_id
stringlengths 2
130
| text
stringlengths 33
6.62k
|
|---|---|
Cryosphere | The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres . |
Cordillera | A cordillera is an extensive chain of mountains or mountain ranges . The term is a borrowing from Spanish , in which it has the same meaning . The Spanish word originates from cordilla , a diminutive of `` cuerda '' , or `` rope '' . It is most commonly used in the field of physical geography . The term is particularly applied to the various ranges of the Andes of South America , and less frequently to other mountain ranges in the `` ridge '' which rims the Pacific Ocean . In Colombia and Venezuela the cordilleras are named according to their position : Cordillera Occidental , Central , and Oriental . Various local names identify the cordilleras in Ecuador , Peru , Bolivia , Chile , and Argentina . Mountain ranges of this type have a complex structure , usually the result of folding and faulting accompanied by volcanic activity . In South America the ranges include numerous volcanic peaks . ( Though not itself a volcano , Argentina 's Mt. Aconcagua , at 22,834 feet ( 6,960 metres ) high , is the highest point in the Western Hemisphere . The Andes cordillera has Ojos del Salado , the highest active volcano in the world , and second highest point in the Western Hemisphere . A number of the volcanoes have been active in historic times . Aside from the volcanic peaks , the crests include many narrow ridges , some of which reach into the zone of permanent snow . Between the ranges there are numerous inhabited valleys , basins , and low plateaux with a wide range of elevations . |
Coverage_(telecommunication) | In telecommunications , the coverage of a radio station is the geographic area where the station can communicate . Broadcasters and telecommunications companies frequently produce coverage maps to indicate to users the station 's intended service area . Coverage depends on several factors , such as orography ( i.e. mountains ) and buildings , technology , radio frequency and perhaps most importantly for two-way telecommunications the sensitivity and transmit efficiency of the consumer equipment . Some frequencies provide better regional coverage , while other frequencies penetrate better through obstacles , such as buildings in cities . The ability of a mobile phone to connect to a base station depends on the strength of the signal . That may be boosted by higher power transmissions , better antennas , taller antenna masts or alternative solutions like in-building picocells . Normal Macro-Cell signals need to be boosted to pass through buildings , which is a particular problem designing networks for large metropolitan areas with modern skyscrapers , hence the current drive for small cells and micro and pico cells . Signals also do not travel deep underground , so specialized transmission solutions are used to deliver mobile phone coverage into areas such as underground parking garages and subway trains . |
Cumulative_effects_(environment) | Cumulative environmental effects can be defined as effects on the environment which are caused by the combined results of past , current and future activities . Over time , direct and indirect human activities combine to collectively impact the environment . These effects may differ from the original , individual activities . For example , ecosystems can be damaged by the combined effects of human activities , such as air , land , and/or water pollution , improper handling of industrial waste , and other human development activities . Global warming is the cumulative effect caused by too much greenhouse gas , and it may then cause a loss in biodiversity and acid rain . North America has contributed to creating various cumulative effects on the environment . Many states in the United States have inadequate or no formal environmental review requirements in order to assess the cumulative effects on the environment from harmful practices . The extent to which cumulative effects in each state are evaluated varies greatly . For example , some programs only require an assessment on specific natural resource issues and others require comprehensive examination of cumulative effects on the environment . Environmental assessments are a necessity to ensure the further advancement of healthy ecosystems , habitats , and wildlife . |
Correlation_coefficient | A correlation coefficient is a number that quantifies a type of correlation and dependence , meaning statistical relationships between two or more values in fundamental statistics . Types of correlation coefficients include : Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient , also known as r , R , or Pearson 's r , a measure of the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables that is defined as the ( sample ) covariance of the variables divided by the product of their ( sample ) standard deviations . Intraclass correlation , a descriptive statistic that can be used when quantitative measurements are made on units that are organized into groups ; describes how strongly units in the same group resemble each other . Rank correlation , the study of relationships between rankings of different variables or different rankings of the same variable Spearman 's rank correlation coefficient , a measure of how well the relationship between two variables can be described by a monotonic function Kendall tau rank correlation coefficient , a measure of the portion of ranks that match between two data sets . Goodman and Kruskal 's gamma , a measure of the strength of association of the cross tabulated data when both variables are measured at the ordinal level . |
Cost_contingency | When estimating the cost for a project , product or other item or investment , there is always uncertainty as to the precise content of all items in the estimate , how work will be performed , what work conditions will be like when the project is executed and so on . These uncertainties are risks to the project . Some refer to these risks as `` known-unknowns '' because the estimator is aware of them , and based on past experience , can even estimate their probable costs . The estimated costs of the known-unknowns is referred to by cost estimators as cost contingency . Contingency `` refers to costs that will probably occur based on past experience , but with some uncertainty regarding the amount . The term is not used as a catchall to cover ignorance . It is poor engineering and poor philosophy to make second-rate estimates and then try to satisfy them by using a large contingency account . The contingency allowance is designed to cover items of cost which are not known exactly at the time of the estimate but which will occur on a statistical basis . '' The cost contingency which is included in a cost estimate , bid , or budget may be classified as to its general purpose , that is what it is intended to provide for . For a class 1 construction cost estimate , usually needed for a bid estimate , the contingency may be classified as an estimating and contracting contingency . This is intended to provide compensation for `` estimating accuracy based on quantities assumed or measured , unanticipated market conditions , scheduling delays and acceleration issues , lack of bidding competition , subcontractor defaults , and interfacing omissions between various work categories . '' Additional classifications of contingency may be included at various stages of a project 's life , including design contingency , or design definition contingency , or design growth contingency , and change order contingency ( although these may be more properly called allowances ) . AACE International , the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering , has defined contingency as `` An amount added to an estimate to allow for items , conditions , or events for which the state , occurrence , or effect is uncertain and that experience shows will likely result , in aggregate , in additional costs . Typically estimated using statistical analysis or judgment based on past asset or project experience . Contingency usually excludes : Major scope changes such as changes in end product specification , capacities , building sizes , and location of the asset or project Extraordinary events such as major strikes and natural disasters Management reserves Escalation and currency effects Some of the items , conditions , or events for which the state , occurrence , and/or effect is uncertain include , but are not limited to , planning and estimating errors and omissions , minor price fluctuations ( other than general escalation ) , design developments and changes within the scope , and variations in market and environmental conditions . Contingency is generally included in most estimates , and is expected to be expended '' . A key phrase above is that it is `` expected to be expended '' . In other words , it is an item in an estimate like any other , and should be estimated and included in every estimate and every budget . Because management often thinks contingency money is `` fat '' that is not needed if a project team does its job well , it is a controversial topic . In general , there are four classes of methods used to estimate contingency . . '' These include the following : Expert judgment Predetermined guidelines ( with varying degrees of judgment and empiricism used ) Simulation analysis ( primarily risk analysis judgment incorporated in a simulation such as Monte-Carlo ) Parametric Modeling ( empirically-based algorithm , usually derived through regression analysis , with varying degrees of judgment used ) . While all are valid methods , the method chosen should be consistent with the first principles of risk management in that the method must start with risk identification , and only then are the probable cost of those risks quantified . In best practice , the quantification will be probabilistic in nature ( Monte-Carlo is a common method used for quantification ) . Typically , the method results in a distribution of possible cost outcomes for the project , product , or other investment . From this distribution , a cost value can be selected that has the desired probability of having a cost underrun or cost overrun . Usually a value is selected with equal chance of over or underrunning . The difference between the cost estimate without contingency , and the selected cost from the distribution is contingency . For more information , AACE International has catalogued many professional papers on this complex topic . Contingency is included in budgets as a control account . As risks occur on a project , and money is needed to pay for them , the contingency can be transferred to the appropriate accounts that need it . The transfer and its reason is recorded . In risk management , risks are continually reassessed during the course of a project , as are the needs for cost contingency . |
Cooperation_Sea | Cooperation Sea , also called Commonwealth Sea ( erratum ) or Sodruzhestvo Sea , is a proposed sea name for part of the Southern Ocean , between Enderby Land ( the eastern limit of which is 59 ° 34 ` E ) and West Ice Shelf ( 85 ° E ) , off the coast of MacRobertson Land and Princess Elizabeth Land . It would stretch over an area of 258,000 km ² . It would be bordered by the Davis Sea on the east , and by another Russian proposal to the 2002 International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) draft , a Cosmonauts Sea to the west . The Cooperation Sea was named in 1962 by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in honor of international science cooperation in Antarctica . The name first appeared as a proposal to the IHO in the IHO 2002 draft . This draft was never approved by the IHO ( or any other organization ) , and the 1953 IHO document ( which does not contain the name ) remains currently in force . Leading geographic authorities and atlases do not use the name , including the 2014 10th edition of the World Atlas from the United States ' National Geographic Society and the 2014 12th edition of the British Times Atlas of the World . But Soviet and Russian-issued maps do . Davis Station is located on the coast near here . |
Daily_Mail | The Daily Mail is a British daily middle-market tabloid newspaper owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and published in London . First published in 1896 by Alfred Harmsworth , 1st Viscount Northcliffe , and his brother Harold Harmsworth , 1st Viscount Rothermere , it is the United Kingdom 's second biggest-selling daily newspaper after The Sun . Its sister paper The Mail on Sunday was launched in 1982 . Scottish and Irish editions of the daily paper were launched in 1947 and 2006 respectively . The Daily Mail was Britain 's first daily newspaper aimed at the newly literate `` lower-middle class market resulting from mass education , combining a low retail price with plenty of competitions , prizes and promotional gimmicks '' , and was the first British paper to sell a million copies a day . Jonathan Harmsworth , 4th Viscount Rothermere , a great-grandson of the one of the co-founders , is the current chairman and controlling shareholder of the Daily Mail and General Trust , though day-to-day editorial decisions for the newspaper are usually made by a team around the editor , Paul Dacre . It was aimed at both men and women from the outset , was the first to provide features especially for women , and in the second half of 2013 had a 54.77 % female readership , the only British newspaper whose female readers constitute more than 50 % of its demographic . A survey in 2014 found the average age of its reader was 58 , and it had the lowest demographic for 15-44 year olds among the major British dailies . It had an average daily circulation of 1,510,824 copies in November 2016 . Between July and December 2013 it had an average daily readership of approximately 3.951 million , of whom approximately 2.503 million were in the ABC1 demographic and 1.448 million in the C2DE demographic . Its website has more than 100 million unique visitors per month . The Daily Mail has been accused of racism , even of supporting fascism in the 1930s , and of printing sensationalist and inaccurate scare stories of science and medical research . |
Corylus_cornuta | Corylus cornuta ( Beaked Hazel ) is a deciduous shrubby hazel found in most of North America , from southern Canada south to Georgia and California . It grows in dry woodlands and forest edges and can reach 4 - tall with stems 10 - thick with smooth gray bark . The leaves are rounded oval , coarsely double-toothed , 5 - long and 3 - broad , with hairy undersides . The flowers are catkins that form in the fall and pollinate in the following spring . Corylus cornuta is named from its fruit , which is a nut enclosed in a husk with a tubular extension 2 - long that resembles a beak . Tiny filaments protrude from the husk and may stick into , and irritate , skin that contacts them . The spherical nuts , which are surrounded by a hard shell , are edible . There are two varieties : Corylus cornuta var . cornuta -- Eastern Beaked Hazel . Small shrub , 4 to 6 m tall ; ` beak ' longer , 3 cm or more . Corylus cornuta var . californica -- Western Beaked Hazel or California Hazelnut . Large shrub , 4 to 15 m tall ; ` beak ' shorter , usually less than 3 cm . The Concow tribe called this variety gōm ' - he '' - ni ( Konkow language ) . The seeds are dispersed by jays and rodents such as red squirrels and least chipmunks . Although C. cornuta is somewhat shade tolerant , it is more common in open forests than denser ones . Fire kills the above-ground portion of the shrub , but it resprouts fairly readily after fire , and in fact American Indians in California and Oregon used fire to encourage hazelnut growth , as they used hazelnuts for food , baskets , medicine , and other purposes . |
Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report | The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities . |
Cyclone | In meteorology , a cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure . Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure . The largest low-pressure systems are polar vortices and extratropical cyclones of the largest scale ( the synoptic scale ) . Warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale . Mesocyclones , tornadoes and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale . Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low , and can pinch off from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere . Cyclones have also been seen on extraterrestrial planets , such as Mars and Neptune . Cyclogenesis describes the process of cyclone formation and intensification . Extratropical cyclones begin as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones . These zones contract and form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies . Later in their life cycle , extratropical cyclones occlude as cold air masses undercut the warmer air and become cold core systems . A cyclone 's track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering flow of the subtropical jet stream . Weather fronts mark the boundary between two masses of air of different temperature , humidity , and densities , and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena . Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Such fronts form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east ; warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . Warm fronts move poleward ahead of the cyclone path . Occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center . Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones . Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core . Cyclones can transition between extratropical , subtropical , and tropical phases . Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear . In the Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans , a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane ( from the name of the ancient Central American deity of wind , Huracan ) , in the Indian and south Pacific oceans it is called a cyclone , and in the northwestern Pacific it is called a typhoon . |
Cycadales | Cycadales is an order of seed plants that includes all the extant cycads . These plants typically have a stout and woody ( ligneous ) trunk with a crown of large , hard and stiff , evergreen leaves . They usually have pinnate leaves . The individual plants are either all male or all female ( dioecious ) . Cycads vary in size from having trunks only a few centimeters to several meters tall . They typically grow very slowly and live very long , with some specimens known to be as much as 1,000 years old . Because of the superficial resemblance , they are sometimes confused with and mistaken for palms or ferns , but are only distantly related to either . Cycadales are found across much of the subtropical and tropical parts of the world . They are found in South and Central America ( where the greatest diversity occurs ) , Mexico , the Antilles , southeastern United States , Australia , Melanesia , Micronesia , Japan , China , Southeast Asia , India , Sri Lanka , Madagascar , and southern and tropical Africa , where at least 65 species occur . Some can survive in harsh semidesert climates ( xerophytic ) , others in wet rain forest conditions , and some in both . Some can grow in sand or even on rock , some in oxygen-poor , swampy , bog-like soils rich in organic material , and some in both . Some are able to grow in full sun , some in full shade , and some in both . Some are salt tolerant ( halophytes ) . Cycadales belong to the biological division Cycadophyta along with the fossil order Medullosales . The three extant families of cycadales are Cycadaceae , Stangeriaceae , and Zamiaceae . Though they are a minor component of the plant kingdom today , during the Jurassic period , they were extremely common . They have changed little since the Jurassic , compared to some major evolutionary changes in other plant divisions . Cycads are gymnosperms ( naked seeded ) , meaning their unfertilized seeds are open to the air to be directly fertilized by pollination , as contrasted with angiosperms , which have enclosed seeds with more complex fertilization arrangements . Cycads have very specialized pollinators , usually a specific species of beetle . They have been reported to fix nitrogen in association with a cyanobacterium living in the roots . These blue-green algae produce a neurotoxin called BMAA that is found in the seeds of cycads . This neurotoxin may enter a human food chain as the cycad seeds may be eaten directly as a source of flour by humans or by wild or feral animals such as bats , and humans may eat these animals . It is hypothesized that this is a source of some neurological diseases in humans . |
D-value_(microbiology) | In microbiology , D-value refers to decimal reduction time ( or decimal reduction dose ) and is the time ( or dose ) required at a given condition ( e.g. temperature ) , or set of conditions , to kill 90 % ( or 1 log ) of the exposed microorganisms . The term originated from assessing microbial thermal resistance and thermal death time analysis ; however , it has analogous uses in other microbial resistance and death rate applications , such as ( but not limited to ) those of ethylene oxide and radiation processing . Thus after a colony is reduced by 1 D , only 10 % of the original organisms remain , i.e. , the population number has been reduced by one decimal place in the counting scheme . Generally , each lot of a sterilization-resistant organism is given a unique D-value . When referring to D-values , for the purpose of thermal analysis , it is proper to give the temperature as a subscript of the `` D '' . For example , given a hypothetical organism which is reduced by 90 % after exposure to temperatures of 150 ° C for 20 minutes , the D-value would be written as D150C = 20 minutes . If generally describing D-value for any temperature , a common abbreviation is DT ( where T is temperature ) until a value for T is relevant to express , specifically . Another more general abbreviated expression of D-value is D10 ( as to denote 10 % reduction ) . D-value determination is often carried out to measure a disinfectant 's efficiency to reduce the number of microbes present in a given environment . |
Crisis | A crisis ( from the Greek κρίσις - krisis ; plural : `` crises '' ; adjectival form : `` critical '' ) is any event that is going ( or is expected ) to lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual , group , community , or whole society . Crises are deemed to be negative changes in the security , economic , political , societal , or environmental affairs , especially when they occur abruptly , with little or no warning . More loosely , it is a term meaning `` a testing time '' or an `` emergency event '' . |
Copula_(linguistics) | In linguistics , a copula ( plural : copulas or copulae ; abbreviated ) is a word used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate ( a subject complement ) , such as the word is in the sentence `` The sky is blue . '' The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a `` link '' or `` tie '' that connects two different things . A copula is often a verb or a verb-like word , though this is not universally the case . A verb that is a copula is sometimes called a copulative or copular verb . In English primary education grammar courses , a copula is often called a linking verb . In other languages , copulas show more resemblances to pronouns , as in Classical Chinese and Guarani , or may take the form of suffixes attached to a noun , as in Beja , Ket , and Inuit languages . Most languages have one main copula , although some ( such as Spanish , Portuguese and Thai ) have more than one , and some have none . In the case of English , this is the verb to be . While the term copula is generally used to refer to such principal forms , it may also be used to refer to some other verbs with similar functions , like become , get , feel and seem in English ( these may also be called `` semi-copulas '' or `` pseudo-copulas '' ) . |
Danish_Committees_on_Scientific_Dishonesty | The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty ( Udvalgene vedrørende Videnskabelig Uredelighed , or UVVU ) are a set of three committees under the Danish Ministry of Research and Information Technology : a committee for natural science , agricultural and veterinary science and technical science ; a committee for health and medical science ; and a committee for social science and the humanities . They have a common chairman . Previously obscure , the DCSD became embroiled in controversy after its January 2003 decision that the 2001 book The Skeptical Environmentalist by Bjørn Lomborg was `` clearly contrary to the standards of good scientific practice '' , due to the author 's systematically biased choice of data , and objectively was scientifically irredeemable , but Lomborg himself could not be subjectively convicted of intentional or gross negligence . Lomborg had argued in his book that claims by environmentalists about global warming , overpopulation , deforestation , and other matters are not scientifically substantiated . The DCSD further held that because of Lomborg 's lack of scientific expertise , he had not shown intentional or gross negligence , and acquitted him of the accusations of scientific dishonesty . In February 2003 , Lomborg filed a complaint with the Ministry , and in December 2003 , the Ministry found that the DCSD 's handling of the investigation in the case had been improper , and remitted it for re-examination . In March 2004 , the DCSD stated that since its finding had been to acquit Lomborg of the charges of scientific dishonesty ( although they had criticized his biased selection of data ) , there was no basis to re-open the investigation , and dismissed the case . The original DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a petition among Danish academics . 308 scientists , many of them from the social sciences , criticised the DCSD 's methods in the case and called for the DCSD to be disbanded . The Danish Minister of Science , Technology , and Innovation then asked the Danish Research Agency to form an independent working group to review DCSD practices . In response to this , another group of Danish scientists collected over 600 signatures ( primarily from the medical and natural sciences community ) to support the continued existence of the DCSD and presented their petition to the Danish Research Agency . The DCSD was involved in another controversy investigating a paper on sex and intelligence authored by Helmuth Nyborg . After the DCSD cleared Nyborg of the charges of scientific misconduct , two Aarhus University professors , Lise Togeby and Jens Mammen resigned from their positions in the DCSD , citing that the DCSD operated from too narrow of a framework . Togeby explained that `` Roughly speaking , these committees can only decide whether a researcher has cheated or not . We can not consider the issue of academic quality , or decide whether research has been carried out in accordance with good academic standards '' . |
Coral_reef | Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth . |
Culling | In biology , culling is the process of segregating organisms from a group according to desired or undesired characteristics . In animal breeding , culling is the process of removing or segregating animals from a breeding stock based on specific trait . This is done to exaggerate desirable characteristics , or to remove undesirable characteristics . For livestock and wildlife , culling often refers to the act of killing removed animals . In fruits and vegetables , culling is the sorting or segregation of fresh harvested produce into marketable lots , with the non-marketable lots being discarded or diverted into food processing or non-food processing activities . This usually happens at collection centres located at , or close to farms . Culling is sometimes used as a term to describe indiscriminate killing within one particular species which can be due to a range of reasons , for example , badger culling in the United Kingdom . |
Copernicus_Programme | Copernicus is the world 's largest single earth observation programme and is directed by the European Commission in partnership with the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . It aims at achieving a global , continuous , autonomous , high quality , wide range Earth observation capacity . Providing accurate , timely and easily accessible information to , among other things , improve the management of the environment , understand and mitigate the effects of climate change , and ensure civil security . It follows and greatly expands on the work of the previous 2.3 billion euros European Envisat program which operated from 2002 to 2012 . Its cost during 1998 to 2020 are estimated at 6.7 billion euros with around $ 4.3 bn spend in the period 2014 to 2020 and shared between the EU ( 66 % ) and ESA ( 33 % ) with benefits of the data to the EU economy estimated at roughly 30 billion euros through 2030 . ESA as a main partner has performed much of the design and oversees and co-funds the development of Sentinel mission 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 with each sentinel mission consisting of at least 2 satellites and some like sentinel 1 consisting of 4 satellites . They will also provide the instruments for MTG and MetOp-SG weather satellites of EUMETSAT where ESA and EUMETSAT will also coordinate the delivery of data from upwards of 30 satellites that form the contributing satellite missions to Copernicus . The objective is to use multi-source data to get timely and quality information , services and knowledge , and to provide autonomous and independent access to information in relation to the environment and security on a global level . In other words , it will pull together all the information obtained by the Copernicus environmental satellites , air and ground stations to provide a comprehensive picture of the `` health '' of Earth . The geo-spatial information services offered by Copernicus can be grouped into six main interacting themes : land , ocean , emergency response , atmosphere , security and climate change . The first three Copernicus services under the land , ocean and emergency response themes and two additional services addressing the atmosphere and security themes were unveiled at the Copernicus Forum held in Lille in September 2008 . Copernicus builds upon three components : the space component ( observation satellites and associated ground segment with missions observing land , atmospheric and oceanographic parameters ) This comprises two types of satellite missions , ESA 's five families of dedicated Sentinel ( space missions ) and missions from other space agencies , called Contributing Missions . in-situ measurements ( ground-based and airborne data gathering networks providing information on oceans , continental surface and atmosphere ) services to users . |
Cyclic_salt | Cyclic salt is salt that is carried by the wind when it comes in contact with breaking waves . It is estimated that more than 300 million tons of cyclic salt is deposited on the Earth 's surface each year , and it is considered to be a significant factor in the chlorine content of the Earth 's river water . In general , cyclic salt deposits are lower at sites further inland and are most abundant along the shoreline , although this pattern varies depending on the given environmental conditions . Use of the term `` cyclic '' refers to the cycle in which the salt moves from sea to land and is then washed by rainwater back to the sea . The salt ( and other solid matter ) can not evaporate as water does . Instead it leaves the ocean surface in fine droplets of drop impacts or bubble bursts . Wave-crests and other turbulence form foam . When drops splash or bubbles burst , fine droplets of solute are ejected from the water or bubble surface into the air . Some of the droplets are small enough to allow the water to evaporate before it falls back into the sea , leaving in the air a mote of the solid residue light enough to stay suspended by Brownian motion and be carried away on the wind . |
Cooling_tower | A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature . Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or , in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers , rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature . Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries , petrochemical and other chemical plants , thermal power stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings . The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower : the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced draft cooling towers . Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures ( as in the adjacent image ) that can be up to 200 m tall and 100 m in diameter , or rectangular structures that can be over 40 m tall and 80 m long . The hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants , although they are also used in some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants . Although these large towers are very prominent , the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller , including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning . |
Country_risk | Country risk refers to the risk of investing or lending in a country , arising from possible changes in the business environment that may adversely affect operating profits or the value of assets in the country . For example , financial factors such as currency controls , devaluation or regulatory changes , or stability factors such as mass riots , civil war and other potential events contribute to companies ' operational risks . This term is also sometimes referred to as political risk ; however , country risk is a more general term that generally refers only to risks affecting all companies operating within or involved with a particular country . Political risk analysis providers and credit rating agencies use different methodologies to assess and rate countries ' comparative risk exposure . Credit rating agencies tend to use quantitative econometric models and focus on financial analysis , whereas political risk providers tend to use qualitative methods , focusing on political analysis . However , there is no consensus on methodology in assessing credit and political risks . |
Cretaceous | The Cretaceous ( -LSB- pronkrᵻˈteɪʃəs -RSB- , ) is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Paleogene Period Mya . It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era . The Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K , for its German translation Kreide ( chalk ) . The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate , resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas . These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles , ammonites and rudists , while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land . During this time , new groups of mammals and birds , as well as flowering plants , appeared . The Cretaceous ended with a large mass extinction , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , in which many groups , including non-avian dinosaurs , pterosaurs and large marine reptiles died out . The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg boundary ) , a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction which lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras . |
Covariate | In statistics , a covariate is a variable that is possibly predictive of the outcome under study . A covariate may be of direct interest or it may be a confounding or interacting variable . The alternative terms explanatory variable , independent variable , or predictor , are used in a regression analysis . In econometrics , the term `` control variable '' is usually used instead of `` covariate '' . An example is provided by the analysis of trend in sea level by . Here the dependent variable ( and variable of most interest ) was the annual mean sea level at a given location for which a series of yearly values were available . The primary independent variable was time . Use was made of a covariate consisting of yearly values of annual mean atmospheric pressure at sea level . The results showed that inclusion of the covariate allowed improved estimates of the trend against time to be obtained , compared to analyses which omitted the covariate . |
Diphtheria | Diphtheria is an infection caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae . Signs and symptoms may vary from mild to severe . They usually start two to five days after exposure . Symptoms often come on fairly gradually , beginning with a sore throat and fever . In severe cases , a grey or white patch develops in the throat . This can block the airway and create a barking cough as in croup . The neck may swell in part due to large lymph nodes . A form of diphtheria that involves the skin , eyes , or genitals also exists . Complications may include myocarditis , inflammation of nerves , kidney problems , and bleeding problems due to low blood platelets . Myocarditis may result in an abnormal heart rate and inflammation of the nerves may result in paralysis . Diphtheria is usually spread between people by direct contact or through the air . It may also be spread by contaminated objects . Some people carry the bacteria without having symptoms , but can still spread the disease to others . The three main types of C. diphtheriae cause different severities of disease . The symptoms are due to a toxin produced by the bacteria . Diagnosis can often be made based on the appearance of the throat with confirmation by microbiological culture . Previous infection may not prevent against future infection . A diphtheria vaccine is effective for prevention and available in a number of formulations . Three or four doses , given along with tetanus vaccine and pertussis vaccine , are recommended during childhood . Further doses are recommended every ten years . Protection can be verified by measuring the antitoxin level in the blood . Treatment is with the antibiotics erythromycin or benzylpenicillin . These antibiotics may also be used for prevention in those who have been exposed to the infection . A surgical procedure known as a tracheotomy is sometimes needed to open the airway in severe cases . In 2015 , 4,500 cases were officially reported worldwide , down from nearly 100,000 in 1980 . About a million cases are believed to have occurred per year before the 1980s . It currently occurs most often in sub-Saharan Africa , India , and Indonesia . In 2015 , it resulted in 2,100 deaths , down from 8,000 deaths in 1990 . In areas where it is still common , children are most affected . It is rare in the developed world due to widespread vaccination . In the United States , 57 cases were reported between 1980 and 2004 . Death occurs in between 5 % and 10 % of those affected . The disease was first described in the 5th century BC by Hippocrates . The bacterium was discovered in 1882 by Edwin Klebs . |
Diablo_wind | Diablo wind is a name that has been occasionally used for the hot , dry offshore wind from the northeast that typically occurs in the San Francisco Bay Area of Northern California , during the spring and fall . The same wind pattern also affects other parts of California 's coastal ranges . The term was first used by local news media during and after the 1991 Oakland firestorm , to distinguish it from the comparable , and more familiar , hot dry wind in Southern California known as the Santa Ana wind . In fact , in decades previous to the 1991 fire , the term `` Santa Ana '' was occasionally used as well for the Bay Area dry northeasterly wind , such as the one that was associated with the 1923 Berkeley Fire . The name `` Diablo wind '' may have been coined from the observation that the wind blows into the inner Bay Area from the direction of the Diablo Valley in adjacent Contra Costa County , and mindful of the fiery , sensationalist connotation inherent in `` devil wind '' . The Diablo winds are created by the combination of strong inland high pressure at the surface , strongly sinking air aloft , and lower pressure off the California coast . The air descending from aloft as well as from the Coast Ranges compresses at sea level where it warms as much as 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) , and loses humidity . Unlike the Santa Ana wind which drains surface air off the high deserts , the so-called Diablo wind mainly originates from areas of strongly sinking air aloft , associated with the development of high atmospheric pressure inland following the passage of storms just north and east of California . The similar , though distinctive mechanisms can be distinguished by where the strongest winds in each type of event occur . Typically , Santa Anas are strongest in canyons whereas a Diablo wind is first noted and blows strongest atop the various mountain peaks and ridges around the Bay Area . In both cases , as the air sinks , it heats up by compression and its humidity drops . This heat is in addition to , and usually greater than , any heat picked up by the wind as it crosses the Central Valley and the Diablo Valley . This is the reverse of the normal summertime weather pattern in which a trough of low rather than high pressure lies east of the Bay Area , drawing in cooler , more humid air from the ocean . If the pressure gradient is large enough , the dry offshore wind can become quite strong with gusts reaching speeds of 40 mph or higher , particularly along and in the lee of the ridges of the Coast Range where the higher wind speed aloft acts like a pump , drawing warm , dry surface air from the windward eastern side up and over the ridgelines . This effect is especially dangerous with respect to wildfires as it can enhance the updraft generated by the heat in such fires . While the Diablo occurs in both the spring and fall , it is most dangerous in the fall when vegetation is at its driest . |
Deforestation_and_climate_change | Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years . |
Deep-sea_exploration | Deep-sea exploration is the investigation of physical , chemical , and biological conditions on the sea bed , for scientific or commercial purposes . Deep-sea exploration is considered as a relatively recent human activity compared to the other areas of geophysical research , as the depths of the sea have been investigated only during comparatively recent years . The ocean depths still remain as a largely unexplored part of the planet , and form a relatively undiscovered domain . In general , modern scientific Deep-sea exploration can be said to have begun when French scientist Pierre Simon de Laplace investigated the average depth of the Atlantic ocean by observing tidal motions registered on Brazilian and African coasts . He calculated the depth to be 3,962 m ( 13,000 ft ) , a value later proven quite accurate by soundings measurement . Later on , with increasing demand for submarine cables installment , accurate soundings was required and the first investigations of the sea bottom were undertaken . First deep-sea life forms were discovered in 1864 when Norwegian researchers obtained a sample of a stalked crinoid at a depth of 3,109 m ( 10,200 ft ) . The British Government sent out the Challenger expedition ( a ship called the HMS Challenger ) in 1872 which discovered 715 new genera and 4,417 new species of marine organisms over the space of 4 years . The first instrument used for deep-sea investigation was the sounding weight , used by British explorer Sir James Clark Ross . With this instrument , he reached a depth of 3,700 m ( 12,140 ft ) in 1840 . The Challenger expedition used similar instruments called Baillie sounding machines to extract samples from the sea bed . In 1960 , Jacques Piccard and US Navy Lieutenant Donald Walsh descended in the bathyscaphe Trieste into the Mariana Trench , the deepest part of the world 's oceans , to make the deepest dive in history : 10,915 meters ( 35,810 ft ) . On 25 March 2012 , filmmaker James Cameron descended into the Mariana Trench and , for the first time , is expected to have filmed and sampled the bottom . Navy Lt. Matthew Maury to aid installation of the first trans-continent telegraph cables in 1858 , and a few examples of deep marine creatures . From 1872 to 1876 , a landmark ocean study was carried out by British scientists aboard HMS Challenger , a sailing vessel that was redesigned into a laboratory ship . The HMS Challenger expedition covered 127,653 km ( 68,890 nautical miles ) , and shipboard scientists collected hundreds of samples , hydrographic measurements , and specimens of marine life . They are also credited with providing the first real view of major seafloor features such as the deep ocean basins . They discovered more than 4,700 new species of marine life , including deep-sea organisms . Deep-sea exploration advanced considerably in the 1900s thanks to a series of technological inventions , ranging from sonar system to detect the presence of objects underwater through the use of sound to manned deep-diving submersibles such as DSV Alvin . Operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , Alvin is designed to carry a crew of three people to depths of 4,000 meters ( 13,124 ft ) . The submarine is equipped with lights , cameras , computers , and highly maneuverable robotic arms for collecting samples in the darkness of the ocean 's depths . However , the voyage to the ocean bottom is still a challenging experience . Scientists are working to find ways to study this extreme environment from the shipboard . With more sophisticated use of fiber optics , satellites , and remote-control robots , scientists one day may explore the deep sea from a computer screen on the deck rather than out of a porthole . Teleoperated Robotics is one of the safest way to explore deep waters since a remotely operated robot vehicle ( ROV ) becomes the divers eyes and extends manipulation in extreme environment . Its often said a human in the water is like a fish out of water due to severe physiological hazards associated with deep sea diving . Decompression sickness means the diver must ascend to the surface rather slowly otherwise gases will be forced in his tissues resulting in painful death . Another problem with deep ocean human exploration involves dangerous marine organisms . Using teleoperated robotics is thus the safest approach besides Atmospheric Diving Suits ( ADS ) which are human shaped ( anthropomorphic ) submarines . The major limitation in state of the art teleoperated underwater robotics or ADS comes from rudimentary dexterity of the manipulator ( arm ) end effectors ( grippers ) which are essentially 1 DOF like lobster claws . To this date a pilot of an ROV or an ADS diver can not easily grapple a variety of tools or objects in deep waters limiting exploration and construction significantly . To this end the worlds first deep sea human like robotic hand has been developed by Bhargav Gajjar of Vishwa Robotics and MIT funded by the Office of Naval Research of the US Navy . This technological breakthrough is a major milestone in human exploration of the last frontier . |
Debunker | A debunker is a person or organization who attempts to expose or discredit claims believed to be false , exaggerated , or pretentious . The term is often associated with skeptical investigation of controversial topics such as UFOs , claimed paranormal phenomena , cryptids , conspiracy theories , alternative medicine , religion , or exploratory or fringe areas of scientific or pseudoscientific research . According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary , to `` debunk '' is defined as : `` to expose the sham or falseness of . '' If debunkers are not careful , their communications may backfire -- increasing an audience 's long-term belief in myths . Backfire effects can occur if a message spends too much time on the negative case , if it is too complex , or if the message is threatening . |
Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports | The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena . |
Diesel_fuel | Diesel fuel -LSB- ˈdiːzəl -RSB- in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines , whose fuel ignition takes place , without any spark , as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then injection of fuel . ( Glow plugs , grid heaters and heater blocks help achieve high temperatures for combustion during engine startup in cold weather . ) Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency . This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load ; as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine , their efficiency still remains very high . The most common type of diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil , but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum , such as biodiesel , biomass to liquid ( BTL ) or gas to liquid ( GTL ) diesel , are increasingly being developed and adopted . To distinguish these types , petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel . Ultra-low-sulfur diesel ( ULSD ) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents . As of 2016 , almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK , Europe and North America is of a ULSD type . In the UK , diesel fuel for on-road use is commonly abbreviated DERV , standing for diesel-engined road vehicle , which carries a tax premium over equivalent fuel for non-road use ( see ) . In Australia diesel fuel is also known as distillate , and in Indonesia , it is known as Solar , a trademarked name by the local oil company Pertamina . |
David_Icke | David Vaughan Icke ( -LSB- aɪk -RSB- born 29 April 1952 ) is an English writer and public speaker . A former footballer and sports broadcaster , Icke has made his name since the 1990s as a professional conspiracy theorist , calling himself a `` full time investigator into who and what is really controlling the world . '' He is the author of over 20 books and numerous DVDs , and has lectured in over 25 countries , speaking for up to 10 hours to audiences that cut across the political spectrum . Icke was a BBC television sports presenter and spokesman for the Green Party , when a psychic told him , in 1990 , that he had been placed on Earth for a purpose and would begin to receive messages from the spirit world . The following year he announced that he was a `` Son of the Godhead '' , and that the world would soon be devastated by tidal waves and earthquakes , a prediction he repeated on the BBC 's primetime show Wogan . The show changed his life , turning him from a respected household name into someone who was laughed at whenever he appeared in public . Over the next seven years -- in The Robots ' Rebellion ( 1994 ) , And the Truth Shall Set You Free ( 1995 ) , The Biggest Secret ( 1999 ) , and Children of the Matrix ( 2001 ) -- he developed his worldview of New Age conspiracism . His endorsement of the anti-Semitic forgery The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in The Robots ' Rebellion , combined with Holocaust denial in And the Truth Shall Set You Free , led his publisher to refuse to publish his books , which were self-published thereafter . At the heart of his theories lies the idea that many prominent figures belong to the Babylonian Brotherhood , a group of shapeshifting reptilian humanoids who are propelling humanity toward a global fascist state , or New World Order . The reptilians use the rings of Saturn and the Moon , all reptilian constructs , to broadcast our `` five-sense prison '' : an `` artificial sense of self and the world '' that humans perceive as reality . Michael Barkun has described Icke 's position as New Age conspiracism , writing that Icke is the most fluent of the genre . Richard Kahn and Tyson Lewis argue that Icke 's reptilian hypothesis may be Swiftian satire , offering a narrative with which ordinary people can question what they see around them . Icke has been described as an `` anti-Semitic conspiracy theorist '' ; according to Political Research Associates , his politics are `` a mishmash of most of the dominant themes of contemporary neofascism , mixed in with a smattering of topics culled from the U.S. militia movement . '' |
Detroit_River | The Detroit River flows for 24 nmi from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie as a strait in the Great Lakes system and forms part of the border between Canada and the United States . The river divides the metropolitan areas of Detroit , Michigan and Windsor , Ontario - an area referred to as Detroit -- Windsor . The two cities are connected by the Ambassador Bridge , the Detroit -- Windsor Tunnel and the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel . The river 's name comes from the French Rivière Détroit , meaning River of the Strait . The Detroit River has served an important role in the history of Detroit and is one of the busiest waterways in the world . The river travels west and south from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie , and the whole river is coterminous with the border between Canada and the United States . The river serves as an important transportation route connecting Lake Michigan , Huron , and Superior to the St. Lawrence Seaway and Erie Canal . When Detroit underwent rapid industrialization at the turn of the 20th century , the Detroit River became notoriously polluted and toxic . In recent years , however , the ecological importance of the river has warranted a vast restoration effort , and the river today has a wide variety of economical and recreational uses . There are numerous islands in the Detroit River , and much of the lower portion of the river is incorporated into the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge . The portion of the river in the city of Detroit has been organized into the Detroit International Riverfront and the William G. Milliken State Park and Harbor . The Detroit River is designated an American Heritage River and a Canadian Heritage River -- the only river to have this dual designation . |
Desert | A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life . The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation . About one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid . This includes much of the polar regions where little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called polar deserts or `` cold deserts '' . Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls , by the temperature that prevails , by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location . Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces . Although rain seldom occurs in deserts , there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods . Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and rubble strewn over the desert floor is further eroded by the wind . This picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms . Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface . Rocks are smoothed down , and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits . The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes . Other deserts are flat , stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones . These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place . Other desert features include rock outcrops , exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water . Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate . There may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers . Where these are found , oases can occur . Plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment . Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves , water-resistant cuticles and often spines to deter herbivory . Some annual plants germinate , bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long-lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture . Animals need to keep cool and find enough food and water to survive . Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day . They tend to be efficient at conserving water , extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine . Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods , ready to become active again when the rare rains fall . They then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy . People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding semi-arid lands for millennia . Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available and oases have provided opportunities for a more settled way of life . The cultivation of semi-arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification . Desert farming is possible with the aid of irrigation and the Imperial Valley in California provides an example of how previously barren land can be made productive by the import of water from an outside source . Many trade routes have been forged across deserts , especially across the Sahara Desert , and traditionally were used by caravans of camels carrying salt , gold , ivory and other goods . Large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara . Some mineral extraction also takes place in deserts and the uninterrupted sunlight gives potential for the capture of large quantities of solar energy . |
Desalination | Desalination is a process that extracts minerals from saline water . More generally , desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance , as in soil desalination , which is an issue for agriculture . Saltwater is desalinated to produce water suitable for human consumption or irrigation . One by-product of desalination is salt . Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and submarines . Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use . Along with recycled wastewater , it is one of the few rainfall-independent water sources . Due to its energy consumption , desalinating sea water is generally more costly than fresh water from rivers or groundwater , water recycling and water conservation . However , these alternatives are not always available and depletion of reserves is a critical problem worldwide . Currently , approximately 1 % of the world 's population is dependent on desalinated water to meet daily needs , but the UN expects that 14 % of the world 's population will encounter water scarcity by 2025 . Desalination is particularly relevant in dry countries such as Australia , which traditionally have relied on collecting rainfall behind dams for water . According to the International Desalination Association , in June 2015 , 18,426 desalination plants operated worldwide , producing 86.8 million cubic meters per day , providing water for 300 million people . This number increased from 78.4 million cubic meters in 2013 , a 10.71 % increase in 2 years . The single largest desalination project is Ras Al-Khair in Saudi Arabia , which produced 1,025,000 cubic meters per day in 2014 , although this plant is expected to be surpassed by a plant in California . Kuwait produces a higher proportion of its water than any other country , totaling 100 % of its water use . |
Dematerialization_(economics) | In economics , dematerialization refers to the absolute or relative reduction in the quantity of materials required to serve economic functions in society . In common terms , dematerialization means doing more with less . This concept is similar to ephemeralization as proposed by Buckminster Fuller . In 1972 , the Club of Rome in its report The Limits to Growth predicted a steadily increasing demand for material as both economies and populations grew . The report predicted that continually increasing resource demand would eventually lead to an abrupt economic collapse . Studies on material use and economic growth show instead that society is gaining the same economic growth with much less physical material required . Between 1977 and 2001 , the amount of material required to meet all needs of Americans fell from 1.18 trillion pounds to 1.08 trillion pounds , even though the country 's population increased by 55 million people . Al Gore similarly noted in 1999 that since 1949 , while the economy tripled , the weight of goods produced did not change . By most measures , quality of life improved from 1977 to 2001 . While consumer demand is constantly increasing , consumers demand services such as communication , heating and housing , and not the raw materials needed to provide these . As a result , there is incentives to provide these with less materials . Copper wire has been replaced with fiber-optics , vinyl records with MP3 players while cars , refrigerators and numerous other items have gotten lighter . |
Dark_Ages_(historiography) | The `` Dark Ages '' is a historical periodization traditionally referring to the Middle Ages . It emphasizes the demographic , cultural and economic deterioration that supposedly occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire , and the relative scarcity of written records from the period . The term employs traditional light-versus-darkness imagery to contrast the era 's `` darkness '' with earlier and later periods of `` light '' . The concept of a `` Dark Age '' originated in the 1330s with the Italian scholar Petrarch , who regarded the post-Roman centuries as `` dark '' compared to the light of classical antiquity . The phrase `` Dark Age '' itself derives from the Latin saeculum obscurum , originally applied by Caesar Baronius in 1602 to a tumultuous period in the 10th and 11th centuries . The concept thus came to characterize the entire Middle Ages as a time of intellectual darkness between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance ; this became especially popular during the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment . As the accomplishments of the era came to be better understood in the 19th and 20th centuries , scholars began restricting the `` Dark Ages '' appellation to the Early Middle Ages ( c. 5th -- 10th century ) . Many modern scholars avoid the term altogether due to its negative connotations , finding it misleading and inaccurate . The original definition remains in popular use , and popular culture often employs it as a vehicle to depict the Middle Ages as a time of backwardness , extending its pejorative use and expanding its scope . |
Deregulation | Deregulation is the process of removing or reducing state regulations , typically in the economic sphere . It is the undoing or repeal of governmental regulation of the economy . It became common in advanced industrial economies in the 1970s and 1980s , as a result of new trends in economic thinking about the inefficiencies of government regulation , and the risk that regulatory agencies would be controlled by the regulated industry to its benefit , and thereby hurt consumers and the wider economy . |
Diminishing_returns | In economics , diminishing returns is the decrease in the marginal ( incremental ) output of a production process as the amount of a single factor of production is incrementally increased , while the amounts of all other factors of production stay constant . The law of diminishing returns states that in all productive processes , adding more of one factor of production , while holding all others constant ( `` ceteris paribus '' ) , will at some point yield lower incremental per-unit returns . The law of diminishing returns does not imply that adding more of a factor will decrease the total production , a condition known as negative returns , though in fact this is common . A common sort of example is adding more people to a job , or assembling a car on a factory floor . At some point , adding more workers causes problems such as workers getting in each other 's way or frequently finding themselves waiting for access to a part . In all of these processes , producing one more unit of output per unit of time will eventually cost increasingly more , due to inputs being used less and less effectively . The law of diminishing returns is a fundamental principle of economics . It plays a central role in production theory . |
Desertification | Desertification is a type of land degradation in which relatively dry area of land becomes increasingly arid , typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife . It is caused by a variety of factors , such as through climate change and through the overexploitation of soil through human activity . When deserts appear automatically over the natural course of a planet 's life cycle , then it can be called a natural phenomenon ; however , when deserts emerge due to the rampant and unchecked depletion of nutrients in soil that are essential for it to remain arable , then a virtual `` soil death '' can be spoken of , which traces its cause back to human overexploitation . Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem . |
Denialism | In the psychology of human behavior , denialism is a person 's choice to deny reality , as a way to avoid a psychologically uncomfortable truth . Denialism is an essentially irrational action that withholds the validation of a historical experience or event , by the person refusing to accept an empirically verifiable reality . In the sciences , denialism is the rejection of basic facts and concepts that are undisputed , well-supported parts of the scientific consensus on a subject , in favor of radical and controversial ideas . The terms Holocaust denialism and AIDS denialism describe the denial of the facts and the reality of the subject matters , and the term climate change denialist is applied to people who argue against the scientific consensus that the global warming of planet Earth is a real and occurring event primarily caused by human activity . The forms of denialism present the common feature of the person rejecting overwhelming evidence and the generation of political controversy with attempts to deny the existence of consensus . The motivations and causes of denialism include religion and self-interest ( economic , political , financial ) and defence mechanisms meant to protect the psyche of the denialist against mentally disturbing facts and ideas . |
Dinosaur | Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria that first appeared during the Triassic period . Although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research , the current scientific consensus places their origin between 231 and 243 million years ago . They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic -- Jurassic extinction event 201 million years ago . Their dominance continued through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods and ended when the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of most dinosaur groups 66 million years ago . Until the late 20th century , all groups of dinosaurs were believed to be extinct . The fossil record , however , indicates that birds , which are now termed `` avian dinosaurs , '' are the modern descendants of feathered dinosaurs , having evolved from theropod ancestors during the Jurassic Period . As such , birds were the only dinosaur lineage to survive the mass extinction event . Throughout the remainder of this article , the term `` dinosaur '' is sometimes used generically to refer to the combined group of avian dinosaurs ( birds ) and non-avian dinosaurs ; at other times it is used to refer to the non-avian dinosaurs specifically , while the avian dinosaurs are sometimes simply referred to as `` birds '' . This article deals primarily with non-avian dinosaurs . Dinosaurs are a varied group of animals from taxonomic , morphological and ecological standpoints . Birds , at over 10,000 living species , are the most diverse group of vertebrates besides perciform fish . Using fossil evidence , paleontologists have identified over 500 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs . Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species ( birds ) and fossil remains . Through the first half of the 20th century , before birds were recognized to be dinosaurs , most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish and cold-blooded . Most research conducted since the 1970s , however , has indicated that all dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction . Some are herbivorous , others carnivorous . Evidence suggests that egg laying and nest building are additional traits shared by all dinosaurs . While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal , many extinct groups included quadrupedal species , and some were able to shift between these stances . Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups , and some extinct groups developed skeletal modifications such as bony armor and spines . While the dinosaurs ' modern-day surviving avian lineage ( birds ) are generally small due to the constraints of flight , many prehistoric dinosaurs ( non-avian and avian ) were large-bodied -- the largest sauropod dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths of 39.7 m and heights of 18 m and were the largest land animals of all time . Still , the idea that non-avian dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is a misconception based in part on preservation bias , as large , sturdy bones are more likely to last until they are fossilized . Many dinosaurs were quite small : Xixianykus , for example , was only about 50 cm long . Since the first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century , mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons have been major attractions at museums around the world , and dinosaurs have become an enduring part of world culture . The large sizes of some dinosaur groups , as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature , have ensured dinosaurs ' regular appearance in best-selling books and films , such as Jurassic Park . Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science , and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media . |
Demand_destruction | Demand destruction is a permanent downward shift on the demand curve in the direction of lower demand of a commodity , such as energy products , induced by a prolonged period of high prices or constrained supply . In the context of the oil industry , `` demand '' generally refers to the quantity consumed ( see for example the output of any major industry organization such as the International Energy Agency ) , rather than any measure of a demand curve as used in mainstream economics . |
Developed_country | A developed country , industrialized country , more developed country , or `` more economically developed country '' ( MEDC ) , is a sovereign state that has a highly developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations . Most commonly , the criteria for evaluating the degree of economic development are gross domestic product ( GDP ) , gross national product ( GNP ) , the per capita income , level of industrialization , amount of widespread infrastructure and general standard of living . Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate . Developed countries have post-industrial economies , meaning the service sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector . They are contrasted with developing countries , which are in the process of industrialization , or undeveloped countries , which are pre-industrial and almost entirely agrarian . As of 2015 , advanced economies comprise 60.8 % of global GDP based on nominal values and 42.9 % of global GDP based on purchasing-power parity ( PPP ) according to the International Monetary Fund . In 2015 , the ten largest advanced economies by GDP in both nominal and PPP terms were Australia , Canada , France , Germany , Italy , Japan , South Korea , Spain , the United Kingdom , and the United States . |
Deep_ecology | Deep ecology is an ecological and environmental philosophy promoting the inherent worth of living beings regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs , plus a radical restructuring of modern human societies in accordance with such ideas . Deep ecology argues that the natural world is a subtle balance of complex inter-relationships in which the existence of organisms is dependent on the existence of others within ecosystems . Human interference with or destruction of the natural world poses a threat therefore not only to humans but to all organisms constituting the natural order . Deep ecology 's core principle is the belief that the living environment as a whole should be respected and regarded as having certain inalienable legal rights to live and flourish , independent of its utilitarian instrumental benefits for human use . Deep ecology is often framed in terms of the idea of a much broader sociality ; it recognizes diverse communities of life on Earth that are composed not only through biotic factors but also , where applicable , through ethical relations , that is , the valuing of other beings as more than just resources . It describes itself as `` deep '' because it regards itself as looking more deeply into the actual reality of humanity 's relationship with the natural world arriving at philosophically more profound conclusions than that of the prevailing view of ecology as a branch of biology . The movement does not subscribe to anthropocentric environmentalism ( which is concerned with conservation of the environment only for exploitation by and for human purposes ) since deep ecology is grounded in a quite different set of philosophical assumptions . Deep ecology takes a more holistic view of the world human beings live in and seeks to apply to life the understanding that the separate parts of the ecosystem ( including humans ) function as a whole . This philosophy provides a foundation for the environmental , ecology , and green movements and has fostered a new system of environmental ethics advocating wilderness preservation , human population control , and simple living . |
Dead_Sea | The Dead Sea ( lit . Salt Sea , البحر الميت ) , is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and Palestine to the west . Its surface and shores are 430.5 m below sea level , Earth 's lowest elevation on land . The Dead Sea is 304 m deep , the deepest hypersaline lake in the world . With 34.2 % salinity ( in 2011 ) , it is 9.6 times as salty as the ocean , and one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water . This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals can not flourish , hence its name . The Dead Sea is 50 km long and 15 km wide at its widest point . It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley and its main tributary is the Jordan River . The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years . It was one of the world 's first health resorts ( for Herod the Great ) , and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products , from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilizers . People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets . The Dead Sea water has a density of 1.24 kg/litre , which makes swimming similar to floating . The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate . Multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession , which had begun causing many problems . The Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance project , carried out by Jordan , will provide water to neighboring countries , while the brine will be carried to the Dead Sea to help stabilize its levels . The first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021 . |
December_1960_nor'easter | The December 1960 nor'easter was a significant early-season winter storm that impacted the Mid-Atlantic and New England regions of the United States . Moderate to heavy snowfall fell from West Virginia to eastern Maine , amounting to 10 in ( 25 cm ) or more in parts of 13 states and peaking at 21.4 in ( 54.4 cm ) at Newark , New Jersey . The storm was accompanied by strong winds , gusting to over 90 mph ( 145 km/h ) in coastal New England , and left in its wake a dangerously cold air mass . The storm originated in a weak low pressure area which formed over the western Gulf of Mexico on December 10 . A secondary low developed over South Carolina on the next day , supported by the merger of two troughs aloft . Sliding southeast of New England , the new storm explosively deepened to become a full-fledged nor'easter , with a minimum central air pressure of 966 mbar . It began to weaken over the Canadian Maritimes . Widespread blizzard conditions wrought havoc on transportation ; streets and highways throughout the hardest-hit areas were clogged with stalled and abandoned vehicles , and multiple major airports were forced to close . Many schools and businesses were closed , some for days after the storm departed . The New York Stock Exchange opened an hour late on December 12 , marking its first delayed opening in over 25 years . Extensive drifting of snow left communities isolated and unable to receive deliveries of food and heating fuel . Overall , the storm and subsequent cold snap were blamed for at least 286 deaths across a wide area , but primarily in Pennsylvania , New Jersey , New York , and the New England states . The fatalities resulted from a multitude of tragedies , including automobile and maritime accidents , storm-related fires , carbon monoxide poisoning , over-exertion , and exposure to cold . |
Definition_of_planet | The definition of planet , since the word was coined by the ancient Greeks , has included within its scope a wide range of celestial bodies . Greek astronomers employed the term asteres planetai , `` wandering stars '' , for star-like objects which apparently moved over the sky . Over the millennia , the term has included a variety of different objects , from the Sun and the Moon to satellites and asteroids . By the end of the 19th century the word planet , though it had yet to be defined , had become a working term applied only to a small set of objects in the Solar System . After 1992 , however , astronomers began to discover many additional objects beyond the orbit of Neptune , as well as hundreds of objects orbiting other stars . These discoveries not only increased the number of potential planets , but also expanded their variety and peculiarity . Some were nearly large enough to be stars , while others were smaller than Earth 's moon . These discoveries challenged long-perceived notions of what a planet could be . The issue of a clear definition for planet came to a head in January 2005 with the discovery of the trans-Neptunian object Eris , a body more massive than the smallest then-accepted planet , Pluto . In its August 2006 response , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) , recognised by astronomers as the world body responsible for resolving issues of nomenclature , released its decision on the matter during a meeting in Prague in the Czech republic . This definition , which applies only to the Solar System , states that a planet is a body that orbits the Sun , is massive enough for its own gravity to make it round , and has `` cleared its neighbourhood '' of smaller objects around its orbit . Under this new definition , Pluto and the other trans-Neptunian objects do not qualify as planets . The IAU 's decision has not resolved all controversies , and while many scientists have accepted the definition , some in the astronomical community have rejected it outright . |
Deterrence_(psychology) | Deterrence is a theory from behavioral psychology about preventing or controlling actions or behavior through fear of punishment or retribution . This theory of criminology is shaping the criminal justice system of the United States and various other countries . Deterrence can be divided into two separate categories . General deterrence manifests itself in policy whereby examples are made of deviants . The individual actor is not the focus of the attempt at behavioral change , but rather receives punishment in public view in order to deter other individuals from deviance in the future . For example , in the Islamic Crime & Punishment system ( Hodood , i.e. plural of Hadd ) , applied 1400 years ago , the punishment for crimes was performed in public , and was aimed at general social deterrence . Specific deterrence focuses on the individual deviant and attempts to correct his or her behavior . Punishment is meant to discourage the individual from recidivating . At the military level , the principle is expressed in deterrence theory . There is some debate over whether deterrence is achieved through the higher probability of arrest and conviction , and/or , severity of punishment , or denunciation , and whether it is aimed at others or the offender themselves or both . |
Deception | Deception , beguilement , deceit , bluff , mystification , ruse , or subterfuge is the act of propagating beliefs in things that are not true , or not the whole truth ( as in half-truths or omission ) . Deception can involve dissimulation , propaganda , and sleight of hand , as well as distraction , camouflage , or concealment . There is also self-deception , as in bad faith . Deception is a major relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal and distrust between relational partners . Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a negative violation of expectations . Most people expect friends , relational partners , and even strangers to be truthful most of the time . If people expected most conversations to be untruthful , talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information . A significant amount of deception occurs between some romantic and relational partners . Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort , or contract law ( where it is known as misrepresentation or fraudulent misrepresentation if deliberate ) , or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud . It also forms a vital part of psychological warfare in denial and deception . |
Defaunation | Defaunation is the loss of animals from ecological communities . The growth of the human population , combined with advances in harvesting technologies , has led to more intense and efficient exploitation of the environment . This has resulted in the depletion of large vertebrates from ecological communities , creating what has been termed `` empty forest '' . Defaunation differs from extinction ; it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance . Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas , Brazil in 1988 in the context of neotropical forests . Since then , the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon . It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all wildlife has been lost in the last 40 years . in 2020 it is estimated that 68 % of the worlds wildlife will be lost . In South America , there is believed to be a 70 percent loss . |
December_1945_lunar_eclipse | A total lunar eclipse took place on December 19 , 1945 . |
Degree_day | A degree day is a measure of heating or cooling . Total degree days from an appropriate starting date are used to plan the planting of crops and management of pests and pest control timing . Weekly or monthly degree-day figures may also be used within an energy monitoring and targeting scheme to monitor the heating and cooling costs of climate controlled buildings , while annual figures can be used for estimating future costs . A degree day is computed as the integral of a function of time that generally varies with temperature . The function is truncated to upper and lower limits that vary by organism , or to limits that are appropriate for climate control . The function can be estimated or measured by one of the following methods , in each case by reference to a chosen base temperature : Frequent measurements and continuously integrating the temperature deficit or excess ; Treating each day 's temperature profile as a sine wave with amplitude equal to the day 's temperature variation , measured from max and min , and totalling the daily results ; As above , but calculating the daily difference between mean temperature and base temperature ; As previous , but with modified formulae on days when the max and min straddle the base temperature . A zero degree-day in energy monitoring and targeting is when either heating or cooling consumption is at a minimum , which is useful with power utility companies in predicting seasonal low points in energy demand . Heating degree days are typical indicators of household energy consumption for space heating . The air temperature in a building is on average 2 -- 3 ° C ( 3 -- 5 ° F ) higher than that of the air outside . A temperature of 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) indoors corresponds to an outside temperature of about 15.5 ° C ( 60 ° F ) . If the air temperature outside is below 15.5 ° C , then heating is required to maintain a temperature of about 18 ° C . If the outside temperature is 1 ° C below the average temperature it is accounted as 1 degree-day . The sum of the degree days over periods such as a month or an entire heating season is used in calculating the amount of heating required for a building . Degree Days are also used to estimate air conditioning usage during the warm season . |
Desert_climate | The Desert climate ( in the Köppen climate classification BWh and BWk , sometimes also BWn ) , also known as an arid climate , is a climate that does not meet the criteria to be classified as a polar climate , and in which precipitation is too low to sustain any vegetation at all , or at most a very scanty shrub . An area that features this climate usually experiences from 25 to 200 mm ( 7.87 inches ) per year of precipitation and in some years may experience no precipitation at all . Averages may be even less such as in Arica , Chile , where precipitation normals annually stand at around 1 mm per year . In some instances , an area may experience more than 200 mm of precipitation annually , but is considered a desert climate because the region loses more water via evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation ( Tucson , Arizona and Alice Springs , Northern Territory are examples of this ) . There are usually two or three variations of a desert climate : a hot desert climate ( BWh ) , a cold desert climate ( BWk ) and , sometimes , a mild desert climate ( BWh/BWn ) . Furthermore , to delineate `` hot desert climates '' from `` cold desert climates '' , there are three widely used isotherms : either a mean annual temperature of 18 ° C ( which is the most accurate and most commonly used ) , or a mean temperature of 0 ° C or − 3 ° C in the coldest month , so that a location with a `` BW '' type climate with the appropriate temperature above whichever isotherm is being used is classified as `` hot arid '' ( BWh ) , and a location with the appropriate temperature below the given isotherm is classified as `` cold arid '' ( BWk ) . To determine whether a location has an arid climate , the precipitation threshold is determined . The precipitation threshold ( in millimetres ) involves first multiplying the average annual temperature in ° C by 20 , then adding 280 if 70 % or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year ( April through September in the Northern Hemisphere , or October through March in the Southern ) , or 140 if 30 % -- 70 % of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period , or 0 if less than 30 % of the total precipitation is so received . If the area 's annual precipitation is less than half the threshold , it is classified as a BW ( desert climate ) . |
Deforestation | Deforestation , clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use . Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms , ranches , or urban use . The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests . About 30 % of Earth 's land surface is covered by forests . Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons : trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel , ( sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber ) , while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation . The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat , biodiversity loss and aridity . It has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Deforestation has also been used in war to deprive the enemy of vital resources and cover for its forces . Modern examples of this were the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency and the United States military in Vietnam during the Vietnam War . As of 2005 , net deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$ 4,600 . Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland . Disregard of ascribed value , lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale . In many countries , deforestation , both naturally occurring and human-induced , is an ongoing issue . Deforestation causes extinction , changes to climatic conditions , desertification , and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record . More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests . Between 2000 and 2012 , 2.3 e6sqkm of forests around the world were cut down . As a result of deforestation , only 6.2 e6km2 remain of the original 16 e6km2 of forest that formerly covered the Earth . |
Denver | Denver ( -LSB- ˈdɛnvər -RSB- ) , officially the City and County of Denver , is the capital and most populous municipality of the U.S. state of Colorado . Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains . The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River , approximately 12 mi east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains . Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile ( 5280 ft ) above sea level , making it the highest major city in the United States . The 105th meridian west of Greenwich , the longitudinal reference for the Mountain Time Zone , passes directly through Denver Union Station . Denver is ranked as a Beta - world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network . With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545 , Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U.S. city , and with a 2.8 % increase in 2015 , the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States . The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood , CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U.S. metropolitan statistical area . The 12-city Denver-Aurora , CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876 , which ranks as the 16th most populous U.S. metropolitan area . Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor , an oblong urban region stretching across two states with an estimated 2015 population of 4,757,713 . Denver is the most populous city within a 500 mi radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix , Arizona . In 2016 , Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U.S. News & World Report . |
Dinotoxin | Dinotoxins are a group of toxins which are produced by flagellate , aquatic , unicellular protists called dinoflagellates . Dinotoxin was coined by Hardy and Wallace in 2012 as a general term for the variety of toxins produced by dinoflagellates . Dinoflagellates are an enormous group of marine life , with much diversity . With great diversity comes many different toxins , however , there are a few toxins ( or derivatives ) that multiple species have in common . Dinoflagellates normally have a low toxin production rate , therefore in small concentrations their toxins are not potent . However their toxins are highly poisonous in large concentrations . They are capable of poisoning various species of marine life such as many fish and shellfish , and affecting the nervous system of any wildlife or humans that consume the infected marine life , or drink the contaminated water . Under bloom conditions , commonly referred to as red tides or harmful algal blooms , dinoflagellates are capable of producing immense dinotoxin concentrations causing large fish die-offs , and contamination of shellfish . This contamination of shellfish leads to multiple severe human related illnesses . These illnesses include paralytic shellfish poisoning , diarrhetic shellfish poisoning , neurotoxic shellfish poisoning , and ciguatera fish poisoning . Dinotoxins are impacting not only the marine ecosystem , but our economy as well . The economic impact is increasing compared to past years , due to the increase in seafood consumption , and coastal tourism . |
Denmark_Strait | The Denmark Strait or Greenland Strait ( , the latter meaning ` Greenland Sound ' ) is an oceanic strait between Iceland ( to its southeast ) and Greenland ( to its northwest ) . The Norwegian island of Jan Mayen lies northeast of the strait . It connects the Greenland Sea , an extension of the Arctic Ocean , to the Irminger Sea , a part of the Atlantic Ocean . It stretches 300 mi long and 180 mi wide at its narrowest , between Straumnes , the northwestern headland of the Westfjords peninsula of Hornstrandir , and Cape Tupinier on Blosseville Coast in East Greenland ) . The official International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) delineation between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans runs from Straumnes to Cape Nansen , 132 km southwest of Cape Tunipier . From Straumnes to Cape Nansen the distance is 336 km . The narrow depth , where the Greenland-Iceland Rise runs along the bottom of the sea , is 625 ft. The cold East Greenland Current passes through the strait and carries icebergs south into the North Atlantic . It hosts important fisheries . The world 's largest known underwater waterfall , known as the Denmark Strait cataract , flows down the western side of the Denmark Strait . During World War II , the Battle of the Denmark Strait took place on 24 May 1941 . The German battleship Bismarck sank the British battlecruiser , which exploded with the loss of all but three of its 1,418 crew ; HMS Prince of Wales was seriously damaged in the engagement . Bismarck entered the Atlantic through the Strait , but damage sustained in the battle -- combined with British aircraft search-and-destroy missions -- led to its sinking three days later . |
Deschutes_National_Forest | The Deschutes National Forest is a United States National Forest located in parts of Deschutes , Klamath , Lake , and Jefferson counties in central Oregon . It comprises 1.8 e6acre along the east side of the Cascade Range . In 1908 , the Deschutes National Forest was established from parts of the Blue Mountains , Cascade , and Fremont National Forests . In 1911 , parts of the Deschutes National Forest were split off to form the Ochoco and Paulina National Forests , and parts of the Cascade and Oregon National Forests were added to the Deschutes . In 1915 , the lands of the Paulina National Forest were rejoined to the Deschutes National Forest . A 1993 Forest Service study estimated that the extent of old growth in the forest was 348100 acre . Within the boundaries of the Deschutes National Forest is the Newberry National Volcanic Monument , containing cinder cones , lava flows , and lava tubes . The Deschutes National Forest as a whole contains in excess of 250 known caves . The forest also contains five wilderness areas , six National Wild and Scenic Rivers , the Oregon Cascade Recreation Area , and the Metolius Conservation Area . Forest headquarters are located in Bend , Oregon . There are local ranger district offices in Bend , Crescent , and Sisters . Recreational activities in Deschutes National Forest include boating , fishing , wildlife watching , and hiking , as well as mountain biking on an extensive system of trails . Hiking and skiing can be done on Mount Bachelor , a stratovolcano in the Cascade Range . |
Deflator | In statistics , a deflator is a value that allows data to be measured over time in terms of some base period , usually through a price index , in order to distinguish between a changes in the money value of a gross national product ( GNP ) that come from a change in prices , and changes from a change in physical output . It is the measure of the price level for some quantity . A deflator serves as a price index in which the effects of inflation are nulled . It is the difference between real and nominal GDP . In the United States , the import and export price indexes produced by the International Price Program are used as deflators in national accounts . For example , the gross domestic product ( GDP ) equals consumption expenditures plus net investment plus government expenditures plus exports minus imports . Various price indexes are used to `` deflate '' each component of the GDP to make the GDP figures comparable over time . Import price indexes are used to deflate the import component ( i.e. , import volume is divided by the Import Price index ) and the export price indexes are used to deflate the export component ( i.e. , export volume is divided by the Export Price index ) . It is generally used as a statistical tool to convert dollars purchasing power into `` inflation-adjusted '' purchasing power , thus enabling the comparison of prices while accounting for inflation in various time periods . |
Deserts_of_California | The Deserts of California have unique ecosystems and habitats , a sociocultural and historical `` Old West '' collection of legends , districts , and communities , and they also form a popular tourism region of dramatic natural features and recreational development . All of the deserts are located in eastern Southern California , in the Western United States . |
David_Titley | David W. Titley is a professor of meteorology at Pennsylvania State University and the founding director of their Center for Solutions to Weather and Climate Risk . He was also NOAA 's chief operating officer from 2012 -- 2013 . Before assuming these positions , he was a rear admiral in , and the chief oceanographer of , the U.S. Navy , in which he served for 32 years . Titley initiated the Navy 's Task Force on Climate Change , and serves on the CNA Corporation 's Military Advisory Board . He was formerly a climate change skeptic , but later changed his mind after looking at the evidence of what factors influence climate -- which are , according to Titley , `` what are the larger things doing -- what is the ocean doing ? What is the sun doing ? And what 's our atmosphere doing ? '' Since then , he has described climate change as `` one of the driving forces in the 21st century '' and said that it contributed to the 2011 Arab Spring . The Department of Defense requested that Titley present on their behalf at both Congressional Hearings and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) meetings from 2009 to 2011 . Titley is a member of the Hoover Institution 's Arctic Security Initiative , and serves on the Advisory Boards of the Applied Research Laboratory at Penn State , the Center for Climate and Security , Columbia University 's Center for Research on Environmental Decisions , and the Association of Climate Change Officers . He is a member of the National Academies of Science committee on Geoengineering and the Center for Naval Analysis ' Military Advisory Board and co-chairs the National Research Council 's `` A Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences '' committee . Titley sits on the Science and Security Board at the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , which , among other things , enables him to participate in the discussions that determine the position of the Bulletin 's famed Doomsday Clock . Titley is also on the Advisory Board of Citizens Climate Lobby . |
Debris_flow | Debris flows are geological phenomena in which water-laden masses of soil and fragmented rock rush down mountainsides , funnel into stream channels , entrain objects in their paths , and form thick , muddy deposits on valley floors . They generally have bulk densities comparable to those of rock avalanches and other types of landslides ( roughly 2000 kilograms per cubic meter ) , but owing to widespread sediment liquefaction caused by high pore-fluid pressures , they can flow almost as fluidly as water . Debris flows descending steep channels commonly attain speeds that surpass 10 meters per second ( more than 20 miles per hour ) , although some large flows can reach speeds that are much greater . Debris flows with volumes ranging up to about 100,000 cubic meters occur frequently in mountainous regions worldwide . The largest prehistoric flows have had volumes exceeding 1 billion cubic meters ( i.e. , 1 cubic kilometer ) . As a result of their high sediment concentrations and mobility , debris flows can be very destructive . Notable debris-flow disasters of the twentieth century involved more than 20,000 fatalities in Armero , Colombia in 1985 and tens of thousands in Vargas State , Venezuela in 1999 . |
Dark_matter_in_fiction | Dark matter is defined as hypothetical matter that is undetectable by its emitted radiation , but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter . It has been used in a variety of fictional media , including computer and video games and books . In such cases , dark matter is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties . Such descriptions are often inconsistent with the known properties of dark matter proposed in physics and cosmology . For example in computer games , it is often used as material for making weapons and items , and is usually depicted as black or a similar color . Dark matter regularly appears as a topic in hybrid periodicals that cover both factual scientific topics and science fiction , and dark matter itself has been referred to as `` the stuff of science fiction '' . A review of The Physics of Star Trek discusses dark matter before noting that `` the best modern science fiction borrows heavily from cosmology '' . |
Data | Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈdætə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ) is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables . An example of qualitative data would be an anthropologist 's handwritten notes about his or her interviews with people of an Indigenous tribe . Pieces of data are individual pieces of information . While the concept of data is commonly associated with scientific research , data is collected by a huge range of organizations and institutions , including businesses ( e.g. , sales data , revenue , profits , stock price ) , governments ( e.g. , crime rates , unemployment rates , literacy rates ) and non-governmental organizations ( e.g. , censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit organizations ) . Data is measured , collected and reported , and analyzed , whereupon it can be visualized using graphs , images or other analysis tools . Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing . Raw data ( `` unprocessed data '' ) is a collection of numbers or characters before it has been `` cleaned '' and corrected by researchers . Raw data needs to be corrected to remove outliers or obvious instrument or data entry errors ( e.g. , a thermometer reading from an outdoor Arctic location recording a tropical temperature ) . Data processing commonly occurs by stages , and the `` processed data '' from one stage may be considered the `` raw data '' of the next stage . Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled `` in situ '' environment . Experimental data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording . Data has been described as the new oil of the digital economy . |
Dehumanization | Dehumanization or an act thereof can describe a behavior or process that undermines individuality of and in others . Behaviorally , dehumanization describes a disposition towards others that debases the others ' individuality as either an `` individual '' species or an `` individual '' object , e.g. someone who acts inhumanely towards humans . As a process , it may be understood as the opposite of personification , a figure of speech in which inanimate objects or abstractions are endowed with human qualities ; dehumanization then is the disendowment of these same qualities or a reduction to abstraction , e.g. Technology revolutions cause the dehumanization of labor markets to the point of antiquation . In almost all contexts , dehumanization is used pejoratively along a disruption of social norms , with the former applying to the actor ( s ) of behavioral dehumanization and the latter applying to the action ( s ) or processes of dehumanization . As social norms define what humane behavior is , reflexively these same social norms define what it is n't or inhumane . Dehumanization differs from inhumane behaviors or processes in its breadth to include the emergence of new competing social norms . This emergence then is the action of dehumanization until the old norms lose out to the competing new norms , which will then redefine the action of dehumanization . If the new norms lose acceptance then the action remains one of dehumanization and its severity is comparative to past examples throughout history . However , dehumanization 's definition remains in a reflexive state of a type-token ambiguity relative to both scales individual and societal . Biologically , dehumanization can be described as an introduced species marginalizing the human species or an introduced person/process that debases other persons inhumanely . In political science and jurisprudence , the act of dehumanization is the inferential alienation of human rights or denaturalization of natural rights , a definition contingent upon presiding international law rather than social norms limited by human geography . In this context , specialty within species need not apply to constitute global citizenship or its inalienable rights ; these both are inherit by human genome . It is theorized to take on two forms : animalistic dehumanization , which is employed on a largely intergroup basis , and mechanistic dehumanization , which is employed on a largely interpersonal basis . Dehumanization can occur discursively ( e.g. , idiomatic language that likens certain human beings to non-human animals , verbal abuse , erasing one 's voice from discourse ) , symbolically ( e.g. , imagery ) , or physically ( e.g. , chattel slavery , physical abuse , refusing eye contact ) . Dehumanization often ignores the target 's individuality ( i.e. , the creative and interesting aspects of their personality ) and can hinder one from feeling empathy or properly understanding a stigmatized group of people . Dehumanization may be carried out by a social institution ( such as a state , school , or family ) , interpersonally , or even within the self . Dehumanization can be unintentional , especially on the part of individuals , as with some types of de facto racism . State-organized dehumanization has historically been directed against perceived political , racial , ethnic , national , or religious minority groups . Other minoritized and marginalized individuals and groups ( based on sexual orientation , gender , disability , class , or some other organizing principle ) are also susceptible to various forms of dehumanization . The concept of dehumanization has received empirical attention in the psychological literature . It is conceptually related to infrahumanization , delegitimization , moral exclusion , and objectification . Dehumanization occurs across several domains ; is facilitated by status , power , and social connection ; and results in behaviors like exclusion , violence , and support for violence against others . `` Dehumanisation is viewed as a central component to intergroup violence because it is frequently the most important precursor to moral exclusion , the process by which stigmatized groups are placed outside the boundary in which moral values , rules , and considerations of fairness apply . '' David Livingstone Smith , director and founder of The Human Nature Project at the University of New England , argues that historically , human beings have been dehumanizing one another for thousands of years . |
Dihydrogen_monoxide_hoax | The dihydrogen monoxide hoax involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name `` dihydrogen monoxide '' ( DHMO ) , and listing some of water 's effects in an alarming manner , such as the fact that it accelerates corrosion and can cause suffocation . The hoax often calls for dihydrogen monoxide to be regulated , labeled as hazardous , or banned . It illustrates how the lack of scientific literacy and an exaggerated analysis can lead to misplaced fears . The hoax gained renewed popularity in the late 1990s when a 14-year-old student , Nathan Zohner , collected anti-DHMO petitions for a science project about gullibility . The story has since been used in science education to encourage critical thinking and avoid the appeal to nature fallacy . |
Degrowth | Degrowth is a political , economic , and social movement based on ecological economics , anti-consumerist and anti-capitalist ideas . It is also considered an essential economic strategy responding to the limits-to-growth dilemma ( see The Path to Degrowth in Overdeveloped Countries and post-growth ) . Degrowth thinkers and activists advocate for the downscaling of production and consumption -- the contraction of economies -- arguing that overconsumption lies at the root of long term environmental issues and social inequalities . Key to the concept of degrowth is that reducing consumption does not require individual martyring or a decrease in well-being . Rather , `` degrowthists '' aim to maximize happiness and well-being through non-consumptive means -- sharing work , consuming less , while devoting more time to art , music , family , nature , culture and community . |
Developing_country | A developing country , also called a less developed country or an underdeveloped country , is a nation or a sovereign state with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index ( HDI ) relative to other countries . There are no universally agreed-upon criteria for what makes a country developing versus developed and which countries fit these two categories , although there are general reference points such as a nation 's GDP per capita compared with other nations . Also , the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country . The term `` developing '' describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress . Since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones . There is criticism for using the term developing country . The term implies inferiority of a developing country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country , which many countries dislike . It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of economic development which a few countries , such as Cuba and Bhutan , choose not to follow . An alternative measurement that has been suggested is that of gross national happiness . Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the term newly industrialized countries . According to authors such as Walt Whitman Rostow , developing countries are in transition from traditional lifestyles towards the modern lifestyle which began in the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries . In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators , the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between `` developed '' and `` developing '' countries in the presentation of its data . Nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place . |
Dipolog | Dipolog , officially the City of Dipolog ( Dakbayan sa Dipolog Lungsod ng Dipolog Chavacano : Ciudad de Dipolog ; Subanen : Gembagel G'benwa Dipuleg/Bagbenwa Dipuleg ) , is a third class city and the capital of the province of Zamboanga del Norte on the southern Philippine island of Mindanao . Geographically , the city is surrounded by rolling hills to the southeast and the Sulu Sea to the north . According to the , it has a population of people . Dipolog is known for its wild orchids and its sardine industry which stems from the rich fishing area off its shores . It is known as the `` Gateway to Western Mindanao '' through the Western Nautical Highway and has also been called the `` Bottled Sardines Capital of the Philippines . '' Dipolog can be reached by plane via Dipolog Airport or by ferry at the nearby Pulauan Port in Dapitan City . The construction of a roll-on/roll-off facility at Barangay Galas will allow for the eventual transfer of the service to Dipolog while retaining inter-island operations at Pulauan , which is soon to become a base port . A popular city attraction is the foreshore Dipolog Boulevard which , though still in its second phase of construction , has become a popular haven for exercise and leisure . It is also the site for various celebrations and festivals in the city . In the third phase of the project , the length of the boulevard will be extended to reach the seaport in Barangay Galas . |
Deep_ocean_water | Deep ocean water ( DOW ) is the name for cold , salty water found deep below the surface of Earth 's oceans . Ocean water differs in temperature and salinity . Warm surface water is generally saltier than the cooler deep or polar waters ; in polar regions , the upper layers of ocean water are cold and fresh . Deep ocean water makes up about 90 % of the volume of the oceans . Deep ocean water has a very uniform temperature , around 0-3 ° C , and a salinity of about 3.5 % or as oceanographers state as 35 ppt ( parts per thousand ) . In specialized locations such as the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii NELHA ocean water is pumped to the surface from approximately 900 metres ( 3000 feet ) deep for applications in research , commercial and pre-commercial activities . DOW is typically used to describe ocean water at sub-thermal depths sufficient to provide a measurable difference in water temperature . When deep ocean water is brought to the surface , it can be used for a variety of things . Its most useful property is its temperature . At the surface of the Earth , most water and air is well above 3 ° C . The difference in temperature is indicative of a difference in energy . Where there is an energy gradient , skillful application of science and engineering can harness that energy for productive use by humans . Assuming the source of deep ocean water is environmentally friendly and replenished by natural mechanisms , it forms a more innovative basis for cleaner energy than current fossil-fuel-derived energy . The simplest use of cold water is for air conditioning : using the cold water itself to cool air saves the energy that would be used by the compressors for traditional refrigeration . Another use could be to replace expensive desalination plants . When cold water passes through a pipe surrounded by humid air , condensation results . The condensate is pure water , suitable for humans to drink or for crop irrigation . Via a technology called Ocean thermal energy conversion , the temperature difference can be turned into electricity . |
Deglobalization | Deglobalization or Deglobalisation is the process of diminishing interdependence and integration between certain units around the world , typically nation-states . It is widely used to describe the periods of history when economic trade and investment between countries decline . It stands in contrast to globalization , in which units become increasingly integrated over time , and generally spans the time between periods of globalization . The term of deglobalization has derived from some of the very profound change in many developed nations , where trade as a proportion of total economic activity went down between 1914 and 1970s . This decline refers that their economies become less integrated with the rest of the world economies in spite of the deepening scope of economic globalization . While as with globalization , it can refer to economic , trade , social , technological , cultural and political dimensions , much of the work that has been conducted in the study of deglobalization refers to the field of international economics . Periods of deglobalization are seen as interesting comparators to other periods , such as 1850 -- 1914 and 1950 -- 2007 , in which globalization had been the norm , given that globalization is the norm for most people and thus even periods of stagnant international interaction are often seen as periods of deglobalization . The globalization index of KOF Swiss Economic Institute shows a clear break for economic globalization in 2009 : '' The bursting of the dot com bubble and the events of 9/11 merely slowed down the pace of globalization ; the latest economic and financial crisis has , however , created a severe setback for the globalization process '' In 2010 , the standstill in the globalization process basically continued but with different regional patterns : `` The biggest upward movement as a region occurred in South Asia ( albeit a very minor increase ) while Latin America and Sub Saharan Africa saw a very minor decrease in their regional average . High income countries and in particular OECD countries continue their trend of stagnation which has started even before the current crisis . '' |
Demimonde | Demi-monde refers to a group of people who live hedonistic lifestyles , usually in a flagrant and conspicuous manner . The term was commonly used in Europe from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century , and contemporary use has an anachronistic character . Its connotations of pleasure-seeking often contrasted with wealth and ruling class behavior . The term ` demi-monde ' is French for `` half-world '' . It derives from a comedy called Le Demi-Monde , by Alexandre Dumas , fils , published in 1855 . The term was often used as one of disapprobation , the behavior of a person in the demimonde being contrary to more traditional or bourgeois values . Such behaviors often included drinking or drug use , gambling , high spending ( particularly in pursuit of fashion , as through clothing as well as servants and houses ) , and sexual promiscuity . The term demimondaine referred to a woman who embodied these qualities ; later it became a euphemism for a courtesan or prostitute . |
Denali_National_Park_and_Preserve | Denali National Park and Preserve is a national park and preserve located in Interior Alaska , centered on Denali , the highest mountain in North America . The park and contiguous preserve encompasses more than 6 million acres ( 24,500 km2 ) . The national preserve is 1,334,200 acres ( 5,430 km2 ) . On December 2 , 1980 , a 2,146,580 acre ( 8,687 km2 ) Denali Wilderness was established within the park . Denali 's landscape is a mix of forest at the lowest elevations , including deciduous taiga . The preserve is also home to tundra at middle elevations , and glaciers , rock , and snow at the highest elevations . The longest glacier is the Kahiltna Glacier . The park received 587,412 recreational visitors in 2016 . Wintertime activities includes dog-sledding , cross-country skiing , and snowmachining . |
Decomposition | Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler matter . The process is a part of nutrient cycle and is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biosphere . Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death . Animals , such as worms , also help decompose the organic materials . Organisms that do this are known as decomposers . Although no two organisms decompose in the same way , they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition . The science which studies decomposition is generally referred to as taphonomy from the Greek word τάφος taphos , meaning tomb . One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition ( biodegradation ) . The former means `` degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes , e.g. , hydrolysis . The latter means `` the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms '' , typically by microorganisms . |
Deglaciation | Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time . |
Deindustrialisation_by_country | Deindustrialisation refers to the process of social and economic change caused by the removal or reduction of industrial capacity or activity in a country or region , especially heavy industry or manufacturing industry . It is the opposite of industrialisation . Deindustrialisation has taken place in many nations over the years , as social changes and urbanisation have changed the financial demographics of the world . Phenomena such as the mechanisation of labour render industrial societies obsolete , and lead to the de-establishment of industrial communities . |
Deforestation_by_region | Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world . In 2009 , 2/3 of the world forests were in 10 top countries : 1 ) Russia , 2 ) Brazil , 3 ) Canada , 4 ) United States , 5 ) China , 6 ) Australia , 7 ) Congo , 8 ) Indonesia , 9 ) Peru and 10 ) India . World annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 million hectares a year , equal to the area of Greece . Only half of this area is compensated by new forests or forest growth . In addition to directly human-induced deforestation , the growing forests have also been affected by climate change , increasing risks of storms , and diseases . Kyoto protocol includes the agreement to prevent deforestation but not the actions to fulfill it . |
Denali | Denali ( -LSB- dᵻˈnɑːli -RSB- ) ( also known as Mount McKinley , its former official name ) is the highest mountain peak in North America , with a summit elevation of 20310 ft above sea level . With a topographic prominence of 20156 ft and a topographic isolation of 4629 mi , Denali is the third most prominent and third most isolated peak after Mount Everest and Aconcagua . Located in the Alaska Range in the interior of the U.S. state of Alaska , Denali is the centerpiece of Denali National Park and Preserve . The Koyukon people who inhabit the area around the mountain have referred to the peak as `` Denali '' for centuries . In 1896 , a gold prospector named it `` Mount McKinley '' in support of then-presidential candidate William McKinley ; that name was the official name recognized by the United States government from 1917 until 2015 . In August 2015 , following the 1975 lead of the state of Alaska , the U.S. Department of the Interior announced the change of the official name of the mountain to Denali . Prior to this , most Alaskans already referred to the mountain as Denali . In 1903 , James Wickersham recorded the first attempt at climbing Denali , which was unsuccessful . In 1906 , Frederick Cook claimed the first ascent , which was later proven to be false . The first verifiable ascent to Denali 's summit was achieved on June 7 , 1913 , by climbers Hudson Stuck , Harry Karstens , Walter Harper , and Robert Tatum , who went by the South Summit . In 1951 , Bradford Washburn pioneered the West Buttress route , considered to be the safest and easiest route , and therefore the most popular currently in use . On September 2 , 2015 , the U.S. Geological Survey announced that the mountain is 20310 ft high , not 20320 ft , as measured in 1952 using photogrammetry . |
Demographics_of_the_world | Demographics of the world include population density , ethnicity , education level , health measures , economic status , religious affiliations and other aspects of the population . The overall total population of the world is approximately 7.45 billion , to July 2016 . Its overall population density is 50 people per km ² ( 129.28 per sq. mile ) , excluding Antarctica . Nearly two-thirds of the population lives in Asia and is predominantly urban and suburban , with more than 2.5 billion in the countries of China and India combined . The World 's fairly low literacy rate ( 83.7 % ) is attributable to impoverished regions . Extremely low literacy rates are concentrated in three regions , the Arab states , South and West Asia , and Sub-Saharan Africa . The world 's largest ethnic group is Han Chinese . Although English ( 5.52 % ) is spoken by many as a second language , Mandarin Chinese ( 14.1 % ) and Spanish ( 5.85 % ) are the languages with the highest number of native speakers . Human migration has been shifting toward cities and urban centers , with the urban population jumping from 29 % in 1950 , to 50.5 % in 2005 . Working backwards from the United Nations prediction that the world will be 51.3 percent urban by 2010 , Dr. Ron Wimberley , Dr. Libby Morris and Dr. Gregory Fulkerson estimated May 23 , 2007 to be the first time the urban population outnumbered the rural population in history . China and India are the most populous countries , as the birth rate has consistently dropped in developed countries and until recently remained high in developing countries . Tokyo is the largest urban conglomeration in the world . The total fertility rate of the World is estimated as 2.52 children per woman , which is above the replacement fertility rate of approximately 2.1 . However , world population growth is unevenly distributed , going from .91 in Macau , to 7.68 in Niger . The United Nations estimated an annual population increase of 1.14 % for the year of 2000 . There are approximately 3.38 billion females in the World . The number of males is about 3.41 billion . People under 14 years of age made up over a quarter of the world population ( 26.3 % ) , and people age 65 and over made up less than one-tenth ( 7.9 % ) in 2011 . The world population growth is approximately 1.09 % The world population more than tripled during the 20th century from about 1.65 billion in 1900 to 5.97 billion in 1999 . It reached the 2 billion mark in 1927 , the 3 billion mark in 1960 , 4 billion in 1974 , and 5 billion in 1987 . Currently , population growth is fastest among low wealth , Third World countries . The UN projects a world population of 9.15 billion in 2050 , which is a 32.69 % increase from 2010 ( 6.89 billion ) . |
Deseret_News | The Deseret News ( -LSB- dɛz.əˈrɛt . -RSB- ) is a newspaper published in Salt Lake City , Utah , United States . It is Utah 's oldest continuously published daily newspaper and has the largest Sunday circulation in the state and the second largest daily circulation behind The Salt Lake Tribune . The News is owned by Deseret News Publishing Company , a subsidiary of Deseret Management Corporation , a holding company owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) . The newspaper is printed by the Newspaper Agency Corporation , which it co-owns with The Salt Lake Tribune under a joint operating agreement . In 2006 , combined circulation of the two papers was 151,422 . The Deseret News also publishes a weekly compact-sized insert , the Church News , and the Mormon Times insert , both of which are included in the newspaper ( in the Saturday and Thursday editions , respectively ) ; the two inserts are also distributed as a separate publication outside of Utah . The Church News includes news of the LDS Church and has been published since 1931 , while the Mormon Times is about `` the people , faith and culture associated with the church '' . Since 1974 the Deseret News has also published the Church Almanac , an annual edition carrying LDS Church facts and statistics edited by Church News staff . The editorial tone of the Deseret News is usually described as moderate to conservative , and is often assumed to reflect the values of its owner , the LDS Church . For example , the newspaper does not accept advertising that violates church standards . |
Dependencies_of_Norway | Norway has three dependent territories ( biland ) , all uninhabited and located in the Southern Hemisphere . Bouvetøya is a Subantarctic island in the South Atlantic Ocean . Queen Maud Land is a sector of Antarctica which spans between 20 ° west and 45 ° east . Peter I Island is a volcanic island located 450 km off the coast of Ellsworth Land of continental Antarctica . ( Svalbard is not considered to be a dependency . While the Svalbard Treaty regulates some aspects of that Arctic territory , one article acknowledges that these islands are part of Norway . Similarly , Jan Mayen is recognized as an integral part of the nation . Both are , however , unincorporated areas . ) Both Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land are south of 60 ° S and are thus part of the Antarctic Treaty System . While the treaty states that the claims are not affected by the treaty , only the other countries with claims recognize Norwegian sovereignty on the island . The dependencies are administered by the Polar Affairs Department of the Ministry of Justice and Public Security in Oslo , Norway 's capital . Norwegian criminal law , private law and procedural law applies to the dependencies , in addition to other laws that explicitly state they are valid on the island . |
Day | A day is a unit of time . In common usage , it is either an interval equal to 24 hours or daytime , the consecutive period of time during which the Sun is above the horizon . The period of time during which the Earth completes one rotation with respect to the Sun is called a solar day . Several definitions of this universal human concept are used according to context , need and convenience . In 1960 , the second was redefined in terms of the orbital motion of the Earth , and was designated the SI base unit of time . The unit of measurement `` day '' , redefined in 1960 as 86 400 SI seconds and symbolized d , is not an SI unit , but is accepted for use with SI . A civil day is usually 86 400 seconds , plus or minus a possible leap second in Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) , and occasionally plus or minus an hour in those locations that change from or to daylight saving time . The word day may also refer to a day of the week or to a calendar date , as in answer to the question , `` On which day ? '' The life patterns of humans and many other species are related to Earth 's solar day and the day-night cycle ( see circadian rhythms ) . In recent decades the average length of a solar day on Earth has been about 86 400.002 seconds ( 24.000 000 6 hours ) and there are about 365.242 2 solar days in one mean tropical year . Because celestial orbits are not perfectly circular , and thus objects travel at different speeds at various positions in their orbit , a solar day is not the same length of time throughout the orbital year . A day , understood as the span of time it takes for the Earth to make one entire rotation with respect to the celestial background or a distant star ( assumed to be fixed ) , is called a stellar day . This period of rotation is about 4 minutes less than 24 hours ( 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds ) and there are about 366.242 2 stellar days in one mean tropical year ( one stellar day more than the number of solar days ) . Mainly due to tidal effects , the Earth 's rotational period is not constant , resulting in further minor variations for both solar days and stellar `` days '' . Other planets and moons have stellar and solar days of different lengths to Earth 's . |
Demography | Demography ( from prefix demo - from Ancient Greek δῆμος dēmos meaning `` the people '' , and - graphy from γράφω graphō , implies `` writing , description or measurement '' ) is the statistical study of populations , especially human beings . As a very general science , it can analyze any kind of dynamic living population , i.e. , one that changes over time or space ( see population dynamics ) . Demography encompasses the study of the size , structure , and distribution of these populations , and spatial or temporal changes in them in response to birth , migration , ageing , and death . Based on the demographic research of the earth , earth 's population up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by demographers . Demographics are quantifiable characteristics of a given population . Demographic analysis can cover whole societies or groups defined by criteria such as education , nationality , religion , and ethnicity . Educational institutions usually treat demography as a field of sociology , though there are a number of independent demography departments . Formal demography limits its object of study to the measurement of population processes , while the broader field of social demography or population studies also analyses the relationships between economic , social , cultural , and biological processes influencing a population . |
Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill | The Deepwater Horizon oil spill ( also referred to as the BP oil spill , the BP oil disaster , the Gulf of Mexico oil spill , and the Macondo blowout ) began on April 20 , 2010 , in the Gulf of Mexico on the BP-operated Macondo Prospect . Killing eleven people , it is considered the largest marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry and estimated to be 8 % to 31 % larger in volume than the previous largest , the Ixtoc I oil spill . The US Government estimated the total discharge at 4.9 Moilbbl . After several failed efforts to contain the flow , the well was declared sealed on September 19 , 2010 . Reports in early 2012 indicated the well site was still leaking . A massive response ensued to protect beaches , wetlands and estuaries from the spreading oil utilizing skimmer ships , floating booms , controlled burns and 1.84 e6USgal of Corexit oil dispersant . Due to the months-long spill , along with adverse effects from the response and cleanup activities , extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats and fishing and tourism industries was reported . In Louisiana , 4900000 lb of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013 , over double the amount collected in 2012 . Oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 mi of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013 . Oil continued to be found as far from the Macondo site as the waters off the Florida Panhandle and Tampa Bay , where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand . In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate . One study released in 2014 reported that tuna and amberjack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs that would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening and another study found that cardiotoxicity might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill . Numerous investigations explored the causes of the explosion and record-setting spill . Notably , the U.S. government 's September 2011 report pointed to defective cement on the well , faulting mostly BP , but also rig operator Transocean and contractor Halliburton . Earlier in 2011 , a White House commission likewise blamed BP and its partners for a series of cost-cutting decisions and an inadequate safety system , but also concluded that the spill resulted from `` systemic '' root causes and `` absent significant reform in both industry practices and government policies , might well recur '' . In November 2012 , BP and the United States Department of Justice settled federal criminal charges with BP pleading guilty to 11 counts of manslaughter , two misdemeanors , and a felony count of lying to Congress . BP also agreed to four years of government monitoring of its safety practices and ethics , and the Environmental Protection Agency announced that BP would be temporarily banned from new contracts with the US government . BP and the Department of Justice agreed to a record-setting $ 4.525 billion in fines and other payments . As of February 2013 , criminal and civil settlements and payments to a trust fund had cost the company $ 42.2 billion . In September 2014 , a U.S. District Court judge ruled that BP was primarily responsible for the oil spill because of its gross negligence and reckless conduct . In July 2015 , BP agreed to pay $ 18.7 billion in fines , the largest corporate settlement in U.S. history . |
Dark_energy | In physical cosmology and astronomy , dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is hypothesized to permeate all of space , tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe . Dark energy is the most accepted hypothesis to explain the observations since the 1990s indicating that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate . Assuming that the standard model of cosmology is correct , the best current measurements indicate that dark energy contributes 68.3 % of the total energy in the present-day observable universe . The mass -- energy of dark matter and ordinary ( baryonic ) matter contribute 26.8 % and 4.9 % , respectively , and other components such as neutrinos and photons contribute a very small amount . The density of dark energy ( ~ 7 × 10 − 30 g/cm3 ) is very low , much less than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within galaxies . However , it comes to dominate the mass -- energy of the universe because it is uniform across space . Two proposed forms for dark energy are the cosmological constant , representing a constant energy density filling space homogeneously , and scalar fields such as quintessence or moduli , dynamic quantities whose energy density can vary in time and space . Contributions from scalar fields that are constant in space are usually also included in the cosmological constant . The cosmological constant can be formulated to be equivalent to the zero-point radiation of space i.e. the vacuum energy . Scalar fields that change in space can be difficult to distinguish from a cosmological constant because the change may be extremely slow . High-precision measurements of the expansion of the universe are required to understand how the expansion rate changes over time and space . In general relativity , the evolution of the expansion rate is estimated from the curvature of the universe and the cosmological equation of state ( the relationship between temperature , pressure , and combined matter , energy , and vacuum energy density for any region of space ) . Measuring the equation of state for dark energy is one of the biggest efforts in observational cosmology today . Adding the cosmological constant to cosmology 's standard FLRW metric leads to the Lambda-CDM model , which has been referred to as the `` standard model of cosmology '' because of its precise agreement with observations . |
Dendrochronology | Dendrochronology ( or tree-ring dating ) is the scientific method of dating tree rings ( also called growth rings ) to the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in history . Dendrochronology is useful for determining the timing of events and rates of change in the environment ( most prominently climate ) and also in works of art and architecture , such as old panel paintings on wood , buildings , etc. . It is also used in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages . New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark . A tree 's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes , resulting in visible growth rings . Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons , or one year , in the tree 's life . , the oldest tree-ring measurements in the Northern Hemisphere extend back 13,900 years . Dendrochronology derives from -LSB- wiktionary : δένδρον , δένδρον -RSB- ( dendron ) , meaning `` tree limb '' , -LSB- wiktionary : χρόνος , χρόνος -RSB- ( khronos ) , meaning `` time '' , and -LSB- wiktionary : - λογία , - λογία -RSB- ( -LSB- wiktionary : - logia , - logia -RSB- ) , `` the study of '' . |
Denitrification | Denitrification is a microbially facilitated process where nitrate is reduced and ultimately produces molecular nitrogen ( N2 ) through a series of intermediate gaseous nitrogen oxide products . Facultative anaerobic bacteria perform denitrification as a type of respiration that reduces oxidized forms of nitrogen in response to the oxidation of an electron donor such as organic matter . The preferred nitrogen electron acceptors in order of most to least thermodynamically favorable include nitrate ( NO3 − ) , nitrite ( NO2 − ) , nitric oxide ( NO ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) finally resulting in the production of dinitrogen ( N2 ) completing the nitrogen cycle . Denitrifying microbes require a very low oxygen concentration of less than 10 % , as well as organic C for energy . Since denitrification can remove NO3 − , reducing its leaching to groundwater , it can be strategically used to treat sewage or animal residues of high nitrogen content . Denitrification can leak N2O , which is an ozone-depleting substance and a greenhouse gas that can have a considerable influence on global warming . The process is performed primarily by heterotrophic bacteria ( such as Paracoccus denitrificans and various pseudomonads ) , although autotrophic denitrifiers have also been identified ( e.g. , Thiobacillus denitrificans ) . Denitrifiers are represented in all main phylogenetic groups . Generally several species of bacteria are involved in the complete reduction of nitrate to N2 , and more than one enzymatic pathway has been identified in the reduction process . Direct reduction from nitrate to ammonium , a process known as dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium or DNRA , is also possible for organisms that have the nrf-gene . This is less common than denitrification in most ecosystems as a means of nitrate reduction . Other genes known in microorganisms which denitrify include nir ( nitrite reductase ) and nos ( nitrous oxide reductase ) among others ; organisms identified as having these genes include Alcaligenes faecalis , Alcaligenes xylosoxidans , many in the Pseudomonas genus , Bradyrhizobium japonicum , and Blastobacter denitrificans . |
Derecho | A derecho ( -LSB- dəˈreɪtʃoʊ -RSB- , from derecho -LSB- deˈɾetʃo -RSB- , `` straight '' ) is a widespread , long-lived , straight-line wind storm that is associated with a land-based , fast-moving group of severe thunderstorms . Derechos can cause hurricane-force winds , tornadoes , heavy rains , and flash floods . Convection-induced winds take on a bow echo ( backward `` C '' ) form of squall line , forming in an area of wind divergence in upper levels of the troposphere , within a region of low-level warm air advection and rich low-level moisture . They travel quickly in the direction of movement of their associated storms , similar to an outflow boundary ( gust front ) , except that the wind is sustained and increases in strength behind the front , generally exceeding hurricane-force . A warm-weather phenomenon , derechos occur mostly in summer , especially during June , July , and August in the Northern Hemisphere , within areas of moderately strong instability and moderately strong vertical wind shear . They may occur at any time of the year and occur as frequently at night as during the daylight hours . |
Denial | Denial , in ordinary English usage , is asserting that a statement or allegation is not true . The same word , and also abnegation ( Verneinung ) , is used for a psychological defense mechanism postulated by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud , in which a person is faced with a fact that is too uncomfortable to accept and rejects it instead , insisting that it is not true despite what may be overwhelming evidence . An individual that exhibits such behaviour is described as a denialist or true believer . Denial also could mean denying the happening of an event or the reliability of information , which can lead to a feeling of aloofness and to the ignoring of possibly beneficial information . The subject may use : simple denial : deny the reality of the unpleasant fact altogether minimisation : admit the fact but deny its seriousness ( a combination of denial and rationalization ) projection : admit both the fact and seriousness but deny responsibility by blaming somebody or something else . |
Department_of_Energy_and_Environment | The Department of Energy and Environment ( DOEE ) - formerly the District Department of the Environment - serves as an agency within the Executive Branch of the District of Columbia ( DC ) government in the United States to consolidate the administration and oversight of environmental and energy programs , services , laws , and regulations . Under the authority of -LSB- DC Law 16-51 -RSB- , DOEE was formed through a merger of the DC Government 's Environmental Health Administration , the DC Energy Office , policy functions of the Tree Management Administration and policy functions of the Office of Recycling . DOEE is a `` one-stop shop '' for programs and services that protect human health and the environment and address energy efficiency issues for all sectors of the city . DOEE programs are designed to facilitate cleaner air and water , green our neighborhoods and building space , and assist with the management of hazardous and toxic waste disposal . Additionally , DOEE conducts community and educational outreach to increase public awareness of environmental and energy related issues . |
Demographic_dividend | Demographic dividend occurs when the proportion of working people in the total population is high because this indicates that more people have the potential to be productive and contribute to growth of the economy . According to the United National population research , during the last four decades the countries of Asia and Latin America have been the main beneficiaries of the demographic dividend . Advanced countries of Europe , Japan and USA have an aging population because of low birth rates and low mortality rates . Neither the least developed countries nor the countries of Africa have as yet experienced favourable demographic conditions according to the research by UN population division . China 's one child policy has reversed the demographic dividend it enjoyed since the mid 1960s according to a World Bank global development report . Demographic dividend , as defined by the United Nations Population Fund ( UNFPA ) means , `` the economic growth potential that can result from shifts in a population 's age structure , mainly when the share of the working-age population ( 15 to 64 ) is larger than the non-working-age share of the population ( 14 and younger , and 65 and older ) . '' In other words , it is `` a boost in economic productivity that occurs when there are growing numbers of people in the workforce relative to the number of dependents . '' UNFPA stated that , `` A country with both increasing numbers of young people and declining fertility has the potential to reap a demographic dividend . Due to the dividend between young and old , many argue that there is a great potential for economic gains , which has been termed the `` demographic gift '' . In order for economic growth to occur the younger population must have access to quality education , adequate nutrition and health including access to sexual and reproductive health . However , this drop in fertility rates is not immediate . The lag between produces a generational population bulge that surges through society . For a period of time this `` bulge '' is a burden on society and increases the dependency ratio . Eventually this group begins to enter the productive labor force . With fertility rates continuing to fall and older generations having shorter life expectancies , the dependency ratio declines dramatically . This demographic shift initiates the demographic dividend . With fewer younger dependents , due to declining fertility and child mortality rates , and fewer older dependents , due to the older generations having shorter life expectancies , and the largest segment of the population of productive working age , the dependency ratio declines dramatically leading to the demographic dividend . Combined with effective public policies this time period of the demographic dividend can help facilitate more rapid economic growth and puts less strain on families . This is also a time period when many women enter the labor force for the first time . In many countries this time period has led to increasingly smaller families , rising income , and rising life expectancy rates . However , dramatic social changes can also occur during this time , such as increasing divorce rates , postponement of marriage , and single-person households . |
Eddy_covariance | The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research . |
Domestication | Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that second group . Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors . He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits , and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits . There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations . There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication , and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations . Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates , and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant , whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates , though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations . The dog was the first domesticated vertebrate , and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era , well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals . The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks -- including donkeys , horses , New and Old World camelids , goats , sheep , and pigs -- was common . Given its importance to humans and its value as a model of evolutionary and demographic change , domestication has attracted scientists from archaeology , palaeontology , anthropology , botany , zoology , genetics , and the environmental sciences . Among birds , the major domestic species today is the chicken , important for meat and eggs , though economically valuable poultry include the turkey , guineafowl and numerous other species . Birds are also widely kept as cagebirds , from songbirds to parrots . The longest established invertebrate domesticates are the honey bee and the silkworm . Terrestrial snails are raised for food , while species from several phyla are kept for research , and others are bred for biological control . The domestication of plants began at least 12,000 years ago with cereals in the Middle East , and the bottle gourd in Asia . Agriculture developed in at least 11 different centres around the world , domesticating different crops and animals . |
Early_December_2007_North_American_winter_storm | The Early December 2007 North American winter storm was a major winter storm which affected the majority of the United States and portions of southern Canada from November 29 to December 5 , hitting the Intermountain West and Midwestern United States , the Great Lakes region and the Northeast . The storm brought significant snows to portions of the Upper Midwest , Great Plains and Great Lakes regions of the United States and Canada on December 1 with a major winter storm for Quebec , Ontario and parts of the Northeast region on December 2 and 3 as well as the Canadian Maritimes on December 4 and 5 . The system was also responsible for a major ice storm across the Midwestern states which caused disruptions to several major cities including Des Moines , Chicago , Detroit , Milwaukee and Toronto . The storm was blamed for at least 16 deaths across nine US states and one Canadian province . 10 traffic deaths had been reported , as of 2 December 2007 . |
Disinformation_(TV_series) | Disinformation , also known as Disinfo Nation , was a television show hosted by Richard Metzger . It was aired for two seasons on Channel 4 in the UK as part of their late night `` 4Later '' programming block . Called a `` punk rock 60 Minutes '' and `` wilder than Jackass '' by the Los Angeles Times and Wired magazine respectively , the sixteen 30-minute episodes produced for C4 ( and several segments never aired in the UK ) were then cut down to four one-hour `` specials '' intended for the Sci Fi Channel in America , but never aired due to the controversial nature of what was portrayed on screen . According to interviews Metzger was told just twelve days prior to the first specials ' air-date that he would have to cut 50 % of the material from the show in order to pass the USA Network 's corporate lawyers ' scrutiny . Those four shows have subsequently been released on a DVD with a second bonus disc presenting highlights of The DisinfoCon , a twelve-hour event featuring shock rocker Marilyn Manson , underground filmmaker Kenneth Anger , painter Joe Coleman , and others such as Douglas Rushkoff , Mark Pesce , Grant Morrison , and Robert Anton Wilson . |
Earth_radius | Earth radius is the distance from the Earth 's center to its surface , about 6,371 km . This length is also used as a unit of distance , especially in astronomy and geology , where it is usually denoted by . This article deals primarily with spherical and ellipsoidal models of the Earth . See Figure of the Earth for a more complete discussion of the models . The Earth is only approximately spherical , so no single value serves as its natural radius . Distances from points on the surface to the center range from 6,353 to 6,384 km ( 3,947 -- 3,968 mi ) . Several different ways of modeling the Earth as a sphere each yield a mean radius of 6,371 km . While `` radius '' normally is a characteristic of perfect spheres , the term as used in this article more generally means the distance from some `` center '' of the Earth to a point on the surface or on an idealized surface that models the Earth . It can also mean some kind of average of such distances , or of the radius of a sphere whose curvature matches the curvature of the ellipsoidal model of the Earth at a given point . Aristotle , writing in On the Heavens around 350 BC , reports that `` the mathematicians '' guess the circumference of the Earth to be 400,000 stadia . Due to uncertainty about which stadion variant Aristotle meant , scholars have interpreted Aristotle 's figure to be anywhere from highly accurate to almost double the true value . The first known scientific measurement and calculation of the radius of the Earth was performed by Eratosthenes about 240 BC . Estimates of the accuracy of Eratosthenes 's measurement range from within 0.5 % to within 17 % . As with Aristotle 's report , uncertainty in the accuracy of his measurement is due to modern uncertainty over which stadion definition he used . |
East_Greenland_Orogen | The East Greenland orogen , also known as East Greenland mountain range , is the linear mountain range along the eastern Greenland coast , from 70 to 82 degrees north latitude . Geologically , the mountain chain consists of late Cryogenian to late Devonian ( 650 to 350 millions years ago ) fold and thrust belts . Little is known about the exact timing and setting of the earlier phases as this area was later heavily deformed during the Caledonian Orogeny ( 450 to 350 million years ago ) . The rocks of the East Greenland orogen are mostly Silurian granites with Devonian sedimentary rocks overlying Ediacarian marine deposits , all on a basement of gneisses . The current mountain range formed as a result of uplift during the opening of the Atlantic Ocean in the Cretaceous and early Tertiary ( starting 100 million years ago ) . The related East Greenland Rift Basin oil deposits are estimated to be one of the largest in the world . |
Eco-economic_decoupling | In economic and environmental fields , decoupling is becoming increasingly used in the context of economic production and environmental quality . When used in this way , it refers to the ability of an economy to grow without corresponding increases in environmental pressure . In many economies , increasing production ( GDP ) raises pressure on the environment . An economy that is able to sustain GDP growth without having a negative impact on environmental conditions , is said to be decoupled . In 2011 , the International Resource Panel , hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) warned that by 2050 , the human race could devour 140 billion tons of minerals , ores , fossil fuels and biomass per year -- three times its current appetite -- unless nations can start decoupling economic growth rates from the rate of natural resource consumption . It noted that developed country citizens consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources per capita ( ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries ) . By comparison , the average person in India today consumes four tons per year . The OECD has made decoupling a major focus of the work of its Environment Directorate . The OECD defines the term as follows : the term ` decoupling ' refers to breaking the link between `` environmental bads '' and `` economic goods . '' It explains this as having rates of increasing wealth greater than the rates of increasing impacts . In 2014 , the same International Resource Panel published a second report , `` Decoupling 2 '' , which highlights existing technological possibilities and opportunities for both developing and developed countries to accelerate decoupling and reap the environmental and economic benefits of increased resource productivity . The lead coordinating author of this report was Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker . |
Druid | A druid ( derwydd druí ) was a member of the high-ranking professional class in ancient Celtic cultures . While perhaps best remembered as religious leaders , they were also legal authorities , adjudicators , lorekeepers , medical professionals and political advisors . While the druids are reported to have been literate , they are believed to have been prevented by doctrine from recording their knowledge in written form , thus they left no written accounts of themselves . They are however attested in some detail by their contemporaries from other cultures , such as the Romans . The earliest known references to the druids date to the fourth century BCE and the oldest detailed description comes from Julius Caesar 's Commentarii de Bello Gallico ( 50s BCE ) . Later Greco-Roman writers also described the druids , including Cicero , Tacitus and Pliny the Elder . Following the Roman invasion of Gaul , the druid orders were suppressed by the Roman government under the 1st century CE emperors Tiberius and Claudius , and had disappeared from the written record by the 2nd century . In about 750 CE the word druid appears in a poem by Blathmac , who wrote about Jesus , saying that he was '' ... better than a prophet , more knowledgeable than every druid , a king who was a bishop and a complete sage . '' The druids then also appear in some of the medieval tales from Christianized Ireland like the `` Táin Bó Cúailnge '' , where they are largely portrayed as sorcerers who opposed the coming of Christianity . In the wake of the Celtic revival during the 18th and 19th centuries , fraternal and neopagan groups were founded based on ideas about the ancient druids , a movement known as Neo-Druidism . Many popular notions about druids are based on the misconceptions of 18th century scholars . These have been largely superseded by more recent study . |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.