&gt;Although most animals might not show reciprocity now, we can look at extreme examples like dogs to show that it is possible over generations.<p>Wolves are social mammals in the first place.  The creation of dogs amounted to deliberately taming and selectively breeding wolves who would understand ever-more-slightly humanoid social structures in place of their previous wolf social structures.  Even now, a dog does <i>not</i> carry a fully human sense of reciprocity and equality, merely a very nurturing and cooperative concept of pack-structure.<p>(Actually, even now, most <i>humans</i> don&#x27;t carry a fully human sense of reciprocity and equality.  Most humans are more like the dogs than we care to admit in terms of which social structures we&#x27;ve trained them to understand: hierarchy and one-way domination over reciprocity and equality remain the human norm when we leave our armchairs.)<p>Since many animals are not even social mammals, I think it would take radical measures to instill them with a humanoid moral sense capable of reciprocity, and that brings on its own ethical issues.