World War II | Facts, Summary, History, Dates, Combatants, & Causes
World War II was a conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during 1939–45. The main combatants were the Axis powers ...
France
Having achieved this cynical agreement, the other provisions of which stupefied Europe even without divulgence of the secret protocol, Hitler thought that Germany could attack Poland with no danger of Soviet or British intervention and gave orders for the invasion to start on August 26. News of the signing, on August 25, of a formal treaty of mutual assistance between Great Britain and Poland (to supersede a previous though temporary agreement) caused him to postpone the start of hostilities for a few days. He was still determined, however, to ignore the diplomatic efforts of the western powers to restrain him. Finally, at 12:40 pm on August 31, 1939, Hitler ordered hostilities against Poland to start at 4:45 the next morning. The invasion began as ordered. In response, Great Britain and <anchor>France</anchor> declared war on Germany on September 3, at 11:00 am and at 5:00 pm, respectively. World War II had begun.
France | History, Maps, Flag, Population, Cities, Capital, & Facts | Britannica
France \| History, Maps, Flag, Population, Cities, Capital, & Facts \| Britannica

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[France](https://www.britannica.com/place/France)

Table of Contents


- [Introduction & Quick Facts](/place/France)

- [Land](/place/France/Land)



- [Relief](/place/France/Land#ref41078)

  - [The Hercynian massifs](/place/France/The-Hercynian-massifs)

    - [The Ardennes](/place/France/The-Hercynian-massifs#ref41080)

    - [The Vosges](/place/France/The-Hercynian-massifs#ref41081)

    - [The Massif Central](/place/France/The-Hercynian-massifs#ref41082)

    - [The Massif Armoricain](/place/France/The-Hercynian-massifs#ref41083)

  - [The great lowlands](/place/France/The-great-lowlands)

    - [The Paris Basin](/place/France/The-great-lowlands#ref41085)

    - [The Flanders Plain](/place/France/The-great-lowlands#ref41086)

    - [The Alsace Plain](/place/France/The-great-lowlands#ref41087)

    - [The Loire plains](/place/France/The-great-lowlands#ref41088)

    - [The Aquitaine Basin](/place/France/The-great-lowlands#ref41089)

  - [The younger mountains and adjacent plains](/place/France/The-younger-mountains-and-adjacent-plains)

    - [Pyrenees, Jura, and Alps](/place/France/The-younger-mountains-and-adjacent-plains#ref41091)

    - [The southern plains](/place/France/The-younger-mountains-and-adjacent-plains#ref41092)

- [Drainage](/place/France/Drainage)

  - [The Seine system](/place/France/Drainage#ref41094)

  - [The Loire system](/place/France/Drainage#ref41095)

  - [The Garonne system](/place/France/Drainage#ref41096)

  - [The Rhône system](/place/France/Drainage#ref41097)

  - [The Rhine system](/place/France/Drainage#ref41098)

  - [The smaller rivers and the lakes](/place/France/Drainage#ref41099)

- [Soils](/place/France/Soils)

- [Climate](/place/France/Climate)

  - [The oceanic region](/place/France/Climate#ref41102)

  - [The continental region](/place/France/Climate#ref41103)

  - [The Mediterranean region](/place/France/Climate#ref41104)

- [Plant and animal life](/place/France/Plant-and-animal-life)

  - [Plant life](/place/France/Plant-and-animal-life#ref41106)

  - [Animal life](/place/France/Plant-and-animal-life#ref41107)

- [People](/place/France/People)



- [Ethnic groups](/place/France/People#ref41116)

- [Languages](/place/France/People#ref41117)

- [Religion](/place/France/Religion)

- [Settlement patterns](/place/France/Settlement-patterns)

  - [Rural landscape and settlement](/place/France/Settlement-patterns#ref237226)

    - [_Bocage_](/place/France/Settlement-patterns#ref237227)

    - [Open-field](/place/France/Settlement-patterns#ref237228)

    - [Mediterranean](/place/France/Settlement-patterns#ref237229)

    - [Mountain](/place/France/Settlement-patterns#ref237230)

  - [Postwar transformation](/place/France/Settlement-patterns#ref237231)

  - [Urban settlement](/place/France/Settlement-patterns#ref41114)

- [Demographic trends](/place/France/Demographic-trends)

  - [Population history](/place/France/Demographic-trends#ref41120)

  - [Emigration](/place/France/Demographic-trends#ref41121)

  - [Immigration](/place/France/Immigration)

  - [Population structure](/place/France/Population-structure)

  - [Population distribution](/place/France/Population-distribution)

- [Economy](/place/France/Economy)



- [Agriculture, forestry, and fishing](/place/France/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing)

  - [Grains](/place/France/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref41131)

  - [Fruits and wine making](/place/France/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref41132)

  - [Dairying and livestock](/place/France/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref41133)

  - [Agribusiness](/place/France/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref41134)

  - [Forestry](/place/France/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref237232)

  - [Fishing](/place/France/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref237233)

- [Resources and power](/place/France/Resources-and-power)

  - [Minerals](/place/France/Resources-and-power#ref41129)

  - [Energy](/place/France/Resources-and-power#ref41136)

- [Manufacturing](/place/France/Manufacturing)

  - [Industrial trends](/place/France/Manufacturing#ref41138)

  - [Branches of manufacturing](/place/France/Manufacturing#ref41139)

- [Finance](/place/France/Finance)

  - [Banking and insurance](/place/France/Finance#ref237237)

  - [The stock exchange](/place/France/Finance#ref41143)

  - [Foreign investment](/place/France/Finance#ref41144)

- [Trade](/place/France/Trade)

- [Services](/place/France/Services)

  - [Civil service](/place/France/Services#ref237242)

  - [Tourism](/place/France/Services#ref41141)

- [Labour and taxation](/place/France/Labour-and-taxation)

- [Transportation and telecommunications](/place/France/Transportation-and-telecommunications)

  - [Roads](/place/France/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref41147)

  - [Railroads](/place/France/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref41148)

  - [Waterways](/place/France/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref41149)

  - [Air transport](/place/France/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref41150)

  - [Telecommunications](/place/France/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref237244)

- [Government and society](/place/France/Government-and-society)



- [Government](/place/France/Government-and-society#ref41152)

  - [The constitutional framework](/place/France/Government-and-society#ref41153)

    - [The genesis of the 1958 constitution](/place/France/Government-and-society#ref41154)

    - [The dual executive system](/place/France/Government-and-society#ref237245)

    - [The role of the president](/place/France/Government-and-society#ref41158)

    - [Parliamentary composition and functions](/place/France/Parliamentary-composition-and-functions)

    - [The role of referenda](/place/France/Parliamentary-composition-and-functions#ref41156)

    - [The role of the Constitutional Council](/place/France/Parliamentary-composition-and-functions#ref41159)

  - [Regional and local government](/place/France/Regional-and-local-government)

    - [The _régions_](/place/France/Regional-and-local-government#ref41161)

    - [The _départements_](/place/France/Regional-and-local-government#ref41162)

    - [The _communes_](/place/France/Regional-and-local-government#ref41163)

    - [The overseas territories](/place/France/Regional-and-local-government#ref41164)

- [Justice](/place/France/Justice)

  - [The judiciary](/place/France/Justice#ref41167)

  - [Administrative courts](/place/France/Justice#ref41168)

- [Political process](/place/France/Political-process)

- [Security](/place/France/Security)

  - [Armed forces](/place/France/Security#ref41171)

  - [Police services](/place/France/Security#ref41169)

- [Health and welfare](/place/France/Health-and-welfare)

  - [Social security and health](/place/France/Health-and-welfare#ref41177)

  - [Housing](/place/France/Health-and-welfare#ref41178)

  - [Wages and the cost of living](/place/France/Health-and-welfare#ref41179)

- [Education](/place/France/Education)

  - [Primary and secondary education](/place/France/Education#ref41173)

  - [Higher education](/place/France/Education#ref41174)

  - [Other features](/place/France/Education#ref41175)

- [Cultural life](/place/France/Cultural-life)



- [Cultural milieu](/place/France/Cultural-life#ref41181)

- [Daily life and social customs](/place/France/Daily-life-and-social-customs)

- [The arts](/place/France/The-arts)

  - [Literature](/place/France/The-arts#ref41183)

  - [The fine arts](/place/France/The-fine-arts)

    - [Painting and sculpture](/place/France/The-fine-arts#ref41185)

    - [Music](/place/France/The-fine-arts#ref41186)

    - [Dance](/place/France/Dance)

    - [Architecture](/place/France/Dance#ref41187)

    - [Photography](/place/France/Dance#ref41188)

  - [The cinema](/place/France/The-cinema)

- [Cultural institutions](/place/France/Cultural-institutions)

  - [Administrative bodies](/place/France/Cultural-institutions#ref41192)

  - [Museums and monuments](/place/France/Cultural-institutions#ref41193)

- [Sports and recreation](/place/France/Sports-and-recreation)

- [Media and publishing](/place/France/Media-and-publishing)

  - [Television and radio](/place/France/Media-and-publishing#ref41195)

  - [The press](/place/France/Media-and-publishing#ref41196)

- [History](/place/France/History)



- [Gaul](/place/France/History#ref40256)

  - [Geographic-historical scope](/place/France/History#ref40257)

  - [The people](/place/France/History#ref40258)

  - [The Roman conquest](/place/France/The-Roman-conquest)

    - [Gaul under the high empire ( _c._ 50 bce– _c._ 250 ce)](/place/France/The-Roman-conquest#ref40260)

    - [Gaul under the late Roman Empire ( _c._ 250– _c._ 400)](/place/France/Gaul-under-the-late-Roman-Empire-c-250-c-400)

  - [The end of Roman Gaul ( _c._ 400– _c._ 500)](/place/France/The-end-of-Roman-Gaul-c-400-c-500)

- [Merovingian and Carolingian age](/place/France/Merovingian-and-Carolingian-age)

  - [Origins](/place/France/Merovingian-and-Carolingian-age#ref40264)

    - [Early Frankish period](/place/France/Merovingian-and-Carolingian-age#ref40265)

    - [Gaul and Germany at the end of the 5th century](/place/France/Merovingian-and-Carolingian-age#ref40266)

  - [The Merovingians](/place/France/The-Merovingians)

    - [Clovis and the unification of Gaul](/place/France/The-Merovingians#ref40268)

      - [Frankish expansion](/place/France/The-Merovingians#ref237299)

      - [The conversion of Clovis](/place/France/The-Merovingians#ref40270)

    - [The sons of Clovis](/place/France/The-sons-of-Clovis)

      - [The conquest of Burgundy](/place/France/The-sons-of-Clovis#ref40272)

      - [The conquest of southern Germany](/place/France/The-sons-of-Clovis#ref40273)

    - [The grandsons of Clovis](/place/France/The-grandsons-of-Clovis)

      - [The shrinking of the frontiers and peripheral areas](/place/France/The-grandsons-of-Clovis#ref40275)

      - [The parceling of the kingdom](/place/France/The-grandsons-of-Clovis#ref40276)

    - [The failure of reunification (613–714)](/place/France/The-failure-of-reunification-613-714)

      - [Chlotar II and Dagobert I](/place/France/The-failure-of-reunification-613-714#ref237300)

      - [The hegemony of Neustria](/place/France/The-failure-of-reunification-613-714#ref40279)

      - [Austrasian hegemony and the rise of the Pippinids](/place/France/The-failure-of-reunification-613-714#ref40280)

  - [The Carolingians](/place/France/The-Carolingians)

    - [Charles Martel and Pippin III](/place/France/The-Carolingians#ref40282)

      - [Charles Martel](/place/France/The-Carolingians#ref40283)

      - [Pippin III](/place/France/The-Carolingians#ref40284)

    - [Charlemagne](/place/France/Charlemagne)

      - [The conquests](/place/France/Charlemagne#ref40286)

      - [The restoration of the empire](/place/France/Charlemagne#ref40287)

    - [Louis I](/place/France/Louis-I)

    - [The partitioning of the Carolingian empire](/place/France/The-partitioning-of-the-Carolingian-empire)

      - [The Treaty of Verdun](/place/France/The-partitioning-of-the-Carolingian-empire#ref237301)

      - [The kingdoms created at Verdun](/place/France/The-partitioning-of-the-Carolingian-empire#ref237302)

  - [The Frankish world](/place/France/The-Frankish-world)

    - [Society](/place/France/The-Frankish-world#ref40293)

      - [Germans and Gallo-Romans](/place/France/The-Frankish-world#ref40294)

      - [Social classes](/place/France/The-Frankish-world#ref40295)

      - [Diffusion of political power](/place/France/The-Frankish-world#ref40296)

    - [Institutions](/place/France/Institutions)

      - [Kingship](/place/France/Institutions#ref237303)

      - [The central government](/place/France/Institutions#ref40299)

      - [Local institutions](/place/France/Institutions#ref40300)

      - [The development of institutions in the Carolingian age](/place/France/Institutions#ref40301)

    - [Economic life](/place/France/Economic-life)

      - [Trade](/place/France/Economic-life#ref40303)

      - [Frankish fiscal law](/place/France/Economic-life#ref40304)

    - [The church](/place/France/The-church)

      - [Institutions](/place/France/The-church#ref40306)

      - [Monasticism](/place/France/The-church#ref40307)

      - [Education](/place/France/The-church#ref40308)

      - [Religious discipline and piety](/place/France/The-church#ref40309)

      - [The influence of the church on society and legislation](/place/France/The-church#ref40310)

    - [Merovingian literature and arts](/place/France/The-church#ref40311)

    - [Carolingian literature and arts](/place/France/Carolingian-literature-and-arts)

- [The emergence of France](/place/France/The-emergence-of-France)

  - [French society in the early Middle Ages](/place/France/The-emergence-of-France#ref40314)

  - [The political history of France ( _c._ 850–1180)](/place/France/The-political-history-of-France-c-850-1180)

    - [Principalities north of the Loire](/place/France/The-political-history-of-France-c-850-1180#ref40319)

    - [The principalities of the south](/place/France/The-principalities-of-the-south)

    - [The monarchy](/place/France/The-monarchy)

    - [Economy, society, and culture in the Middle Ages ( _c._ 900–1300)](/place/France/Economy-society-and-culture-in-the-Middle-Ages-c-900-1300)

      - [Economic expansion](/place/France/Economy-society-and-culture-in-the-Middle-Ages-c-900-1300#ref237304)

      - [Urban prosperity](/place/France/Urban-prosperity)

      - [Rural society](/place/France/Rural-society)

    - [Religious and cultural life](/place/France/Religious-and-cultural-life)

      - [The age of cathedrals and Scholasticism](/place/France/The-age-of-cathedrals-and-Scholasticism)

      - [Culture and learning](/place/France/Culture-and-learning)

- [France, 1180 to _c._ 1490](/place/France/France-1180-to-c-1490)

  - [France from 1180 to 1328](/place/France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref40323)

    - [The kings and the royal government](/place/France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref40324)

      - [Philip Augustus](/place/France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref40325)

      - [Louis VIII](/place/France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref40326)

      - [Louis IX](/place/France/Louis-IX)

      - [Later Capetians](/place/France/Later-Capetians)

    - [Foreign relations](/place/France/Foreign-relations)

  - [The period of the Hundred Years’ War](/place/France/The-period-of-the-Hundred-Years-War)

    - [The kings and the war, 1328–1429](/place/France/The-period-of-the-Hundred-Years-War#ref40336)

      - [Philip VI](/place/France/Philip-VI)

      - [John the Good](/place/France/John-the-Good)

      - [Charles V](/place/France/Charles-V)

      - [Charles VI](/place/France/Charles-VI)

      - [Charles VII](/place/France/Charles-VII)

    - [Recovery and reunification, 1429–83](/place/France/Recovery-and-reunification-1429-83)

      - [Governmental reforms](/place/France/Recovery-and-reunification-1429-83#ref40343)

      - [Military reforms](/place/France/Military-reforms)

      - [Regrowth of the French monarchy](/place/France/Military-reforms#ref40345)

    - [Economy, society, and culture in the 14th and 15th centuries](/place/France/Economy-society-and-culture-in-the-14th-and-15th-centuries)

      - [Economic distress](/place/France/Economy-society-and-culture-in-the-14th-and-15th-centuries#ref40347)

      - [The cities](/place/France/Economy-society-and-culture-in-the-14th-and-15th-centuries#ref40348)

      - [The church](/place/France/Economy-society-and-culture-in-the-14th-and-15th-centuries#ref40349)

      - [Culture and art](/place/France/Economy-society-and-culture-in-the-14th-and-15th-centuries#ref40350)

- [France, 1490–1715](/place/France/France-1490-1715)

  - [France in the 16th century](/place/France/France-1490-1715#ref40352)

    - [Military and financial organization](/place/France/France-1490-1715#ref40353)

    - [The growth of a professional bureaucracy](/place/France/The-growth-of-a-professional-bureaucracy)

    - [The age of the Reformation](/place/France/The-age-of-the-Reformation)

    - [The Wars of Religion](/place/France/The-Wars-of-Religion)

    - [Political ideology](/place/France/Political-ideology)

  - [France in the early 17th century](/place/France/France-in-the-early-17th-century)

    - [Henry IV](/place/France/France-in-the-early-17th-century#ref40360)

    - [Louis XIII](/place/France/Louis-XIII)

    - [The Fronde](/place/France/The-Fronde)

  - [The age of Louis XIV](/place/France/The-age-of-Louis-XIV)

    - [The development of central government](/place/France/The-age-of-Louis-XIV#ref40364)

    - [Louis’s religious policy](/place/France/Louiss-religious-policy)

    - [Absolutism of Louis](/place/France/Absolutism-of-Louis)

    - [Foreign affairs](/place/France/Foreign-affairs)

  - [French culture in the 17th century](/place/France/French-culture-in-the-17th-century)

- [France, 1715–89](/place/France/France-1715-89)

  - [The social and political heritage](/place/France/France-1715-89#ref40370)

    - [The social order of the ancien régime](/place/France/France-1715-89#ref40371)

    - [Monarchy and church](/place/France/France-1715-89#ref40372)

    - [Commitment to modernization](/place/France/France-1715-89#ref40373)

  - [Continuity and change](/place/France/Continuity-and-change)

    - [Agricultural patterns](/place/France/Continuity-and-change#ref40375)

    - [Industrial production](/place/France/Continuity-and-change#ref40378)

    - [Commerce](/place/France/Continuity-and-change#ref40379)

    - [Cities](/place/France/Continuity-and-change#ref40380)

  - [Cultural transformation](/place/France/Cultural-transformation)

    - [The Enlightenment](/place/France/Cultural-transformation#ref40382)

    - [The influence of Montesquieu and Rousseau](/place/France/Cultural-transformation#ref40383)

  - [The political response](/place/France/The-political-response)

    - [The historical debate](/place/France/The-political-response#ref40385)

    - [Foreign policy and financial crisis](/place/France/Foreign-policy-and-financial-crisis)

    - [Domestic policy and reform efforts](/place/France/Domestic-policy-and-reform-efforts)

    - [Tax reform](/place/France/Tax-reform)

    - [_Parlements_](/place/France/Parlements)

    - [King and _parlements_](/place/France/King-and-parlements)

  - [The causes of the French Revolution](/place/France/The-causes-of-the-French-Revolution)

- [The French Revolution and Napoleon, 1789–1815](/place/France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815)

  - [The destruction of the ancien régime](/place/France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref40395)

    - [The convergence of revolutions, 1789](/place/France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref40396)

      - [The juridical revolution](/place/France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref40397)

      - [Parisian revolt](/place/France/Parisian-revolt)

      - [Peasant insurgencies](/place/France/Peasant-insurgencies)

      - [The abolition of feudalism](/place/France/The-abolition-of-feudalism)

    - [The new regime](/place/France/The-new-regime)

      - [Restructuring France](/place/France/Restructuring-France)

      - [Sale of national lands](/place/France/Restructuring-France#ref40403)

    - [Seeds of discord](/place/France/Seeds-of-discord)

      - [Religious tensions](/place/France/Religious-tensions)

      - [Political tensions](/place/France/Political-tensions)

  - [The First French Republic](/place/France/The-First-French-Republic)

    - [The second revolution](/place/France/The-First-French-Republic#ref40408)

    - [A republic in crisis](/place/France/A-republic-in-crisis)

    - [Girondins and Montagnards](/place/France/Girondins-and-Montagnards)

    - [The Reign of Terror](/place/France/The-Reign-of-Terror)

    - [The Jacobin dictatorship](/place/France/The-Jacobin-dictatorship)

    - [The Army of the Republic](/place/France/The-Army-of-the-Republic)

    - [The Thermidorian Reaction](/place/France/The-Thermidorian-Reaction)

    - [The Directory](/place/France/The-Directory)

      - [Sister republics](/place/France/The-Directory#ref40416)

      - [Alienation and coups](/place/France/The-Directory#ref40417)

  - [The Napoleonic era](/place/France/The-Napoleonic-era)

    - [The Consulate](/place/France/The-Napoleonic-era#ref40419)

    - [Loss of political freedom](/place/France/Loss-of-political-freedom)

    - [Society in Napoleonic France](/place/France/Society-in-Napoleonic-France)

      - [Religious policy](/place/France/Society-in-Napoleonic-France#ref40422)

      - [Napoleonic nobility](/place/France/Society-in-Napoleonic-France#ref40423)

      - [The civil code](/place/France/Society-in-Napoleonic-France#ref40424)

    - [Campaigns and conquests, 1797–1807](/place/France/Campaigns-and-conquests-1797-1807)

    - [The Grand Empire](/place/France/Campaigns-and-conquests-1797-1807#ref40426)

    - [The Continental System](/place/France/The-Continental-System)

    - [Conscription](/place/France/Conscription)

  - [Napoleon and the Revolution](/place/France/Napoleon-and-the-Revolution)

- [France, 1815–1940](/place/France/France-1815-1940)

  - [The restoration and constitutional monarchy](/place/France/France-1815-1940#ref40431)

    - [Constitutionalism and reaction, 1815–30](/place/France/France-1815-1940#ref40432)

      - [Louis XVIII, 1815–24](/place/France/France-1815-1940#ref40433)

      - [Charles X, 1824–30](/place/France/Charles-X-1824-30)

    - [The revolution of 1830](/place/France/The-revolution-of-1830)

    - [The July Monarchy](/place/France/The-July-Monarchy)

  - [The Second Republic and Second Empire](/place/France/The-Second-Republic-and-Second-Empire)

    - [The revolution of 1848](/place/France/The-Second-Republic-and-Second-Empire#ref40438)

    - [The Second Republic, 1848–52](/place/France/The-Second-Republic-1848-52)

    - [The Second Empire, 1852–70](/place/France/The-Second-Empire-1852-70)

      - [The authoritarian years](/place/France/The-Second-Empire-1852-70#ref40441)

      - [The liberal years](/place/France/The-Second-Empire-1852-70#ref40442)

      - [The Franco-German War](/place/France/The-Second-Empire-1852-70#ref40443)

  - [The Third Republic](/place/France/The-Third-Republic)

    - [The Commune of Paris](/place/France/The-Commune-of-Paris)

    - [The formative years (1871–1905)](/place/France/The-formative-years-1871-1905)

      - [Attempts at a restoration](/place/France/The-formative-years-1871-1905#ref40447)

      - [The constitution of the Third Republic](/place/France/The-constitution-of-the-Third-Republic)

      - [Republican factions](/place/France/The-constitution-of-the-Third-Republic#ref40449)

      - [Opportunist control](/place/France/Opportunist-control)

      - [The Dreyfus Affair](/place/France/The-Dreyfus-Affair)

      - [Foreign policy](/place/France/Foreign-policy)

    - [The prewar years](/place/France/The-prewar-years)

    - [World War I](/place/France/World-War-I)

    - [The interwar years](/place/France/The-interwar-years)

      - [German reparations](/place/France/The-interwar-years#ref40456)

      - [Financial crisis](/place/France/The-interwar-years#ref40457)

      - [Collective security](/place/France/The-interwar-years#ref40458)

      - [Internal conflict on the left](/place/France/Internal-conflict-on-the-left)

      - [The Great Depression and political crises](/place/France/The-Great-Depression-and-political-crises)

      - [German aggressions](/place/France/German-aggressions)

    - [Society and culture under the Third Republic](/place/France/Society-and-culture-under-the-Third-Republic)

      - [Economy](/place/France/Society-and-culture-under-the-Third-Republic#ref40463)

      - [Cultural and scientific attainments](/place/France/Cultural-and-scientific-attainments)

- [France since 1940](/place/France/France-since-1940)

  - [Wartime France](/place/France/France-since-1940#ref40466)

    - [The Vichy government](/place/France/France-since-1940#ref40467)

    - [The Resistance](/place/France/The-Resistance)

    - [Liberation](/place/France/The-Resistance#ref40469)

  - [The Fourth Republic](/place/France/The-Fourth-Republic)

    - [Constitution of the Fourth Republic](/place/France/The-Fourth-Republic#ref40471)

    - [Political and social changes](/place/France/The-Fourth-Republic#ref40472)

    - [Colonial independence movements](/place/France/The-Fourth-Republic#ref40473)

  - [The Fifth Republic](/place/France/The-Fifth-Republic)

  - [France after de Gaulle](/place/France/France-after-de-Gaulle)

  - [France under a Socialist presidency](/place/France/France-under-a-Socialist-presidency)

    - [Mitterrand’s first term](/place/France/France-under-a-Socialist-presidency#ref40477)

    - [Mitterrand’s second term](/place/France/France-under-a-Socialist-presidency#ref40478)

  - [France under conservative presidencies](/place/France/France-under-conservative-presidencies)

    - [The Chirac administration](/place/France/France-under-conservative-presidencies#ref301260)

    - [The Sarkozy administration](/place/France/France-under-conservative-presidencies#ref301261)

  - [The euro-zone crisis and the Socialist resurgence](/place/France/The-euro-zone-crisis-and-the-Socialist-resurgence)

    - [The 2012 presidential campaign](/place/France/The-euro-zone-crisis-and-the-Socialist-resurgence#ref309044)

    - [The Hollande administration](/place/France/The-Hollande-administration)

  - [Society since 1940](/place/France/Society-since-1940)

  - [The cultural scene](/place/France/The-cultural-scene)

- [Major rulers of France](/place/France/Major-rulers-of-France)


[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/France/additional-info) [Facts & Stats](/facts/France)

[Images, Videos & Interactives](https://www.britannica.com/place/France/images-videos)

[![France](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/682-004-F0B47FCB/Flag-France.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/682-050-8AA3D6A6/Flag-France.jpg)[![France](https://cdn.britannica.com/83/683-004-BC349A8C/France-map-boundaries-cities-locator.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/83/683-050-8C44373B/France-map-boundaries-cities-locator.jpg)[![Villandry](https://cdn.britannica.com/87/687-004-76F4171F/chateau-Villandry-gardens-Tours-France-Loire-Valley-1532.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/87/687-050-06103996/chateau-Villandry-gardens-Tours-France-Loire-Valley-1532.jpg)[![France](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/183642-004-FDC8B082/World-Data-Locator-Map-France.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/183642-050-C7D21FE8/World-Data-Locator-Map-France.jpg)[![Paris skyline](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/94468-004-1D664C73/Paris-skyline.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/94468-050-BD29E775/Paris-skyline.jpg)[![Château Gaillard](https://cdn.britannica.com/38/738-004-FDCDBB3F/Chateau-Gaillard-castle-region-Seine-River-France.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/38/738-050-33ED9B00/Chateau-Gaillard-castle-region-Seine-River-France.jpg)[![Chaîne des Puys](https://cdn.britannica.com/32/59232-004-E44133D0/Cinder-cones-Chaine-des-Puys-France-Massif.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/32/59232-050-29C4E075/Cinder-cones-Chaine-des-Puys-France-Massif.jpg)[![beach at Nice](https://cdn.britannica.com/85/685-004-EBB9A470/Mediterranean-pebble-beach-Nice-French-Riviera.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/85/685-050-E5651426/Mediterranean-pebble-beach-Nice-French-Riviera.jpg)[![Paris, France](https://cdn.britannica.com/50/59050-004-31D76B9F/Seine-River-Ile-Saint-Louis-France-Paris.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/50/59050-050-852EE969/Seine-River-Ile-Saint-Louis-France-Paris.jpg)

For Students


[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-124/images/shared/default3.png?v=3.124.78)](/summary/France)

[France summary](/summary/France)

Quizzes


[![Flags of all countries of the world. Flags of the world. National flags. Country flags. Hompepage blog 2009, history and society, geography and travel, explore discovery](https://cdn.britannica.com/40/129640-131-0EB20858/Flags-countries-world-flags-Country-blog-geography-2009.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/the-country-quiz)

[The Country Quiz](/quiz/the-country-quiz)

[![Flag of France](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/682-131-E8E714E4/Flag-France.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/france-a-history-quiz)

[France: A History Quiz](/quiz/france-a-history-quiz)

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Contents


[Geography & Travel](/browse/Geography-Travel)[Countries of the World](/browse/Countries-of-the-World)

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/83/683-050-8C44373B/France-map-boundaries-cities-locator.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/83/683-050-8C44373B/France-map-boundaries-cities-locator.jpg)

[France](https://cdn.britannica.com/83/683-050-8C44373B/France-map-boundaries-cities-locator.jpg)(more)

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/87/687-050-06103996/chateau-Villandry-gardens-Tours-France-Loire-Valley-1532.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/87/687-050-06103996/chateau-Villandry-gardens-Tours-France-Loire-Valley-1532.jpg)

[Villandry](https://cdn.britannica.com/87/687-050-06103996/chateau-Villandry-gardens-Tours-France-Loire-Valley-1532.jpg) The château of Villandry, built in 1532, and its formal gardens in the Loire valley just east of Tours, France.(more)

# France



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- [Social Science LibreTexts - France and Cardinal Richelieu](https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Western_Civilization_(Lumen)/Ch._12_The_Rise_of_Nation-States/13.14%3A_France_and_Cardinal_Richelieu)
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- [France - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)](https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/France/274407)

Also known as: French Republic, République Française


Written by


[John E. Flower\
\
Professor of French, University of Kent, England. Author of _Literature and the Left in France_ and _Francois Mauriac - Jean Paulhan: Correspondance 1924-1968._](/contributor/John-E-Flower/3697)

John E. Flower,

[François Bernard\
\
Conseiller d'État, a judicial rank in the Council of State, Paris. Director, Civil and Military Cabinet, Ministry of Defense, Government of France, 1981–85.](/contributor/Francois-Bernard/252)

François Bernard• [All](https://www.britannica.com/place/France/additional-info#contributors)

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\
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)

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Last Updated:

Sep 13, 2024
• [Article History](https://www.britannica.com/place/France/additional-info#history)


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**France**, [country](https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state) of northwestern [Europe](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe). Historically and culturally among the most important nations in the Western world, France has also played a highly significant role in international affairs, with former colonies in every corner of the globe. Bounded by the [Atlantic Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean) and the [Mediterranean Sea](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mediterranean-Sea), the [Alps](https://www.britannica.com/place/Alps) and the [Pyrenees](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pyrenees), France has long provided a geographic, economic, and linguistic bridge joining northern and southern Europe. It is Europe’s most important agricultural producer and one of the world’s leading industrial powers.

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/183642-050-C7D21FE8/World-Data-Locator-Map-France.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/183642-050-C7D21FE8/World-Data-Locator-Map-France.jpg)

[France](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/183642-050-C7D21FE8/World-Data-Locator-Map-France.jpg)(more)

[![France](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/682-050-8AA3D6A6/Flag-France.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/682-050-8AA3D6A6/Flag-France.jpg)

See article: [flag of France](/topic/flag-of-France)

**Audio File:**
Anthem of France ( [see article](/topic/La-Marseillaise))

[See all media](https://www.britannica.com/place/France/images-videos)

Officially: French Republic_(Show more)_

French: France or République Française_(Show more)_

Head Of Government: Prime minister: Gabriel Attal_(Show more)_

Capital: [Paris](/place/Paris)_(Show more)_

Population: (2024 est.) 66,147,000_(Show more)_

Currency Exchange Rate: 1 USD equals 0.937 euro_(Show more)_

Head Of State: President: [Emmanuel Macron](/biography/Emmanuel-Macron)_(Show more)_

[See all facts & stats →](/facts/France)

France is among the globe’s oldest nations, the product of an alliance of duchies and principalities under a single ruler in the [Middle Ages](https://www.britannica.com/event/Middle-Ages). Today, as in that era, central [authority](https://www.britannica.com/topic/authority) is vested in the state, even though a measure of [autonomy](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/autonomy) has been granted to the country’s _régions_ in recent decades. The French people look to the state as the primary guardian of liberty, and the state in turn provides a generous program of amenities for its citizens, from free education to health care and pension plans. Even so, this centralist tendency is often at odds with another long-standing theme of the French nation: the insistence on the supremacy of the individual. On this matter historian [Jules Michelet](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jules-Michelet) remarked, “ [England](https://www.britannica.com/place/England) is an empire, [Germany](https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany) is a nation, a race, France is a person.” Statesman [Charles de Gaulle](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-de-Gaulle-president-of-France), too, famously complained, “Only [peril](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/peril) can bring the French together. One can’t impose unity out of the blue on a country that has 265 kinds of cheese.”

This tendency toward [individualism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/individualism) joins with a pluralist outlook and a great interest in the larger world. Even though its imperialist stage was driven by the impulse to civilize that world according to French standards ( _la mission civilisatrice_), the French still note approvingly the words of writer [Gustave Flaubert](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustave-Flaubert):

> I am no more modern than I am ancient, no more French than Chinese; and the idea of _la patrie_, the fatherland—that is, the obligation to live on a bit of earth coloured red or blue on a map, and to detest the other bits coloured green or black—has always seemed to me narrow, restricted, and ferociously stupid.

[![Flags of the world against blue sky. Countries, International. Globalization, global relations, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, Poland, Palestine, Japan. Homepage 2010, arts and entertainment, history and society](https://cdn.britannica.com/91/142291-131-1FF39F2D/Flags-world-blue-sky-Countries-Globalization-relations-2010.jpg)\
\
Britannica Quiz\
\
Which Country Is Larger By Population? Quiz](/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-population-quiz)

At once universal and particular, French [culture](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture) has spread far and greatly influenced the development of art and science, particularly anthropology, philosophy, and [sociology](https://www.britannica.com/topic/sociology).

France has also been influential in government and civil affairs, giving the world important democratic ideals in the age of the [Enlightenment](https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history) and the [French Revolution](https://www.britannica.com/event/French-Revolution) and inspiring the growth of reformist and even revolutionary movements for generations. The present [Fifth Republic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fifth-Republic-French-history) has, however, enjoyed notable stability since its promulgation on September 28, 1958, marked by a tremendous growth in private [initiative](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/initiative) and the rise of centrist politics. Although France has engaged in long-running disputes with other European powers (and, from time to time, with the [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States), its longtime ally), it emerged as a leading member in the [European Union (EU)](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Union) and its predecessors. From 1966 to 1995 France did not participate in the [integrated](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integrated) military structure of the [North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)](https://www.britannica.com/topic/North-Atlantic-Treaty-Organization), retaining full control over its own air, ground, and naval forces; beginning in 1995, however, France was represented on the NATO Military Committee, and in 2009 French President [Nicolas Sarkozy](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicolas-Sarkozy) announced that the country would rejoin the organization’s military command. As one of the five permanent members of the [United Nations Security Council](https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Security-Council)—together with the United States, [Russia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia), the [United Kingdom](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom), and [China](https://www.britannica.com/place/China)—France has the right to veto decisions put to the council.

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/94468-050-BD29E775/Paris-skyline.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/94468-050-BD29E775/Paris-skyline.jpg)

[Paris skyline](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/94468-050-BD29E775/Paris-skyline.jpg) Paris skyline at dusk.(more)

![](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp)

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The capital and by far the most important city of France is [Paris](https://www.britannica.com/place/Paris), one of the world’s preeminent cultural and commercial centres. A majestic city known as the _ville lumière_, or “city of light,” Paris has often been remade, most famously in the mid-19th century under the command of [Georges-Eugène, Baron Haussman](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georges-Eugene-Baron-Haussmann), who was committed to [Napoleon III](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Napoleon-III-emperor-of-France)’s vision of a modern city free of the choleric swamps and congested alleys of old, with broad avenues and a regular plan. Paris is now a sprawling metropolis, one of Europe’s largest conurbations, but its historic heart can still be [traversed](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/traversed) in an evening’s walk. Confident that their city stood at the very centre of the world, Parisians were once given to referring to their country as having two parts, Paris and _le désert_, the wasteland beyond it. Metropolitan Paris has now extended far beyond its ancient suburbs into the countryside, however, and nearly every French town and village now numbers a retiree or two driven from the city by the high [cost of living](https://www.britannica.com/money/cost-of-living), so that, in a sense, Paris has come to embrace the desert and the desert Paris.

Among France’s other major cities are [Lyon](https://www.britannica.com/place/Lyon-France), located along an ancient Rhône valley trade route linking the [North Sea](https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Sea) and the Mediterranean; [Marseille](https://www.britannica.com/place/Marseille), a multiethnic port on the Mediterranean founded as an entrepôt for Greek and Carthaginian traders in the 6th century bce; [Nantes](https://www.britannica.com/place/Nantes), an industrial centre and deepwater harbour along the Atlantic coast; and [Bordeaux](https://www.britannica.com/place/Bordeaux), located in southwestern France along the [Garonne River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Garonne-River).