assembly in 1954, there were constant quarrels between pro- and anti-EDCs, with the two sides being torn apart through the political debate, in the press, in intellectual circles and in society. The context changed in 1954 compared with the time at which the project and treaty were originally written: the death of Stalin and the end of the war in Korea reduced the Communist menace. French parliamentarians, starting with the Gaullists and the Communists, voted against the EDC on 30 August 1954. The project was subsequently abandoned. The main reason for this negative vote lies in the fear of resurgent German military might so soon after the war. The EDC's failure truly put a stop to European construction as initiated with the ECSC, especially as the project for a European Political Community, which was supposed to integrate the ECSC and the EDC over time, was also abandoned in 1953. In the end, the federalist orientation only really brought the ECSC project to fruition. Proposals were no longer on the agenda and the relaunch of European construction after 1955 concentrated joint efforts on the economy (the future EEC) and, to a lesser extent, energy (the future Euratom).
What were the consequences of the signature of the treaty establishing the EEC and the Euratom treaty in March 1957 in Rome?
European construction was relaunched in the mid-1950s after the failure of the EDC, taking form at the Messina interministerial conference in 1955. The conference's final resolution called for pursuing the construction of a united Europe "firstly in the economic field", through the creation of a common market. Two years later, the six ECSC countries signed a treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom). The many differences between the EEC of 1957 and the ECSC of 1951 reflect the change of course of European construction that had intervened in just a few years, now less supranational. New institutions were set up: the European Commission and the EEC Council for the executive branch, with the parliamentary Assembly and the Court of Justice being common to the three Communities. Brussels was chosen to be the main seat of community institutions. The leading economic goal of the EEC was to establish a common market based on a customs union. The Treaty of Rome implanted the principles of the free movement of goods (common market), people, service and capital in the community's genes. Lastly, common policies were targeted: a common agricultural policy (CAP) and a common transport policy, which did not succeed. History will remember that the EEC was the ancestor of today's European Union, with successive treaties reinforcing and consolidating the community structure over time, widening the European Communities' fields of action despite the Member States' reticence at delegating their sovereignty.
The European Communities (the ECSC, the EEC and then the European Community, the EAEC or Euratom) did not become the "European Union" until 1992 with the Maastricht Treaty.
Articles of the review
After the war, what next for Europe?Once the guns had fallen silent, people had to learn how to live in peace again. International conferences were organised to establish a new global balance, but by 1947 Europe had been divided into two zones of influence. In the West, a group of politicians motivated by the same ideal nonetheless be...Read more
April 1948-September 1951: the Marshall PlanRead more
Creation of the UN
Seventy years ago, on 26 June 1945, the United Nations Charter was signed in San Francisco. This founding text of the new international institution joined by 51 countries was designed to ensure world peace and security after World War II.Read more
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What better way to share your feelings regarding your significant other than with a romantic love sonnet? Armed with a very basic knowledge of the sonnet, anyone can learn how to write one.
William Shakespeare made the sonnet famous, so famous that the most common form of sonnet is known as the Shakespearean sonnet. Writing a Shakespearean love sonnet may sound daunting and complicated, but anyone, especially someone in love, can write their way into that special someone’s heart.
Before you begin, consider the subject of the sonnet. While sonnets can be about anything or anyone, a love sonnet usually focuses on the significant person in the writer’s life, with special emphasis placed on their appearance, talents, strengths and any other characteristics the writer wants to focus on. Make a list of positive traits and other things you would like to mention before you begin writing your sonnet. Once you have your list, you will have your ideas in place so you can focus on following the sonnet form.
Once you have a focal point for your sonnet, along with a few things about your focal point, you need to familiarize yourself with the basic form of a sonnet. The Shakespearean sonnet is made up of fourteen lines in two sections. The first section is made up of three quatrains, or four line stanzas and a stanza is a group of lines in a poem. The first section of the sonnet presents the general theme or focal point of the poem and the second section is just a one-stanza couplet, or two lines that rhyme. The second section of the sonnet wraps up the the thought or theme presented in the first section, and puts a bow on it, so to speak.
Once you understand the form, should you decide to follow the Shakespearean form, try to capture the rhythm of iambic pentameter. If you write in iambic pentameter, your sonnet will sound especially nice read aloud since it will have a natural, almost musical rhythm to it.
An iamb is a rhythmic meter in a poem called a foot – each foot has two syllables, with the emphasis on the second syllable. An easy way to understand this emphasis is by saying, “Good bye” aloud. When you say it out loud, “good” is said a little quieter than “bye”, so it’s “Good BYE”. Another example is “to-DAY”. A line of iambic pentameter is made up of five feet, making each line in your sonnet ten syllables long. It may take some tapping and saying lines aloud to get a sense of the syllables and emphasis but eventually you’ll get a sense of how iambic pentameter sounds. You’ll probably discover that you already say a lot of things in iambic pentameter.
After figuring out the structure and the rhythm of the poem, the last technical aspect of writing a love sonnet is the rhyme scheme. In the first section, the rhyme scheme is a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d-e-f-e-f. Each letter in this line scheme represents the last word of a line that rhymes. For example, if the last word of your first line is “love”, the last word in third line would rhyme with the first, so you would pick something like, “above”, for example. The second and fourth lines’ last words would rhyme, and so on. With the second section, the couplets rhyme, therefore the last words follow a g-g scheme.
Try not to get discouraged if the rules and form of the traditional Shakespearean sonnet seem overwhelming. There is a lot to learn and understand but, with some practice, it will get much easier and it will seem like you have written sonnets throughout your life. Even if it takes a little extra effort, your sweetheart will notice and appreciate the hard work you put into giving him or her a unique, heartfelt Valentine’s gift.
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Wikijunior:Solar System/Space exploration
Space exploration — A long dream
Going into space was always one of the biggest dreams people had, even thousands of years ago. Many science fiction authors wrote about traveling in space even before the first airplane flight in 1903. One of the most famous science fiction books on space travel is From the Earth to the Moon by Jules Verne — it was written in 1865, more than one hundred years before the first person walked on the moon. Jules Verne's idea was to use a giant cannon! That might seem silly today, but it shows how much our ideas on space travel have changed.
The first exploration of space
Space begins about 100 km or 62 miles above the earth. A more realistic way to travel in space is with a rocket. Within a rocket is a controlled explosion. However, exhaust (things left over after burning) is only allowed to leave the rocket in one direction. As a result, the rocket is pushed in the other direction. In 1942, the German rocket A-4 became the first to reach that height, but it wasn't meant to do anything but fall straight down again and so wasn't terribly useful. Still, it was an advance in rocket technology.
The Soviets were the first to put anything in space that would stay up: they launched the Sputnik 1 satellite on October 4, 1957. Within a month, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2, and in that spacecraft was the first space traveler: a dog called Laika.
The launch of the Sputnik started the Space Race, a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union to obtain more and more advanced space technology. Americans were very surprised that the Soviets could have launched 'Sputnik', and began to design rockets and satellites of their own. The race would last for the next few decades.
A man in Space
On April 12, 1961, the first person was sent into space: Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet, riding in the spacecraft Vostok 1. The Soviets would send more people into space over the next few decades, and so would the Americans, but it wouldn't be until 2003 that another country would launch a spacecraft with a person in it: China, with the Shenzhou 5.
The race to the moon
At the beginning of the 1960s, American president John F. Kennedy made a famous speech in which he said that the U.S. was going to send people to the moon within the next 10 years. And that's what happened: in July of 1969, Neil Armstrong stepped off the there spacecraft and said "One small step for [a] man and one giant leap for mankind". He and Buzz Aldrin walked on the moon where they put an American flag. Their footprints are still there because there is no wind or water on the Moon to wash them away.
The Space Shuttle
After the Apollo program that sent people to the Moon, the U.S. built the Space Shuttle, that is like a jet-plane that can go to space and return! (With the help of rockets of course). The Space Shuttle helped construct the ISS (International Space Station) among another things.
The last space shuttle mission is on June 28 2011, but it will be replaced with new vehicles that will take mankind to the Moon, Mars, and beyond!
Spaceships of the future
Right now, spaceships are not very efficient. The Saturn V rocket was 363 feet tall, and it could only take people to the moon! To get people further, better rockets must be invented. One of the most popular ideas for a rocket is the antimatter rocket. This type of rocket collides a small amount of antimatter with an equal amount of normal matter to create a large amount of energy!
Other ideas for going into space, that don't need rockets, have been thought of by scientists and astronomers. One of these is a space elevator. A space elevator is basically a big lift into space. It will cost a lot less to get things up into space if a space elevator is built.
Another idea, a bit like the Jules Verne idea, is an electromagnetic catapult. This catapult works by accelerating the spaceship along a rail, similar to a maglev train. Unfortunately, the air on Earth would set spaceships on fire as they launched, but scientists aren't thinking of putting one there: one could go on the Moon! The catapult on the moon could send metal and other resources to Earth's orbit, where a space station could collect them.
Exploration beyond the Solar System
Many people dream of the day when humans can travel to another star and explore other worlds, some people wonder what's out there some belive that aliens or other life may live on another plant. But, if this ever does happen probably won't happen for a very long time. The stars are so spread out that there are trillions of miles between stars that are "neighbors". Maybe one day, your great grandchildren will be standing atop an alien world wondering about their ancient ancestors?
The eye beyond Earth
Many people say the very best invention ever (not just in space technology) was the Hubble space telescope (HST). Others say it's just the space station being selfish having the best technology in the world.
The Hubble Space telescope is a giant telescope that is in orbit around the Earth. Because there is no atmosphere, the Hubble Space Telescope has a clear view of even distant galaxies. One of the pictures the Hubble space telescope has made is called the 'Hubble Deep Field'. The Hubble Deep Field is a picture of some of the most distant galaxies, and it gives a snapshot of what the universe looked like when it was younger.
Even bigger telescopes are also in the planning, so we might be able to see right to the edge of the universe some day soon.
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Myelomeningocele is a birth defect in which the backbone and spinal canal do not close before birth.
The condition is a type of spina bifida.
Causes of Myelomeningocele
Normally, during the first month of a pregnancy, the two sides of the spine (or backbone) join together to cover the spinal cord, spinal nerves and meninges (the tissues covering the spinal cord). Spina bifida refers to any birth defect involving incomplete closure of the spine.
Myelomeningocele is a neural tube defect in which the bones of the spine do not completely form, resulting in an incomplete spinal canal. This causes the spinal cord and meninges (the tissues covering the spinal cord) to protrude from (stick out of) the child's back.
Myelomeningocele may affect as many as 1 out of every 4000 infants.
The rest of spina bifida cases are most commonly:
- Spina bifida occulta, a condition in which the bones of the spine do not close but the spinal cord and meninges remain in place and skin usually covers the defect.
- Meningoceles, a condition where the tissue covering the spinal cord protrudes from the spinal defect, but the spinal cord remains in place.
Other congenital disorders or birth defects may also be present in a child with myelomeningocele. Hydrocephalus may affect as many as 90% of children with myelomeningocele. Other disorders of the spinal cord or musculoskeletal system may be seen, including syringomyelia and hip dislocation.
The cause of myelomeningocele is unknown. However, low levels of folic acid in a woman's body before and during early pregnancy are thought to play a part in this type of birth defect. The vitamin folic acid (or folate) is important for brain and spinal cord development.
If a child is born with myelomeningocele, future children in that family have a higher risk than the general population. However, in many cases, there is no family connection.
Some theorize that a virus may play a role, since there is a higher rate of this condition in children born in the early winter months. Research also indicates possible environmental factors such as radiation.
A newborn may have a sac sticking out of the mid to lower back.
- Loss of bladder or bowel control
- Partial or complete lack of sensation
- Partial or complete paralysis of the legs
- Weakness of the hips, legs, or feet of a newborn
Other signs and/or symptoms may include:
- Abnormal feet or legs, such as clubfoot
- Build up of fluid inside the skull (hydrocephalus)
Tests and Exams
Prenatal screening can help diagnose this condition. During the second trimester, pregnant women can have a blood test called the quadruple screen. This test screens for myelomeningocele, Down syndrome, and other congenital diseases in the baby. Most women carrying a baby with spina bifida will have a higher-than-normal level of a protein called maternal alpha fetoprotein (AFP).
If the quadruple screen test is positive, further testing is needed to confirm the diagnosis.
Such tests may include:
- Pregnancy ultrasound
Myelomeningocele can be seen after the child is born. A neurologic examination may show that the child has loss of nerve-related functions below the defect. For example, watching how the infant responds to pinpricks at various locations may reveal where the baby can feel the sensations.
Tests done on the baby after birth may include x-rays, ultrasound, CT, or MRI of the spinal area.
Treatment of Myelomeningocele
Genetic counseling may be recommended. In some cases where a severe defect is detected early in the pregnancy, abortion may be considered. However, intrauterine surgery to close the defect (before the baby is born) is offered in some centers and appears to reduce the risk of some later complications.
After your baby is born, surgery to repair the defect is usually recommended within the first few days of life. Before surgery, the infant must be handled carefully to reduce damage to the exposed spinal cord. This may include special care and positioning, protective devices, and changes in the methods of handling, feeding, and bathing.
Children who also have hydrocephalus may need a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt placed. This will help drain the extra fluid from the ventricles (in the brain) to the peritoneal cavity (in the abdomen).
Antibiotics may be used to treat or prevent infections such as meningitis or urinary tract infections.
Most children will require lifelong treatment for problems that result from damage to the spinal cord and spinal nerves.
- Bladder and bowel problems: Gentle downward pressure over the bladder may help drain the bladder. Drainage tubes, called catheters, may be needed as well. Bowel training programs and a high fiber diet may improve bowel function.
- Muscle and joint problems: Orthopedic or physical therapy may be needed to treat musculoskeletal symptoms. Braces may be needed. Many patients with myelomeningocele primarily use a wheelchair.
Follow-up examinations generally continue throughout the child's life. These are done to check the child's developmental progress and to treat any intellectual, neurological, or physical problems.
Visiting nurses, social services, support groups, and local agencies can provide emotional support and assist with the care of a child with a myelomeningocele who has significant problems or limitations.
A myelomeningocele can usually be surgically corrected, but the affected nerves may still not function normally. (The higher the location of the defect on the baby's back, the more nerves will be affected.)
With early treatment, length of life is not severely affected. Kidney problems due to poor drainage of urine are the most common cause of death.
Most children with myelomeningocele will have normal intelligence. However, because of the risk of hydrocephalus and meningitis, more of these children will have learning problems and seizure disorders.
New problems within the spinal cord can develop later in life, especially after the child begins growing rapidly during puberty. This can lead to more loss of function as well as orthopedic problems such as scoliosis, foot or ankle deformities, dislocated hips, and joint tightness or contractures.
Many patients with myelomeningocele primarily use a wheelchair.
Complications of spina bifida may include:
- Traumatic birth and difficult delivery of the baby
- Frequent urinary tract infections
- Fluid build up on the brain (hydrocephalus)
- Loss of bowel or bladder control
- Low blood oxygen level in the baby
- Brain infection (meningitis)
- Permanent weakness or paralysis of legs
This list may not be all-inclusive.
When to Contact a Health Professional
Call your health care provider if:
- A sac sticks out of the spine of a newborn infant
- The child is late in walking or crawling
- Symptoms of hydrocephalus develop, including bulging soft spot, irritability, extreme sleepiness, and feeding difficulties
- Symptoms of meningitis develop, including fever, stiff neck, irritability, and a high-pitched cry
Prevention of Myelomeningocele
Folic acid supplements may help reduce the risk of neural tube defects such as myelomeningocele. It is recommended that any woman considering becoming pregnant take 0.4 mg of folic acid a day. Pregnant women need 1 mg per day.
It is important to remember that folic acid deficiencies must be corrected before becoming pregnant, because the defects develop very early.
Prospective mothers may be screened to determine the amount of folic acid in their blood.
Kinsman SL, Johnston MV. Congenital anomalies of the central nervous system. In: Kliegman RM, Behrman RE, Jenson HB, Stanton BF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 19th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 585.
Adzick NS et al. A randomized trial of prenatal versus postnatal repair of myelomeningocele. N Engl J Med. Mar 2011; 364(11):993-1004.
|Review Date: 10/29/2013
Reviewed By: Kimberly G Lee, MD, MSc, IBCLC, Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Bethanne Black, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.
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Some constellations have split identities. Cygnus, for example, is known as both the swan and the Northern Cross. Others, such as Hercules, have split personalities; madness drove him to kill his family, then he spent years trying to atone by carrying out his famous 12 labors. But one constellation is just split: Serpens, the serpent, has two halves, separated by the serpent-bearer, Ophiuchus.
As night falls, the serpent stretches from due south to due west. It’s not much to look at, though — you need pretty dark skies to see many of its stars.
Binoculars or a telescope reveal a couple of impressive objects, though.
One is a globular star cluster known as M5, which looks like a fuzzy blob of light. It’s a tightly packed ball of stars about 25,000 light-years away. The stars are all quite old — as old as the Milky Way galaxy itself. And there are lots of them — at least a hundred thousand, and perhaps hundreds of thousands more.
The other object is a smaller star cluster and a surrounding nebula known as M16. It contains dozens of young stars, surrounded by the nebula of gas and dust that gave them birth, and that is still giving birth to more stars. The bright gas and dark dust form a pattern that gives the nebula a second name: the Eagle Nebula. But that same pattern is also responsible for yet another name, this one thanks to one of the most famous pictures from Hubble Space Telescope: the Pillars of Creation.
Script by Damond Benningfield, Copyright 2011
For more skywatching tips, astronomy news, and much more, read StarDate magazine.
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Kids love balloons and science experiments! How about putting the two of them together for a fun, science class? Your kids are sure to have a great time watching the fun chemical reaction while completing this science experiment!
1 Tablespoon (15 ml) bicarbonate of soda (baking soda)
3 Tablespoons (45 ml) vinegar
Empty plastic water bottle (500ml)
1. Attach the balloon to the funnel
2. Pour the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) into the funnel and ensure that it goes into the balloon.
3. Rise the Funnel, make sure that all the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) has been removed.
4. Using the funnel, pour the vinegar into the bottle
5. Twist the balloon and slip if over the mouth of the bottle without spilling the contents into the bottle. Make sure that it won’t slip off by slipping the top of the balloon over the lip.
6. Lift the balloon so that the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) falls into the vinegar and watch the reaction fill the balloon with carbon dioxide.
Discuss what happens when the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) and vinegar mix. You can read more about the chemical reaction in this experiment HERE.
Koko, 8 years old, loved doing this experiment. Watching his reaction to the balloon filling up with air was amusing.
When adding your filled balloon to the bottle, make sure it slips over the lip, or it will fly off and you’ll have bicarbonate of soda and vinegar everywhere. If this does happen, quickly slip the balloon over the lip again and and watch the balloon fill with the remainder of the carbon dioxide (it will not inflate, just lift a little). Alternatively, you can use an elastic to secure the balloon to the bottle.
What fun science experiments have your children enjoyed doing this year?
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This article was produced and financed by Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research
Climate change could lead to more Norwegian fruit
Norway is one of the northernmost countries where fruits and berries can be grown commercially. A warmer climate could provide better conditions.
Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research
This year, the fruit trees in Ullensvang in Hardanger blossomed one month earlier than the previous year
A mild winter and spring have caused the earliest blossoming in Norway for ten years, starting around the 22nd of April. Last year, the cherry trees did not blossom before 22nd of May, but this was considered a relatively late spring.
“A long time ago, back in my childhood, cherries and plums usually blossomed in mid-May,” says senior researcher Mekjell Meland from Bioforsk, the Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research.
“Apart from last year, blossoming has taken place in early May for the last few years, so people are starting to think of this as normal,” Meland says.
He points out that from a scientific position it is not possible to establish whether this is normal. What is considered normal is calculated from a period of 30 years, and the scientists do not currently have data going back that far.
However, it is not so long until they will have sufficient data to say something about what is normal. Throughout 25 years, Meland has recorded dates for bud break, flowering and defoliation of different fruit species and varieties.
Can present challenges
One of the benefits of early blossoming is that the growing season expands - but it can also present challenges.
“The flowers freeze when we get cold weather during blossoming. In the worst case scenario, this leads to little or no fruit,” says Meland.
This year, the night temperatures during the first days of May were low in fruit growing areas.
In Telemark, there were four nights with freezing temperatures, which means fruit farmers can expect some frost damage.
“We assume things are okay, but this remains to be seen later,” says the researcher.
In stores early
If the flowers avoid frost damage, consumers are likely to find Norwegian cherries and plums in stores earlier than usual.
According to Meland, it is difficult to predict when this will happen. However, the first plums which usually ripen in early August could be ready in late July this year, provided that the summer weather is good.
If the summer is cool, the head start is likely to be evened out.
Longer growing season gives more fruit
All in all, the effects of climate change on cherries and other fruit production in Norway are mostly favourable
According to Meland, a longer growing season will open up opportunities for growing a greater number of types and more demanding varieties. Better growing conditions and higher temperatures could also increase crops.
On the negative side, warmer temperatures could lead to greater problems with fungal diseases and insect attacks.
But Meland says he is still mostly optimistic on behalf of the Norwegian fruit producers.
“We have run cultivation trials with apricots and peaches here in Ullensvang. Currently, we they have been partly successful, but in the future we might be able to do it properly.”
Milder winters cause problems further south
The future outlook is not as positive for countries further south in Europe. Mild winters could result in a lack of blossoming.
“It is the countries furthest south that will have the greatest problems with fruit if the temperatures rise. In warmer locations, it will be necessary to develop varieties that require less cooling during winter and that can withstand more heat in the summer,” says Meland.
He explains that trees need a resting period to be able to develop the following spring. If the trees do not get a cooler period, they will not blossom.
“Fruit growers in Norway don’t think about this, as it is not a problem here - we have enough cold weather during winter.
Typically, trees require at least 1000-1500 hours below seven degrees Celsius in the winter in order to blossom normally in spring.
Climate database for European cherries
Bioforsk in Ullensvang is carrying out trials on different varieties of cherries and other fruit species such as apples, pears and plums. Unlike a lot of other fruits, cherries are unique in Norway in that the same cherry varieties can be cultivated here as in other places in the world, including French, Italian, American and Canadian varieties.
This is due to the short development time from blossoming to mature berries. The situation is, for example, the opposite with apples, which has a much longer development time from the blossoming to maturity and therefore requires varieties specifically adapted to Nordic conditions.
Recently, Meland gathered a delegation of 20 fellow researchers from 12 European countries, to discuss flower development in cherries in Europe.
The researchers shared experiences and began work on a common database for registering the blossoming and development of the same cherry types in various locations in Europe.
The database will also include climate modelling.
“Then we will be able to see, for instance, what impact there could be when the temperature rises with two degrees. It will help us to predict what problems could emerge through early blossoming and what we need to be prepared for,” explains Meland.
Translated by: Siri Elise Dybdal
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https://partner.sciencenorway.no/agriculture-agriculture--fisheries-bioforsk/climate-change-could-lead-to-more-norwegian-fruit/1402151
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-29/segments/1593655896905.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200708062424-20200708092424-00526.warc.gz
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en
| 0.957767 | 1,142 | 3.5 | 4 |
Definition - What does Recess mean?
Recess refers to a break in a trial or court proceeding. This break is usually short; it can be a matter of hours or days.
Recesses typically occur when there is need for someone involved in the trial to take a break. For example, there could be a family emergency in a plaintiff's family, or inclement weather could impact the trial.
Justipedia explains Recess
Recesses are sometimes confused with adjournments. However, the two are different. Unlike recesses, adjournments wrap up court proceedings.
A lawyer may request permission for a recess from the judge if they have a personal need for it, or if their client has a need for it.
During a recess, lawyers may attend to personal business, or may even go over the trial strategy. However, no official legal proceedings take place during a recess. They wait until the court is reconvened.
Improve Your Odds of Getting Compensation in Your Personal Injury Claim
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<urn:uuid:bab7fa6d-c03a-4e34-afc4-38f810a593b2>
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CC-MAIN-2016-50
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https://www.justipedia.com/definition/4788/recess
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en
| 0.959484 | 203 | 3.5 | 4 |
Teething is a milestone in a child's development, but a troubling time for both babies and parents. As the first teeth emerge, babies may experience pain and swelling of the gums. The first set of teeth, the central incisors, either upper or lower, usually appear between the ages of 4 and 7 months. The teething process can last until the child reaches 3 years of age.
Some babies experience no pain while others suffer from pain that can last for weeks. Some methods to reduce the pain of teething include the following:
Early hygiene is important for healthy teeth development. It is recommended for children to see a dentist by the age of one, when they typically have 6 to 8 teeth.
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<urn:uuid:d255e829-90f5-4d04-ba96-152eda8e2480>
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CC-MAIN-2023-23
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http://drtreys.com/Teething
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en
| 0.945962 | 148 | 3.5 | 4 |
This report outlines findings from our survey exploring young people’s literacy-related interactions both within, and in relation to, video games. 4,626 young people aged 11 to 16 from across the UK took part in our survey through BounceTogether between November and December 2019.
We have also published a separate summary of findings from our surveys of young people and parents during the COVID-19 lockdown to capture any changes to young people’s behaviours around video game playing and literacy. Between May and early June 2020, we conducted a survey of 3,817 young people aged 11 to 18 and a survey of 826 parents of young people in this age group.
This research was conducted independently by the National Literacy Trust to support a new campaign from the charity, the Association of UK Interactive Entertainment (Ukie) and Penguin Random House Children’s to explore the relationship between video games and literacy engagement amongst school children.
Video games can provide young people with a route into reading and improve confidence in reading skills
- 4 in 5 (79.4%) young people who play video games read materials relating to video games once a month, including in-game communications (39.9%), reviews and blogs (30.5%), books (21.8%) and fan fiction (19.4%)
- 1 in 3 (35.3%) young people who play video games believe playing video games makes them a better reader
Video games can encourage young people’s creativity through writing
- 3 in 5 (62.5%) young people who play video games write something relating to video games once a month, including video game scripts (27.5%), advice to help other players (22.1%), fan fiction (10.8%) and blogs or reviews (8.0%)
The shared cultural experience of playing video games was found to support positive communication with friends and family
- 3 in 4 (76.3%) young people talk to their friends about video games compared with only 3 in 10 (29.4%) who discuss books
- Young people said that playing video games helps them to build social connections both ‘in real life’ and online
Video games can have potential benefits for increasing empathy
- 2 in 3 (65.0%) young people say playing video games helps them imagine being someone else
Video games can play a role in supporting young people’s mental wellbeing
- Many young people said that playing video games helps them either deal with, or escape from, stress and difficult emotions
- More than half (55.6%) of parents said their child had chatted with family and friends as part of playing a video game during lockdown
- 3 in 5 (59.6%) parents felt that communicating with family and friends as part of playing a video game during lockdown had been helpful for their child’s mental wellbeing during this time
The benefits of playing video games for young people’s literacy were found to be strongest for boys and reluctant readers
- Boys are much more likely to play video games than girls (95.6% vs 65.2%)
- Nearly twice as many boys than girls said they chatted with family and friends as part of playing a video game during lockdown (70.5% vs 39.7%)
- Almost 3 in 4 (73.1%) young people who don’t enjoy reading say playing video games helps them feel more part of a story than reading a book-based text
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<urn:uuid:f1ff9112-4a79-41d1-97b3-75a5473ba567>
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CC-MAIN-2021-31
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https://literacytrust.org.uk/research-services/research-reports/video-game-playing-and-literacy-survey-young-people-aged-11-16/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046154486.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20210803222541-20210804012541-00198.warc.gz
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en
| 0.973783 | 706 | 3.5 | 4 |
In 1917 the Social Democratic Workers' Party (Bolsheviks) had 200,000 members. The following year, Vladimir Lenin persuaded members to change the name of the organization to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) .
Traditionally, the Party Congress elected a 27 member Central Committee every year. Lenin decided this was too large to determine policy and in 1919 the party created a Politburo. This was made up of five members (increased to nine in 1925 and ten in 1930). Its first members were Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Joseph Stalin, Lev Kamenev and Nikolai Krestinsky.
There were over 700,000 members of the CPSU in 1921. At first the Politburo allowed free and open debate at party meetings. However, as a result of the Civil War, this policy changed. At the Party Congress in 1921 all factions such as the Workers' Opposition were banned. The following year all political parties other than the CPSU were closed down.
The CPSU was now all powerful. It controlled the government, which consisted of the Council of People's Commissars, headed by its chairman (who was prime minister). The CPSU also appointed all local and national public officials, who had to be members of the party before they could be appointed to these posts.
Gradually power passed from the Politburo to the General Secretary, who controlled the appointment of party members to key jobs throughout the country. Joseph Stalin, who became General Secretary in April, 1922, dominated the CPSU after the death of Vladimir Lenin in January, 1924.
In the 1930s Joseph Stalin instigated a series of purges against senior members of the CPSU. This included the removal of Leon Trotsky, Lev Kamenev, Gregory Zinoviev, Ivan Smirnov, Nikolai Yezhov, Nickolai Bukharin, Alexei Rykov, Genrikh Yagoda, Gregory Ordzhonikidze, Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko, Nikolai Krestinsky and Christian Rakovsky from power. These men were either executed, assassinated, committed suicide, or died in labour camps.
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<urn:uuid:91589eaa-5b3a-464b-a58d-5a4926a0ac9d>
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CC-MAIN-2017-09
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http://spartacus-educational.com/RUScp.htm
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-09/segments/1487501172017.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20170219104612-00559-ip-10-171-10-108.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.976656 | 442 | 3.5 | 4 |
The scanning slit beam profiler moves two narrow orthogonal slits in front of a linear photo-detector through the beam under analysis. Light passing through the slit induces a current in the detector. Thus, as the slit scans through the beam, the detector signal is linearly proportional to the spatial beam irradiance profile integrated along the slit. A digital encoder provides accurate slit position. The photo-induced current signal is digitized and analyzed to obtain the beam profile in both X and Y from the two orthogonal slits.
The slit apertures act as physical attenuators, preventing detector saturation for most beam applications. High dynamic range amplification allows operation over many orders of magnitude in beam power.
From these profiles, important spatial information such as beam width, beam position, beam quality, and other characteristics are determined. This technique can accommodate a wide variety of test conditions. Because slit scanners measure beams at high powers with little or no attenuation, they are ideal to profile beams used in material processing.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers are widely used in materials processing, and have a 10.6 micron wavelength that cannot be profiled with most cameras. Slit scanners, therefore, provide an convenient means of measuring high-resolution CO2 lasers with powers up to and exceeding 1000 watts.
Slit - Based Beam Propagation Analyzer M²
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<urn:uuid:f536cfe6-7ffa-4912-bd5a-269127d32eaa>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://www.ophiropt.com/laser--measurement/ru/beam-profilers/scanning-slit-based
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128320545.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20170625170634-20170625190634-00498.warc.gz
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en
| 0.899171 | 281 | 3.5 | 4 |
This is a quick game for intermediate level students and above. I made it as a mingle for new students to get to know each other but over time it has shown that it’s a good exercise for practising the narrative tenses.
To download the handout click here.
The game starts with you telling your students a short story about yourself. The story can be true or made up. When you’ve finished ask your students, “Was that story true or was it a lie?” They discuss in pairs, then in feedback with the class they can ask you questions about the story before they decide. As they guess, ask for their reasoning. Once they’ve all guessed reveal if it was true, or not, and give a little more background detail to the story.
Each student is given a card like the one on the right. (the handout can be downloaded by clicking here)
There are six different cards with a total of 18 different story titles. Give students time to think up their stories and write some notes. At higher levels they should be prepared for follow up questions. The next part is a mingle: They stand up and find a partner, they exchange stories and guess if their partner’s story is true or a lie. Upper intermediate students and above should ask two or three follow up questions before they guess. (Students who prepare quickly can start the activity early but check that they have made some notes and are ready to tell their story.)
While students mingle, monitor for error correction at the end.
After every student has spoken to at least four people they return to their seats. Write one or more of the questions on the board for students to discuss:
- Whose story was the best/most interesting?
- Who fooled you with their lie?
- Who told a true story that you thought was a lie?
- Who do you think is the best liar in the class?
I like this activity because it gives students a reason to listen carefully to each other. Too often in a speaking exercise some students lose interest in what other people are saying. In this game they have to pay attention to listen for clues, so they can guess correctly. This also means that students have an active audience when they speak, which is more encouraging than a bored, expressionless partner.
Possible adaptations depend on whether the focus is on fluency, pronunciation or accuracy. It can be the foundation of a writing exercise, where students have to correctly use the present perfect (or whatever aspect you are focusing on). It can also be used as a ‘get to know you’ activity for new students in an advanced class without much need for preparation or note taking.
This is an optional step, before you play the game, for lower level groups or if your lesson has a specific grammar focus. After you’ve told your story once ask your students, “Was that story in the past, present or the future?” They should recognise that it took place in the past. You then ask them to listen to your story again, writing down every verb they hear in the past simple (substitute past continuous or past perfect if that is the focus of the lesson). Retell your story then students compare their notes in pairs and in class feedback you write them on the board, eliciting correct spellings, infinitives and if the verb is regular or irregular.
When you play the game you can keep score, by giving students points every time they guess correctly, but that isn’t necessary to give the game a competitive edge.
Thanks for reading!
Check out the front page, or use the search bar, to find dozens of games and activities on the site.
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<urn:uuid:43828157-876e-418f-8631-c8d6db43940b>
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CC-MAIN-2019-22
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https://teachinggamesefl.com/2015/09/20/is-it-true-story-telling-game-to-practise-narrative-tenses/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-22/segments/1558232256381.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20190521122503-20190521144503-00102.warc.gz
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en
| 0.961629 | 771 | 3.5 | 4 |
Indigenous knowledge and modern research can combine to generate valuable new information. That’s the findings of a new bicultural study published today in the European Geosciences Union’s journal Earth Surface Dynamics, which sets out a roadmap for how this can work in the area of geosciences.
“There are clear links between Indigenous knowledge and values with respect to geomorphology,” said Clare Wilkinson, a Ph.D. student at Te Whare Wananga o Waitaha | University of Canterbury, “but there is not much research that weaves these two cultural knowledge bases together.”
By pinpointing a range of tools relating to framework methodologies, the review paper provides pathways for the development of bicultural collaboration designed to ‘maintain the integrity and validity of both methodologies’.
Clare highlights the importance of oral histories. In the case of the Aotearoa New Zealand Palaeotsunami Database project, for example, details on tsunamis that occurred before official recordkeeping began can provide vital insight on these ‘potentially destructive mega-waves’.
“It is an exciting time to be a researcher and to play a part in increasingly important engagements with Indigenous culture and knowledge,” added Wilkinson.
Official UN SDG advocate, Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim, who is today’s Inside Ideas podcast with Marc Buckley, has a vision to grow support for both traditional knowledge and science to improve resilience to climate change especially for rural communities. Watch/listen now.
We are tracking information on online innovation challenges, funding calls, and initiatives dedicated to supporting cross-sector innovators impact the UN Global Goals. Sign up for our newsletter in the box below for all the latest on these.
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<urn:uuid:e5849c8c-08db-4b49-8424-c4385a174566>
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CC-MAIN-2020-50
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https://www.innovatorsmag.com/bicultural-collaboration-roadmap/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141204453.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20201130004748-20201130034748-00098.warc.gz
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en
| 0.876807 | 365 | 3.5 | 4 |
Text of Amendment:
No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
In the years leading up to the American Revolution, private citizens were required to house British soldiers in their own homes. Given the tension that existed between British soldiers and colonial citizens, this was an unpleasant situation that the founding fathers did not want to repeat.
- See also: Why the Fathers Founded
Right to Privacy:
The Third Amendment was one of the amendments cited in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) as evidence that the Constitution protects an implicit right to privacy.
The Posse Comitatus Act of 1878 prohibits federal troops from engaging in domestic operations except when authorized to do so by Congress or the Constitution. Although the Third Amendment does not directly address the principle of posse comitatus, it does provide a natural ideological precedent to it.
Engblom v. Carey (1982):
The Third Amendment has never been enforced by the U.S. Supreme Court, but was once addressed by the 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals. In Engblom v. Carey, the circuit court held that the State of New York had violated the rights of prison guards who had been evicted from their on-site residences and replaced by National Guard troops after going on strike.
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<urn:uuid:14048d47-341c-4040-ad77-bb75c5adcb51>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://civilliberty.about.com/od/equalrights/p/3rd_amendment.htm
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704933573/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114853-00025-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.971372 | 287 | 3.5 | 4 |
The City of New York is sinking from the weight of its buildings, slowly, into the sea.
That was the conclusion reached by a geological research team at the University of Rhode Island led by geologist Tom Parsons of the US Geological Survey in a study whose findings were published last week in the journal Earth’s Future.
“New York City faces accelerating inundation risk from sea level rise, subsidence, and increasing storm intensity from natural and anthropogenic causes,” the research team wrote.
The study finds that New York is sinking at a rate of 1-2 millimeters each year; but some parts of the city are sinking even faster, at a rate like that of tectonic plates rebounding when glaciers melt.
The phenomenon is called “subsidence,” a gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface, according to Science Alert. It occurs when soft sediments shift, or when loads bearing down on the ground push it deeper.
To reach their conclusion, the research team calculated the cumulative mass of the more than one million buildings in New York City, weighing 1.68 trillion pounds (764 billion kilos). The weight of paved surfaces such as roads, sidewalks, bridges, railways and other structures was not included.
They divided the city into a grid of 100×100 meter squares, and converted the building mass to downward pressure, including the effect of the pull of gravity.
The team then compared the models with satellite data measuring land surface height and mapped its subsidence estimates across the city.
The study is not the first to examine the subsidence in the city. A 2022 study of 99 coastal cities around the world found that subsidence could pose even a bigger problem than sea-level rise. “New York is emblematic of growing coastal cities all over the world that are observed to be subsiding,” the research team wrote.
But it builds on prior research by refining those observations by also considering the complex surface geology beneath the city – comprised mostly of sand, silt, clay lake deposits and bedrock outcrops.
Artificial landfill and clay-rich soils are particularly prone to subsidence, the researchers note, adding that more than eight million people live in New York City, which is sinking at one to two millimeters per year, “while the sea level rises.”
Parson warns the cumulative weight will eventually sink the city into the surrounding sea, adding that the problem is not exclusive to New York.
“The point of the paper is to raise awareness that every additional high-rise building constructed at coastal, river, or lakefront settings could contribute to future flood risk, and mitigation strategies may need to be included,” the researchers wrote.
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<urn:uuid:d3fec874-d695-4f16-a905-ffef7ec78943>
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CC-MAIN-2023-23
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https://www.jewishpress.com/news/us-news/ny/study-new-york-city-sinking-under-its-own-weight/2023/05/18/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224656788.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20230609164851-20230609194851-00424.warc.gz
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en
| 0.947193 | 565 | 3.5 | 4 |
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