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[Europe](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe)

Table of Contents


- [Introduction](/place/Europe)

- [Geologic history](/place/Europe/Geologic-history)



- [General considerations](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34517)

  - [Tectonic framework](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34518)

  - [Chronological summary](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34519)

- [Stratigraphy and structure](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34520)

  - [Precambrian](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34521)

  - [Paleozoic Era](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34522)

    - [Caledonian orogenic belt](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34523)

    - [Hercynian orogenic belt](/place/Europe/Hercynian-orogenic-belt)

    - [Uralian orogenic belt](/place/Europe/Hercynian-orogenic-belt#ref34525)

  - [Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras](/place/Europe/Hercynian-orogenic-belt#ref34526)

    - [North European and Russian platforms](/place/Europe/Hercynian-orogenic-belt#ref34527)

    - [Cenozoic igneous provinces](/place/Europe/Cenozoic-igneous-provinces)

    - [Iceland](/place/Europe/Cenozoic-igneous-provinces#ref34529)

    - [Pleistocene glaciation](/place/Europe/Cenozoic-igneous-provinces#ref34530)

    - [Modern geologic framework](/place/Europe/Cenozoic-igneous-provinces#ref34531)

- [Land](/place/Europe/Land)



- [Relief](/place/Europe/Land#ref34533)

  - [Elevations](/place/Europe/Land#ref34534)

  - [Physiographic units](/place/Europe/Land#ref34535)

    - [Coastal and interior lowlands](/place/Europe/Land#ref34536)

    - [Central uplands and plateaus](/place/Europe/Land#ref34537)

    - [Northwestern highlands](/place/Europe/Land#ref34538)

    - [Southern Europe](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe)

- [Drainage](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34540)

  - [Topographic influences](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34541)

  - [Hydrology](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34542)

  - [Lake systems and marshes](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34543)

- [Soils](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34544)

- [Climate](/place/Europe/Climate)

  - [Air pressure belts](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34548)

  - [Climatic regions](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34549)

    - [Maritime climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34550)

    - [Central European climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34551)

    - [Continental climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34552)

    - [Mediterranean climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34553)

  - [The effects of climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34554)

- [Plant life](/place/Europe/Plant-life)

  - [Major vegetation zones](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref34556)

  - [Shaping of vegetation zones](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref34562)

    - [Climatic change](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref34563)

    - [Role of humans](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref34564)

  - [Plant imports](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref280621)

- [Animal life](/place/Europe/Animal-life)

  - [Patterns of distribution](/place/Europe/Animal-life#ref34568)

    - [Wild animals](/place/Europe/Animal-life#ref280622)

    - [Domesticated animals](/place/Europe/Animal-life#ref280623)

  - [Conservation](/place/Europe/Animal-life#ref34573)

- [People](/place/Europe/People)



- [Cultural patterns](/place/Europe/People#ref34575)

  - [Culture groups](/place/Europe/People#ref34576)

  - [Languages](/place/Europe/People#ref34577)

    - [Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages](/place/Europe/People#ref34578)

    - [Other languages](/place/Europe/People#ref34579)

  - [Religions](/place/Europe/Religions)

    - [Christianity](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34581)

    - [Judaism and Islam](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34582)

- [Demographic patterns](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34583)

  - [Overall densities](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34584)

  - [Urban and rural settlement](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34585)

  - [Population trends](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34586)

  - [Migration](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34587)

- [Economy](/place/Europe/Economy)



- [Agriculture, forestry, and fishing](/place/Europe/Economy#ref34601)

  - [Agricultural distribution](/place/Europe/Economy#ref34602)

  - [Agricultural organization](/place/Europe/Economy#ref34603)

  - [Forestry and fishing](/place/Europe/Economy#ref280617)

- [Resources and power](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power)

  - [Mineral resources](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34590)

    - [Coal](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34591)

    - [Petroleum and natural gas](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34592)

    - [Uranium](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34593)

    - [Iron ores](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34594)

    - [Ferroalloy metals](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34595)

    - [Nonferrous base metals](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34596)

    - [Precious metals](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34597)

  - [Nonmetallic deposits](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34598)

  - [Water resources](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34599)

  - [Biological resources](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34600)

  - [Power](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34610)

- [Manufacturing](/place/Europe/Manufacturing)

  - [Heavy industry](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34606)

  - [Chemical industries](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34607)

  - [Light industry and handicrafts](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34608)

- [Trade](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34613)

  - [Trade within Europe](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34614)

  - [External trade](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34615)

- [Tourism](/place/Europe/Tourism)

- [Transportation](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34616)

  - [Roads](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34617)

  - [Railways](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34618)

  - [Waterways and pipelines](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34619)

  - [Airways](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34620)

  - [Animal transport](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref280619)

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/additional-info) [Related Topics](/facts/Europe)

[Images & Videos](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/images-videos)

[![Europe](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/367-004-7DADF3BA/Europe-political-boundaries-continent.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/367-050-CCA16287/Europe-political-boundaries-continent.jpg)[![Norway](https://cdn.britannica.com/64/100564-004-2A57E023/Noresund.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/64/100564-050-62B93A38/Noresund.jpg)[![Sveti Stefan](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/141562-004-7EE5F7DF/Sveti-Stefan-Montenegro.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/141562-050-720299C4/Sveti-Stefan-Montenegro.jpg)[![Faroe Islands: Tórshavn](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/189146-004-FB669326/Harbour-capital-Torshavn-Denmark-Faroe-Islands.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/189146-050-78A3FE99/Harbour-capital-Torshavn-Denmark-Faroe-Islands.jpg)[![Athens: Acropolis](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/102266-004-65D274D5/acropolis-city-state-Greece-Athens.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/102266-050-FBDEFCA1/acropolis-city-state-Greece-Athens.jpg)[![Pont du Gard, Nîmes, France](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/112156-004-C898B6B4/aqueduct-Pont-du-Gard-Roman-France-Nimes.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/112156-050-E0CDD0A3/aqueduct-Pont-du-Gard-Roman-France-Nimes.jpg)[![La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain](https://cdn.britannica.com/88/146688-004-E31F7E26/La-Palma-Canary-Islands-Spain.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/88/146688-050-2E1DB64A/La-Palma-Canary-Islands-Spain.jpg)[![European Parliament](https://cdn.britannica.com/99/124899-004-C9CA9737/European-Parliament-building-Strasbourg-France.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/99/124899-050-AE4B657A/European-Parliament-building-Strasbourg-France.jpg)[![geologic time](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/73167-004-106002DC/chart.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/73167-050-C66534D1/chart.jpg)[![structural features of Europe](https://cdn.britannica.com/80/380-004-46869B76/features-Europe.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/80/380-004-46869B76/features-Europe.jpg)

For Students


[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-124/images/shared/default3.png?v=3.124.78)](/summary/Europe)

[Europe summary](/summary/Europe)

Quizzes


[![The flag of the European Union](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/96866-131-9185DF09/Flag-European-Union.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/passport-to-europe)

[Passport to Europe](/quiz/passport-to-europe)

[![Euro dollars. Monetary unit and currency of the European Union.  (European money; monetary unit)](https://cdn.britannica.com/01/170801-131-AAC56BFD/Euro-currency-unit-European-Union.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/travelers-guide-to-europe)

[Traveler’s Guide to Europe](/quiz/travelers-guide-to-europe)

[![Front of a bullet train in the station in Zurich, Switzerland. High speed train. Hompepage blog 2009, geography and travel, science and technology passenger train transportation railroad](https://cdn.britannica.com/22/129522-131-07EA6EB9/bullet-train-Front-station-High-speed-Switzerland-2009.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/a-visit-to-europe)

[A Visit to Europe](/quiz/a-visit-to-europe)

[![Map showing the distribution of European ethnic culture areas. Thematic map.](https://cdn.britannica.com/69/369-131-D42B3F86/Map-culture-areas-groups-distribution-similarity-Europe.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/european-atlas)

[European Atlas](/quiz/european-atlas)

[![Top of Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, Germany](https://cdn.britannica.com/31/94531-131-A6E89842/Brandenburg-Gate-Berlin.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/uncover-europe)

[Uncover Europe](/quiz/uncover-europe)

Read Next


[![Map view of Europe on a geographical globe.](https://cdn.britannica.com/24/199024-131-FFEE0BC4/Map-view-globe-Europe.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/where-does-the-name-europe-come-from)

[Where Does the Name _Europe_ Come From?](/story/where-does-the-name-europe-come-from)

[![Union Jack flag of Great Britain, united kingdom](https://cdn.britannica.com/43/193443-131-17ABE1C9/Union-Jack-flag-Great-Britain-united-kingdom.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/whats-the-difference-between-great-britain-and-the-united-kingdom)

[What’s the Difference Between Great Britain and the United Kingdom?](/story/whats-the-difference-between-great-britain-and-the-united-kingdom)

[![Lead image for "10 Infographics that Explain the Normandy Invasion During World War II" list](https://cdn.britannica.com/33/218633-131-5FD231D0/Ten-Infographics-Normandy-Invasion-World-War-II.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/10-infographics-that-explain-the-normandy-invasion-during-world-war-ii)

[10 Infographics that Explain the Normandy Invasion During World War II](/list/10-infographics-that-explain-the-normandy-invasion-during-world-war-ii)

Discover


[![President Kennedy address on Test Ban Treaty, White House, Oval Office, July 26, 1963. President John F. Kennedy, President Kennedy](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/146446-131-83C57663/John-F-Kennedy-Test-Ban-Treaty-Oval-July-26-1963.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/11-memorable-quotes-from-us-presidential-debates)

[11 Memorable Quotes from U.S. Presidential Debates](/list/11-memorable-quotes-from-us-presidential-debates)

[![Encyclopaedia Britannica First Edition: Volume 1, Plate XLIII, Figure 1, Astronomy, Solar System, Equation of Time, Precession of Equinoxes, Earth, orbit, ecliptic, apogee, perigee, line of apsides, mean anomaly, tropical year, Sydereal, Julian](https://cdn.britannica.com/30/119830-131-D828BB6C/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-First-Edition-Volume-1-Figure.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/first-day-of-fall)

[First Day of Fall](/story/first-day-of-fall)

[![Orange basketball on black background and with low key lighting. Homepage 2010, arts and entertainment, history and society](https://cdn.britannica.com/31/142331-131-EE300AF6/basketball-Orange-background-lighting-Homepage-entertainment-history-2010.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/the-10-greatest-basketball-players-of-all-time)

[The 10 Greatest Basketball Players of All Time](/list/the-10-greatest-basketball-players-of-all-time)

[![A group of diverse individuals, who represent various occupations, stand with their arms raised in the air. labor day; laborers; construction worker; teacher; nurse; doctor; assistant; office staff; blue collar; workforce](https://cdn.britannica.com/40/239640-131-052DF02A/diverse-group-occupations-workforce.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/why-is-labor-day-celebrated-in-september)

[Why Is Labor Day Celebrated in September?](/story/why-is-labor-day-celebrated-in-september)

[![The Battle of New Orleans, by E. Percy Moran, c. 1910. Andrew Jackson, War of 1812.](https://cdn.britannica.com/94/159994-131-8E828D22/Battle-of-New-Orleans-oil-painting-E-1910.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/25-decade-defining-events-in-us-history)

[26 Decade-Defining Events in U.S. History](/story/25-decade-defining-events-in-us-history)

[![Aladdin and the Efrite, jinn, genie.](https://cdn.britannica.com/07/186707-131-EE0952B0/Efrite-Aladdin-jinn.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/5-creepy-things-from-the-thousand-and-one-nights)

[5 Creepy Things from _The Thousand and One Nights_](/list/5-creepy-things-from-the-thousand-and-one-nights)

[![United States Electoral College votes by state](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/220368-131-C835E48E/United-States-electoral-college-votes-by-state.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/how-many-electoral-college-votes-does-each-us-state-have)

[How Many Electoral College Votes Does Each U.S. State Have?](/story/how-many-electoral-college-votes-does-each-us-state-have)


Contents


[Geography & Travel](/browse/Geography-Travel)[Physical Geography of Land](/browse/Physical-Geography-Land)

# Europe

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External Websites


- [JewishEncyclopedia.com - Europe](https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5909-europe)
- [Social Sci LibreTexts - Introduction to Europe](https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_(Human)/The_Western_World_-_Daily_Readings_on_Geography_(Quam_and_Campbell)/04%3A_Europe/4.01%3A_Introduction_to_Europe)
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- [Europe - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)](https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Europe/353110)
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External Websites


- [JewishEncyclopedia.com - Europe](https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5909-europe)
- [Social Sci LibreTexts - Introduction to Europe](https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_(Human)/The_Western_World_-_Daily_Readings_on_Geography_(Quam_and_Campbell)/04%3A_Europe/4.01%3A_Introduction_to_Europe)
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- [Europe - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)](https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Europe/353110)
- [Europe - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)](https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Europe/274228)


Written by


[Thomas M. Poulsen\
\
Emeritus Professor of Geography, Portland State University, Oregon. Author of _Nations and States: A Geographic Background to World Affairs._](/contributor/Thomas-M-Poulsen/3609)

Thomas M. Poulsen,

[W. Gordon East\
\
Professor of Geography, Birkbeck College, University of London, 1947–70. Author of _An Historical Geography of Europe_ and others.](/contributor/W-Gordon-East/823)

W. Gordon East• [All](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/additional-info#contributors)

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Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)

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• [Article History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/additional-info#history)


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[Europe](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/367-050-CCA16287/Europe-political-boundaries-continent.jpg)(more)

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/64/100564-050-62B93A38/Noresund.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/64/100564-050-62B93A38/Noresund.jpg)

[Norway](https://cdn.britannica.com/64/100564-050-62B93A38/Noresund.jpg) Noresund, Norway.(more)

**Europe**, second smallest of the world’s [continents](https://www.britannica.com/science/continent), composed of the westward-projecting peninsulas of [Eurasia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Eurasia) (the great landmass that it shares with [Asia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia)) and occupying nearly one-fifteenth of the world’s total land area. It is bordered on the north by the [Arctic Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/place/Arctic-Ocean), on the west by the [Atlantic Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean), and on the south (west to east) by the [Mediterranean Sea](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mediterranean-Sea), the [Black Sea](https://www.britannica.com/place/Black-Sea), the [Kuma-Manych Depression](https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuma-Manych-Depression), and the [Caspian Sea](https://www.britannica.com/place/Caspian-Sea). The [continent’s](https://www.britannica.com/science/continent) eastern boundary (north to south) runs along the [Ural Mountains](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ural-Mountains) and then roughly southwest along the Emba (Zhem) River, terminating at the northern Caspian coast.

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/141562-050-720299C4/Sveti-Stefan-Montenegro.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/141562-050-720299C4/Sveti-Stefan-Montenegro.jpg)

[Sveti Stefan](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/141562-050-720299C4/Sveti-Stefan-Montenegro.jpg) Sveti Stefan, Montenegro.(more)

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/189146-050-78A3FE99/Harbour-capital-Torshavn-Denmark-Faroe-Islands.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/189146-050-78A3FE99/Harbour-capital-Torshavn-Denmark-Faroe-Islands.jpg)

[Faroe Islands: Tórshavn](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/189146-050-78A3FE99/Harbour-capital-Torshavn-Denmark-Faroe-Islands.jpg) Harbour of Tórshavn, capital of the Faroe Islands, Denmark.(more)

Europe’s largest islands and archipelagoes include [Novaya Zemlya](https://www.britannica.com/place/Novaya-Zemlya), [Franz Josef Land](https://www.britannica.com/place/Franz-Josef-Land), [Svalbard](https://www.britannica.com/place/Svalbard), [Iceland](https://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland), the [Faroe Islands](https://www.britannica.com/place/Faroe-Islands-Atlantic-Ocean), the [British Isles](https://www.britannica.com/place/British-Isles), the [Balearic Islands](https://www.britannica.com/place/Balearic-Islands), [Corsica](https://www.britannica.com/place/Corsica), [Sardinia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Sardinia-island-Italy), [Sicily](https://www.britannica.com/place/Sicily), [Malta](https://www.britannica.com/place/Malta), [Crete](https://www.britannica.com/place/Crete), and [Cyprus](https://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus). Its major peninsulas include [Jutland](https://www.britannica.com/place/Jutland) and the [Scandinavian](https://www.britannica.com/place/Scandinavian-Peninsula), [Iberian](https://www.britannica.com/place/Iberian-Peninsula), [Italian](https://www.britannica.com/place/Italian-Peninsula), and [Balkan](https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans) peninsulas. Indented by numerous bays, fjords, and seas, continental Europe’s highly irregular coastline is about 24,000 miles (38,000 km) long.

Among the continents, Europe is an [anomaly](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anomaly). Larger only than [Australia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia), it is a small appendage of Eurasia. Yet the peninsular and insular western extremity of the continent, thrusting toward the North Atlantic Ocean, provides—thanks to its latitude and its physical geography—a relatively genial human habitat, and the long processes of human history came to mark off the region as the home of a distinctive civilization. In spite of its internal [diversity](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diversity), Europe has thus functioned, from the time it first emerged in the human [consciousness](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consciousness), as a world apart, concentrating—to borrow a phrase from [Christopher Marlowe](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christopher-Marlowe)—“infinite riches in a little room.”

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/102266-050-FBDEFCA1/acropolis-city-state-Greece-Athens.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/102266-050-FBDEFCA1/acropolis-city-state-Greece-Athens.jpg)

[Athens: Acropolis](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/102266-050-FBDEFCA1/acropolis-city-state-Greece-Athens.jpg) The Acropolis and surrounding area, Athens.(more)

As a [conceptual](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conceptual) construct, Europa, as the more learned of the [ancient Greeks](https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Greece) first conceived it, stood in sharp contrast to both [Asia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia-ancient-Roman-province) and Libya, the name then applied to the known northern part of [Africa](https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa). Literally, [Europa](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Europa-Greek-mythology) is now thought to have meant “Mainland,” rather than the earlier interpretation, “Sunset.” It appears to have suggested itself to the Greeks, in their maritime world, as an appropriate [designation](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/designation) for the extensive northerly lands that lay beyond, lands with characteristics vaguely known yet clearly different from those [inherent](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/inherent) in the concepts of Asia and Libya—both of which, relatively prosperous and civilized, were associated closely with the [culture](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture) of the Greeks and their predecessors. From the Greek perspective then, Europa was culturally backward and scantily settled. It was a barbarian world—that is, a non-Greek one, with its inhabitants making “bar-bar” noises in unintelligible tongues. Traders and travelers also reported that the Europe beyond [Greece](https://www.britannica.com/place/Greece) possessed distinctive physical units, with mountain systems and lowland river basins much larger than those familiar to inhabitants of the Mediterranean region. It was clear as well that a succession of climates, markedly different from those of the Mediterranean borderlands, were to be experienced as Europe was penetrated from the south. The spacious eastern steppes and, to the west and north, primeval forests as [yet](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/yet) only marginally touched by human occupancy further underlined environmental contrasts.

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/112156-050-E0CDD0A3/aqueduct-Pont-du-Gard-Roman-France-Nimes.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/112156-050-E0CDD0A3/aqueduct-Pont-du-Gard-Roman-France-Nimes.jpg)

[Pont du Gard, Nîmes, France](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/112156-050-E0CDD0A3/aqueduct-Pont-du-Gard-Roman-France-Nimes.jpg) Pont du Gard, an ancient Roman aqueduct near Nîmes, France.(more)

[![The flag of the European Union](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/96866-131-9185DF09/Flag-European-Union.jpg)\
\
Britannica Quiz\
\
Passport to Europe](/quiz/passport-to-europe)

The empire of [ancient Rome](https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome), at its greatest extent in the 2nd century ce, revealed, and imprinted its culture on, much of the face of the continent. Trade relations beyond its frontiers also drew the remoter regions into its sphere. Yet it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries that modern [science](https://www.britannica.com/science/science) was able to draw with some precision the geologic and geographic lineaments of the European continent, the peoples of which had meanwhile achieved domination over—and set in motion vast countervailing movements among—the inhabitants of much of the rest of the globe ( _see_ [Western colonialism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-colonialism)).

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/88/146688-050-2E1DB64A/La-Palma-Canary-Islands-Spain.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/88/146688-050-2E1DB64A/La-Palma-Canary-Islands-Spain.jpg)

[La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain](https://cdn.britannica.com/88/146688-050-2E1DB64A/La-Palma-Canary-Islands-Spain.jpg)(more)

As to the territorial limits of Europe, they may seem relatively clear on its seaward flanks, but many island groups far to the north and west—Svalbard, the Faroes, Iceland, and the [Madeira](https://www.britannica.com/place/Madeira-Islands) and [Canary](https://www.britannica.com/place/Canary-Islands) islands—are considered European, while [Greenland](https://www.britannica.com/place/Greenland) (though tied politically to Denmark) is conventionally [allocated](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/allocated) to [North America](https://www.britannica.com/place/North-America). Furthermore, the Mediterranean coastlands of [North Africa](https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Africa) and southwestern Asia also exhibit some European physical and cultural [affinities](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/affinities). [Turkey](https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey) and [Cyprus](https://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus) in particular, while geologically Asian, possess elements of European culture and may be regarded as parts of Europe. Indeed, Turkey has sought membership in the [European Union](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Union) (EU), and the Republic of Cyprus joined the organization in 2004.

![](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp)

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Europe’s boundaries have been especially uncertain, and hence much debated, on the east, where the continent merges, without sundering physical boundaries, with parts of western Asia. The eastward limits now adopted by most geographers exclude the [Caucasus](https://www.britannica.com/place/Caucasus) region and [encompass](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encompass) a small portion of [Kazakhstan](https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan), where the European boundary formed by the northern [Caspian](https://www.britannica.com/place/Caspian-Sea) coast is connected to that of the Urals by Kazakhstan’s Emba River and Mughalzhar (Mugodzhar) Hills, themselves a southern extension of the Urals. Among the [alternative](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alternative) boundaries proposed by geographers that have gained wide acceptance is a scheme that sees the crest of the [Greater Caucasus](https://www.britannica.com/place/Greater-Caucasus) range as the dividing line between Europe and Asia, placing [Ciscaucasia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ciscaucasia), the northern part of the Caucasus region, in Europe and [Transcaucasia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Transcaucasia), the southern part, in Asia. Another widely [endorsed](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/endorsed) scheme puts the western portion of the Caucasus region in Europe and the eastern part—that is, the bulk of [Azerbaijan](https://www.britannica.com/place/Azerbaijan) and small portions of [Armenia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Armenia), [Georgia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Georgia), and Russia’s Caspian Sea coast—in Asia. Still another scheme with many adherents locates the continental boundary along the [Aras River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Aras-River) and the Turkish border, thereby putting Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia in Europe.

Europe’s eastern boundary, however, is not a cultural, political, or economic discontinuity on the land comparable, for example, to the insulating significance of the [Himalayas](https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas), which clearly mark a northern limit to South Asian civilization. Inhabited plains, with only the minor interruption of the worn-down Urals, extend from central Europe to the [Yenisey River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Yenisey-River) in central [Siberia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Siberia). Slavic-based civilization dominates much of the territory occupied by the former [Soviet Union](https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union) from the Baltic and Black seas to the [Pacific Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean). That civilization is distinguished from the rest of Europe by [legacies](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legacies) of a [medieval](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/medieval) [Mongol](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mongol)- [Tatar](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tatar) domination that precluded the sharing of many of the [innovations](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/innovations) and developments of European “Western civilization”; it became further distinctive during the relative isolation of the Soviet period. In partitioning the globe into meaningful large geographic units, therefore, most modern geographers treated the former Soviet Union as a distinct territorial entity, comparable to a continent, that was somewhat separate from Europe to the west and from Asia to the south and east; that distinction has been maintained for [Russia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia), which [constituted](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituted) three-fourths of the Soviet Union.

Europe occupies some 4 million square miles (10 million square km) within the conventional borders assigned to it. That broad territory reveals no simple unity of geologic structure, landform, relief, or climate. Rocks of all geologic periods are exposed, and the operation of geologic forces during an immense succession of eras has contributed to the molding of the landscapes of mountain, plateau, and lowland and has [bequeathed](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bequeathed) a variety of mineral reserves. Glaciation too has left its mark over wide areas, and the processes of erosion and [deposition](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/deposition) have created a highly variegated and compartmentalized countryside. Climatically, Europe benefits by having only a small proportion of its surface either too cold or too hot and dry for effective settlement and use. Regional climatic contrasts nevertheless exist: oceanic, Mediterranean, and continental types occur widely, as do gradations from one to the other. Associated vegetation and soil forms also show continual variety, but only portions of the dominant woodland that clothed most of the continent when humans first appeared now remain.

[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/99/124899-050-AE4B657A/European-Parliament-building-Strasbourg-France.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/99/124899-050-AE4B657A/European-Parliament-building-Strasbourg-France.jpg)

[European Parliament](https://cdn.britannica.com/99/124899-050-AE4B657A/European-Parliament-building-Strasbourg-France.jpg) European Parliament building, Strasbourg, France.(more)

All in all, Europe enjoys a considerable and long-exploited resource base of soil, [forest](https://www.britannica.com/science/forest), sea, and minerals (notably coal), but its people are increasingly its principal resource. The continent, [excluding](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/excluding) Russia, contains less than one-tenth of the total population of the world, but in general its people are well educated and highly skilled. Europe also supports high densities of population, concentrated in urban-industrial regions. A growing percentage of people in urban areas are employed in a wide range of service activities, which have come to dominate the economies of most countries. Nonetheless, in manufacturing and agriculture Europe still occupies an eminent, if no longer necessarily predominant, position. The creation of the [European Economic Community](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Community-European-economic-association) in 1957 and the EU in 1993 greatly [enhanced](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/enhanced) economic cooperation between many of the continent’s countries. Europe’s continuing economic achievements are evidenced by its high [standard of living](https://www.britannica.com/money/standard-of-living) and its successes in science, technology, and the arts.

This article treats the physical and human geography of Europe. For discussion of individual countries of the continent, _see_ specific articles by name—e.g., [Italy](https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy), [Poland](https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland), and [United Kingdom](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom). For discussion of major cities of the continent, _see_ specific articles by name—e.g., [Rome](https://www.britannica.com/place/Rome), [Warsaw](https://www.britannica.com/place/Warsaw), and [London](https://www.britannica.com/place/London). The principal articles discussing the historical and cultural development of the continent include [history of Europe](https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe); [European exploration](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-exploration); [Western colonialism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-colonialism); [Aegean civilizations](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aegean-civilization); [ancient Greek civilization](https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Greece); [ancient Rome](https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome); [Byzantine Empire](https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire); and [Holy Roman Empire](https://www.britannica.com/place/Holy-Roman-Empire). Related topics are discussed in such articles as those on religion (e.g., [Judaism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism) and [Roman Catholicism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism)) and literature (e.g., [Greek literature](https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-literature); [Dutch literature](https://www.britannica.com/art/Dutch-literature); and [Spanish literature](https://www.britannica.com/art/Spanish-literature)).

[W. Gordon East](/contributor/W-Gordon-East/823)[Thomas M. Poulsen](/contributor/Thomas-M-Poulsen/3609)[William H. Berentsen](/contributor/William-H-Berentsen/4877)