I found this paper [1] which tends to show that pre-Soviet Russia wasn&#x27;t that bad off. However, it&#x27;s only based on data from St Petersburg and Moscow, so it&#x27;s difficult to say how representative the conclusions are compared to the rest of Europe at the same time period.<p>As for the Tsarist Duma, come on. It was only established after the revolution of 1905, and after 1907, the electoral laws were engineered to favour the ruling class and the pro-Tsarist currents, and the Tsar retained most of his authority.<p>1: <a href="http:&#x2F;&#x2F;www.ehs.org.uk&#x2F;dotAsset&#x2F;62d8a367-8beb-4dd0-b21f-d98b425c6ef3.pdf" rel="nofollow">http:&#x2F;&#x2F;www.ehs.org.uk&#x2F;dotAsset&#x2F;62d8a367-8beb-4dd0-b21f-d98b4...</a>