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Thomas Stearns Eliot (26 September 18884 January 1965) was a poet, essayist, publisher, playwright, literary critic and editor. Considered one of the 20th century's major poets, he is a central figure in English-language Modernist poetry. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, to a prominent Boston Brahmin family, he moved to England in 1914 at the age of 25 and went on to settle, work, and marry there. He became a British citizen in 1927 at the age of 39, subsequently renouncing his American citizenship. Eliot first attracted widespread attention for his poem "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" in 1915, which, at the time of its publication, was considered outlandish. It was followed by "The Waste Land" (1922), "The Hollow Men" (1925), "Ash Wednesday" (1930), and Four Quartets (1943). He was also known for seven plays, particularly Murder in the Cathedral (1935) and The Cocktail Party (1949). He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948, "for his outstanding, pioneer contribution to present-day poetry". Life Early life and education The Eliots were a Boston Brahmin family, with roots in England and New England. Eliot's paternal grandfather, William Greenleaf Eliot, had moved to St. Louis, Missouri, to establish a Unitarian Christian church there. His father, Henry Ware Eliot (1843–1919), was a successful businessman, president and treasurer of the Hydraulic-Press Brick Company in St Louis. His mother, Charlotte Champe Stearns (1843–1929), who wrote poetry, was a social worker, which was a new profession in the U.S. in the early 20th century. Eliot was the last of six surviving children. Known to family and friends as Tom, he was the namesake of his maternal grandfather, Thomas Stearns. Eliot's childhood infatuation with literature can be ascribed to several factors. First, he had to overcome physical limitations as a child. Struggling from a congenital double inguinal hernia, he could not participate in many physical activities and thus was prevented from socialising with his peers. As he was often isolated, his love for literature developed. Once he learned to read, the young boy immediately became obsessed with books, favouring tales of savage life, the Wild West, or Mark Twain's thrill-seeking Tom Sawyer. In his memoir of Eliot, his friend Robert Sencourt comments that the young Eliot "would often curl up in the window-seat behind an enormous book, setting the drug of dreams against the pain of living." Secondly, Eliot credited his hometown with fuelling his literary vision: "It is self-evident that St. Louis affected me more deeply than any other environment has ever done. I feel that there is something in having passed one's childhood beside the big river, which is incommunicable to those people who have not. I consider myself fortunate to have been born here, rather than in Boston, or New York, or London." From 1898 to 1905, Eliot attended Smith Academy, the boys college preparatory division of Washington University, where his studies included Latin, Ancient Greek, French, and German. He began to write poetry when he was 14 under the influence of Edward Fitzgerald's translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. He said the results were gloomy and despairing and he destroyed them. His first published poem, "A Fable For Feasters", was written as a school exercise and was published in the Smith Academy Record in February 1905. Also published there in April 1905 was his oldest surviving poem in manuscript, an untitled lyric, later revised and reprinted as "Song" in The Harvard Advocate, Harvard University's student literary magazine. He also published three short stories in 1905, "Birds of Prey", "A Tale of a Whale" and "The Man Who Was King". The last mentioned story reflected his exploration of the Igorot Village while visiting the 1904 World's Fair of St. Louis. His interest in indigenous peoples thus antedated his anthropological studies at Harvard. Eliot lived in St. Louis, Missouri for the first 16 years of his life at the house on Locust Street where he was born. After going away to school in 1905, he only returned to St. Louis for vacations and visits. Despite moving away from the city, Eliot wrote to a friend that the "Missouri and the Mississippi have made a deeper impression on me than any other part of the world." Following graduation from Smith Academy, Eliot attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts for a preparatory year, where he met Scofield Thayer who later published The Waste Land. He studied at Harvard College from 1906 to 1909, earning a Bachelor of Arts in an elective program similar to comparative literature in 1909 and a Master of Arts in English literature the following year. Because of his year at Milton Academy, Eliot was allowed to earn his Bachelor of Arts after three years instead of the usual four. Frank Kermode writes that the most important moment of Eliot's undergraduate career was in 1908 when he discovered Arthur Symons's The Symbolist Movement in Literature. This introduced him to Jules Laforgue, Arthur Rimbaud, and Paul Verlaine. Without Verlaine, Eliot wrote, he might never have heard of Tristan Corbière and his book Les amours jaunes, a work that affected the course of Eliot's life. The Harvard Advocate published some of his poems and he became lifelong friends with Conrad Aiken, the American writer and critic. After working as a philosophy assistant at Harvard from 1909 to 1910, Eliot moved to Paris where, from 1910 to 1911, he studied philosophy at the Sorbonne. He attended lectures by Henri Bergson and read poetry with Henri Alban-Fournier. From 1911 to 1914, he was back at Harvard studying Indian philosophy and Sanskrit. Whilst a member of the Harvard Graduate School, Eliot met and fell in love with Emily Hale. Eliot was awarded a scholarship to Merton College, Oxford, in 1914. He first visited Marburg, Germany, where he planned to take a summer programme, but when the First World War broke out he went to Oxford instead. At the time so many American students attended Merton that the Junior Common Room proposed a motion "that this society abhors the Americanization of Oxford". It was defeated by two votes after Eliot reminded the students how much they owed American culture. Eliot wrote to Conrad Aiken on New Year's Eve 1914: "I hate university towns and university people, who are the same everywhere, with pregnant wives, sprawling children, many books and hideous pictures on the walls [...] Oxford is very pretty, but I don't like to be dead." Escaping Oxford, Eliot spent much of his time in London. This city had a monumental and life-altering effect on Eliot for several reasons, the most significant of which was his introduction to the influential American literary figure Ezra Pound. A connection through Aiken resulted in an arranged meeting and on 22 September 1914, Eliot paid a visit to Pound's flat. Pound instantly deemed Eliot "worth watching" and was crucial to Eliot's fledgling career as a poet, as he is credited with promoting Eliot through social events and literary gatherings. Thus, according to biographer John Worthen, during his time in England Eliot "was seeing as little of Oxford as possible". He was instead spending long periods of time in London, in the company of Ezra Pound and "some of the modern artists whom the war has so far spared [...] It was Pound who helped most, introducing him everywhere." In the end, Eliot did not settle at Merton and left after a year. In 1915 he taught English at Birkbeck, University of London. In 1916, he completed a doctoral dissertation for Harvard on "Knowledge and Experience in the Philosophy of F. H. Bradley", but he failed to return for the viva voce exam. Marriage Before leaving the US, Eliot had told Emily Hale that he was in love with her. He exchanged letters with her from Oxford during 1914 and 1915, but they did not meet again until 1927. In a letter to Aiken late in December 1914, Eliot, aged 26, wrote: "I am very dependent upon women (I mean female society)." Less than four months later, Thayer introduced Eliot to Vivienne Haigh-Wood, a Cambridge governess. They were married at Hampstead Register Office on 26 June 1915. After a short visit, alone, to his family in the United States, Eliot returned to London and took several teaching jobs, such as lecturing at Birkbeck College, University of London. The philosopher Bertrand Russell took an interest in Vivienne while the newlyweds stayed in his flat. Some scholars have suggested that she and Russell had an affair, but the allegations were never confirmed. The marriage was markedly unhappy, in part because of Vivienne's health problems. In a letter addressed to Ezra Pound, she covers an extensive list of her symptoms, which included a habitually high temperature, fatigue, insomnia, migraines, and colitis. This, coupled with apparent mental instability, meant that she was often sent away by Eliot and her doctors for extended periods of time in the hope of improving her health. And as time went on, he became increasingly detached from her. The couple formally separated in 1933 and in 1938 Vivienne's brother, Maurice, had her committed to a mental hospital, against her will, where she remained until her death of heart disease in 1947. Their relationship became the subject of a 1984 play Tom & Viv, which in 1994 was adapted as a film of the same name. In a private paper written in his sixties, Eliot confessed: "I came to persuade myself that I was in love with Vivienne simply because I wanted to burn my boats and commit myself to staying in England. And she persuaded herself (also under the influence of [Ezra] Pound) that she would save the poet by keeping him in England. To her, the marriage brought no happiness. To me, it brought the state of mind out of which came The Waste Land." Teaching, banking, and publishing After leaving Merton, Eliot worked as a schoolteacher, most notably at Highgate School in London, where he taught French and Latin: his students included John Betjeman. He subsequently taught at the Royal Grammar School, High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire. To earn extra money, he wrote book reviews and lectured at evening extension courses at University College London and Oxford. In 1917, he took a position at Lloyds Bank in London, working on foreign accounts. On a trip to Paris in August 1920 with the artist Wyndham Lewis, he met the writer James Joyce. Eliot said he found Joyce arrogant, and Joyce doubted Eliot's ability as a poet at the time, but the two writers soon became friends, with Eliot visiting Joyce whenever he was in Paris. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis also maintained a close friendship, leading to Lewis's later making his well-known portrait painting of Eliot in 1938. Charles Whibley recommended T.S. Eliot to Geoffrey Faber. In 1925 Eliot left Lloyds to become a director in the publishing firm Faber and Gwyer (later Faber and Faber), where he remained for the rest of his career. At Faber and Faber, he was responsible for publishing distinguished English poets, including W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender, Charles Madge and Ted Hughes. Conversion to Anglicanism and British citizenship On 29 June 1927, Eliot converted from Unitarianism to Anglicanism, and in November that year he took British citizenship. He became a churchwarden of his parish church, St Stephen's, Gloucester Road, London, and a life member of the Society of King Charles the Martyr. He specifically identified as Anglo-Catholic, proclaiming himself "classicist in literature, royalist in politics, and anglo-catholic in religion". About 30 years later Eliot commented on his religious views that he combined "a Catholic cast of mind, a Calvinist heritage, and a Puritanical temperament". He also had wider spiritual interests, commenting that "I see the path of progress for modern man in his occupation with his own self, with his inner being" and citing Goethe and Rudolf Steiner as exemplars of such a direction. One of Eliot's biographers, Peter Ackroyd, commented that "the purposes of [Eliot's conversion] were two-fold. One: the Church of England offered Eliot some hope for himself, and I think Eliot needed some resting place. But secondly, it attached Eliot to the English community and English culture." Separation and remarriage By 1932, Eliot had been contemplating a separation from his wife for some time. When Harvard offered him the Charles Eliot Norton professorship for the 1932–1933 academic year, he accepted and left Vivienne in England. Upon his return, he arranged for a formal separation from her, avoiding all but one meeting with her between his leaving for America in 1932 and her death in 1947. Vivienne was committed to the Northumberland House mental hospital in Woodberry Down, Manor House, London, in 1938, and remained there until she died. Although Eliot was still legally her husband, he never visited her. From 1933 to 1946 Eliot had a close emotional relationship with Emily Hale. Eliot later destroyed Hale's letters to him, but Hale donated Eliot's to Princeton University Library where they were sealed until 2020. When Eliot heard of the donation he deposited his own account of their relationship with Harvard University to be opened whenever the Princeton letters were. From 1938 to 1957 Eliot's public companion was Mary Trevelyan of London University, who wanted to marry him and left a detailed memoir. From 1946 to 1957, Eliot shared a flat at 19 Carlyle Mansions, Chelsea, with his friend John Davy Hayward, who collected and managed Eliot's papers, styling himself "Keeper of the Eliot Archive". Hayward also collected Eliot's pre-Prufrock verse, commercially published after Eliot's death as Poems Written in Early Youth. When Eliot and Hayward separated their household in 1957, Hayward retained his collection of Eliot's papers, which he bequeathed to King's College, Cambridge, in 1965. On 10 January 1957, at the age of 68, Eliot married Esmé Valerie Fletcher, who was 30. In contrast to his first marriage, Eliot knew Fletcher well, as she had been his secretary at Faber and Faber since August 1949. They kept their wedding secret; the ceremony was held in St. Barnabas' Church, Kensington, London, at 6:15 am with virtually no one in attendance other than his wife's parents. Eliot had no children with either of his wives. In the early 1960s, by then in failing health, Eliot worked as an editor for the Wesleyan University Press, seeking new poets in Europe for publication. After Eliot's death, Valerie dedicated her time to preserving his legacy, by editing and annotating The Letters of T. S. Eliot and a facsimile of the draft of The Waste Land. Valerie Eliot died on 9 November 2012 at her home in London. Death and honours Eliot died of emphysema at his home in Kensington in London, on 4 January 1965, and was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium. In accordance with his wishes, his ashes were taken to St Michael and All Angels' Church, East Coker, the village in Somerset from which his Eliot ancestors had emigrated to America. A wall plaque in the church commemorates him with a quotation from his poem East Coker: "In my beginning is my end. In my end is my beginning." In 1967, on the second anniversary of his death, Eliot was commemorated by the placement of a large stone in the floor of Poets' Corner in London's Westminster Abbey. The stone, cut by designer Reynolds Stone, is inscribed with his life dates, his Order of Merit, and a quotation from his poem Little Gidding, "the communication / of the dead is tongued with fire beyond / the language of the living." In 1986, a blue plaque was placed on the apartment block - No. 3 Kensington Court Gardens - where he lived and died. Poetry For a poet of his stature, Eliot produced a relatively small number of poems. He was aware of this even early in his career. He wrote to J.H. Woods, one of his former Harvard professors, "My reputation in London is built upon one small volume of verse, and is kept up by printing two or three more poems in a year. The only thing that matters is that these should be perfect in their kind, so that each should be an event." Typically, Eliot first published his poems individually in periodicals or in small books or pamphlets and then collected them in books. His first collection was Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). In 1920, he published more poems in Ara Vos Prec (London) and Poems: 1920 (New York). These had the same poems (in a different order) except that "Ode" in the British edition was replaced with "Hysteria" in the American edition. In 1925, he collected The Waste Land and the poems in Prufrock and Poems into one volume and added The Hollow Men to form Poems: 1909–1925. From then on, he updated this work as Collected Poems. Exceptions are Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats (1939), a collection of light verse; Poems Written in Early Youth, posthumously published in 1967 and consisting mainly of poems published between 1907 and 1910 in The Harvard Advocate, and Inventions of the March Hare: Poems 1909–1917, material Eliot never intended to have published, which appeared posthumously in 1997. During an interview in 1959, Eliot said of his nationality and its role in his work: "I'd say that my poetry has obviously more in common with my distinguished contemporaries in America than with anything written in my generation in England. That I'm sure of. ... It wouldn't be what it is, and I imagine it wouldn't be so good; putting it as modestly as I can, it wouldn't be what it is if I'd been born in England, and it wouldn't be what it is if I'd stayed in America. It's a combination of things. But in its sources, in its emotional springs, it comes from America." Cleo McNelly Kearns notes in her biography that Eliot was deeply influenced by Indic traditions, notably the Upanishads. From the Sanskrit ending of The Waste Land to the "What Krishna meant" section of Four Quartets shows how much Indic religions and more specifically Hinduism made up his philosophical basic for his thought process. It must also be acknowledged, as Chinmoy Guha showed in his book Where the Dreams Cross: T S Eliot and French Poetry (Macmillan, 2011) that he was deeply influenced by French poets from Baudelaire to Paul Valéry. He himself wrote in his 1940 essay on W.B. Yeats: "The kind of poetry that I needed to teach me the use of my own voice did not exist in English at all; it was only to be found in French." ("Yeats", On Poetry and Poets, 1948). "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" In 1915, Ezra Pound, overseas editor of Poetry magazine, recommended to Harriet Monroe, the magazine's founder, that she should publish "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock". Although the character Prufrock seems to be middle-aged, Eliot wrote most of the poem when he was only twenty-two. Its now-famous opening lines, comparing the evening sky to "a patient etherised upon a table", were considered shocking and offensive, especially at a time when Georgian Poetry was hailed for its derivations of the nineteenth century Romantic Poets. The poem's structure was heavily influenced by Eliot's extensive reading of Dante and refers to a number of literary works, including Hamlet and those of the French Symbolists. Its reception in London can be gauged from an unsigned review in The Times Literary Supplement on 21 June 1917. "The fact that these things occurred to the mind of Mr. Eliot is surely of the very smallest importance to anyone, even to himself. They certainly have no relation to poetry." "The Waste Land" In October 1922, Eliot published "The Waste Land" in The Criterion. Eliot's dedication to il miglior fabbro ('the better craftsman') refers to Ezra Pound's significant hand in editing and reshaping the poem from a longer Eliot manuscript, to the shortened version that appears in publication. It was composed during a period of personal difficulty for Eliot—his marriage was failing, and both he and Vivienne were suffering from nervous disorders. Before the poem's publication as a book in December 1922, Eliot distanced himself from its vision of despair. On 15 November 1922, he wrote to Richard Aldington, saying, "As for The Waste Land, that is a thing of the past so far as I am concerned and I am now feeling toward a new form and style." The poem is often read as a representation of the disillusionment of the post-war generation. Dismissing this view, Eliot commented in 1931, "When I wrote a poem called The Waste Land, some of the more approving critics said that I had expressed ‘the disillusion of a generation’, which is nonsense. I may have expressed for them their own illusion of being disillusioned, but that did not form part of my intention" The poem is known for its obscure nature—its slippage between satire and prophecy; its abrupt changes of speaker, location, and time. This structural complexity is one of the reasons why the poem has become a touchstone of modern literature, a poetic counterpart to a novel published in the same year, James Joyce's Ulysses. Among its best-known phrases are "April is the cruellest month", "I will show you fear in a handful of dust" and "Shantih shantih shantih". The Sanskrit mantra ends the poem. "The Hollow Men" "The Hollow Men" appeared in 1925. For the critic Edmund Wilson, it marked "The nadir of the phase of despair and desolation given such effective expression in 'The Waste Land'." It is Eliot's major poem of the late 1920s. Similar to Eliot's other works, its themes are overlapping and fragmentary. Post-war Europe under the Treaty of Versailles (which Eliot despised), the difficulty of hope and religious conversion, Eliot's failed marriage. Allen Tate perceived a shift in Eliot's method, writing, "The mythologies disappear altogether in 'The Hollow Men'." This is a striking claim for a poem as indebted to Dante as anything else in Eliot's early work, to say little of the modern English mythology—the "Old Guy Fawkes" of the Gunpowder Plot—or the colonial and agrarian mythos of Joseph Conrad and James George Frazer, which, at least for reasons of textual history, echo in The Waste Land. The "continuous parallel between contemporaneity and antiquity" that is so characteristic of his mythical method remained in fine form. "The Hollow Men" contains some of Eliot's most famous lines, notably its conclusion: This is the way the world endsNot with a bang but a whimper. "Ash-Wednesday" "Ash-Wednesday" is the first long poem written by Eliot, after his 1927 conversion to Anglicanism. Published in 1930, it deals with the struggle that ensues when a person who has lacked faith acquires it. Sometimes referred to as Eliot's "conversion poem", it is richly but ambiguously allusive, and deals with the aspiration to move from spiritual barrenness to hope for human salvation. Eliot's style of writing in "Ash-Wednesday" showed a marked shift from the poetry he had written prior to his 1927 conversion, and his post-conversion style continued in a similar vein. His style became less ironic, and the poems were no longer populated by multiple characters in dialogue. Eliot's subject matter also became more focused on his spiritual concerns and his Christian faith. Many critics were particularly enthusiastic about "Ash-Wednesday". Edwin Muir maintained that it is one of the most moving poems Eliot wrote, and perhaps the "most perfect", though it was not well received by everyone. The poem's groundwork of orthodox Christianity discomfited many of the more secular literati. Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats In 1939, Eliot published a book of light verse, Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats. ("Old Possum" was Ezra Pound's friendly nickname for Eliot.) The first edition had an illustration of the author on the cover. In 1954, the composer Alan Rawsthorne set six of the poems for speaker and orchestra in a work titled Practical Cats. After Eliot's death, the book was the basis of the musical Cats by Andrew Lloyd Webber, first produced in London's West End in 1981 and opening on Broadway the following year. Four Quartets Eliot regarded Four Quartets as his masterpiece, and it is the work that most of all led him to being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. It consists of four long poems, each first published separately: "Burnt Norton" (1936), "East Coker" (1940), "The Dry Salvages" (1941) and "Little Gidding" (1942). Each has five sections. Although they resist easy characterisation, each poem includes meditations on the nature of time in some important respect—theological, historical, physical—and its relation to the human condition. Each poem is associated with one of the four classical elements, respectively: air, earth, water, and fire. "Burnt Norton" is a meditative poem that begins with the narrator trying to focus on the present moment while walking through a garden, focusing on images and sounds such as the bird, the roses, clouds and an empty pool. The meditation leads the narrator to reach "the still point" in which there is no attempt to get anywhere or to experience place and/or time, instead experiencing "a grace of sense". In the final section, the narrator contemplates the arts ("words" and "music") as they relate to time. The narrator focuses particularly on the poet's art of manipulating "Words [which] strain, / Crack and sometimes break, under the burden [of time], under the tension, slip, slide, perish, decay with imprecision, [and] will not stay in place, / Will not stay still." By comparison, the narrator concludes that "Love is itself unmoving, / Only the cause and end of movement, / Timeless, and undesiring." "East Coker" continues the examination of time and meaning, focusing in a famous passage on the nature of language and poetry. Out of darkness, Eliot offers a solution: "I said to my soul, be still, and wait without hope." "The Dry Salvages" treats the element of water, via images of river and sea. It strives to contain opposites: "The past and future / Are conquered, and reconciled." "Little Gidding" (the element of fire) is the most anthologised of the Quartets. Eliot's experiences as an air raid warden in the Blitz power the poem, and he imagines meeting Dante during the German bombing. The beginning of the Quartets ("Houses / Are removed, destroyed") had become a violent everyday experience; this creates an animation, where for the first time he talks of love as the driving force behind all experience. From this background, the Quartets end with an affirmation of Julian of Norwich: "All shall be well and / All manner of thing shall be well." The Four Quartets draws upon Christian theology, art, symbolism and language of such figures as Dante, and mystics St. John of the Cross and Julian of Norwich. Plays With the important exception of Four Quartets, Eliot directed much of his creative energies after Ash Wednesday to writing plays in verse, mostly comedies or plays with redemptive endings. He was long a critic and admirer of Elizabethan and Jacobean verse drama; witness his allusions to Webster, Thomas Middleton, William Shakespeare and Thomas Kyd in The Waste Land. In a 1933 lecture he said "Every poet would like, I fancy, to be able to think that he had some direct social utility . . . . He would like to be something of a popular entertainer and be able to think his own thoughts behind a tragic or a comic mask. He would like to convey the pleasures of poetry, not only to a larger audience but to larger groups of people collectively; and the theatre is the best place in which to do it." After The Waste Land (1922), he wrote that he was "now feeling toward a new form and style". One project he had in mind was writing a play in verse, using some of the rhythms of early jazz. The play featured "Sweeney", a character who had appeared in a number of his poems. Although Eliot did not finish the play, he did publish two scenes from the piece. These scenes, titled Fragment of a Prologue (1926) and Fragment of an Agon (1927), were published together in 1932 as Sweeney Agonistes. Although Eliot noted that this was not intended to be a one-act play, it is sometimes performed as one. A pageant play by Eliot called The Rock was performed in 1934 for the benefit of churches in the Diocese of London. Much of it was a collaborative effort; Eliot accepted credit only for the authorship of one scene and the choruses. George Bell, the Bishop of Chichester, had been instrumental in connecting Eliot with producer E. Martin Browne for the production of The Rock, and later commissioned Eliot to write another play for the Canterbury Festival in 1935. This one, Murder in the Cathedral, concerning the death of the martyr, Thomas Becket, was more under Eliot's control. Eliot biographer Peter Ackroyd comments that "for [Eliot], Murder in the Cathedral and succeeding verse plays offered a double advantage; it allowed him to practice poetry but it also offered a convenient home for his religious sensibility." After this, he worked on more "commercial" plays for more general audiences: The Family Reunion (1939), The Cocktail Party (1949), The Confidential Clerk, (1953) and The Elder Statesman (1958) (the latter three were produced by Henry Sherek and directed by E. Martin Browne). The Broadway production in New York of The Cocktail Party received the 1950 Tony Award for Best Play. Eliot wrote The Cocktail Party while he was a visiting scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study. Regarding his method of playwriting, Eliot explained, "If I set out to write a play, I start by an act of choice. I settle upon a particular emotional situation, out of which characters and a plot will emerge. And then lines of poetry may come into being: not from the original impulse but from a secondary stimulation of the unconscious mind." Literary criticism Eliot also made significant contributions to the field of literary criticism, and strongly influenced the school of New Criticism. He was somewhat self-deprecating and minimising of his work and once said his criticism was merely a "by-product" of his "private poetry-workshop". But the critic William Empson once said, "I do not know for certain how much of my own mind [Eliot] invented, let alone how much of it is a reaction against him or indeed a consequence of misreading him. He is a very penetrating influence, perhaps not unlike the east wind." In his critical essay "Tradition and the Individual Talent", Eliot argues that art must be understood not in a vacuum, but in the context of previous pieces of art. "In a peculiar sense [an artist or poet] ... must inevitably be judged by the standards of the past." This essay was an important influence over the New Criticism by introducing the idea that the value of a work of art must be viewed in the context of the artist's previous works, a "simultaneous order" of works (i.e., "tradition"). Eliot himself employed this concept on many of his works, especially on his long-poem The Waste Land. Also important to New Criticism was the idea—as articulated in Eliot's essay "Hamlet and His Problems"—of an "objective correlative", which posits a connection among the words of the text and events, states of mind, and experiences. This notion concedes that a poem means what it says, but suggests that there can be a non-subjective judgment based on different readers' different—but perhaps corollary—interpretations of a work. More generally, New Critics took a cue from Eliot in regard to his "'classical' ideals and his religious thought; his attention to the poetry and drama of the early seventeenth century; his deprecation of the Romantics, especially Shelley; his proposition that good poems constitute 'not a turning loose of emotion but an escape from emotion'; and his insistence that 'poets... at present must be difficult'." Eliot's essays were a major factor in the revival of interest in the metaphysical poets. Eliot particularly praised the metaphysical poets' ability to show experience as both psychological and sensual, while at the same time infusing this portrayal with—in Eliot's view—wit and uniqueness. Eliot's essay "The Metaphysical Poets", along with giving new significance and attention to metaphysical poetry, introduced his now well-known definition of "unified sensibility", which is considered by some to mean the same thing as the term "metaphysical". His 1922 poem The Waste Land also can be better understood in light of his work as a critic. He had argued that a poet must write "programmatic criticism", that is, a poet should write to advance his own interests rather than to advance "historical scholarship". Viewed from Eliot's critical lens, The Waste Land likely shows his personal despair about World War I rather than an objective historical understanding of it. Late in his career, Eliot focused much of his creative energy on writing for the theatre; some of his earlier critical writing, in essays such as "Poetry and Drama", "Hamlet and his Problems", and "The Possibility of a Poetic Drama", focused on the aesthetics of writing drama in verse. Critical reception Responses to his poetry The writer Ronald Bush notes that Eliot's early poems like "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", "Portrait of a Lady", "La Figlia Che Piange", "Preludes", and "Rhapsody on a Windy Night" had "[an] effect [that] was both unique and compelling, and their assurance staggered [Eliot's] contemporaries who were privileged to read them in manuscript. [Conrad] Aiken, for example, marveled at 'how sharp and complete and sui generis the whole thing was, from the outset. The wholeness is there, from the very beginning.'" The initial critical response to Eliot's The Waste Land was mixed. Bush notes that the piece was at first correctly perceived as a work of jazz-like syncopation—and, like 1920s jazz, essentially iconoclastic." Some critics, like Edmund Wilson, Conrad Aiken, and Gilbert Seldes thought it was the best poetry being written in the English language while others thought it was esoteric and wilfully difficult. Edmund Wilson, being one of the critics who praised Eliot, called him "one of our only authentic poets". Wilson also pointed out some of Eliot's weaknesses as a poet. In regard to The Waste Land, Wilson admits its flaws ("its lack of structural unity"), but concluded, "I doubt whether there is a single other poem of equal length by a contemporary American which displays so high and so varied a mastery of English verse." Charles Powell was negative in his criticism of Eliot, calling his poems incomprehensible. And the writers of Time magazine were similarly baffled by a challenging poem like The Waste Land. John Crowe Ransom wrote negative criticisms of Eliot's work but also had positive things to say. For instance, though Ransom negatively criticised The Waste Land for its "extreme disconnection", Ransom was not completely condemnatory of Eliot's work and admitted that Eliot was a talented poet. Addressing some of the common criticisms directed against The Waste Land at the time, Gilbert Seldes stated, "It seems at first sight remarkably disconnected and confused... [however] a closer view of the poem does more than illuminate the difficulties; it reveals the hidden form of the work, [and] indicates how each thing falls into place." Eliot's reputation as a poet, as well as his influence in the academy, peaked following the publication of The Four Quartets. In an essay on Eliot published in 1989, the writer Cynthia Ozick refers to this peak of influence (from the 1940s through the early 1960s) as "the Age of Eliot" when Eliot "seemed pure zenith, a colossus, nothing less than a permanent luminary, fixed in the firmament like the sun and the moon". But during this post-war period, others, like Ronald Bush, observed that this time also marked the beginning of the decline in Eliot's literary influence: As Eliot's conservative religious and political convictions began to seem less congenial in the postwar world, other readers reacted with suspicion to his assertions of authority, obvious in Four Quartets and implicit in the earlier poetry. The result, fueled by intermittent rediscovery of Eliot's occasional anti-Semitic rhetoric, has been a progressive downward revision of his once towering reputation. Bush also notes that Eliot's reputation "slipped" significantly further after his death. He writes, "Sometimes regarded as too academic (William Carlos Williams's view), Eliot was also frequently criticized for a deadening neoclassicism (as he himself—perhaps just as unfairly—had criticized Milton). However, the multifarious tributes from practicing poets of many schools published during his centenary in 1988 was a strong indication of the intimidating continued presence of his poetic voice." Literary scholars, such as Harold Bloom and Stephen Greenblatt, acknowledge Eliot's poetry as central to the literary English canon. For instance, the editors of The Norton Anthology of English Literature write, "There is no disagreement on [Eliot's] importance as one of the great renovators of the English poetry dialect, whose influence on a whole generation of poets, critics, and intellectuals generally was enormous. [However] his range as a poet [was] limited, and his interest in the great middle ground of human experience (as distinct from the extremes of saint and sinner) [was] deficient." Despite this criticism, these scholars also acknowledge "[Eliot's] poetic cunning, his fine craftsmanship, his original accent, his historical and representative importance as the poet of the modern symbolist-Metaphysical tradition". Antisemitism The depiction of Jews in some of Eliot's poems has led several critics to accuse him of antisemitism, most forcefully in Anthony Julius' book T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form (1996). In "Gerontion", Eliot writes, in the voice of the poem's elderly narrator, "And the jew squats on the window sill, the owner [of my building] / Spawned in some estaminet of Antwerp." Another example appears in the poem, "Burbank with a Baedeker: Bleistein with a Cigar" in which Eliot wrote, "The rats are underneath the piles. / The jew is underneath the lot. / Money in furs." Julius writes: "The anti-Semitism is unmistakable. It reaches out like a clear signal to the reader." Julius' viewpoint has been supported by Harold Bloom, Christopher Ricks, George Steiner, Tom Paulin and James Fenton. In lectures delivered at the University of Virginia in 1933 (published in 1934 under the title After Strange Gods A Primer of Modern Heresy), Eliot wrote of societal tradition and coherence, "What is still more important [than cultural homogeneity] is unity of religious background, and reasons of race and religion combine to make any large number of free-thinking Jews undesirable." Eliot never re-published this book/lecture. In his 1934 pageant play The Rock, Eliot distances himself from Fascist movements of the 1930s by caricaturing Oswald Mosley's Blackshirts, who "firmly refuse/ To descend to palaver with anthropoid Jews". The "new evangels" of totalitarianism are presented as antithetic to the spirit of Christianity. In In Defence of T. S. Eliot (2001) and T. S. Eliot (2006), Craig Raine sought to defend Eliot from the charge of anti-Semitism. Paul Dean was not convinced by Raine's argument. Nevertheless, Dean concluded, "Ultimately, as both Raine and, to do him justice, Julius insist, however much Eliot may have been compromised as a person, as we all are in our several ways, his greatness as a poet remains." Critic Terry Eagleton also questioned the entire basis for Raine's book, writing, "Why do critics feel a need to defend the authors they write on, like doting parents deaf to all criticism of their obnoxious children? Eliot's well-earned reputation [as a poet] is established beyond all doubt, and making him out to be as unflawed as the Archangel Gabriel does him no favours." Influence Eliot influenced many poets, novelists, and songwriters, including Seán Ó Ríordáin, Máirtín Ó Díreáin, Virginia Woolf, Ezra Pound, Bob Dylan, Hart Crane, William Gaddis, Allen Tate, Andrew Lloyd Webber, Trevor Nunn, Ted Hughes, Geoffrey Hill, Seamus Heaney, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Russell Kirk, George Seferis (who in 1936 published a modern Greek translation of The Waste Land) and James Joyce. T. S. Eliot was a strong influence on 20th-century Caribbean poetry written in English, including the epic Omeros (1990) by Nobel laureate Derek Walcott, and Islands (1969) by Barbadian Kamau Brathwaite. Honours and awards Below is a partial list of honours and awards received by Eliot or bestowed or created in his honour. National or state honours These honours are displayed in order of precedence based on Eliot's nationality and rules of protocol, not awarding date. Literary awards Nobel Prize in Literature "for his outstanding, pioneer contribution to present-day poetry" (1948) Hanseatic Goethe Prize (of Hamburg) (1955) Dante Medal (of Florence) (1959) Drama awards 1950 Tony Award for Best Play for the Broadway production of The Cocktail Party 1983 Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical for his poems used in the musical Cats (posthumous award) 1983 Tony Award for Best Original Score for his poems used in the musical Cats (shared with Andrew Lloyd-Webber) (posthumous award) Music awards Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically for his poems used in the song "Memory" (1982) Academic awards Inducted into Phi Beta Kappa (1935) Thirteen Honorary Doctorates (Including ones from Oxford, Cambridge, the Sorbonne, and Harvard) Other honours Eliot College of the University of Kent, England, named in his honour Celebrated on U.S. commemorative postage stamps Star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame Works Source: Earliest works Prose "The Birds of Prey" (a short story; 1905) "A Tale of a Whale" (a short story; 1905) "The Man Who Was King" (a short story; 1905) "The Wine and the Puritans" (review, 1909) "The Point of View" (1909) "Gentlemen and Seamen" (1909) "Egoist" (review, 1909) Poems "A Fable for Feasters" (1905) "[A Lyric:]'If Time and Space as Sages say'" (1905) "[At Graduation 1905]" (1905) "Song: 'If space and time, as sages say'" (1907) "Before Morning" (1908) "Circe's Palace" (1908) "Song: 'When we came home across the hill'" (1909) "On a Portrait" (1909) "Song: 'The moonflower opens to the moth'" (1909) "Nocturne" (1909) "Humoresque" (1910) "Spleen" (1910) "[Class] Ode" (1910) "The Death of Saint Narcissus" (c.1911-15) Poetry Prufrock and Other Observations (1917) The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock Portrait of a Lady Preludes Rhapsody on a Windy Night Morning at the Window The Boston Evening Transcript (about the Boston Evening Transcript) Aunt Helen Cousin Nancy Mr. Apollinax Hysteria Conversation Galante La Figlia Che Piange Poems (1920) Gerontion Burbank with a Baedeker: Bleistein with a Cigar Sweeney Erect A Cooking Egg Le Directeur Mélange Adultère de Tout Lune de Miel The Hippopotamus Dans le Restaurant Whispers of Immortality Mr. Eliot's Sunday Morning Service Sweeney Among the Nightingales The Waste Land (1922) The Hollow Men (1925) Ariel Poems (1927–1954) Journey of the Magi (1927) A Song for Simeon (1928) Animula (1929) Marina (1930) Triumphal March (1931) The Cultivation of Christmas Trees (1954) Macavity:The Mystery Cat Ash Wednesday (1930) Coriolan (1931) Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats (1939) The Marching Song of the Pollicle Dogs and Billy M'Caw: The Remarkable Parrot (1939) in The Queen's Book of the Red Cross Four Quartets (1945) Plays Sweeney Agonistes (published in 1926, first performed in 1934) The Rock (1934) Murder in the Cathedral (1935) The Family Reunion (1939) The Cocktail Party (1949) The Confidential Clerk (1953) The Elder Statesman (first performed in 1958, published in 1959) Non-fiction Christianity & Culture (1939, 1948) The Second-Order Mind (1920) Tradition and the Individual Talent (1920) The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism (1920) "Hamlet and His Problems" Homage to John Dryden (1924) Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca (1928) For Lancelot Andrewes (1928) Dante (1929) Selected Essays, 1917-1932 (1932) The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (1933) After Strange Gods (1934) Elizabethan Essays (1934) Essays Ancient and Modern (1936) The Idea of a Christian Society (1939) A Choice of Kipling's Verse (1941) made by Eliot, with an essay on Rudyard Kipling Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (1948) Poetry and Drama (1951) The Three Voices of Poetry (1954) The Frontiers of Criticism (1956) On Poetry and Poets (1943) Posthumous publications To Criticize the Critic (1965) Poems Written in Early Youth (1967) The Waste Land: Facsimile Edition (1974) Inventions of the March Hare: Poems 1909–1917 (1996) Critical editions Collected Poems, 1909–1962 (1963), excerpt and text search Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats, Illustrated Edition (1982), excerpt and text search Selected Prose of T.S. Eliot, edited by Frank Kermode (1975), excerpt and text search The Waste Land (Norton Critical Editions), edited by Michael North (2000) excerpt and text search The Poems of T.S. Eliot, volume 1 (Collected & Uncollected Poems) and volume 2 (Practical Cats & Further Verses), edited by Christopher Ricks and Jim McCue (2015), Faber & Faber Selected Essays (1932); enlarged (1960) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and Hugh Haughton, Volume 1: 1898–1922 (1988, revised 2009) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and Hugh Haughton, Volume 2: 1923–1925 (2009) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and John Haffenden, Volume 3: 1926–1927 (2012) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and John Haffenden, Volume 4: 1928–1929 (2013) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and John Haffenden, Volume 5: 1930–1931 (2014) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and John Haffenden, Volume 6: 1932–1933 (2016) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and John Haffenden, Volume 7: 1934–1935 (2017) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and John Haffenden, Volume 8: 1936–1938 (2019) The Letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot and John Haffenden, Volume 9: 1939–1941 (2021) Notes Further reading Ackroyd, Peter. T. S. Eliot: A Life (1984). Ali, Ahmed. Mr. Eliot's Penny World of Dreams: An Essay in the Interpretation of T.S. Eliot's Poetry, Published for the Lucknow University by New Book Co., Bombay, P.S. King & Staples Ltd, Westminster, London, 1942, 138 pp. Asher, Kenneth T. S. Eliot and Ideology (1995). Bottum, Joseph, "What T. S. Eliot Almost Believed", First Things 55 (August/September 1995): 25–30. Brand, Clinton A. "The Voice of This Calling: The Enduring Legacy of T. S. Eliot", Modern Age Volume 45, Number 4; Fall 2003, conservative perspective. Brown, Alec. "The Lyrical Impulse in Eliot's Poetry", Scrutiny, vol. 2. Bush, Ronald. T. S. Eliot: A Study in Character and Style (1984). Bush, Ronald, 'The Presence of the Past: Ethnographic Thinking/ Literary Politics'. In Prehistories of the Future, ed. Elzar Barkan and Ronald Bush, Stanford University Press (1995). Crawford, Robert. The Savage and the City in the Work of T. S. Eliot (1987). ---. Young Eliot: From St Louis to "The Waste Land" (2015). Christensen, Karen. "Dear Mrs. Eliot", The Guardian Review (29 January 2005). Dawson, J. L., P. D. Holland & D. J. McKitterick, A Concordance to "The Complete Poems and Plays of T.S. Eliot" Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press, 1995. Forster, E. M. Essay on T. S. Eliot, in Life and Letters, June 1929. Gardner, Helen. The Art of T. S. Eliot (1949). Gordon, Lyndall. T. S. Eliot: An Imperfect Life (1998). Guha, Chinmoy. Where the Dreams Cross: T. S. Eliot and French Poetry (2000, 2011). Harding, W. D. T. S. Eliot, 1925–1935, Scrutiny, September 1936: A Review. Hargrove, Nancy Duvall. Landscape as Symbol in the Poetry of T. S. Eliot. University Press of Mississippi (1978). Hearn, Sheila G., Tradition and the Individual Scot]: Edwin Muir & T.S. Eliot, in Cencrastus No. 13, Summer 1983, pp. 21–24, ---. T. S. Eliot's Parisian Year. University Press of Florida (2009). Julius, Anthony. T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form. Cambridge University Press (1995). Kenner, Hugh. The Invisible Poet: T. S. Eliot (1969). ---, editor, T. S. Eliot: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall (1962). Kirk, Russell Eliot and His Age: T. S, Eliot's Moral Imagination in the Twentieth Century (Introduction by Benjamin G. Lockerd Jr.). Wilmington: Intercollegiate Studies Institute, Republication of the revised second edition, 2008. Kojecky, Roger. T.S. Eliot's Social Criticism, Faber & Faber, Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1972, revised Kindle edn. 2014. Lal, P. (editor), T. S. Eliot: Homage from India: A Commemoration Volume of 55 Essays & Elegies, Writer's Workshop Calcutta, 1965. The Letters of T. S. Eliot. Ed. Valerie Eliot. Vol. I, 1898–1922. San Diego [etc.], 1988. Vol. 2, 1923–1925. Edited by Valerie Eliot and Hugh Haughton, London: Faber, 2009. Levy, William Turner and Victor Scherle. Affectionately, T. S. Eliot: The Story of a Friendship: 1947–1965 (1968). Matthews, T. S. Great Tom: Notes Towards the Definition of T. S. Eliot (1973) Maxwell, D. E. S. The Poetry of T. S. Eliot, Routledge and Kegan Paul (1960). Miller, James E., Jr. T. S. Eliot. The Making of an American Poet, 1888–1922. The Pennsylvania State University Press. 2005. North, Michael (ed.) The Waste Land (Norton Critical Editions). New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. Raine, Craig. T. S. Eliot. Oxford University Press (2006). Ricks, Christopher.T. S. Eliot and Prejudice (1988). Robinson, Ian "The English Prophets", The Brynmill Press Ltd (2001) Schuchard, Ronald. Eliot's Dark Angel: Intersections of Life and Art (1999). Scofield, Dr. Martin, "T.S. Eliot: The Poems", Cambridge University Press (1988). Sencourt, Robert. T. S. Eliot: A Memoir (1971) Seymour-Jones, Carole. Painted Shadow: A Life of Vivienne Eliot (2001). Sinha, Arun Kumar and Vikram, Kumar. T. S. Eliot: An Intensive Study of Selected Poems, New Delhi: Spectrum Books Pvt. Ltd (2005). Spender, Stephen. T. S. Eliot (1975) Spurr, Barry, Anglo-Catholic in Religion: T. S. Eliot and Christianity, The Lutterworth Press (2009) Tate, Allen, editor. T. S. Eliot: The Man and His Work (1966; republished by Penguin, 1971). External links Biography T. S. Eliot at the Poetry Foundation Biography From T. S. Eliot Lives' and Legacies Eliot family genealogy, including T. S. Eliot Eliot's grave Lyndall Gordon, Eliot's Early Years, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1977, . T. S. Eliot Profile, Poems, Essays at Poets.org Works official listing of T. S. Eliot's works with some available in full doollee.com listing of T S Eliot's works written for the stage Poems by T.S. Eliot and biography at PoetryFoundation.org Text of early poems (1907–1910) printed in The Harvard Advocate T. S. Eliot Collection at Bartleby.com T.S. Eliot's Cats The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism. Knopf, 1921. Via HathiTrust. Web sites T. S. Eliot Society (UK) Resource Hub T. S. Eliot Hypertext Project Official (T. S. Eliot Estate) site T. S. Eliot Society (US) Home Page Archives Search for T.S. Eliot at Harvard University T. S. Eliot Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin T. S. Eliot Collection at Merton College, Oxford University T. S. Eliot collection at University of Victoria, Special Collections T. S. Eliot collection at the University of Maryland Libraries T. S. Eliot Collection. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Miscellaneous Links to audio recordings of Eliot reading his work An interview with Eliot: Yale College Lecture on T.S. Eliot audio, video and full transcripts from Open Yale Courses T S Eliot at the British Library 1888 births 1965 deaths American emigrants to the United Kingdom American expatriates in France Eliot family (America) Former United States citizens Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom Writers from St. Louis 20th-century American poets 20th-century British poets American male poets Anglican poets British male poets Epic poets Modernist poetry in English Modernist poets Poets from Missouri 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American writers 20th-century British male writers 20th-century British non-fiction writers 20th-century British writers 20th-century essayists 20th-century short story writers American male essayists American male non-fiction writers American male short story writers Anglo-Catholic writers British male essayists British male short story writers Lost Generation writers Modernism Neoclassical writers Writers about activism and social change Writers who illustrated their own writing 20th-century American dramatists and playwrights American male dramatists and playwrights British male dramatists and playwrights Modernist theatre American cultural critics American literary critics Anthologists British literary critics Literary theorists New Criticism Social critics Academics of Birkbeck, University of London Alumni of Merton College, Oxford Harvard Advocate alumni Harvard College alumni Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars Lecturers Milton Academy alumni People associated with University of London Worldwide University of Paris alumni Wesleyan University people American Nobel laureates British Nobel laureates Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Ivor Novello Award winners Members of the Order of Merit Nobel laureates affiliated with Missouri Nobel laureates in Literature Officiers of the Légion d'honneur Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Tony Award winners American Anglo-Catholics Anglo-Catholic poets British Anglo-Catholics Converts to Anglicanism from Unitarianism Burials in Somerset Deaths from emphysema People with acquired British citizenship

In voting methods, tactical voting (or strategic voting, sophisticated voting or insincere voting) occurs in elections with more than two candidates, when a voter supports another candidate more strongly than their sincere preference in order to prevent an undesirable outcome. For example, in a simple plurality election, a voter might gain a better outcome by voting for a less preferred but more generally popular candidate. It has been shown by the Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem that all single-winner ranked voting methods are susceptible to tactical voting, unless they are dictatorial (i.e there exists a distinguished agent who can impose the outcome). However, the type of tactical voting and the extent to which it affects campaigns and election results can vary dramatically from one voting method to another. For example, for single-winner elections, majority judgment (MJ) claims to reduce by almost half the incentives and opportunities successfully to vote tactically in the ways described in the next Section. Firstly, MJ does this by inviting citizens not to rank the candidates but to grade their suitability for office: Excellent (ideal), Very Good, Good, Acceptable, Poor, or Reject (entirely unsuitable). Secondly, the MJ winner is the one who has received the highest median-grade. For multi-winner elections, Evaluative Proportional Representation (EPR) in Section 5.5.5 in proportional representation further reduces tactical voting by assuring each citizen that their honest vote will proportionately increase the voting power of the elected candidate in the legislature who receives either their highest grade, remaining highest grade, or proxy vote. Types of tactical voting Compromising (sometimes "useful vote") A type of tactical voting in which a voter insincerely ranks an alternative higher in the hope of getting it elected. For example, in the first-past-the-post election, voters may vote for an option they perceive as having a greater chance of winning over an option they prefer (e.g., voting for an uncontroversial moderate candidate over a controversial extremist candidate in order to help defeat a popular candidate of an opposing party). Duverger's law argues that, for this reason, first-past-the-post election methods will lead to two-party systems in most cases. In those proportional representation methods that include a minimum percentage of votes that a party must achieve to receive any seats, people might vote tactically for a minor party to prevent it from dropping below that percentage (which would make the votes it does receive useless for the larger political camp that party belongs to), or alternatively those who support the viewpoints of a minor party may vote for the larger party whose views are closest to those of the minor party. Burying Burying is a form of tactical voting in which a voter insincerely ranks an alternative lower in the hopes of defeating it. For example, in the Borda count or in a Condorcet method, a voter may insincerely rank a perceived strong alternative last in order to help their preferred alternative beat it. Push-over or mischief voting This is a type of tactical voting in which a voter ranks a perceived weak alternative higher, but not in the hopes of getting it elected. This primarily occurs in runoff voting when a voter already believes that their favored candidate will make it to the next round – the voter then ranks an unpreferred, but easily beatable, candidate higher so that their preferred candidate can win later. In the United States, for instance, voters of one party sometimes vote in the other party's primary to nominate a candidate who will be easy for their favorite to beat, especially after that favorite has secured their party's own nomination. Bullet voting With bullet voting, a voter votes for just one candidate, despite having the option to vote for more than one due to a voting method such as approval voting, plurality-at-large voting, and Condorcet methods. A voter helps their preferred candidate by not supplying votes to potential rivals. Bullet voting is a type of sincere voting. This strategy is encouraged and seen as sometimes beneficial in the methods of limited voting and cumulative voting. Election methods with no tactical advantage to bullet voting are said to satisfy the later-no-harm criterion, including instant runoff voting and single transferable vote. Examples in real elections United States One high-profile example of tactical voting was the 2002 California gubernatorial election. During the Republican primaries, Republicans Richard Riordan (former mayor of Los Angeles) and Bill Simon (a self-financed businessman) were vying for a chance to compete against the unpopular incumbent Democratic Governor of California, Gray Davis. Polls predicted that Riordan would defeat Davis, while Simon would not. At that time, the Republican primaries were open primaries in which anyone could vote regardless of their own party affiliation. Davis supporters were rumored to have voted for Simon because Riordan was perceived as a greater threat to Davis; this combined with a negative advertising campaign by Davis describing Riordan as a "big-city liberal", and Simon ultimately won the primary despite a last-minute business scandal. However, he lost the election against Davis. United Kingdom In the 1997 UK general election, Democratic Left helped Bruce Kent set up GROT (Get Rid Of Them) a tactical voter campaign whose sole aim was to help prevent the Conservative Party from gaining a 5th term in office. This coalition was drawn from individuals in all the main opposition parties and many who were not aligned with any party. While it would be hard to prove that GROT swung the election itself, it did attract significant media attention and brought tactical voting into the mainstream for the first time in UK politics. In 2001, the Democratic Left's successor organisation the New Politics Network organised a similar campaign. Since then tactical voting has become a real consideration in British politics as is reflected in by-elections and by the growth in sites such as tacticalvote.co.uk who encourage tactical voting as a way of defusing the two party system and empowering the individual voter. For the 2015 UK general election, voteswap.org was set up to help prevent the Conservative Party staying in government, by encouraging Green Party supporters to tactically vote for the Labour Party in listed marginal seats. In 2017 swapmyvote.uk was formed to help supporters of all parties swap their votes with people in other constituencies. In the 2006 local elections in London, tactical voting is being promoted by sites such as London Strategic Voter in a response to national and international issues. In Northern Ireland, it is widely believed that (predominantly Protestant) Unionist voters in Nationalist strongholds have voted for the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) to prevent Sinn Féin from capturing such seats. This conclusion was reached by comparing results to the demographics of constituencies and polling districts. In the 2017 general election, it is estimated that 6.5 million people (more than 20% of voters) voted tactically either as a way of preventing a "hard Brexit" or preventing another Conservative government led by the Tactical2017 campaign. Many Green Party candidates withdrew from the race in order to help the Labour Party secure closely fought seats against the Conservatives. This ultimately led to the Conservatives losing seats in the election even though they increased their overall vote share. In the 2019 Conservative Party leadership election to determine the final two candidates for the party vote, it was suggested that front-runner Boris Johnson's campaign encouraged some of its MPs to back Jeremy Hunt instead of Johnson, so that Hunt - seen as "a lower-energy challenger" - would finish in second place, allowing an easier defeat in the party vote. Tactical voting was expected to play a major role in the 2019 General Election, with a YouGov poll suggesting that 19% of voters would be doing so tactically. 49% of tactical voters said they would do so in the hope of stopping a party whose views they opposed. According to a 2020 study, older voters in the UK tend to vote strategically more than younger voters, and richer voters tend to vote more strategically than poorer voters. Canada In the 1999 Ontario provincial election, strategic voting was widely encouraged by opponents of the Progressive Conservative government of Mike Harris. This failed to unseat Harris, and succeeded only in suppressing the Ontario New Democratic Party vote to a historic low. In the 2004 federal election and to a lesser extent in the 2006 election, strategic voting was a concern for the federal New Democratic Party (NDP). In the 2004 election, the governing Liberal Party was able to convince many New Democratic voters to vote Liberal in order to avoid a Conservative government. In the 2006 elections, the Liberal Party attempted the same strategy, with Prime Minister Paul Martin asking New Democrats and Greens to vote for the Liberal Party in order to prevent a Conservative win. The New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton would respond by asking voters to "lend" their votes to his party, suggesting that the Liberal Party would be bound to lose the election regardless of strategic voting. During the 2015 federal election, strategic voting was primarily against the Conservative government of Stephen Harper which had benefited from vote splitting among centrist and left-leaning parties in the 2011 election. Following the landslide victory of the Liberals led by Justin Trudeau over Harper's Conservatives, observers noted that the increase in support for the Liberals at the expense of the NDP and Green Party was partially due to strategic voting for Liberal candidates. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, with its party-list proportional representation using largest remainder method with the Hare quota, voters supporting candidates of the pro-democracy camp often organize with one another to divide their votes across different tickets, so as to avoid the concentration of these votes on one or a few candidates. In 2016 Hong Kong Legislative Election, the practices of tactical voting were expanded by Benny Tai's Project ThunderGo. The Anti-establishment camp gained 29 seats, which was a historical record. New Zealand Since New Zealand moved to Mixed-member proportional representation voting in 1996, the Electoral system of New Zealand has seen strategic voting regularly occur in several elections. This includes where one party explicitly or implicitly encourages voters to vote for a candidate other than their party’s. This took place first in 1996 in the Wellington Central (New Zealand electorate) and then in 1999 in the Coromandel (New Zealand electorate). From 2002 until 2017 it was a regular feature in the Ohariu-Belmont (New Zealand electorate) and from 2005 in the Epsom (New Zealand electorate). Spain In the 2016 General Election in Spain, the incentives for voting tactically were much larger than usual, following the rise of the Podemos and Ciudadanos following the economic crisis and election in 2015. The tactical voters were successfully able to influence the outcome of the election, despite a record low turnout of 66.5%. Taiwan In the 1995 Legislative Yuan elections, tactical voting was implemented by the opposition parties such as the Democratic Progressive Party and the New Party. As the members were elected in multi-member districts, the parties urged their supporters to vote for a party-nominated candidate according to criteria such as the last digit of the voter's National Identification Card Number or the voter's birth month. This maximized the opposition's seat gains and resulted in the ruling Kuomintang losing 10 seats, receiving the lowest share of seats in history at the time. Other countries Puerto Rico's 2004 elections were affected by tactical voting. Pedro Rosselló, the New Progressive Party's candidate of that year, was unpopular across much of the territory, due to large corruption schemes and the privatization of public corporations. To prevent Rossell´ from winning, other factions supported the Partido Popular Democratico's candidate. The elections were close; statehood advocates won a seat in the U.S. house of representatives and majorities in both legislative branches, but lost governance to Aníbal Acevedo Vilá. (Puerto Ricans have the chance to vote by party or by candidate. Separatists voted under their ideology, but for the center party's candidate, which caused major turmoil.) After a recount and a trial, Acevedo Vilá was certified as governor of the commonwealth of Puerto Rico. In 2011 Slovenian parliamentary election, 30% of voters voted tactically. Public polls predicted easy win for Janez Janša, the candidate of the Slovenian Democratic Party, however his opponent Zoran Janković, the candidate of Positive Slovenia won. According to prominent Slovenian public opinion researchers, such proportions of tactical voting were not recorded anywhere else before. In Lithuania, which has parallel voting system at parliamentary and districts' level, most of tactical voting takes place in single-member constituencies (or districts in mayoral elections). These constituencies have two round system, when no candidate wins more than 50 per cent of the votes in the first round. Notable example of tactical voting at parliamentary level could be 10th Naujoji Vilnia constituency in 2016 Lithuanian parliamentary election, when, in order to prevent independent candidate Algirdas Paleckis' victory, the Liberal Movement's, the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union's and the Social Democratic Party's candidates endorsed their supporters to vote for the Homeland Union's candidate Monika Navickienė (which came in second place). Monika Navickienė eventually won the constituency by around 900 votes. At district's level example could be Kėdainiai district's mayoral election in 2015 municipal elections. In the first round the Labour Party won 13 seats of 26 seats in district council and came just one seat short of absolute majority. Nijolė Naujokienė (candidate to district's mayor from the Labour Party) came short by 0.68 per cent in the mayoral election. Her opponent Saulius Grinkevičius had a 22 per cent gap to overcome. In the second round Saulius Grinkevičius won by around 8 per cent (and 1600 votes). In Hungary, during the 2018 Hungarian parliamentary election, several websites such as taktikaiszavazas.hu (meaning "tactical voting") promoted the idea to vote for opposition candidates with the highest probability of winning a given seat. This behavior was adopted by about a quarter of opposition voters resulting in a total of 498000 extra votes gained by opposition parties and a total of 14 extra single seats taken by several parties and independent candidates. Rational voter model Academic analysis of tactical voting is based on the rational voter model, derived from rational choice theory. In this model, voters are short-term instrumentally rational. That is, voters are only voting in order to make an impact on one election at a time (not, say, to build the political party for next election); voters have a set of sincere preferences, or utility rankings, by which to rate candidates; voters have some knowledge of each other's preferences; and voters understand how best to use tactical voting to their advantage. The extent to which this model resembles real-life elections is the subject of considerable academic debate. Myerson–Weber strategy An example of a rational voter strategy is described by Myerson and Weber. The strategy is broadly applicable to a number of single-winner voting methods that are additive point methods, such as Plurality, Borda, Approval, and Range. The strategy is optimal in the sense that the strategy will maximize the voter's expected utility when the number of voters is sufficiently large. This rational voter model assumes that the voter's utility of the election result is dependent only on which candidate wins and not on any other aspect of the election, for example showing support for a losing candidate in the vote tallies. The model also assumes the voter chooses how to vote individually and not in collaboration with other voters. Given a set of k candidates and a voter let: vi = the number of points to be voted for candidate i ui = the voter's gain in utility if candidate i wins the election pij = the (voter's perceived) pivot probability that candidates i and j will be tied for the most total points to win the election. Then the voter's prospective rating for a candidate i is defined as: The gain in expected utility for a given vote is given by: The gain in expected utility can be maximized by choosing a vote with suitable values of vi, depending on the voting method and the voter's prospective ratings for each candidate. For specific voting methods, the gain can be maximized using the following rules: Plurality: Vote for the candidate with the highest prospective rating. This is to be distinguished from choosing the best of the frontrunners, which is a common but imprecise plurality tactic. The highest prospective rating can in fact belong to a weak candidate, even the weakest. Borda: Rank the candidates in decreasing order of prospective rating. Approval: Vote for all candidates that have a positive prospective rating; do not vote for any candidates that have a negative prospective rating. Range: Vote the maximum points for all candidates that have a positive prospective rating; vote the minimum allowed value for all candidates that have a negative prospective rating; vote any number of points for a candidate with a prospective rating of zero. An important special case occurs when the voter has no information about how other voters will vote. This is sometimes referred to as the zero information strategy. In this special case, the pij pivot probabilities are all equal and the rules for the specific voting methods become: Plurality: Vote for the most preferred (highest utility) candidate. This is the sincere plurality vote. Borda: Rank the candidates in decreasing order preference (decreasing order of utility). This is the sincere ranking of the candidates. Approval: Calculate the average utility of all candidates. Vote for all candidates that have a higher-than-average utility; do not vote for any candidates that have a lower-than-average utility. Range: Calculate the average utility of all candidates. Vote the maximum points for all candidates that have a higher-than-average utility; vote the minimum points for all candidates that have a lower-than-average utility; vote any value for a candidate with a utility equal to the average. Myerson and Weber also describe voting equilibria that require all voters use the optimal strategy and all voters share a common set of pij pivot probabilities. Because of these additional requirements, such equilibria may in practice be less widely applicable than the strategies. Pre-election influence Because tactical voting relies heavily on voters' perception of how other voters intend to vote, campaigns in electoral methods that promote compromise frequently focus on affecting voter's perception of campaign viability. Most campaigns craft refined media strategies to shape the way voters see their candidacy. During this phase, there can be an analogous effect where campaign donors and activists may decide whether or not to support candidates tactically with their money and labor. In rolling elections, or runoff votes, where some voters have information about previous voters' preferences (e.g. presidential primaries in the United States, French presidential elections), candidates put disproportionate resources into competing strongly in the first few stages, because those stages affect the reaction of later stages. Views on tactical voting Arrow's impossibility theorem and the Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem prove that any useful single-winner voting method based on preference ranking is prone to some kind of manipulation. However, some use game theory to search for some kind of "minimally manipulatable" (incentive compatibility) voting schemes. Game theory can also be used to analyze the pros and cons of different methods. For instance, under purely honest voting, Condorcet method-like methods tend to settle on compromise candidates, while instant-runoff voting favors those candidates which have strong core support but otherwise narrower appeal due to holding more uncompromising positions. An electorate using one of these two methods but which (in the general or the specific case) preferred the characteristics of the other method could consciously use strategy to achieve a result more characteristic of the other method. Under Condorcet, they may be able to win by "burying" the compromise candidate (although this risks throwing the election to the opposing extreme); while under IRV, they could always "compromise". It could be argued that in this case the option to vote tactically or not actually helps the electorate express its will, not only on which candidate is better, but on whether compromise is desirable. (This never applies to "sneakier" tactics such as push-over.) Influence of voting method Tactical voting is highly dependent on the voting method being used. A tactical vote which improves a voter's satisfaction under one method could make no change or lead to a less-satisfying result under another method. Moreover, although by the Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem no deterministic single-winner voting method is immune to tactical voting in all cases, some methods' results are more resistant to tactical voting than others'. M. Badinski and R. Laraki, the inventors of the majority judgment method, performed an initial investigation of this question using a set of Monte Carlo simulated elections based on the results from a poll of the 2007 French presidential election which they had carried out using rated ballots. Comparing range voting, Borda count, plurality voting, approval voting with two different absolute approval thresholds, Condorcet voting, and majority judgment, they found that range voting had the highest (worst) strategic vulnerability, while their own method majority judgment had the lowest (best). Further investigation would be needed to be sure that this result remained true with different sets of candidates. In particular methods Plurality voting Tactical voting by compromising is exceedingly common in plurality elections. The most typical tactic is to assess which two candidates are frontrunners (most likely to win) and to vote for the preferred one of those two, even if a third candidate is preferred over both. Duverger's law argues that this kind of tactical voting, along with the spoiler effect which can arise when such tactics are not used, will be so common that any method based on plurality will eventually result in two-party domination. Although this "law" is just an empirical observation rather than a mathematical certainty, it is generally supported by the evidence. Due to the especially deep impact of tactical voting in such a method, some argue that systems with three or more strong or persistent parties become in effect forms of disapproval voting, where the expression of disapproval in order to keep an opponent out of office overwhelms the expression of approval to elect a desirable candidate. Party-list proportional representation The presence of an electoral threshold (typically at around 5% or 4%) can lead to voters voting tactically for a different party to their preferred political party (which may be more hardline or more moderate) in order to ensure that the party passes the threshold. An alliance of parties can fail to win a majority despite outpolling their rivals if one party in the alliance falls beneath the threshold. An example of this is the 2009 Norwegian election in which the right-wing opposition parties won more votes between them than the parties in the governing coalition, but the narrow failure of the Liberal Party to cross the 4% threshold led to the governing coalition winning a majority. This effect has sometimes been nicknamed "Comrade 4%" in Sweden, where the electoral threshold is 4%, particularly when referring to supporters of the Social Democrats who vote tactically for the more hardline Left Party. In the 2013 German federal election, the Free Democratic Party got only 4.8% of the votes so did not meet the 5% threshold. The party did not win any directly elected seats, so for the first time since 1949 was not represented in the Bundestag. Hence their ally the Christian Democratic Union had to form a grand coalition with the Social Democratic Party. In several recent elections in New Zealand the National Party has suggested that National supporters in certain electorates should vote for minor parties or candidates who can win an electorate seat and would support a National government. This culminated in the Tea tape scandal when a meeting in the Epsom electorate in 2011 was taped. The meeting was to encourage National voters in the electorate to vote "strategically" for the ACT candidate; and it was suggested that Labour Party voters in the electorate should vote "strategically" for the National candidate as the Labour candidate could not win the seat but a National win in the seat would deprive National of an ally. The two major parties National and Labour always top up their electorate MPs with list MPs, so a National win in the seat would not increase the number of National MPs. Even in countries with a low threshold such as the Netherlands, tactical voting can still happen for other reasons. In the campaign for the 2012 Dutch election, the Socialist Party had enjoyed good poll ratings, but many voters who preferred the Socialists voted instead for the more centrist Labour Party out of fear that a strong showing from the Socialists would lead to political deadlock. It was also suggested that a symmetrical effect on the right caused the Party for Freedom to lose support to the more centrist VVD. In elections which there are many party lists competing with only a few seats, such as Hong Kong Legislative Council election, the outcome will tend to be similar to that of single non-transferable vote (SNTV): only the first candidate in a list will win. In such elections parties will split the candidates into multiple lists, since competing using "remainder" votes in both lists is easier than having "full quota" votes plus "remainder" votes if the party puts their candidates in a single list, and a list reaching "full quota" vote is considered a waste. In such elections the behavior of voters is similar that of SNTV elections: voters will avoid a candidate reaching the "full quota", and spread their votes to other candidates that have potential to win. Majority judgment In majority judgment, strategy is typically "semi-honest exaggeration." Voters exaggerate the difference between a certain pair of candidates but do not rank any less-preferred candidate over any more-preferred one. Even this form of exaggeration can only have an effect if the voter's honest rating for the intended winner is below that candidate's median rating or their honest rating for the intended loser is above it. Typically, this would not be the case unless there were two similar candidates favored by the same set of voters. A strategic vote against a similar rival could result in a favored candidate winning; although if voters for both similar rivals used this strategy, it could cause a candidate favored by neither of these voter groups to win. Balinski and Laraki argue that since under Majority judgment, many voters have no opportunity to use strategy, in a test using simulated elections based on polling data, this method is the most strategy-resistant of the ones that the authors studied. Approval voting Similarly, in approval voting, unlike many other methods, strategy almost never involves ranking a less-preferred candidate over a more-preferred candidate. However, strategy is in fact inevitable when a voter decides their "approval cutoff"; this is a variation of the compromising strategy. Overall, Steven Brams and Dudley R. Herschbach argued in a paper in Science magazine in 2001 that approval voting was the method least amenable to tactical perturbations. Meanwhile, Balinski and Laraki used rated ballots from a poll of the 2007 French presidential election to show that, if unstrategic voters only approved candidates whom they considered "very good" or better, strategic voters would be able to sway the result frequently, but that if unstrategic voters approved all candidates they considered "good" or better, approval was the second most strategy-resistant method of the ones they studied. Approval voting forces voters to face an initial voting tactical decision as to whether to vote for (or approve) of their second-choice candidate or not. The voter may want to retain expression of preference of their favorite candidate over their second choice. But that does not allow the same voter to express preference of their second choice over any other. One simple situation in which Approval strategy is important is if there is a close election between two similar candidates A and B and one distinct one Z, in which Z has 49% support. If all of Z's supporters approve just him, in hopes of him getting just enough to win, then supporters of A are faced with a tactical choice of whether to approve A and B (getting one of their preferred choices but having no say in which) or approving just A (possibly helping choose her over B, but risking throwing the election to Z). B's supporters face the same dilemma. Score voting In score voting, strategic voters who expect all other voters to be strategic will exaggerate their true preferences and use the same quasi-compromising strategy as in approval voting, above. That is, they will give all candidates either the highest possible or the lowest possible rating. This presents an additional problem as compared to the approval method if some voters give honest "weak" votes with middle rankings and other voters give strategic approval votes. A strategic minority could overpower an honest majority. To minimize this problem, some score voting advocates suggest measures such as education or ballot design to encourage uninformed voters to give more-extreme rankings. A different path to minimize this problem is to use median scores instead of total scores, as median scores are less amenable to exaggeration, as in majority judgment. However, if all voter factions have the same proportion of strategic and honest voters, simulations show that any significant proportion of honest voters will lead to results which tend to be more satisfying to voters than approval voting, and indeed, more satisfying than any other method with the same unbiased proportion of strategic voters. Tactical voters are faced with the initial tactic as to how highly to score their second-choice candidate. The voter may want to retain expression of a high preference of their favorite candidate over their second choice. But that does not allow the same voter to express a high preference of their second choice over any others. In a simulation study using polling data collected under a majority judgment method, that method's designers found that score voting was more vulnerable to strategy than any other method they studied, including plurality. Instant runoff voting Instant runoff voting is vulnerable to push-over and compromising strategies (although it is less vulnerable to compromising than the plurality method). Bullet voting is ineffective under Instant-runoff, since Instant-runoff satisfies the later-no-harm criterion. Condorcet Condorcet methods have a further-reduced incentive for the compromising strategy, but they have some vulnerability to the burying strategy. The extent of this vulnerability depends on the particular Condorcet method. Some Condorcet methods arguably reduce the vulnerability to burying to the point where it is no longer a significant problem. All guaranteed Condorcet methods are vulnerable to the bullet voting strategy, because they violate the later-no-harm criterion. Borda The Borda count has both a strong compromising incentive and a large vulnerability to burying. Here is a hypothetical example of both factors at the same time: if there are two candidates the most likely to win, the voter can maximize the impact on the contest between these candidates by ranking the candidate the voter likes more in first place, ranking the candidate whom they like less in last place. If neither candidate is the sincere first or last choice, the voter is using both the compromising and burying strategies at once. If many different groups voters use this strategy, this gives a paradoxical advantage to the candidate generally thought least likely to win. Single transferable vote The single transferable vote has an incentive for free riding, a form of compromising strategy sometimes used in proportional representation methods. If one's top-choice candidate is elected, only a fraction of one's vote will be transferred to one's next-favoured candidate. If one feels the favoured candidate is certain to be elected in any case, insincerely ranking the second candidate first guarantees them a full vote if needed. However, the greater the certainty of the first candidate being elected, the bigger their likely surplus, the higher the fraction of the vote that would be transferred to the next candidate, and hence the lower the proportionate benefit of tactical voting. More sophisticated tactics may be practicable where the number of candidates, voters and/or seats to be filled is relatively small. Some forms of STV allow tactical voters to gain an advantage by listing a candidate who is very likely to lose in first place, as a form of pushover. Meek's method essentially eliminates this strategy. See also Electoral fusion Keynesian beauty contest Lesser of two evils Political party Primary election Strategic nomination Tactical manipulation of runoff voting Unite the Right Vote allocation Vote swapping Skirt and Blouse voting References Sources Svensson, Lars-Gunnar (1999). The Proof of the Gibbard–Satterthwaite Theorem Revisited Brams, Herschbach (2001). "The Science of Elections", Science Online. Abstract Fisher, Stephen (2001). [ Extending the Rational Voter Theory of Tactical Voting] External links Tactical Voting Can Be a Weak Strategy—Article on tactical voting within larger strategic considerations [archived] VoteRoll.com VoteRoll is a blog roll voting system that offers tiered tactical voting to develop statistics for people voting online since 2010. Voting theory Psephology Elections in India Party-list proportional representation

Sir Tom Stoppard (born Tomáš Sträussler, 3 July 1937) is a Czech-born British playwright and screenwriter. He has written for television, radio, film, and stage, finding prominence with plays such as Arcadia, The Coast of Utopia, Every Good Boy Deserves Favour, Professional Foul, The Real Thing, Travesties, The Invention of Love, and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead. Stoppard co-wrote the screenplays for Brazil, The Russia House, and Shakespeare in Love, and has received an Academy Award, an Olivier and four Tony Awards. His work covers the themes of human rights, censorship and political freedom, often delving into the deeper philosophical thematics of society. Stoppard has been a playwright of the National Theatre and is one of the most internationally performed dramatists of his generation. In 2008, The Daily Telegraph ranked him number 11 in their list of the "100 most powerful people in British culture". Born in Czechoslovakia, Stoppard left as a child refugee, fleeing imminent Nazi occupation. He settled with his family in Britain after the war, in 1946, having spent the three years prior (1943–1946) in a boarding school in Darjeeling in the Indian Himalayas. After being educated at schools in Nottingham and Yorkshire, Stoppard became a journalist, a drama critic and then, in 1960, a playwright. It was announced in June 2019 that Stoppard had written a new play, Leopoldstadt, set in the Jewish community of early 20th-century Vienna. The play premiered in January 2020 at Wyndham's Theatre with Patrick Marber directing. In October 2020, it won the Olivier Award for Best New Play. Life and career Early years Stoppard was born Tomáš Sträussler, in Zlín, a city dominated by the shoe manufacturing industry, in the Moravia region of Czechoslovakia. He is the son of Martha Becková and Eugen Sträussler, a doctor employed by the Bata shoe company. His parents were non-observant Jews, members of a long-established community. Just before the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, the town's patron, Jan Antonín Baťa, transferred his Jewish employees, mostly physicians, to branches of his firm outside Europe. On 15 March 1939, the day the Nazis invaded Czechoslovakia, the Sträussler family fled to Singapore, where Baťa had a factory. Before the Japanese occupation of Singapore, Stoppard, his brother, and their mother fled to India. Stoppard's father remained in Singapore as a British army volunteer, knowing that, as a doctor, he would be needed in its defence. Stoppard was four years old when his father died. In the book Tom Stoppard in Conversation, Stoppard tells how his father died in Japanese captivity, a prisoner of war but has said that he subsequently discovered that Sträussler was reported to have drowned on board a ship bombed by Japanese forces, whilst trying to flee Singapore in 1942. In 1941, when Tomáš was five, the three were evacuated to Darjeeling, India. The boys attended Mount Hermon School, an American multi-racial school, where Tomáš became Tom and his brother Petr became Peter. In 1945, his mother, Martha, married British army major Kenneth Stoppard, who gave the boys his English surname and, in 1946, moved the family to England. Stoppard's stepfather believed strongly that "to be born an Englishman was to have drawn first prize in the lottery of life"—a quote from Cecil Rhodes—telling his 9-year-old stepson: "Don't you realise that I made you British?" setting up Stoppard's desire as a child to become "an honorary Englishman". "I fairly often find I'm with people who forget I don't quite belong in the world we're in", he says. "I find I put a foot wrong—it could be pronunciation, an arcane bit of English history—and suddenly I'm there naked, as someone with a pass, a press ticket." This is reflected in his characters, he notes, who are "constantly being addressed by the wrong name, with jokes and false trails to do with the confusion of having two names". Stoppard attended the Dolphin School in Nottinghamshire, and later completed his education at Pocklington School in East Riding, Yorkshire, which he hated. Stoppard left school at seventeen and began work as a journalist for the Western Daily Press in Bristol, never receiving a university education. Years later, he came to regret not going to university, but at the time he loved his work as a journalist and felt passionately about his career. He worked at the paper from 1954 until 1958, when the Bristol Evening World offered Stoppard the position of feature writer, humour columnist, and secondary drama critic, which took Stoppard into the world of theatre. At the Bristol Old Vic, at the time a well-regarded regional repertory company, Stoppard formed friendships with director John Boorman and actor Peter O'Toole early in their careers. In Bristol, he became known more for his strained attempts at humour and unstylish clothes than for his writing. Career Stoppard wrote short radio plays in 1953–54 and by 1960 he had completed his first stage play, A Walk on the Water, which was later re-titled Enter a Free Man (1968). He noted that the work owed much to Robert Bolt's Flowering Cherry and Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman. Within a week after sending A Walk on the Water to an agent, Stoppard received his version of the "Hollywood-style telegrams that change struggling young artists' lives." His first play was optioned, staged in Hamburg, then broadcast on British Independent Television in 1963. From September 1962 until April 1963, Stoppard worked in London as a drama critic for Scene magazine, writing reviews and interviews both under his name and the pseudonym William Boot (taken from Evelyn Waugh's Scoop). In 1964, a Ford Foundation grant enabled Stoppard to spend 5 months writing in a Berlin mansion, emerging with a one-act play titled Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Meet King Lear, which later evolved into his Tony-winning play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead. In the following years, Stoppard produced several works for radio, television and the theatre, including "M" is for Moon Among Other Things (1964), A Separate Peace (1966) and If You're Glad I'll Be Frank (1966). On 11 April 1967 – following acclaim at the 1966 Edinburgh Festival – the opening of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead in a National Theatre production at the Old Vic made Stoppard an overnight success. Jumpers (1972) places a professor of moral philosophy in a murder mystery thriller alongside a slew of radical gymnasts. Travesties (1974) explored the 'Wildean' possibilities arising from the fact that Vladimir Lenin, James Joyce, and Tristan Tzara had all been in Zürich during the First World War. Arcadia (1993) explores the interaction between two modern academics and the residents of a Derbyshire country house in the early 19th century, including aristocrats, tutors and the fleeting presence, unseen on stage, of Lord Byron. The themes of the play include the philosophical implications of the second law of thermodynamics, Romantic literature, and the English picturesque style of garden design. The Coast of Utopia (2002) was a trilogy of plays Stoppard wrote about the philosophical arguments among Russian revolutionary figures in the late 19th century. The trilogy comprises Voyage, Shipwreck, and Salvage. Major figures in the play include Michael Bakunin, Ivan Turgenev and Alexander Herzen. Rock'n'Roll (2006) was set in both Cambridge, England and Prague. The play explored the culture of 1960s rock music, especially the persona of Syd Barrett and the political challenge of the Czech band The Plastic People of the Universe, mirroring the contrast between liberal society in England and the repressive Czech state after the Warsaw Pact intervention in the Prague Spring. In his early years, Stoppard wrote extensively for BBC radio, often introducing surrealist themes. He has also adapted many of his stage works for radio, film and television winning extensive awards and honours from the start of his career. His radio production, Darkside (2013), was written for BBC Radio 2 to celebrate the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd's album, The Dark Side of the Moon. Stoppard has written one novel, Lord Malquist and Mr Moon (1966), set in contemporary London. Its cast includes the 18th-century figure of the dandified Malquist and his ineffectual Boswell, Moon, and also cowboys, a lion (banned from the Ritz) and a donkey-borne Irishman claiming to be the Risen Christ. In the 1980s, in addition to writing his own works, Stoppard translated many plays into English, including works by Sławomir Mrożek, Johann Nestroy, Arthur Schnitzler, and Václav Havel. It was at this time that Stoppard became influenced by the works of Polish and Czech absurdists. He has been co-opted into the Outrapo group, a far-from-serious French movement to improve actors' stage technique through science. Stoppard has also co-written screenplays including Shakespeare in Love and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Steven Spielberg states that though Stoppard was uncredited for the latter, "he was responsible for almost every line of dialogue in the film". Stoppard also worked on Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith, though again Stoppard received no official or formal credit in this role. He worked in a similar capacity with Tim Burton on his film Sleepy Hollow. Stoppard serves on the advisory board of the magazine Standpoint, and was instrumental in its foundation, giving the opening speech at its launch. He is also a patron of the Shakespeare Schools Festival, a charity that enables school children across the UK to perform Shakespeare in professional theatres. In July 2013 Stoppard was awarded the PEN Pinter Prize for "determination to tell things as they are." Stoppard was appointed president of the London Library in 2002 and vice-president in 2017 following the election of Sir Tim Rice as president. In July 2017, Stoppard was elected an Honorary Fellow of the British Academy (HonFBA), the United Kingdom's national academy for the humanities and social sciences. Stoppard was appointed Cameron Mackintosh Visiting Professor of Contemporary Theatre, St Catherine's College, Oxford, for the academic year 2017–2018. Themes Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1966–67) was Stoppard's first major play to gain recognition. The story of Hamlet as told from the viewpoint of two courtiers echoes Beckett in its double act repartee, existential themes and language play. "Stoppardian" became a term describing works using wit and comedy while addressing philosophical concepts. Critic Dennis Kennedy notes "It established several characteristics of Stoppard's dramaturgy: his word-playing intellectuality, audacious, paradoxical, and self-conscious theatricality, and preference for reworking pre-existing narratives... Stoppard's plays have been sometimes dismissed as pieces of clever showmanship, lacking in substance, social commitment, or emotional weight. His theatrical surfaces serve to conceal rather than reveal their author's views, and his fondness for towers of paradox spirals away from social comment. This is seen most clearly in his comedies The Real Inspector Hound (1968) and After Magritte (1970), which create their humour through highly formal devices of reframing and juxtaposition." Stoppard himself went so far as to declare "I must stop compromising my plays with this whiff of social application. They must be entirely untouched by any suspicion of usefulness." He acknowledges that he started off "as a language nerd", primarily enjoying linguistic and ideological playfulness, feeling early in his career that journalism was far better suited for presaging political change, than playwriting. The accusations of favouring intellectuality over political commitment or commentary were met with a change of tack, as Stoppard produced increasingly socially engaged work. From 1977, he became personally involved with human-rights issues, in particular with the situation of political dissidents in Central and Eastern Europe. In February 1977, he visited the Soviet Union and several Eastern European countries with a member of Amnesty International. In June, Stoppard met Vladimir Bukovsky in London and travelled to Czechoslovakia (then under communist control), where he met dissident playwright and future president Václav Havel, whose writing he greatly admires. Stoppard became involved with Index on Censorship, Amnesty International, and the Committee Against Psychiatric Abuse and wrote various newspaper articles and letters about human rights. He was instrumental in translating Havel's works into English. Every Good Boy Deserves Favour (1977), "a play for actors and orchestra" was based on a request by conductor/composer André Previn and was inspired by a meeting with a Russian exile. This play as well as Dogg's Hamlet, Cahoot's Macbeth (1979), The Coast of Utopia (2002), Rock 'n' Roll (2006), and two works for television Professional Foul (1977) and Squaring the Circle (1984) all concern themes of censorship, rights abuses, and state repression. Stoppard's later works have sought greater inter-personal depths, whilst maintaining their intellectual playfulness. Stoppard acknowledges that around 1982 he moved away from the "argumentative" works and more towards plays of the heart, as he became "less shy" about emotional openness. Discussing the later integration of heart and mind in his work, he commented "I think I was too concerned when I set off, to have a firework go off every few seconds... I think I was always looking for the entertainer in myself and I seem to be able to entertain through manipulating language... [but] it's really about human beings, it's not really about language at all." The Real Thing (1982) uses a meta-theatrical structure to explore the suffering that adultery can produce and The Invention of Love (1997) also investigates the pain of passion. Arcadia (1993) explores the meeting of chaos theory, historiography, and landscape gardening. He was inspired by a Trevor Nunn production of Gorky's Summerfolk to write a trilogy of "human" plays: The Coast of Utopia (Voyage, Shipwreck, and Salvage, 2002). Stoppard has commented that he loves the medium of theatre for how 'adjustable' it is at every point, how unfrozen it is, continuously growing and developing through each rehearsal, free from the text. His experience of writing for film is similar, offering the liberating opportunity to 'play God', in control of creative reality. It often takes four to five years from the first idea of a play to staging, taking pains to be as profoundly accurate in his research as he can be. Personal life Stoppard has been married three times. His first marriage was to Josie Ingle (1965–1972), a nurse; his second marriage was to Miriam Stern (1972–92). They separated when he began a relationship with actress Felicity Kendal. He also had a relationship with actress Sinéad Cusack, but she made it clear she wished to remain married to Jeremy Irons and stay close to their two sons. Also, after she was reunited with a son she had given up for adoption, she wished to spend time with him in Dublin rather than with Stoppard in the house they shared in France. He has two sons from each of his first two marriages: Oliver Stoppard, Barnaby Stoppard, the actor Ed Stoppard, and Will Stoppard, who is married to violinist Linzi Stoppard. In 2014 he married Sabrina Guinness. Stoppard's mother died in 1996. The family had not talked about their history and neither brother knew what had happened to the family left behind in Czechoslovakia. In the early 1990s, with the fall of communism, Stoppard found out that all four of his grandparents had been Jewish and had died in Terezin, Auschwitz and other camps, along with three of his mother's sisters. In 1998, following the deaths of his parents, he returned to Zlín for the first time in over 50 years. He has expressed grief both for a lost father and a missing past, but he has no sense of being a survivor, at whatever remove. "I feel incredibly lucky not to have had to survive or die. It's a conspicuous part of what might be termed a charmed life." In 2013, Stoppard asked Hermione Lee to write his biography. It appeared in 2020. Political views In 1979, the year of Margaret Thatcher's election, Stoppard noted to Paul Delaney: "I'm a conservative with a small c. I am a conservative in politics, literature, education and theatre." In 2007, Stoppard described himself as a "timid libertarian". The Tom Stoppard Prize () was created in 1983 under the Charter 77 Foundation and is awarded to authors of Czech origin. With Kevin Spacey, Jude Law and others, Stoppard joined protests against the regime of Alexander Lukashenko in March 2011, showing their support for the Belarusian democracy movement. In 2014, Stoppard publicly backed "Hacked Off" and its campaign towards press self-regulation by "safeguarding the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable." Representations in art Stoppard sat for sculptor Alan Thornhill, and a bronze head is now in public collection, situated with the Stoppard papers in the reading room of the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. The terracotta remains in the collection of the artist in London. The correspondence file relating to the Stoppard bust is held in the archive of the Henry Moore Foundation's Henry Moore Institute in Leeds. Stoppard also sat for the sculptor and friend Angela Conner, and his bronze portrait bust is on display in the grounds of Chatsworth House. Archive The papers of Tom Stoppard are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. The archive was first established by Stoppard in 1991 and continues to grow. The collection consists of typescript and handwritten drafts, revision pages, outlines, and notes; production material, including cast lists, set drawings, schedules, and photographs; theatre programs; posters; advertisements; clippings; page and galley proofs; dust jackets; correspondence; legal documents and financial papers, including passports, contracts, and royalty and account statements; itineraries; appointment books and diary sheets; photographs; sheet music; sound recordings; a scrapbook; artwork; minutes of meetings; and publications. Selected awards and honours Awards 1967: Evening Standard Award for Most Promising Playwright (UK) 1967: Plays and Players London Theatre Critics Award Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (UK) 1968: Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead – Tony Award for Best Play, New York Drama Critics' Circle Best Play of the Year (US), Plays and Players London Theatre Critics Award for Best New Play (UK) 1968: Albert's Bridge – Prix Italia (Italy) 1972: Jumpers – Evening Standard Award for Best Play, Plays and Players London Theatre Critics Award for Best New Play (UK) 1974: Travesties – Evening Standard Award for Best Comedy of the Year (UK) 1976: Travesties – Tony Award for Best Play, New York Critics Award for Best Play (US) 1978: Night and Day – Evening Standard Award for Best Play (UK) 1982: The Dog It Was That Died – Giles Cooper Award 1982: The Real Thing – Evening Standard Award for Best Play (UK) 1984: The Real Thing – Tony Award for Best Play, New York Critics Award for Best Foreign Play (US) 1991: In the Native State – Giles Cooper Award 1993: Arcadia – Critics' Circle Theatre Awards for Best New Play, [[Evening Standard Theatre Awards|Evening Standard Award]] for Best Play of the Year 1994: Arcadia – Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play (UK) 1997: The Invention of Love – Evening Standard Award for Best Play (UK) 1998: Shakespeare in Love – Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay (US) 1999: Shakespeare in Love – Silver Bear for an outstanding single achievement (Berlin) 2000: The Real Thing – Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play (US) 2000: The Real Thing – Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play (US) 2001: The Invention of Love – New York Drama Critics Circle Award for Best Play (US) 2007: The Coast of Utopia – Tony Award for Best Play (US) 2007: The Critics' Circle Award for Distinguished Service to the Arts (presented on 3 April 2008 at the National Theatre) (UK) 2008: The 2008 Dan David Prize for Creative Rendering of the Past in Theatre (Israeli) 2013: The PEN Pinter Prize for "determination to tell things as they are." (UK) 2013: Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement 2015: PEN/Allen Foundation Literary Service Award 2017: America Award in Literature 2017: David Cohen Prize 2020: Leopoldstadt – Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play Honours 1972: Elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature 1978: Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1978 New Year Honours 1997: Knight Bachelor in the 1997 Birthday Honours for services to literature 1999: Induction into American Theater Hall of Fame 2000: Order of Merit 2000: Honorary Doctor of Letters, Yale University 2000: Honorary Doctor of Letters, University of Cambridge 2002: President of The London Library 2009: Honorary Patronage of the University Philosophical Society, Trinity College Dublin 2013: Honorary Doctor of Letters, University of Oxford 2017: Honorary Fellow of the British Academy Published works Novel 1966: Lord Malquist and Mr Moon Theatre 1964: A Walk on the Water 1965: The Gamblers, based on the novel The Gambler by Dostoevsky 1966: Tango, adapted from Sławomir Mrożek's play and Nicholas Bethell translation, premiered at the Aldwych Theatre 1966: Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead 1968: Enter a Free Man. Developed from A Walk on the Water. First performed 28 March 1968. 1968: The Real Inspector Hound 1969: Albert's Bridge premiered at St. Mary's Hall in Edinburgh 1969: If You're Glad I'll Be Frank premiered at St. Mary's Hall in Edinburgh 1970: After Magritte frequently performed as a companion piece to The Real Inspector Hound 1971: Dogg's Our Pet premiered at the Almost Free Theatre 1972: Jumpers 1972: Artist Descending a Staircase 1974: Travesties 1976: Dirty Linen and New-Found-Land first performed on 6 April 1976 1976: 15-Minute Hamlet 1977: Every Good Boy Deserves Favour was written at the request of André Previn. The play calls for a full orchestra 1978: Night and Day 1979: Dogg's Hamlet, Cahoot's Macbeth – two plays written to be performed together. 1979: Undiscovered Country – an adaptation of Das Weite Land by the Austrian playwright Arthur Schnitzler 1981: On the Razzle based on Einen Jux will er sich machen by Johann Nestroy 1982: The Real Thing 1982: The (15 Minute) Dogg's Troupe Hamlet, revision of 1979 play, Tom Stoppard's contribution to eight one-act plays by eight playwrights performed as Pieces of Eight 1983: English libretto for The Love for Three Oranges. Original opera by Sergei Prokofiev. 1984: Rough Crossing based on Play at the Castle by Ferenc Molnár 1986: Dalliance An adaptation of Arthur Schnitzler's Liebelei 1987: Largo Desolato, translation of a play by Václav Havel 1988: Hapgood 1993: Arcadia 1995: Indian Ink – based on Stoppard's radio play In the Native State 1997: The Invention of Love 1997: The Seagull – translation of the play by Anton Chekhov 2002: The Coast of Utopia is a trilogy of plays: Voyage, Shipwreck, and Salvage 2004: Enrico IV (Henry IV) – translation of the Italian play by Luigi Pirandello First presented at the Donmar Theatre, London, in April 2004 2006: Rock 'n' Roll – first public performance 3 June 2006 preview at the Royal Court Theatre. 2010: The Laws of War – contributor to a collaborative piece for a one-night benefit performance in support of Human Rights Watch. 2015: The Hard Problem 2020: Leopoldstadt Original works for radio 1964: The Dissolution of Dominic Boot 1964: 'M' is for Moon Amongst Other Things 1966: If You're Glad I'll be Frank 1967: Albert's Bridge 1968: Where Are They Now?, written for schools radio 1972: Artist Descending a Staircase 1982: The Dog It Was That Died 1991: In the Native State, later expanded to become the stage play Indian Ink (1995) 2007: On Dover Beach 2012: Albert's Bridge, Artist Descending a Staircase, The Dog It Was That Died, and In the Native State have been published by the British Library as Tom Stoppard Radio Plays 2013: Darkside, written for BBC Radio 2 Television plays A Separate Peace transmitted August 1966 Teeth Another Moon Called Earth (containing some dialogue and situations later incorporated into Jumpers) Neutral Ground (a loose adaptation of Sophocles' Philoctetes) Professional Foul Squaring the Circle 1970: The Engagement, a television version of The Dissolution of Dominic Boot on NBC Experiment in Television Film and television adaptation of plays and books 1975: Three Men in a Boat adaptation of Jerome K. Jerome's novel for BBC Television 1975: The Boundary co-authored by Clive Exton, for the BBC 1978: Despair – screenplay for the film directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder, starring Dirk Bogarde, based on the novel by Vladimir Nabokov 1979: The Human Factor — a film adaption of the novel by Graham Greene 1985: Brazil co-authored with Terry Gilliam and Charles McKeown, script nominated for an Academy Award 1987: Empire of the Sun first draft of the screenplay 1989: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade final rewrite of Jeffrey Boam's rewrite of Menno Meyjes's screenplay 1990: The Russia House screenplay for the 1990 film of the John le Carré novel 1990: Rosencrantz & Guildenstern are Dead – won the Golden Lion and which he also directed 1998: Shakespeare in Love co-authored with Marc Norman; script won an Academy Award 1998: Poodle Springs teleplay adaptation of the novel by Robert B. Parker and Raymond Chandler 2001: Enigma film screenplay of the Robert Harris novel 2005: Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith dialogue-polish of George Lucas's screenplay 2005: The Golden Compass a draft screenplay, not produced 2012: Parade's End, television screenplay for BBC/HBO of Ford Madox Ford's series of novels 2012: Anna Karenina, film screenplay of the Leo Tolstoy novel 2014: Tulip Fever, film screenplay of the Deborah Moggach novel References Sources Further reading Bloom, Harold, ed. Tom Stoppard. Bloom's Major Dramatists series. New York: Chelsea House, 2003, . Cahn, Victor L. Beyond Absurdity: The Plays of Tom Stoppard. Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1979. Corballis, Richard. Stoppard. The Mystery and the Clockwork Oxford, New York, 1984. Delaney, Paul. Tom Stoppard: The Moral Vision of the Plays London, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990. Fleming, John. Stoppard's Theater: Finding Order Amid Chaos Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001. Hunter, Jim. About Stoppard: The Playwright and the Work. London: Faber and Faber, 2005. Londré, Felicia Hardison. Tom Stoppard Modern Literature Series. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1981. Purse, Nigel. Tom Stoppard's Plays. Patterns of Plenitude and Parsimony. Leiden: Brill, 2016. Stoppard, Tom & Delaney, Paul (eds). Tom Stoppard in Conversation University of Michigan Press, 1994. Südkamp, Holger. Tom Stoppard's Biographical Drama. Trier: WVT, 2008. External links Bibliography at Open Library at the British Film Institute A Tom Stoppard Bibliography. Retrieved 13 August 2020. Tom Stoppard Papers at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin British Council profile Retrieved 9 May 2020. BBC John Tusa Interview (Audio 43 mins). With transcript. BBC profile. Retrieved 2 January 2011. Guppy, Shusha (Winter 1988). "Tom Stoppard, The Art of Theater No. 7", Paris Review interview Stoppard talking about his life on BBC Radio 4's Front Row in April 2017 1937 births Living people 20th-century British dramatists and playwrights 21st-century British dramatists and playwrights Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners Best Screenplay Golden Globe winners Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Critics' Circle Theatre Award winners Czechoslovak emigrants to England Directors of Golden Lion winners Drama Desk Award winners English Jewish writers English libertarians English male dramatists and playwrights English male journalists English male screenwriters English people of Czech-Jewish descent English radio writers Exophonic writers Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Honorary Fellows of the British Academy Jewish dramatists and playwrights Knights Bachelor Laurence Olivier Award winners Members of the Order of Merit Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom People educated at Pocklington School Writers from Bristol Writers from Zlín Prix Italia winners Stoppard family Theatre of the Absurd Tony Award winners Writers Guild of America Award winners Czech expatriates in India British expatriates in India

In thermodynamics, the triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure at which the three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. It is that temperature and pressure at which the sublimation curve, fusion curve and the vaporisation curve meet. For example, the triple point of mercury occurs at a temperature of and a pressure of 0.165 mPa. In addition to the triple point for solid, liquid, and gas phases, a triple point may involve more than one solid phase, for substances with multiple polymorphs. Helium-4 is a special case that presents a triple point involving two different fluid phases (lambda point). The triple point of water was used to define the kelvin, the base unit of thermodynamic temperature in the International System of Units (SI). The value of the triple point of water was fixed by definition, rather than measured, but that changed with the 2019 redefinition of SI base units. The triple points of several substances are used to define points in the ITS-90 international temperature scale, ranging from the triple point of hydrogen (13.8033 K) to the triple point of water (273.16 K, 0.01 °C, or 32.018 °F). The term "triple point" was coined in 1873 by James Thomson, brother of Lord Kelvin. Triple point of water Gas–liquid–solid triple point The single combination of pressure and temperature at which liquid water, solid ice, and water vapor can coexist in a stable equilibrium occurs at exactly and a partial vapor pressure of . At that point, it is possible to change all of the substance to ice, water, or vapor by making arbitrarily small changes in pressure and temperature. Even if the total pressure of a system is well above the triple point of water, provided that the partial pressure of the water vapor is 611.657 pascals, then the system can still be brought to the triple point of water. Strictly speaking, the surfaces separating the different phases should also be perfectly flat, to negate the effects of surface tension. The gas–liquid–solid triple point of water corresponds to the minimum pressure at which liquid water can exist. At pressures below the triple point (as in outer space), solid ice when heated at constant pressure is converted directly into water vapor in a process known as sublimation. Above the triple point, solid ice when heated at constant pressure first melts to form liquid water, and then evaporates or boils to form vapor at a higher temperature. For most substances the gas–liquid–solid triple point is also the minimum temperature at which the liquid can exist. For water, however, this is not true because the melting point of ordinary ice decreases as a function of pressure, as shown by the dashed green line in the phase diagram. At temperatures just below the triple point, compression at constant temperature transforms water vapor first to solid and then to liquid (water ice has lower density than liquid water, so increasing pressure leads to a liquefaction). The triple point pressure of water was used during the Mariner 9 mission to Mars as a reference point to define "sea level". More recent missions use laser altimetry and gravity measurements instead of pressure to define elevation on Mars. High-pressure phases At high pressures, water has a complex phase diagram with 15 known phases of ice and several triple points, including 10 whose coordinates are shown in the diagram. For example, the triple point at 251 K (−22 °C) and 210 MPa (2070 atm) corresponds to the conditions for the coexistence of ice Ih (ordinary ice), ice III and liquid water, all at equilibrium. There are also triple points for the coexistence of three solid phases, for example ice II, ice V and ice VI at 218 K (−55 °C) and 620 MPa (6120 atm). For those high-pressure forms of ice which can exist in equilibrium with liquid, the diagram shows that melting points increase with pressure. At temperatures above 273 K (0 °C), increasing the pressure on water vapor results first in liquid water and then a high-pressure form of ice. In the range , ice I is formed first, followed by liquid water and then ice III or ice V, followed by other still denser high-pressure forms. Triple-point cells Triple-point cells are used in the calibration of thermometers. For exacting work, triple-point cells are typically filled with a highly pure chemical substance such as hydrogen, argon, mercury, or water (depending on the desired temperature). The purity of these substances can be such that only one part in a million is a contaminant, called "six nines" because it is 99.9999% pure. A specific isotopic composition (for water, VSMOW) is used because variations in isotopic composition cause small changes in the triple point. Triple-point cells are so effective at achieving highly precise, reproducible temperatures, that an international calibration standard for thermometers called ITS–90 relies upon triple-point cells of hydrogen, neon, oxygen, argon, mercury, and water for delineating six of its defined temperature points. Table of triple points This table lists the gas–liquid–solid triple points of several substances. Unless otherwise noted, the data come from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now NIST, National Institute of Standards and Technology). Notes: For comparison, typical atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa (1 atm). Before the new definition of SI units, water's triple point, 273.16 K, was an exact number. See also Critical point (thermodynamics) Gibbs' phase rule References External links Chemical properties Phase transitions Thermodynamics Threshold temperatures Gases 1873 introductions

Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxicants. The relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical toxicity include the dosage, duration of exposure (whether it is acute or chronic), route of exposure, species, age, sex, and environment. Toxicologists are experts on poisons and poisoning. There is a movement for evidence-based toxicology as part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. Toxicology is currently contributing to the field of Cancer research, since some toxins can be used as drugs for killing tumor cells. One prime example of this is Ribosome Inactivating Proteins, tested in the treatment of Leukemia. The word toxicology () is a neoclassical compound from New Latin, first attested circa 1799, from the combining forms toxico- + -logy, which in turn come from the Ancient Greek words τοξικός toxikos, "poisonous", and λόγος logos, "subject matter"). History Dioscorides, a Greek physician in the court of the Roman emperor Nero, made the first attempt to classify plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect. Ibn Wahshiyya wrote the Book on Poisons in the 9th or 10th century. This was followed up in 1360 by Khagendra Mani Darpana. Theophrastus Phillipus Auroleus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493–1541) (also referred to as Paracelsus, from his belief that his studies were above or beyond the work of Celsus – a Roman physician from the first century) is considered "the father" of toxicology. He is credited with the classic toxicology maxim, "Alle Dinge sind Gift und nichts ist ohne Gift; allein die Dosis macht, dass ein Ding kein Gift ist." which translates as, "All things are poisonous and nothing is without poison; only the dose makes a thing not poisonous." This is often condensed to: "The dose makes the poison" or in Latin "Sola dosis facit venenum". Mathieu Orfila is also considered the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal treatment in 1813 in his Traité des poisons, also called Toxicologie générale. In 1850, Jean Stas became the first person to successfully isolate plant poisons from human tissue. This allowed him to identify the use of nicotine as a poison in the Bocarmé murder case, providing the evidence needed to convict the Belgian Count Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé of killing his brother-in-law. Basic principles The goal of toxicity assessment is to identify adverse effects of a substance. Adverse effects depend on two main factors: i) routes of exposure (oral, inhalation, or dermal) and ii) dose (duration and concentration of exposure). To explore dose, substances are tested in both acute and chronic models. Generally, different sets of experiments are conducted to determine whether a substance causes cancer and to examine other forms of toxicity. Factors that influence chemical toxicity: Dosage Both large single exposures (acute) and continuous small exposures (chronic) are studied. Route of exposure Ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption Other factors Species Age Sex Health Environment Individual characteristics The discipline of evidence-based toxicology strives to transparently, consistently, and objectively assess available scientific evidence in order to answer questions in toxicology, the study of the adverse effects of chemical, physical, or biological agents on living organisms and the environment, including the prevention and amelioration of such effects. Evidence-based toxicology has the potential to address concerns in the toxicological community about the limitations of current approaches to assessing the state of the science. These include concerns related to transparency in decision making, synthesis of different types of evidence, and the assessment of bias and credibility. Evidence-based toxicology has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. Testing methods Toxicity experiments may be conducted in vivo (using the whole animal) or in vitro (testing on isolated cells or tissues), or in silico (in a computer simulation). Non-human animals The classic experimental tool of toxicology is testing on non-human animals. Example of model organisms are Galleria mellonella, which can replace small mammals, and Zebrafish, which allow for the study of toxicology in a lower order vertebrate in vivo. As of 2014, such animal testing provides information that is not available by other means about how substances function in a living organism. The use of non-human animals for toxicology testing is opposed by some organisations for reasons of animal welfare, and it has been restricted or banned under some circumstances in certain regions, such as the testing of cosmetics in the European Union. Alternative testing methods While testing in animal models remains as a method of estimating human effects, there are both ethical and technical concerns with animal testing. Since the late 1950s, the field of toxicology has sought to reduce or eliminate animal testing under the rubric of "Three Rs" - reduce the number of experiments with animals to the minimum necessary; refine experiments to cause less suffering, and replace in vivo experiments with other types, or use more simple forms of life when possible. Computer modeling is an example of alternative testing methods; using computer models of chemicals and proteins, structure-activity relationships can be determined, and chemical structures that are likely to bind to, and interfere with, proteins with essential functions, can be identified. This work requires expert knowledge in molecular modeling and statistics together with expert judgment in chemistry, biology and toxicology. In 2007 the American NGO National Academy of Sciences published a report called "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy" which opened with a statement: "Change often involves a pivotal event that builds on previous history and opens the door to a new era. Pivotal events in science include the discovery of penicillin, the elucidation of the DNA double helix, and the development of computers. ...Toxicity testing is approaching such a scientific pivot point. It is poised to take advantage of the revolutions in biology and biotechnology. Advances in toxicogenomics, bioinformatics, systems biology, epigenetics, and computational toxicology could transform toxicity testing from a system based on whole-animal testing to one founded primarily on in vitro methods that evaluate changes in biologic processes using cells, cell lines, or cellular components, preferably of human origin." As of 2014 that vision was still unrealized. The United States Environmental Protection Agency studied 1,065 chemical and drug substances in their ToxCast program (part of the CompTox Chemicals Dashboard) using in silica modelling and a human pluripotent stem cell-based assay to predict in vivo developmental intoxicants based on changes in cellular metabolism following chemical exposure. Major findings from the analysis of this ToxCast_STM dataset published in 2020 include: (1) 19% of 1065 chemicals yielded a prediction of developmental toxicity, (2) assay performance reached 79%–82% accuracy with high specificity (> 84%) but modest sensitivity (< 67%) when compared with in vivo animal models of human prenatal developmental toxicity, (3) sensitivity improved as more stringent weights of evidence requirements were applied to the animal studies, and (4) statistical analysis of the most potent chemical hits on specific biochemical targets in ToxCast revealed positive and negative associations with the STM response, providing insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of the targeted endpoint and its biological domain. In some cases shifts away from animal studies have been mandated by law or regulation; the European Union (EU) prohibited use of animal testing for cosmetics in 2013. Dose response complexities Most chemicals display a classic dose response curve – at a low dose (below a threshold), no effect is observed. Some show a phenomenon known as sufficient challenge – a small exposure produces animals that "grow more rapidly, have better general appearance and coat quality, have fewer tumors, and live longer than the control animals". A few chemicals have no well-defined safe level of exposure. These are treated with special care. Some chemicals are subject to bioaccumulation as they are stored in rather than being excreted from the body; these also receive special consideration. Several measures are commonly used to describe toxic dosages according to the degree of effect on an organism or a population, and some are specifically defined by various laws or organizational usage. These include: LD50 = Median lethal dose, a dose that will kill 50% of an exposed population NOEL = No-Observed-Effect-Level, the highest dose known to show no effect NOAEL = No-Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level, the highest dose known to show no adverse effects PEL = Permissible Exposure Limit, the highest concentration permitted under US OSHA regulations STEL = Short-Term Exposure Limit, the highest concentration permitted for short periods of time, in general 15–30 minutes TWA = Time-Weighted Average, the average amount of an agent's concentration over a specified period of time, usually 8 hours. TTC = Threshold of Toxicological Concern have been established for the constituents of tobacco smoke Types Medical toxicology is the discipline that requires physician status (MD or DO degree plus specialty education and experience). Clinical toxicology is the discipline that can be practiced not only by physicians but also other health professionals with a master's degree in clinical toxicology: physician extenders (physician assistants, nurse practitioners), nurses, pharmacists, and allied health professionals. Forensic toxicology is the discipline that makes use of toxicology and other disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilized, but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results. Computational toxicology is a discipline that develops mathematical and computer-based models to better understand and predict adverse health effects caused by chemicals, such as environmental pollutants and pharmaceuticals. Within the Toxicology in the 21st Century project, the best predictive models were identified to be Deep Neural Networks, Random Forest, and Support Vector Machines, which can reach the performance of in vitro experiments. Occupational toxicology is the application of toxicology to chemical hazards in the workplace. Toxicology as a profession A toxicologist is a scientist or medical personnel who specializes in the study of symptoms, mechanisms, treatments and detection of venoms and toxins; especially the poisoning of people. Requirements To work as a toxicologist one should obtain a degree in toxicology or a related degree like biology, chemistry, pharmacology or biochemistry. Bachelor's degree programs in toxicology cover the chemical makeup of toxins and their effects on biochemistry, physiology and ecology. After introductory life science courses are complete, students typically enroll in labs and apply toxicology principles to research and other studies. Advanced students delve into specific sectors, like the pharmaceutical industry or law enforcement, which apply methods of toxicology in their work. The Society of Toxicology (SOT) recommends that undergraduates in postsecondary schools that don't offer a bachelor's degree in toxicology consider attaining a degree in biology or chemistry. Additionally, the SOT advises aspiring toxicologists to take statistics and mathematics courses, as well as gain laboratory experience through lab courses, student research projects and internships. Duties Toxicologists perform many different duties including research in the academic, nonprofit and industrial fields, product safety evaluation, consulting, public service and legal regulation. In order to research and assess the effects of chemicals, toxicologists perform carefully designed studies and experiments. These experiments help identify the specific amount of a chemical that may cause harm and potential risks of being near or using products that contain certain chemicals. Research projects may range from assessing the effects of toxic pollutants on the environment to evaluating how the human immune system responds to chemical compounds within pharmaceutical drugs. While the basic duties of toxicologists are to determine the effects of chemicals on organisms and their surroundings, specific job duties may vary based on industry and employment. For example, forensic toxicologists may look for toxic substances in a crime scene, whereas aquatic toxicologists may analyze the toxicity level of water bodies. Compensation The salary for jobs in toxicology is dependent on several factors, including level of schooling, specialization, experience. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) notes that jobs for biological scientists, which generally include toxicologists, were expected to increase by 21% between 2008 and 2018. The BLS notes that this increase could be due to research and development growth in biotechnology, as well as budget increases for basic and medical research in biological science. See also Aquatic toxicology Automatism (toxicology) Certain safety factor Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study (CHEERS) (in the US) Ecotoxicology Entomotoxicology Environmental health Environmental toxicology Enzyme inhibition Food toxicology Forensic toxicology History of poison In vitro toxicology Indicative limit value Medical toxicology Modes of toxic action Occupational toxicology Overdose Risk Information Exchange Pollution Toxicity Exposure science Exposome Toxicogenomics Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods (journal) Toxinology Unacceptable Levels (2013 documentary film) References Further reading External links Society of Toxicology

The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) is the abbreviated name of the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, which prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except for those conducted underground. It is also abbreviated as the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) and Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (NTBT), though the latter may also refer to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), which succeeded the PTBT for ratifying parties. Negotiations initially focused on a comprehensive ban, but that was abandoned because of technical questions surrounding the detection of underground tests and Soviet concerns over the intrusiveness of proposed verification methods. The impetus for the test ban was provided by rising public anxiety over the magnitude of nuclear tests, particularly tests of new thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs), and the resulting nuclear fallout. A test ban was also seen as a means of slowing nuclear proliferation and the nuclear arms race. Though the PTBT did not halt proliferation or the arms race, its enactment did coincide with a substantial decline in the concentration of radioactive particles in the atmosphere. The PTBT was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States in Moscow on 5 August 1963 before it was opened for signature by other countries. The treaty formally went into effect on 10 October 1963. Since then, 123 other states have become party to the treaty. Ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty. Background Much of the stimulus for the treaty was increasing public unease about radioactive fallout as a result of above-ground or underwater nuclear testing, particularly given the increasing power of nuclear devices, as well as concern about the general environmental damage caused by testing. In 1952–53, the US and Soviet Union detonated their first thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs), far more powerful than the atomic bombs tested and deployed since 1945. In 1954, the US Castle Bravo test at Bikini Atoll (part of Operation Castle) had a yield of 15 megatons of TNT, more than doubling the expected yield. The Castle Bravo test resulted in the worst radiological event in US history as radioactive particles spread over more than , affected inhabited areas (including Rongelap Atoll and Utirik Atoll), and sickened Japanese fishermen aboard the Lucky Dragon upon whom "ashes of death" had rained. In the same year, a Soviet test sent radioactive particles over Japan. Around the same time, victims of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima visited the US for medical care, which attracted significant public attention. In 1961, the Soviet Union tested the Tsar Bomba, which had a yield of 50 megatons and remains the most powerful man-made explosion in history, though due to a highly efficient detonation fallout was relatively limited. Between 1951 and 1958, the US conducted 166 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 82, and Britain conducted 21; only 22 underground tests were conducted in this period (all by the US). Negotiations Early efforts In 1945, Britain and Canada made an early call for an international discussion on controlling atomic power. At the time, the US had yet to formulate a cohesive policy or strategy on nuclear weapons. Taking advantage of this was Vannevar Bush, who had initiated and administered the Manhattan Project, but nevertheless had a long-term policy goal of banning on nuclear weapons production. As a first step in this direction, Bush proposed an international agency dedicated to nuclear control. Bush unsuccessfully argued in 1952 that the US pursue a test ban agreement with the Soviet Union before testing its first thermonuclear weapon, but his interest in international controls was echoed in the 1946 Acheson–Lilienthal Report, which had been commissioned by President Harry S. Truman to help construct US nuclear weapons policy. J. Robert Oppenheimer, who had led Los Alamos National Laboratory during the Manhattan Project, exerted significant influence over the report, particularly in its recommendation of an international body that would control production of and research on the world's supply of uranium and thorium. A version of the Acheson-Lilienthal plan was presented to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission as the Baruch Plan in June 1946. The Baruch Plan proposed that an International Atomic Development Authority would control all research on and material and equipment involved in the production of atomic energy. Though Dwight D. Eisenhower, then the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, was not a significant figure in the Truman administration on nuclear questions, he did support Truman's nuclear control policy, including the Baruch Plan's provision for an international control agency, provided that the control system was accompanied by "a system of free and complete inspection." The Soviet Union dismissed the Baruch Plan as a US attempt to secure its nuclear dominance, and called for the US to halt weapons production and release technical information on its program. The Acheson–Lilienthal paper and Baruch Plan would serve as the basis for US policy into the 1950s. Between 1947 and 1954, the US and Soviet Union discussed their demands within the United Nations Commission for Conventional Disarmament. A series of events in 1954, including the Castle Bravo test and spread of fallout from a Soviet test over Japan, redirected the international discussion on nuclear policy. Additionally, by 1954, both US and Soviet Union had assembled large nuclear stockpiles, reducing hopes of complete disarmament. In the early years of the Cold War, the US approach to nuclear control reflected a strain between an interest in controlling nuclear weapons and a belief that dominance in the nuclear arena, particularly given the size of Soviet conventional forces, was critical to US security. Interest in nuclear control and efforts to stall proliferation of weapons to other states grew as the Soviet Union's nuclear capabilities increased. After Castle Bravo: 1954–1958 In 1954, just weeks after the Castle Bravo test, Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru made the first call for a "standstill agreement" on nuclear testing, who saw a testing moratorium as a stepping stone to more comprehensive arms control agreements. In the same year, the British Labour Party, then led by Clement Attlee, called on the UN to ban testing of thermonuclear weapons. 1955 marks the beginning of test-ban negotiations, as Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev first proposed talks on the subject in February 1955. On 10 May 1955, the Soviet Union proposed a test ban before the UN Disarmament Commission's "Committee of Five" (Britain, Canada, France, the Soviet Union, and the US). This proposal, which closely reflected a prior Anglo-French proposal, was initially part of a comprehensive disarmament proposal meant to reduce conventional arms levels and eliminate nuclear weapons. Despite the closeness of the Soviet proposal to earlier Western proposals, the US reversed its position on the provisions and rejected the Soviet offer "in the absence of more general control agreements," including limits on the production of fissionable material and protections against a surprise nuclear strike. The May 1955 proposal is now seen as evidence of Khrushchev's "new approach" to foreign policy, as Khrushchev sought to mend relations with the West. The proposal would serve as the basis of the Soviet negotiating position through 1957. Eisenhower had supported nuclear testing after World War II. In 1947, he rejected arguments by Stafford L. Warren, the Manhattan Project's chief physician, concerning the detrimental health effects of atmospheric testing, agreeing instead with James Bryant Conant, a chemist and participant in the Manhattan Project, who was skeptical of Warren's then-theoretical claims. Warren's arguments were lent credence in the scientific community and public by the Castle Bravo test of 1954. Eisenhower, as president, first explicitly expressed interest in a comprehensive test ban that year, arguing before the National Security Council, "We could put [the Russians] on the spot if we accepted a moratorium ... Everybody seems to think that we're skunks, saber-rattlers and warmongers. We ought not miss any chance to make clear our peaceful objectives." Then-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had responded skeptically to the limited arms-control suggestion of Nehru, whose proposal for a test ban was discarded by the National Security Council for being "not practical." Harold Stassen, Eisenhower's special assistant for disarmament, argued that the US should prioritize a test ban as a first step towards comprehensive arms control, conditional on the Soviet Union accepting on-site inspections, over full disarmament. Stassen's suggestion was dismissed by others in the administration over fears that the Soviet Union would be able to conduct secret tests. On the advice of Dulles, Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) chairman Lewis Strauss, and Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson, Eisenhower rejected the idea of considering a test ban outside general disarmament efforts. During the 1952 and 1956 presidential elections, Eisenhower fended off challenger Adlai Stevenson, who ran in large part on support for a test ban. The British governments of 1954–58 (under Conservatives Winston Churchill, Anthony Eden, and Harold Macmillan) also quietly resisted a test ban, despite the British public favoring a deal, until the US Congress approved expanded nuclear collaboration in 1958 and until after Britain had tested its first hydrogen bombs. In their view, testing was necessary if the UK nuclear program were to continue to develop. This opposition was tempered by concern that resistance to a test ban might lead the US and Soviet Union to pursue an agreement without Britain having any say in the matter. Members of the Soviet military–industrial complex also opposed a test ban, though some scientists, including Igor Kurchatov, were supportive of antinuclear efforts. France, which was in the midst of developing its own nuclear weapon, also firmly opposed a test ban in the late 1950s. The proliferation of thermonuclear weapons coincided with a rise in public concern about nuclear fallout debris contaminating food sources, particularly the threat of high levels of strontium-90 in milk (see the Baby Tooth Survey). This survey was a scientist and citizen led campaign which used "modern media advocacy techniques to communicate complex issues" to inform public discourse. Its research findings confirmed a significant build-up of strontium-90 in bones of babies and helped galvanise public support for a ban on atmospheric nuclear testing in the US. Lewis Strauss and Edward Teller, dubbed the "father of the hydrogen bomb," both sought to tamp down on these fears, arguing that fallout [at the dose levels of US exposure] were fairly harmless and that a test ban would enable the Soviet Union to surpass the US in nuclear capabilities. Teller also suggested that testing was necessary to develop nuclear weapons that produced less fallout. Support in the US public for a test ban to continue to grow from 20% in 1954 to 63% by 1957. Moreover, widespread antinuclear protests were organized and led by theologian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, whose appeals were endorsed by Pope Pius XII, and Linus Pauling, the latter of whom organized an anti-test petition signed by more than 9,000 scientists across 43 countries (including the infirm and elderly Albert Einstein). The AEC would eventually concede, as well, that even low levels of radiation were harmful. It was a combination of rising public support for a test ban and the shock of the 1957 Soviet Sputnik launch that encouraged Eisenhower to take steps towards a test ban in 1958. There was also increased environmental concern in the Soviet Union. In the mid-1950s, Soviet scientists began taking regular radiation readings near Leningrad, Moscow, and Odessa and collected data on the prevalence of strontium-90, which indicated that strontium-90 levels in western Russia approximately matched those in the eastern US. Rising Soviet concern was punctuated in September 1957 by the Kyshtym disaster, which forced the evacuation of 10,000 people after an explosion at a nuclear plant. Around the same time, 219 Soviet scientists signed Pauling's antinuclear petition. Soviet political elites did not share the concerns of others in the Soviet Union. However; Kurchatov unsuccessfully called on Khrushchev to halt testing in 1958. On 14 June 1957, following Eisenhower's suggestion that existing detection measures were inadequate to ensure compliance, the Soviet Union put forth a plan for a two-to-three-year testing moratorium. The moratorium would be overseen by an international commission reliant on national monitoring stations, but, importantly, would involve no on-the-ground inspections. Eisenhower initially saw the deal as favorable, but eventually came to see otherwise. In particular, Strauss and Teller, as well as Ernest Lawrence and Mark Muir Mills, protested the offer. At a meeting with Eisenhower in the White House, the group argued that testing was necessary for the US to eventually develop bombs that produced no fallout ("clean bombs"). The group repeated the oft-cited fact, which was supported by Freeman Dyson, that the Soviet Union could conduct secret nuclear tests. In 1958, at the request of Igor Kurchatov, Soviet nuclear physicist and weapons designer Andrei Sakharov published a pair of widely circulated academic papers challenging the claim of Teller and others that a clean, fallout-free nuclear bomb could be developed, due to the formation of carbon-14 when nuclear devices are detonated in the air. A one-megaton clean bomb, Sakharov estimated, would cause 6,600 deaths over 8,000 years, figures derived largely from estimates on the quantity of carbon-14 generated from atmospheric nitrogen and the contemporary risk models at the time, along with the assumption that the world population is "thirty billion persons" in a few thousand years. In 1961, Sakharov was part of the design team for a 50 megaton "clean bomb", which has become known as the Tsar Bomba, detonated over the island of Novaya Zemlya. In the spring of 1957, the US National Security Council had explored including a one-year test moratorium and a "cut-off" of fissionable-material production in a "partial" disarmament plan. The British government, then led by Macmillan, had yet to fully endorse a test ban. Accordingly, it pushed the US to demand that the production cut-off be closely timed with the testing moratorium, betting that the Soviet Union would reject this. London also encouraged the US to delay its disarmament plan, in part by moving the start of the moratorium back to November 1958. At the same time, Macmillan linked British support for a test ban to a revision of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act), which prohibited sharing of nuclear information with foreign governments. Eisenhower, eager to mend ties with Britain following the Suez Crisis of 1956, was receptive to Macmillan's conditions, but the AEC and the congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy were firmly opposed. It was not until after Sputnik in late 1957 that Eisenhower quickly moved to expand nuclear collaboration with the UK via presidential directives and the establishment of bilateral committees on nuclear matters. In early 1958, Eisenhower publicly stated that amendments to the McMahon Act were a necessary condition of a test ban, framing the policy shift in the context of US commitment to its NATO allies. In August 1957, the US assented to a two-year testing moratorium proposed by the Soviet Union, but required that it be linked to restrictions on the production of fissionable material with military uses, a condition that the Soviet Union rejected. While Eisenhower insisted on linking a test ban to a broader disarmament effort (e.g., the production cut-off), Moscow insisted on independent consideration of a test ban. On 19 September 1957, the US conducted the first contained underground test at the Nevada Test Site, codenamed Rainier. The Rainier shot complicated the push for a comprehensive test ban, as underground tests could not be as easily identified as atmospheric tests. Despite Eisenhower's interest in a deal, his administration was hamstrung by discord among US scientists, technicians, and politicians. At one point, Eisenhower complained that "statecraft was becoming a prisoner of scientists." Until 1957, Strauss's AEC (including its Los Alamos and Livermore laboratories) was the dominant voice in the administration on nuclear affairs, with Teller's concerns over detection mechanisms also influencing Eisenhower. Unlike some others within the US scientific community, Strauss fervently advocated against a test ban, arguing that the US must maintain a clear nuclear advantage via regular testing and that the negative environmental impacts of such tests were overstated. Furthermore, Strauss repeatedly emphasized the risk of the Soviet Union violating a ban, a fear Eisenhower shared. On 7 November 1957, after Sputnik and under pressure to bring on a dedicated science advisor, Eisenhower created the President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC), which had the effect of eroding the AEC's monopoly over scientific advice. In stark contrast to the AEC, PSAC promoted a test ban and argued against Strauss's claims concerning its strategic implications and technical feasibility. In late 1957, the Soviet Union made a second offer of a three-year moratorium without inspections, but lacking any consensus within his administration, Eisenhower rejected it. In early 1958, the discord within American circles, particularly among scientists, was made clear in hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Nuclear Disarmament, chaired by Senator Hubert Humphrey. The hearings featured conflicting testimony from the likes of Teller and Linus Pauling, as well as from Harold Stassen, who argued that a test ban could safely be separated from broader disarmament, and AEC members, who argued that a cutoff in nuclear production should precede a test ban. Khrushchev and a moratorium: 1958–1961 In the summer of 1957, Khrushchev was at acute risk of losing power, as the Anti-Party Group composed of former Stalin allies Lazar Kaganovich, Georgy Malenkov, and Vyacheslav Molotov launched an attempt to replace Khrushchev as General Secretary of the Communist Party (effectively the leader of the Soviet Union) with Nikolai Bulganin, then the Premier of the Soviet Union. The attempted ouster, which was foiled in June, was followed by a series of actions by Khrushchev to consolidate power. In October 1957, still feeling vulnerable from Anti-Party Group's ploy, Khrushchev forced out defense minister Georgy Zhukov, cited as "the nation's most powerful military man." On 27 March 1958, Khrushchev forced Bulganin to resign and succeeded him as Premier. Between 1957 and 1960, Khrushchev had his firmest grip on power, with little real opposition. Khrushchev was personally troubled by the power of nuclear weapons and would later recount that he believed the weapons could never be used. In the mid-1950s, Khrushchev took a keen interest in defense policy and sought to inaugurate an era of détente with the West. Initial efforts to reach accords, such as on disarmament at the 1955 Geneva Summit, proved fruitless, and Khrushchev saw test-ban negotiations as an opportunity to present the Soviet Union as "both powerful and responsible." At the 20th Communist Party Congress in 1956, Khrushchev declared that nuclear war should no longer be seen as "fatalistically inevitable." Simultaneously, however, Khrushchev expanded and advanced the Soviet nuclear arsenal at a cost to conventional Soviet forces (e.g., in early 1960, Khrushchev announced demobilization of 1.2 million troops). On 31 March 1958, the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union approved a decision to halt nuclear testing, conditional on other nuclear powers doing the same. Khrushchev then called on Eisenhower and Macmillan to join the moratorium. Despite the action being met with widespread praise and an argument from Dulles that the US should reciprocate, Eisenhower dismissed the plan as a "gimmick"; the Soviet Union had just completed a testing series and the US was about to begin Operation Hardtack I, a series of atmospheric, surface-level, and underwater nuclear tests. Eisenhower instead insisted that any moratorium be linked to reduced production of nuclear weapons. In April 1958, the US began Operation Hardtack I as planned. The Soviet declaration concerned the British government, which feared that the moratorium might lead to a test ban before its own testing program was completed. Following the Soviet declaration, Eisenhower called for an international meeting of experts to determine proper control and verification measures—an idea first proposed by British Foreign Secretary Selwyn Lloyd. The advocacy of PSAC, including that of its chairmen James Rhyne Killian and George Kistiakowsky, was a key factor in Eisenhower's eventual decision to initiate test-ban negotiations in 1958. In the spring of 1958, chairman Killian and the PSAC staff (namely Hans Bethe and Isidor Isaac Rabi) undertook a review of US test-ban policy, determining that a successful system for detecting underground tests could be created. At the recommendation of Dulles (who had recently come to support a test ban), the review prompted Eisenhower to propose technical negotiations with the Soviet Union, effectively detaching test-ban negotiations from negotiations over a halt to nuclear weapons production (the one-time US demand). In explaining the policy shift, Eisenhower privately said that continued resistance to a test ban would leave the US in a state of "moral isolation." On 8 April 1958, still resisting Khrushchev's call for a moratorium, Eisenhower invited the Soviet Union to join these technical negotiations in the form of a conference on the technical aspects of a test-ban, specifically the technical details of ensuring compliance with a ban. The proposal was, to a degree, a concession to the Soviet Union, as a test ban would be explored independent of the previously demanded cutoff in fissionable-material production. Khrushchev initially declined the invitation, but eventually agreed "in spite of the serious doubts" he had after Eisenhower suggested a technical agreement on verification would be a precursor to a test ban. On 1 July 1958, responding to Eisenhower's call, the nuclear powers convened the Conference of Experts in Geneva, aimed at studying means of detecting nuclear tests. The conference included scientists from the US, Britain, the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Poland, and Romania. The US delegation was led by James Fisk, a member of PSAC, the Soviets by Evgenii Fedorov, and the British delegation by William Penney, who had led the British delegation to the Manhattan Project. Whereas the US approached the conference solely from a technical perspective, Penney was specifically instructed by Macmillan to attempt to achieve a political agreement. This difference in approach was reflected in the broader composition of the US and UK teams. US experts were primarily drawn from academia and industry. Fisk was a vice president at Bell Telephone Laboratories and was joined by Robert Bacher and Ernest Lawrence, both physicists who had worked on the Manhattan Project. Conversely, British delegates largely held government positions. The Soviet delegation was composed primarily of academics, though virtually all of them had some link to the Soviet government. The Soviets shared the British goal of achieving an agreement at the conference. At particular issue was the ability of sensors to differentiate an underground test from an earthquake. There were four techniques examined: measurement of acoustic waves, seismic signals, radio waves, and inspection of radioactive debris. The Soviet delegation expressed confidence in each method, while Western experts argued that a more comprehensive compliance system would be necessary. The Conference of Experts was characterized as "highly professional" and productive. By the end of August 1958, the experts devised an extensive control program, known as the "Geneva System," involving 160–170 land-based monitoring posts, plus 10 additional sea-based monitors and occasional flights over land following a suspicious event (with the inspection plane being provided and controlled by the state under inspection). The experts determined that such a scheme would be able to detect 90% of underground detonations, accurate to 5 kilotons, and atmospheric tests with a minimum yield of 1 kiloton. The US had initially advocated for 650 posts, versus a Soviet proposal of 100–110. The final recommendation was a compromise forged by the British delegation. In a widely publicized and well-received communiqué dated 21 August 1958, the conference declared that it "reached the conclusion that it is technically feasible to set up ... a workable and effective control system for the detection of violations of a possible agreement on the worldwide cessation of nuclear weapons tests." The technical findings, released on 30 August 1958 in a report drafted by the Soviet delegation, were endorsed by the US and UK, which proposed that they serve as the basis for test-ban and international-control negotiations. However, the experts' report failed to address precisely who would do the monitoring and when on-site inspections—a US demand and Soviet concern—would be permitted. The experts also deemed detection of outer-space tests (tests more than above the earth's surface) to be impractical. Additionally, the size of the Geneva System may have rendered it too expensive to be put into effect. The 30 August report, which contained details on these limitations, received significantly less public attention than the 21 August communiqué. Nevertheless, pleased by the findings, the Eisenhower administration proposed negotiations on a permanent test ban and announced it would self-impose a year-long testing moratorium if Britain and the Soviet Union did the same. This decision amounted to a victory for John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles (then the Director of Central Intelligence), and PSAC, who had argued within the Eisenhower administration for separating a test ban from larger disarmament efforts, and a defeat for the Department of Defense and AEC, which had argued to the contrary. In May 1958, Britain had informed the US that it would be willing to join a testing moratorium on 31 October 1958, by which point it would have finished its hydrogen-bomb testing, conditional on the US providing Britain with nuclear information following amendment of the McMahon Act. The US Congress approved amendments permitting greater collaboration in late June. Following Soviet assent on 30 August 1958 to the one-year moratorium, the three countries conducted a series of tests in September and October. At least 54 tests were conducted by the US and 14 by the Soviet Union in this period. On 31 October 1958 the three countries initiated test-ban negotiations (the Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests) and agreed to a temporary moratorium (the Soviet Union joined the moratorium shortly after this date). The moratorium would last for close to three years. The Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests convened in Geneva at Moscow's request (the Western participants had proposed New York City). The US delegation was led by James Jeremiah Wadsworth, an envoy to the UN, the British by David Ormsby-Gore, the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, and the Soviets by Semyon K. Tsarapkin, a disarmament expert with experience dating back to the 1946 Baruch Plan. The Geneva Conference began with a Soviet draft treaty grounded in the Geneva System. The three nuclear weapons states (the "original parties") would abide by a test ban, verified by the Geneva System, and work to prevent testing by potential nuclear states (such as France). This was rejected by Anglo-American negotiators due to fears that the verification provisions were too vague and the Geneva System too weak. Shortly after the Geneva Conference began in the fall of 1958, Eisenhower faced renewed domestic opposition to a comprehensive test ban as Senator Albert Gore Sr. argued in a widely circulated letter that a partial ban would be preferable due to Soviet opposition to strong verification measures. The Gore letter did spur some progress in negotiations, as the Soviet Union allowed in late November 1958 for explicit control measures to be included in the text of the drafted treaty. By March 1959, the negotiators had agreed upon seven treaty articles, but they primarily concerned uncontroversial issues and a number of disputes over verification persisted. First, the Soviet verification proposal was deemed by the West to be too reliant on self-inspection, with control posts primarily staffed by citizens of the country housing the posts and a minimal role for officials from the international supervisory body. The West insisted that half of a control post staff be drawn from another nuclear state and half from neutral parties. Second, the Soviet Union required that the international supervisory body, the Control Commission, require unanimity before acting; the West rejected the idea of giving Moscow a veto over the commission's proceedings. Finally, the Soviet Union preferred temporary inspection teams drawn from citizens of the country under inspection, while the West insisted on permanent teams composed of inspectors from the Control Commission. Additionally, despite the initial positive response to the Geneva experts' report, data gathered from Hardtack operations of 1958 (namely the underground Rainier shot) would further complication verification provisions as US scientists, including Hans Bethe (who backed a ban), became convinced that the Geneva findings were too optimistic regarding detection of underground tests, though Macmillan warned that using the data to block progress on a test ban might be perceived in the public as a political ploy. In early 1959, Wadsworth told Tsarapkin of new US skepticism towards the Geneva System. While the Geneva experts believed the system could detect underground tests down to five kilotons, the US now believed that it could only detect tests down to 20 kilotons (in comparison, the Little Boy bomb dropped on Hiroshima had an official yield of 13 kilotons). As a result, the Geneva detection regime and the number of control posts would have to be significantly expanded, including new posts within the Soviet Union. The Soviets dismissed the US argument as a ruse, suggesting that the Hardtack data had been falsified. In early 1959, a roadblock to an agreement was removed as Macmillan and Eisenhower, over opposition from the Department of Defense, agreed to consider a test ban separately from broader disarmament endeavors. On 13 April 1959, facing Soviet opposition to on-site detection systems for underground tests, Eisenhower proposed moving from a single, comprehensive test ban to a graduated agreement where atmospheric tests—those up to 50 km (31 mi) high, a limit Eisenhower would revise upward in May 1959—would be banned first, with negotiations on underground and outer-space tests continuing. This proposal was turned down on 23 April 1959 by Khrushchev, calling it a "dishonest deal." On 26 August 1959, the US announced it would extend its year-long testing moratorium to the end of 1959, and would not conduct tests after that point without prior warning. The Soviet Union reaffirmed that it would not conduct tests if the US and UK continued to observe a moratorium. To break the deadlock over verification, Macmillan proposed a compromise in February 1959 whereby each of the original parties would be subject to a set number of on-site inspections each year. In May 1959, Khrushchev and Eisenhower agreed to explore Macmillan's quota proposal, though Eisenhower made further test-ban negotiations conditional on the Soviet Union dropping its Control Commission veto demand and participating in technical discussions on identification of high-altitude nuclear explosions. Khrushchev agreed to the latter and was noncommittal on the former. A working group in Geneva would eventually devise a costly system of 5–6 satellites orbiting at least above the earth, though it could not say with certainty that such a system would be able to determine the origin of a high-altitude test. US negotiators also questioned whether high-altitude tests could evade detection via radiation shielding. Concerning Macmillan's compromise, the Soviet Union privately suggested it would accept a quota of three inspections per year. The US argued that the quota should be set according to scientific necessity (i.e., be set according to the frequency of seismic events). In June 1959, a report of a panel headed by Lloyd Berkner, a physicist, was introduced into discussions by Wadsworth. The report specifically concerned whether the Geneva System could be improved without increasing the number of control posts. Berkner's proposed measures were seen as highly costly and the technical findings themselves were accompanied by a caveat about the panel's high degree of uncertainty given limited data. Around the same time, analysis conducted by the Livermore National Laboratory and RAND Corporation at Teller's instruction found that the seismic effect of an underground test could be artificially dampened (referred to as "decoupling") to the point that a 300-kiloton detonation would appear in seismic readings as a one-kiloton detonation. These findings were largely affirmed by pro-ban scientists, including Bethe. The third blow to the verification negotiations was provided by a panel chaired by Robert Bacher, which found that even on-site inspections would have serious difficulty determining whether an underground test had been conducted. In September 1959, Khrushchev visited the US While the test ban was not a focus on conversations, a positive meeting with Eisenhower at Camp David eventually led Tsarapkin to propose a technical working group in November 1959 that would consider the issues of on-site inspections and seismic decoupling in the "spirit of Camp David." Within the working group, Soviet delegates allowed for the timing of on-site inspections to be grounded in seismic data, but insisted on conditions that were seen as excessively strict. The Soviets also recognized the theory behind decoupling, but dismissed its practical applications. The working group closed in December with no progress and significant hostility. Eisenhower issued a statement blaming "the recent unwillingness of the politically guided Soviet experts to give serious scientific consideration to the effectiveness of seismic techniques for the detection of underground nuclear explosions." Eisenhower simultaneously declared that the US would not be held to its testing moratorium when it expired on 31 December 1959, though pledged to not test if Geneva talks progressed. The Soviet Union followed by reiterating its decision to not test as long as Western states did not test. In early 1960, Eisenhower indicated his support for a comprehensive test ban conditional on proper monitoring of underground tests. On 11 February 1960, Wadsworth announced a new US proposal by which only tests deemed verifiable by the Geneva System would be banned, including all atmospheric, underwater, and outer-space tests within detection range. Underground tests measuring more than 4.75 on the Richter scale would also be barred, subject to revision as research on detection continued. Adopting Macmillan's quota compromise, the US proposed each nuclear state be subject to roughly 20 on-site inspections per year (the precise figure based on the frequency of seismic events). Tsarapkin responded positively to the US proposal, though was wary of the prospect of allowing underground tests registering below magnitude 4.75. In its own proposal offered 19 March 1960 the Soviet Union accepted most US provisions, with certain amendments. First, the Soviet Union asked that underground tests under magnitude 4.75 be banned for a period of four-to-five years, subject to extension. Second, it sought to prohibit all outer-space tests, whether within detection range or not. Finally, the Soviet Union insisted that the inspection quota be determined on a political basis, not a scientific one. The Soviet offer faced a mixed reception. In the US, Senator Hubert Humphrey and the Federation of American Scientists (which was typically seen as supportive of a test ban) saw it as a clear step towards an agreement. Conversely, AEC chairman John A. McCone and Senator Clinton Presba Anderson, chair of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, argued that the Soviet system would be unable to prevent secret tests. That year, the AEC published a report arguing that the continuing testing moratorium risked "free world supremacy in nuclear weapons," and that renewed testing was critical for further weapons development. The joint committee also held hearings in April which cast doubt on the technical feasibility and cost of the proposed verification measures. Additionally, Teller continued to warn of the dangerous consequences of a test ban and the Department of Defense (including Neil H. McElroy and Donald A. Quarles, until recently its top two officials) pushed to continue testing and expand missile stockpiles. Shortly after the Soviet proposal, Macmillan met with Eisenhower at Camp David to devise a response. The Anglo-American counterproposal agreed to ban small underground tests (those under magnitude 4.75) on a temporary basis (a duration of roughly 1 year, versus the Soviet proposal of 4–5 years), but this could only happen after verifiable tests had been banned and a seismic research group (the Seismic Research Program Advisory Group) convened. The Soviet Union responded positively to the counterproposal and the research group convened on 11 May 1960. The Soviet Union also offered to keep an underground ban out of the treaty under negotiation. In May 1960, there were high hopes that an agreement would be reached at an upcoming summit of Eisenhower, Khrushchev, Macmillan, and Charles de Gaulle of France in Paris. A test ban seemed particularly close in 1960, with Britain and France in accord with the US (though France conducted its first nuclear test in February) and the Soviet Union having largely accepted the Macmillan-Eisenhower proposal. But US-Soviet relations soured after an American U-2 spy plane was shot down in Soviet airspace in May 1960. The Paris summit was abruptly cancelled and the Soviet Union withdrew from the seismic research group, which subsequently dissolved. Meetings of the Geneva Conference continued until December, but little progress was made as Western-Soviet relations continued to grow more antagonistic through the summer, punctuated by the Congo Crisis in July and angry exchanges at the UN in September. Macmillan would later claim to President John F. Kennedy that the failure to achieve a test ban in 1960 "was all the fault of the American 'big hole' obsession and the consequent insistence on a wantonly large number of on-site inspections." Eisenhower would leave office with an agreement out of reach, as Eisenhower's technical advisors, upon whom he relied heavily, became mired in the complex technical questions of a test ban, driven in part by a strong interest among American experts to lower the error rate of seismic test detection technology. Some, including Kistiakowsky, would eventually raise concerns about the ability of inspections and monitors to successfully detect tests. The primary product of negotiations under Eisenhower was the testing moratorium without any enforcement mechanism. Ultimately, the goal of a comprehensive test ban would be abandoned in favor of a partial ban due to questions over seismic detection of underground tests. Political scientist Robert Gilpin later argued that Eisenhower faced three camps in the push for a test ban. The first was the "control" camp, led by figures like Linus Pauling and astronomer Harlow Shapley, which believed that both testing and possession of nuclear weapons was dangerous. Second, there was the "finite containment" camp, populated by scientists like Hans Bethe, which was concerned by perceived Soviet aggression but still believed that a test ban would be workable with adequate verification measures. Third, the "infinite containment" camp, of which Strauss, Teller, and members of the defense establishment were members, believed that any test ban would grant the Soviet Union the ability to conduct secret tests and move ahead in the arms race. The degree of Eisenhower's interest in a test ban is a matter of some historical dispute. Stephen E. Ambrose writes that by early 1960, a test ban had become "the major goal of his President, indeed of his entire career," and would be "his final and most lasting gift to his country." Conversely, John Lewis Gaddis characterizes negotiations of the 1950s as "an embarrassing series of American reversals," suggesting a lack of real US commitment to arms control efforts. The historian Robert Divine also attributed the failure to achieve a deal to Eisenhower's "lack of leadership," evidenced by his inability to overcome paralyzing differences among US diplomats, military leaders, national security experts, and scientists on the subject. Paul Nitze would similarly suggest that Eisenhower never formulated a cohesive test ban policy, noting his ability to "believe in two mutually contradictory and inconsistent propositions at the same time." Renewed efforts Upon assuming the presidency in January 1961, John F. Kennedy was committed to pursuing a comprehensive test ban and ordered a review of the American negotiating position in an effort to accelerate languishing talks, believing Eisenhower's approach to have been "insufficient." In making his case for a test ban, Kennedy drew a direct link between continued testing and nuclear proliferation, calling it the "'Nth-country' problem." While a candidate, Kennedy had argued, "For once China, or France, or Sweden, or half a dozen other nations successfully test an atomic bomb, the security of both Russians and Americans is dangerously weakened." He had also claimed that renewed testing would be "damaging to the American image" and might threaten the "existence of human life." On the campaign trail, Kennedy's test-ban proposal consisted of a continued US testing moratorium, expanded efforts to reach a comprehensive agreement, limit any future tests to those minimizing fallout, and expand research on fallout. Notably, early in his term, Kennedy also presided over a significant increase in defense spending, which was reciprocated by the Soviet Union shortly thereafter, thus placing the test-ban negotiations in the context of an accelerating arms race. On 21 March 1961, test-ban negotiations resumed in Geneva and Arthur Dean, a lead US envoy, offered a new proposal in an attempt to bridge the gap between the two sides. The early Kennedy proposal largely grew out of later Eisenhower efforts, with a ban on all tests but low-yield underground ones (below magnitude 4.75), which would be subject to a three-year moratorium. The US and UK proposed 20 on-site inspections per annum, while the Soviet Union proposed three. The verification procedures included in the Anglo-American plan were unacceptable to Tsarapkin, who responded with separate proposals rejected by the Western powers. Specifically, the Soviet Union proposed a "troika" mechanism: a monitoring board composed of representatives of the West, the Soviet Union, and nonaligned states that would require unanimity before acting (effectively giving the Soviet Union veto authority). In May 1961, Kennedy attempted via secret contact between Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and a Soviet intelligence officer to settle on 15 inspections per year. This was rejected by Khrushchev. Ahead of the June 1961 Vienna summit between Kennedy and Khrushchev, Robert F. Kennedy spoke with the Soviet ambassador to the US, who suggested that progress on a test ban was possible in a direct meeting between the leaders. President Kennedy subsequently announced to the press that he had "strong hopes" for progress on a test ban. In Vienna, Khrushchev suggested that three inspections per year would have to be the limit, as anything more frequent would constitute espionage. Khrushchev privately believed allowing three inspections to be a significant concession to the West, as other Soviet officials preferred an even less intrusive system, and was angered by US resistance. Khrushchev later told his son, "hold out a finger to them—they chop off your whole hand." Additionally, the Soviet Union had once been ready to support an control commission under the aegis of the UN, Khrushchev explained, but it could not longer do so given perceived bias in recent UN action in the Congo. Instead, Khrushchev reiterated the troika proposal. Furthermore, Khrushchev insisted that the test ban be considered in the context of "general and complete disarmament," arguing that a test ban on its own was unimportant; Kennedy said the US could only agree with a guarantee that a disarmament agreement would be reached quickly (the Vienna demands thus amounted to a reversal of both sides' earlier positions). Kennedy also disagreed that a test ban was itself insignificant; the world could expect many more countries in the coming years to cross the nuclear threshold without a test ban. Ultimately, the two leaders left Vienna without clear progress on the subject. The Soviet Union would drop the general-disarmament demand in November 1961. Lifting the moratorium: 1961–1962 Following the setback in Vienna and Berlin Crisis of 1961, as well as the Soviet decision to resume testing in August (attributed by Moscow to a changed international situation and French nuclear tests), Kennedy faced mounting pressure from the Department of Defense and nuclear laboratories to set aside the dream of a test ban. In June 1961, following stalled talks in Geneva, Kennedy had argued that Soviet negotiating behavior raised "a serious question about how long we can safely continue on a voluntary basis a refusal to undertake tests in this country without any assurance that the Russians are not testing." Whether or not the Soviet Union had actually conducted secret tests was a matter of debate within the Kennedy administration. A team led by physicist Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky reported that while the Soviet Union could have secretly tested weapons, there was no evidence indicating that it actually had. Panofsky's findings were dismissed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff as "assertive, ambiguous, semiliterate and generally unimpressive." Two weeks after the lifting of the Soviet moratorium in August 1961, and after another failed Anglo-American attempt to have the Soviet Union agree to an atmospheric-test ban, the US restarted testing on 15 September 1961. Kennedy specifically limited such testing to underground and laboratory tests, but under mounting pressure as Soviet tests continued — during the time period of the Soviet Tsar Bomba 50 Mt+ test detonation on 30 October over Novaya Zemlya — Kennedy announced and dedicated funds to a renewed atmospheric testing program in November 1961. A report on the 1961 Soviet tests, published by a group of American scientists led by Hans Bethe, determined "that [Soviet] laboratories had probably been working full speed during the whole moratorium on the assumption that tests would at some time be resume," with preparations likely having begun prior to the resumption of talks in Geneva in March 1961. In January 1962, Bethe, who had once supported a test ban, publicly argued that a ban was "no longer a desirable goal" and the US should test weapons developed by its laboratories. In contrast to Soviet laboratories, US laboratories had been relatively inactive on nuclear weapons issues during the moratorium. In December 1961, Macmillan met with Kennedy in Bermuda, appealing for a final and permanent halt to tests. Kennedy, conversely, used the meeting to request permission to test on Christmas Island, with US testing grounds in the Pacific having largely been exhausted. Macmillan agreed to seek to give US permission "if the situation did not change." Christmas Island was ultimately opened to US use by February 1962. On this matter of resumed atmospheric tests, Kennedy lacked the full backing of his administration and allies. In particularly, Macmillan, Adlai Stevenson (then the UN ambassador), the State Department, the United States Information Agency, and Jerome Wiesner, the PSAC chairman, opposed resuming atmospheric tests. On the side advocating resumption were the AEC, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Joint Chiefs of Staff (which had called for renewed atmospheric tests in October 1961), and Department of Defense, though then-Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara privately acknowledged that such tests were "not really necessary." Teller continued to advocate for atmospheric tests, as well, arguing in early 1962 that nuclear fallout was nothing be concerned about. Teller also argued that testing was necessary to continued advancement of US nuclear capabilities, particularly in terms of the mobility of its weapons and, accordingly, its second-strike capability. Despite Teller's reassurances, Kennedy himself "hated the idea of reopening the race" and was uneasy with continued production of fallout, a negative consequence of resumed testing that its opponents within the administration stressed. Opponents of the tests also argued that renewed atmospheric tests would come at a significant moral cost to the US, given broad public opposition to the plan, and claimed that further tests were largely unnecessary, with the US already having an adequate nuclear arsenal. Arthur Dean believed that public opposition to atmospheric testing was so great that the US would have to halt such tests within four years even without an agreement. John Kenneth Galbraith, then the ambassador to India, had advised Kennedy in June 1961 that resumed testing "would cause us the gravest difficulties in Asia, Africa and elsewhere." Similarly, Hubert Humphrey described the moratorium as "a ray of hope to millions of worried people." Its termination, Humphrey warned, "might very well turn the political tides in the world in behalf of the Soviets." Ultimately, Kennedy sided with those arguing for resumed testing. In particular, an argument by William C. Foster, the head of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, swayed Kennedy. Foster argued that if the US failed to respond to the Soviet test series, Moscow could order a second test series, which could give the Soviet Union a significant advantage. Furthermore, a second test series, without US reciprocation, could damage the push for a test ban and make Senate ratification of any agreement less likely. On 2 March 1962, building on the November 1961 announcement, Kennedy promised to resume atmospheric testing by the end of April 1962 if Moscow continued to resist the Anglo-American test-ban proposal. To an extent, the announcement was a compromise, as Kennedy restricted atmospheric tests to those tests which were "absolutely necessary," not feasible underground, and minimized fallout. The condition that testing would resume only if the Soviet Union continued to oppose the Anglo-American proposal also served as a concession to dissenting voices within his administration and to Macmillan. Kennedy portrayed resumed testing as a necessary for the image of US resolve. If the US failed to respond to the Soviet test series, Kennedy explained, Moscow would "chalk it up, not to goodwill, but to a failure of will—not to our confidence in Western superiority, but to our fear of world opinion." Keeping the US in a position of strength, Kennedy argued, would be necessary for a test ban to ever come about. The US suspension of atmospheric tests was lifted on 25 April 1962. By March 1962, the trilateral talks in Geneva had shifted to 18-party talks at the UN Disarmament Conference. On 27 August 1962, within that conference, the US and UK offered two draft treaties to the Soviet Union. The primary proposal included a comprehensive ban verified by control posts under national command, but international supervision, and required on-site inspections. This was rejected by the Soviet Union due to the inspection requirement. The alternative proposal included a partial test ban—underground tests would be excluded—to be verified by national detection mechanisms, without supervision by a supranational body. Cuban Missile Crisis and beyond: 1962–1963 In October 1962, the US and Soviet Union experienced the Cuban Missile Crisis, which brought the two superpowers to the edge of nuclear war and prompted both Kennedy and Khrushchev to seek accelerated rapprochement. After years of dormant or lethargic negotiations, American and British negotiators subsequently forged a strong working relationship and with Soviet negotiators found common ground on test restrictions later in 1962. After years of pursuing a comprehensive ban, Khrushchev was convinced to accept a partial ban, partly due to the efforts of Soviet nuclear scientists, including Kurchatov, Sakharov, and Yulii Khariton, who argued that atmospheric testing had severe consequences for human health. Khrushchev had been concerned by a partial ban due to the greater US experience in underground tests; by 1962, the US had conducted 89 such tests and the Soviet Union just two (the Soviet focus had been on cheaper, larger-yield atmospheric tests). For this reason, many in the Soviet weapons industry argued that a partial ban would give the US the advantage in nuclear capabilities. Khrushchev would later recount that he saw test-ban negotiations as a prime venue for ameliorating tensions after the crisis in Cuba. Shocked by how close the world had come to thermonuclear war, Khrushchev proposed easing of tensions with the US. In a letter to President Kennedy dated 30 October 1962, Kurshchev outlined a range of bold initiatives to forestall the possibility of nuclear war, including proposing a non-aggression treaty between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact or even the disbanding these military blocs, a treaty to cease all nuclear weapons testing and even the elimination of all nuclear weapons, resolution of the hot-button issue of Germany by both East and West formally accepting the existence of West Germany and East Germany, and US recognition of the government of mainland China. The letter invited counter-proposals and further exploration of these and other issues through peaceful negotiations. Khrushschev invited Norman Cousins, the editor of a major US periodical and an anti-nuclear weapons activist, to serve as liaison with President Kennedy, and Cousins met with Khrushchev for four hours in December 1962. Cousins' secret mission was aided by Pope John XXIII, who served as an intermediary; officially, Cousins was traveling to Rome on a personal basis, but from the Vatican he continued to the Soviet Union. Through Cousins' shuttle diplomacy in 1962 and 1963, the pontiff remained at the center of negotiations and helped ease misunderstandings between the two world leaders. Kennedy's response to Khrushchev's proposals was lukewarm but Kennedy expressed to Cousins that he felt constrained in exploring these issues due to pressure from hardliners in the US national security apparatus. However Kennedy pursued negotiations for a partial nuclear test ban. On 13 November 1962, Tsarapkin indicated that the Soviet Union would accept a proposal drafted by US and Soviet experts involving automated test detection stations ("black boxes") and a limited number of on-site inspections. The two sides disagreed over the number of black boxes, however, as the US sought 12–20 such stations and the Soviet Union rejected any more than three. On 28 December 1962, Kennedy lowered the US demand to 8–10 stations. On 19 February 1963, the number was lowered further to seven, as Khrushchev continued to insist on no more than three. Kennedy was willing to reduce the number to six, though this was not clearly communicated to the Soviet Union. On 20 April 1963, Khrushchev withdrew support for three inspections entirely. Progress was further complicated in early 1963, as a group in the US Congress called for the Soviet proposal to be discarded in favor of the Geneva System. On 27 May 1963, 34 US Senators, led by Humphrey and Thomas J. Dodd, introduced a resolution calling for Kennedy to propose another partial ban to the Soviet Union involving national monitoring and no on-site inspections. Absent Soviet agreement, the resolution called for Kennedy to continue to "pursue it with vigor, seeking the widest possible international support" while suspending all atmospheric and underwater tests. The effect of the resolution was to bolster the general push for a test ban, though Kennedy initially was concerned that it would damage attempts to secure a comprehensive ban, and had administration figures (including the Joint Chiefs of Staff) reiterate a call for a comprehensive ban. That same spring of 1963, however, Kennedy had sent antinuclear activist Norman Cousins to Moscow to meet with Khrushchev, where he explained that the political situation in the US made it very difficult for Kennedy agree to a comprehensive ban with Khrushchev's required terms. Cousins also assured Khrushchev that though Kennedy had rejected Khrushchev's offer of three yearly inspections, he still was set on achieving a test ban. In March 1963, Kennedy had also held a press conference in which he re-committed to negotiations with the Soviet Union as a means of preventing rapid nuclear proliferation, which he characterized as "the greatest possible danger and hazard." One of Kennedy's advisors, Walt Whitman Rostow, advised the President to make a test ban conditional on the Soviet Union withdrawing troops from Cuba and abiding by a 1962 agreement on Laos, but Kennedy opted instead for test-ban negotiations without preconditions. On 10 June 1963, in an effort to reinvigorate and recontextualize a test ban, President Kennedy dedicated his commencement address at American University to "the most important topic on earth: world peace" and proceeded to make his case for the treaty. Kennedy first called on Americans to dispel the idea that peace is unattainable. "Let us focus instead on a more practical, more attainable peace," Kennedy said, "based not on a sudden revolution in human nature but on a gradual evolution in human institutions—on a series of concrete actions and effective agreements which are in the interest of all concerned." Second, Kennedy appealed for a new attitude towards the Soviet Union, calling Americans to not "see only a distorted and desperate view of the other side, not to see conflict as inevitable, accommodations as impossible and communication as nothing more than an exchange of threats." Finally, Kennedy argued for a reduction in Cold War tensions, with a test ban serving as a first step towards complete disarmament: ... where a fresh start is badly needed—is in a treaty to outlaw nuclear tests. The conclusion of such a treaty—so near and yet so far—would check the spiraling arms race in one of its most dangerous areas. It would place the nuclear powers in a position to deal more effectively with one of the greatest hazards which man faces in 1963, the further spread of nuclear arms. It would increase our security—it would decrease the prospects of war. Surely this goal is sufficiently important to require our steady pursuit, yielding neither to the temptation to give up the whole effort nor the temptation to give up our insistence on vital and responsible safeguards. Kennedy proceeded to announce an agreement with Khrushchev and Macmillan to promptly resume comprehensive test-ban negotiations in Moscow and a US decision to unilaterally halt atmospheric tests. The speech was well received by Khrushchev, who later called it "the greatest speech by any American President since Roosevelt," though was met with some skepticism within the US. The speech was endorsed by Humphrey and other Democrats, but labeled a "dreadful mistake" by Republican Senator Barry Goldwater and "another case of concession" by Everett Dirksen, the leader of the Senate Republicans. Dirksen and Charles A. Halleck, the second-ranking House Republican, warned that the renewed negotiations might end in "virtual surrender." Due to prior experience in arms control and his personal relationship with Khrushchev, former Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy was first considered the likely choice for chief US negotiator in Moscow, but his name was withdrawn after he turned out to be unavailable over the summer. W. Averell Harriman, a former ambassador to the Soviet Union well respected in Moscow, was chosen instead. The US delegation would also include Adrian S. Fisher, Carl Kaysen, John McNaughton, and William R. Tyler. In Britain, Macmillan initially wanted David Ormsby-Gore, who had just completed a term as foreign minister, to lead his delegation, but there were concerns that Ormsby-Gore would appear to be a US "stooge" (Kennedy described him as "the brightest man he ever knew"). Instead, Macmillan chose Quintin Hogg. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., a special advisor to Kennedy, believed that Hogg was "ill prepared on the technicalities of the problem and was consumed by a desire to get a treaty at almost any cost." Andrei Gromyko, the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs, served as Moscow's emissary. Heading into the negotiations, there was still no resolution within the Kennedy Administration of the question of whether to pursue a comprehensive or partial ban. In an effort to achieve the former, Britain proposed reducing the number of mandated inspections to allay Soviet concerns, but Harriman believed such a reduction would have to be paired with other concessions that Khrushchev would be able to show off within the Soviet Union and to China. Withdrawing PGM-19 Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey would have been an option, had they not already been removed in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis. In meetings prior to the negotiations, Kennedy informed Harriman that he would be willing to make concessions on the Berlin question. On 2 July 1963, Khrushchev proposed a partial ban on tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, which would avoid the contentious issue of detecting underground tests. Notably, Khrushchev did not link this proposal to a moratorium on underground tests (as had been proposed earlier), but said it should be followed by a non-aggression pact between NATO and the Warsaw Pact. "A test ban agreement combined with the signing of a non-aggression pact between the two groups of state will create a fresh international climate more favorable for a solution of the major problems of our time, including disarmament," Khrushchev said. As the nuclear powers pursued a test ban agreement, they also sought to contend with a rising communist China, which at the time was pursuing its own nuclear program. In 1955, Mao Zedong expressed to the Soviet Union his belief that China could withstand a first nuclear strike and more than 100 million casualties. In the 1950s, the Soviet Union assisted the Chinese nuclear program, but stopped short of providing China with an actual nuclear bomb, which was followed by increasingly tense relations in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Khrushchev began the test-ban talks of 1958 with minimal prior discussion with China, and the two countries' agreement on military-technology cooperation was terminated in June 1959. Prior to the Moscow negotiations of the summer of 1963, Kennedy granted Harriman significant latitude in reaching a "Soviet-American understanding" vis-à-vis China. Secret Sino-Soviet talks in July 1963 revealed further discord between the two communist powers, as the Soviet Union released a statement that it did not "share the views of the Chinese leadership about creating 'a thousand times higher civilization' on the corpses of hundreds of millions of people." The Soviet Union also issued an ideological critique of China's nuclear policy, declaring that China's apparent openness to nuclear war was "in crying contradiction to the idea of Marxism–Leninism," as a nuclear war would "not distinguish between imperialists and working people." The negotiations were inaugurated on 15 July 1963 at the Kremlin with Khrushchev in attendance. Khrushchev reiterated that the Anglo-American inspection plan would amount to espionage, effectively dismissing the possibility of a comprehensive ban. Following the script of his 3 July 1963 speech, Khrushchev did not demand a simultaneous moratorium on underground testing and instead proposed a non-aggression pact. Under instruction from Washington, Harriman replied that the US would explore the possibility of a non-aggression pact in good faith, but indicated that while a test ban could be quickly completed, a non-aggression pact would require lengthy discussions. Additionally, such a pact would complicate the issue of Western access to West Berlin. Harriman also took the opportunity to propose a non-proliferation agreement with would bar the transfer of nuclear weapons between countries. Khrushchev said that such an agreement should be considered in the future, but in the interim, a test ban would have the same effect on limiting proliferation. Following initial discussions, Gromyko and Harriman began examining drafts of a test-ban agreement. First, language in the drafted preamble appeared to Harriman to prohibit the use of nuclear weapons in self-defense, which Harriman insisted be clarified. Harriman additionally demanded that an explicit clause concerning withdrawal from the agreement be added to the treaty; Khrushchev believed that each state had a sovereign right to withdraw, which should simply be assumed. Harriman informed Gromyko that without a clause governing withdrawal, which he believed the US Senate would demand, the US could not assent. Ultimately, the two sides settled upon compromise language: Each Party shall in exercising its national sovereignty have the right to withdraw from the Treaty if it decides that extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country. Gromyko and Harriman debated how states not universally recognized (e.g., East Germany and China) could join the agreement. The US proposed asserting that accession to the treaty would not indicate international recognition. This was rejected by the Soviet Union. Eventually, with Kennedy's approval, US envoys Fisher and McNaughton devised a system whereby multiple government would serve as depositaries for the treaty, allowing individual states to sign only the agreement held by the government of their choice in association with other like-minded states. This solution, which overcame one of the more challenging roadblocks in the negotiations, also served to allay mounting concerns from Macmillan, which were relayed to Washington, that an agreement would once again be derailed. Finally, in an original Soviet draft, the signature of France would have been required for the treaty to come into effect. At Harriman's insistence, this requirement was removed. The agreement was initialed on 25 July 1963, just 10 days after negotiations commenced. The following day, Kennedy delivered a 26-minute televised address on the agreement, declaring that since the invention of nuclear weapons, "all mankind has been struggling to escape from the darkening prospect of mass destruction on earth ... Yesterday a shaft of light cut into the darkness." Kennedy expressed hope that the test ban would be the first step towards broader rapprochement, limit nuclear fallout, restrict nuclear proliferation, and slow the arms race in such a way that fortifies US security. Kennedy concluded his address in reference to a Chinese proverb that he had used with Khrushchev in Vienna two years prior. "'A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step,'" Kennedy said. "And if that journey is a thousand miles, or even more, let history record that we, in this land, at this time, took the first step." In a speech in Moscow following the agreement, Khrushchev declared that the treaty would not end the arms race and by itself could not "avert the danger of war," and reiterated his proposal of a NATO-Warsaw Pact non-aggression accord. For Khrushchev, the test ban negotiations had long been a means of improving the Soviet Union's global image and reducing strain in relations with the West. There are also some indications that military experts within the Soviet Union saw a test ban as a way to restrict US development of tactical nuclear weapons, which could have increased US willingness to deploy small nuclear weapons on battlefields while circumventing the Soviet nuclear deterrent. Concern that a comprehensive ban would retard modernization of the Soviet arsenal may have pushed Khrushchev towards a partial ban. Counteracting the move towards a partial ban was Khrushchev's interest in reducing spending on testing, as underground testing was more expensive than the atmospheric tests the Soviet Union had been conducting; Khrushchev preferred a comprehensive ban as it would have eliminated the cost of testing entirely. Furthermore, there was internal concern about nuclear proliferation, particularly regarding the prospect of France and China crossing the threshold and the possibility of a multilateral NATO nuclear force, which was seen as a step towards West Germany acquiring nuclear weapons (the first Soviet test ban proposal in 1955 was made in the same month than West Germany joined NATO). It was not until after the agreement was reached that the negotiators broached the question of France and China joining the treaty. Harriman proposed to Khrushchev that the US lobby France while the Soviet Union pursued a Chinese signature. "That's your problem," Khrushchev said in reply. Earlier, the Soviet ambassador to the US, Mikhail A. Menshikov, reportedly asked whether the US could "deliver the French." Both Kennedy and Macmillan personally called on de Gaulle to join, offering assistance to the French nuclear program in return. Nevertheless, on 29 July 1963, France announced it would not join the treaty. It was followed by China two days later. On 5 August 1963, British Foreign Secretary Alec Douglas-Home, Soviet foreign minister Gromyko, and US Secretary of State Dean Rusk signed the final agreement. After the Moscow agreement Between 8 and 27 August 1963, the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations held hearings on the treaty. The Kennedy administration largely presented a united front in favor of the deal. Leaders of the once-opposed Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and AEC acknowledged that the treaty would be of net benefit, though Teller, former members of the JCS and AEC, and the commander of the Strategic Air Command made clear their firm opposition. The opponents' argument centered on four themes. First, banning atmospheric tests would prevent the US from ensuring the hardness of its LGM-30 Minuteman missile silos and, second, from developing a capable missile defense system. Third, it was argued that the Soviet Union led the US in high-yield weapons (recall the Soviet Tsar Bomba test of 1961), which required atmospheric testing banned by the treaty, while the US led the Soviet Union in low-yield weapons, which were tested underground and would be permitted by the treaty. Fourth, the ban would prevent peaceful, civilian uses of nuclear detonations. Teller declared that the treaty would be a "step away from safety and possibly ... toward war." Administration testimony sought to counteract these arguments. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara announced his "unequivocal support" for the treaty before the Foreign Relations Committee, arguing that US nuclear forces were secure and clearly superior to those of the Soviet Union, and that any major Soviet tests would be detected. Glenn T. Seaborg, the chairman of the AEC, also gave his support to the treaty in testimony, as did Harold Brown, the Department of Defense's lead scientist, and Norris Bradbury, the longtime director of the Los Alamos Laboratory. Maxwell D. Taylor, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, also testified in favor of the deal. Taylor and other members of the JCS, including Curtis LeMay, had made their support for the treaty conditional on four "safeguards": (1) a continued, aggressive underground testing program, (2) continued nuclear research programs, (3) continued readiness to resume atmospheric tests, and (4) improved verification equipment. Kennedy emphasized that the US would retain the ability to use nuclear weapons in war, would not be bound by the treaty if the Soviets violated it, and would continue an aggressive underground testing program. Kennedy also stressed that a ban would be a key step in preventing nuclear war. The testimonies of the Joint Chiefs were seen as particularly effective in allaying concerns, as were the reassurances issued by Kennedy, who had acquired a reputation for resoluteness against the Soviet Union in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Additionally, a number of prominent Republicans came out in support of the deal, including Eisenhower, Eisenhower's vice president Richard Nixon, and Senator Everett Dirksen, who had initially been skeptical of the treaty. Eisenhower's science advisor and former PSAC head, George Kistiakowsky, endorsed the treaty. Former President Harry S. Truman also lent his support. Supporters of the deal mounted a significant pressure campaign, with active lobbying in favor by a range of civilian groups, including the United Automobile Workers/AFL-CIO, the National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy, Women Strike for Peace, and Methodist, Unitarian Universalist, and Reform Jewish organizations. Jerome Wiesner, the chairman of PSAC, later said that this public advocacy was a primary motivation for Kennedy's push for a test ban. Civil opposition to the deal was less prominent, though the Veterans of Foreign Wars announced opposition to the deal along with the International Council of Christian Churches, which rejected a "covenant with a godless power." Polling in late August 1963 indicated that more than 60% of Americans supported the deal while less than 20% opposed it. On 3 September 1963, the Foreign Relations Committee approved the treaty by a 16–1 vote. On 24 September 1963, the US Senate voted 80–14 to approve ratification of the treaty, exceeding the necessary two-thirds majority by 14 votes. The Soviet Union ratified the treaty the following day with a unanimous vote of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. On 10 October 1963, the treaty entered into effect. Implementation Provisions The treaty declares as its "principal aim the speediest possible achievement of an agreement on general and complete disarmament under strict international control" and explicitly states the goal of achieving a comprehensive test ban (one that bans underground tests). The treaty permanently forbids the parties to the treaty from conducting, permitting, or encouraging any nuclear explosion in the atmosphere, outer space, or underwater as well as "any other nuclear explosion" that threatens to send nuclear debris into another state's territory. The wording "any other nuclear explosion" prohibited peaceful nuclear explosions because of the difficulty in differentiating those from military tests without expanded verification measures. Per the compromise forged by US delegates Adrian S. Fisher and John McNaughton in Moscow, Article 3 of the treaty allows states to deposit instruments of ratification or accession with the government of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, or United States, thereby avoiding the issue of the treaty appearing to legitimize governments lacking universal recognition. Article 4 reflects the compromise struck by Gromyko and Harriman in Moscow on departure from the treaty. It recognizes the sovereign right of states to withdraw from treaties, as Khrushchev argued, but explicitly grants parties the right to withdraw if "extraordinary events... have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country," per the US demand. Signatories By 15 April 1964, six months after the PTBT went into effect, more than 100 states had joined the treaty as signatories and 39 had ratified or acceded to it. The most recent party to the PTBT is Montenegro, which succeeded to the treaty in 2006. , 126 states were party to the treaty, with 10 other states having signed but not deposited instruments of ratification. There are 60 states that have not signed the PTBT, including the nuclear states of China, France, and North Korea. Albania, an ideological ally of China during the PTBT's enactment, also has not signed. Effectiveness The PTBT's ratification coincided with the beginning of a steep decline in the amount of radioactive particles in the atmosphere (following the "bomb spike" in the early 1960s), but it did not halt nuclear proliferation. One year after the PTBT's entry into force, the nonsignatory China conducted the 596 test and became the world's fifth nuclear power. Since China, four other states are known or believed to have acquired nuclear weapons. However, the PTBT has been credited with slowing proliferation because of the greater expense associated with underground tests. Kennedy had warned in 1963 that without a test ban, there could be 10 nuclear states by 1970 and 15 to 20 by 1975. The decade following ratification of the PTBT (1963–1972) featured more US nuclear tests than the decade prior (1953–1962). In the following decade, the US conducted 385 nuclear tests and 23 peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs), as oppsed to 268 tests and three PNEs in the prior decade. In contrast, the number of Soviet detonations fell from 218 in the preceding decade to 157 in the following decade, as the Soviet Union was never able to meet the pace of US underground explosions. China and France, both nonsignatories, conducted 53 tests between 1963 and 1973. In all, 436 tests were conducted between the signing of the PTBT and 1 July 1973, compared to 499 tests between 16 July 1945 and the signing of the PTBT. In the 1960s and the 1970s, China conducted 22 atmospheric tests and France conducted 50. The last atmospheric test was conducted by China in 1980, after French atmospheric testing stopped in 1974. Public opposition to nuclear testing continued after the treaty's enactment. Greenpeace was founded in 1971 in opposition to a planned underground test on the Alaskan island of Amchitka. In 1982, a Greenpeace ship docked at Leningrad without permission to demand the Soviet Union to stop testing. The PTBT was a first of a series of nuclear arms control treaties in the second half of 20th century. The PTBT has been considered the stepping stone to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) of 1968, which explicitly referred to the progress provided by the PTBT. In addition to the NPT, the PTBT was followed within ten years by the Outer Space Treaty and Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1967, the Seabed Arms Control Treaty in 1971, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 1972. In 1974, the Threshold Test Ban Treaty prohibited underground tests with yields above 150 kilotons. In October 1977, the original parties to the PTBT renewed discussion of a comprehensive test ban in Geneva. Through the end of the 1970s, the US, the UK, and Soviet Union reached agreement on draft provisions prohibiting all testing, temporarily banning PNEs, and establishing a verification system including on-site inspections. However, the sides remained at odds over the precise details of verification, and the talks would permanently disband with the departure of President Jimmy Carter in 1981. Momentum towards a comprehensive ban re-emerged under Mikhail Gorbachev and President Ronald Reagan, with Gorbachev initiating a testing moratorium in 1985. In December 1986, the US indicated support for the "long-term objective" of a comprehensive ban, followed by the commencement of testing negotiations between the US and Soviet Union in November 1987. In December 1987, the US and the Soviet Union agreed to a joint program of experiments on detecting underground tests. In August 1988, Indonesia, Mexico, Peru, Sri Lanka, Venezuela, and Yugoslavia petitioned to transform the PTBT into a comprehensive ban by extending the treaty to underground tests. At a conference on the plan in January 1991, the US indicated that it would not permit efforts to achieve a comprehensive ban by consensus with amendments to the PTBT. Throughout the 1990s, progress accelerated towards a comprehensive test ban treaty (CTBT). Following a series of international meetings on the subject, the UN General Assembly approved Resolution 50/64, which appealed for states to follow the PTBT and called for conclusion of the CTBT talks. In September 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty was signed and superseded the PTBT, but the PTBT is still in effect for states not party to the CTBT. The CTBT has yet to enter into force, as 8 required states have not ratified the treaty, including the US and China. France, Russia, and the UK have ratified the CTBT. The technology for detecting underground tests has significantly improved since the 1950s and 1960s, with monitors detecting tests down to 1 kiloton with a high degree of confidence. Violations and accidents Early compliance with the PTBT was believed to be good, but there have been a number of accidental releases of nuclear debris into the atmosphere by parties to the treaty. Additionally, "venting" of underground tests by the US and the Soviet Union also continued to release radioactive debris into the atmosphere. Fully contained underground tests were not wholly "clean" either. Underground testing reduced the risk caused by radionuclides with short half-lives, such as iodine-131, and is generally safer than other forms of testing. However, underground testing may also cause long-lived radionuclides, including caesium-135, iodine-129, and plutonium, to seep into the ground. A notable atmospheric release of radioactive gas followed the Soviet Chagan test of 15 January 1965 in present-day Kazakhstan. Roughly 20% of the radioactive debris produced by the 140-kiloton detonation was released into the atmosphere, with some fallout occurring over Japan. The US complained to Moscow, but no subsequent action was taken. On 25 April 1966, the Pin Stripe underground test in Nevada (part of Operation Flintlock) experienced a venting malfunction and produced a radioactive plume headed towards the Midwestern United States; the AEC determined that the test did not threaten human health. Another accidental release occurred following the Baneberry shot at the Nevada Test Site on 18 December 1970 (part of Operation Emery). The 10-kiloton underground detonation produced a fissure in the ground, which allowed radioactive gas to escape into the atmosphere. Radioactive material released by the fissure reached an altitude of and exposed 86 workers to radiation but none at excessive levels. The incident has since been described as one of the "world's worst nuclear disasters." Declassified US documents indicate that the US may have violated the PTBT's ban on atmospheric testing in 1972 by, at the instruction of Henry Kissinger, monitoring and collecting data on French atmospheric tests over the Pacific Ocean, which may have amounted to co-operation with the French program. Declassified documents also indicate that the US and the UK circumvented the prescribed verification system in 1964–65 by establishing a series of additional control posts in Australia, Fiji, Mauritius, Pakistan, and South Africa. The 1979 Vela Incident in the southern Atlantic may have been an atmospheric nuclear test in contravention of the PTBT by Israel and South Africa, both of which were parties to the treaty. See also Air Force Technical Applications Center – US organization dedicated to monitoring nuclear treaty compliance Boeing WC-135 Constant Phoenix – US aircraft used to detect nuclear explosions National technical means of verification Project Orion (nuclear propulsion) – US project that ended shortly after ratification of the PTBT References Citations Publications Pietrobon, Allen. (2016)"The Role of Norman Cousins and Track II Diplomacy in the Breakthrough to the 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty." Journal of Cold War Studies 18.1 (2016): 60–79. Sachs, Jeffrey D. (2013) "JFK and the future of global leadership." International Affairs 89.6 (2013): 1379–1387. online, focuses on American University speech. External links Treaty at United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs Internal US documents relating to the test ban at the National Security Archive Video of John F. Kennedy's announcement of the test-ban agreement Video of a 1986 PBS program on reported Soviet arms violations Arms control treaties Cold War treaties 1963 in the United States India–Pakistan relations Non-proliferation treaties Nuclear technology treaties Nuclear weapons policy Nuclear weapons testing Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidency of John F. Kennedy Soviet Union–United States relations Treaties concluded in 1963 Treaties entered into force in 1963 Treaties extended to Aruba Treaties extended to Greenland Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands Treaties extended to the Netherlands Antilles Treaties of the Kingdom of Afghanistan Treaties of Antigua and Barbuda Treaties of Argentina Treaties of Armenia Treaties of Australia Treaties of Austria Treaties of the Bahamas Treaties of Bangladesh Treaties of Belgium Treaties of Bhutan Treaties of Bolivia Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina Treaties of Botswana Treaties of the military dictatorship in Brazil Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria Treaties of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic Treaties of Canada Treaties of Cape Verde Treaties of the Central African Republic Treaties of the Dominion of Ceylon Treaties of Chad Treaties of Chile Treaties of the Republic of China (1949–1971) Treaties of Colombia Treaties of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1964–1971) Treaties of Costa Rica Treaties of Croatia Treaties of Cyprus Treaties of the Czech Republic Treaties of Czechoslovakia Treaties of the Republic of Dahomey Treaties of Denmark Treaties of the Dominican Republic Treaties of East Germany Treaties of Ecuador Treaties of Egypt Treaties of El Salvador Treaties of Equatorial Guinea Treaties of Eswatini Treaties of Fiji Treaties of Finland Treaties of Gabon Treaties of the Gambia Treaties of Ghana Treaties of the Kingdom of Greece Treaties of Guatemala Treaties of Guinea-Bissau Treaties of Honduras Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic Treaties of Iceland Treaties of India Treaties of Indonesia Treaties of the Iraqi Republic (1958–1968) Treaties of Ireland Treaties of Israel Treaties of Italy Treaties of Ivory Coast Treaties of Jamaica Treaties of Japan Treaties of Jordan Treaties of Kenya Treaties of Kuwait Treaties of the Kingdom of Laos Treaties of Lebanon Treaties of Liberia Treaties of the Kingdom of Libya Treaties of Luxembourg Treaties of Madagascar Treaties of Malawi Treaties of Malaysia Treaties of Malta Treaties of Mauritania Treaties of Mauritius Treaties of Mexico Treaties of the Mongolian People's Republic Treaties of Montenegro Treaties of Morocco Treaties of Myanmar Treaties of Nepal Treaties of the Netherlands Treaties of New Zealand Treaties of Nicaragua Treaties of Niger Treaties of Nigeria Treaties of Norway Treaties of Pahlavi Iran Treaties of Pakistan Treaties of Panama Treaties of Papua New Guinea Treaties of Peru Treaties of the Philippines Treaties of the Polish People's Republic Treaties of the Socialist Republic of Romania Treaties of Rwanda Treaties of Samoa Treaties of San Marino Treaties of Senegal Treaties of Serbia Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro Treaties of Seychelles Treaties of Sierra Leone Treaties of Singapore Treaties of Slovakia Treaties of Slovenia Treaties of South Africa Treaties of South Korea Treaties of the Soviet Union Treaties of Francoist Spain Treaties of the Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969) Treaties of Suriname Treaties of Sweden Treaties of Switzerland Treaties of Syria Treaties of Tanganyika Treaties of Thailand Treaties of Togo Treaties of Tonga Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago Treaties of Tunisia Treaties of Turkey Treaties of Uganda Treaties of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Treaties of the United Kingdom Treaties of the United States Treaties of Uruguay Treaties of Venezuela Treaties of West Germany Treaties of the Yemen Arab Republic Treaties of Yugoslavia Treaties of Zambia 1963 in politics 1963 in the Soviet Union

"Golden Brown" is a song by the English rock band the Stranglers released as a 7" single on EMI's Liberty label in 1982, noted for its distinctive harpsichord instrumentation. It was the second single released from the band's sixth album La folie and peaked at No. 2 in the UK Singles Chart, the band's highest ever placing in that chart. It has also been recorded by many other artists. Composition The main body of the song is in 6/8 time and is pitched halfway between the keys of E minor and E-flat minor. The instrumental introduction, in (a very flat) B minor, alternates bars in 6/8 and 7/8. The music was largely written by keyboardist Dave Greenfield and drummer Jet Black, with lyrics by singer/guitarist Hugh Cornwell. The song has been described as "the most unlikely single from punk rock band The Stranglers. Full of harpsichords straight out of classic Baroque music." Lyrics In his book The Stranglers Song By Song (2001), Hugh Cornwell states, "'Golden Brown' works on two levels. It's about heroin and also about a girl." Essentially the lyrics describe how "both provided me with pleasurable times." Release and reception Originally featured on the group's album La folie, which was released in November 1981, and later on the USA pressings of Feline, "Golden Brown" was released as a single in January 1982, and was accompanied by a video. It reached No. 2 in the official UK Singles Chart in February 1982, remaining there for two weeks behind double A-sided record "Town Called Malice/Precious" by the Jam. In a 2017 interview for Dutch television station Top 2000 a gogo, Hugh Cornwell says he believes that the song would have got to Number 1 if bass player Jean-Jacques Burnel had not told the press that the song was about heroin, at which point broadcasters removed it from their playlists, prejudicing sales. "I would have waited till it got to Number 1 and then said it," he commented. The single was a top 10 hit around the world, including Australia. It was also featured in the film Snatch and is included on its soundtrack album. David Hamilton, disc jockey on the comparatively conservative BBC Radio 2, which was a middle-of-the-road (MOR) music radio station at that time, made the single his "record of the week". In 1995, Black, Burnel and Greenfield appeared with impressionist Rory Bremner on his satirical Christmas special performing a parody version of the song about future Prime Minister Gordon Brown, who was then Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer. In January 2014, NME ranked the song at No. 488 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". "Number Two" poll In a BBC Radio 2 listener poll of the nation's favourite singles to have peaked at number two, conducted in late 2012, "Golden Brown" ranked fifth behind "Vienna", "Fairytale of New York", "Sit Down" and "American Pie", and just ahead of "Waterloo Sunset" and "Penny Lane"/"Strawberry Fields Forever". Music video The video for "Golden Brown" was directed by Lindsey Clennell. It depicts the band members both as explorers in an Arabian country in the 1920s and performers for a fictional "Radio Cairo". In addition to the Pyramids, the video is intercut with stock footage of the Mir-i-Arab Madrasah in Bukhara, the Shah Mosque in Isfahan, the Great Sphinx, Feluccas sailing, Bedouins riding, and camel racing in the United Arab Emirates. The performance scenes were filmed in the Leighton House Museum in Holland Park, London, which was also used in the filming of the video for "Gold" by Spandau Ballet. Track listing Songs, lyrics and music by the Stranglers. 7": Liberty / BP 407 (UK) Side one "Golden Brown" – 3:28 Side two "Love 30" – 3:57 1991 7": Epic / 656761 7 (UK) Side one "Golden Brown" – 3:29 Side two "You" – 3:09 1991 Reissue – CD-Maxi: Epic / 656761 2 (UK) "Golden Brown" – 3:31 "You" – 3:08 "Peaches" – 3:59 "Skin Deep (12" Version)" – 7:09 Charts Remix Certifications Cover versions In 1996 British hip hop group Kaleef's re-working of the song reached number 22 in the UK Charts. The following year, a cover version by soul singer Omar reached number 37. In 2020 British YouTuber and saxophonist Laurence Mason's cover of "Golden Brown", in the style of classical American jazz pianist Dave Brubeck, was viewed over a million times, leading to a commercial release via Amazon and iTunes, and as a vinyl single under the title "Take Vibe EP". The vinyl release stayed two weeks in the Official Vinyl Singles Chart's Top 40, peaking at No 24. References External links Guitar Tablature Golden Brown – The Story Behind the Song at Wow-Vinyl 1981 songs 1982 singles Baroque pop songs Liberty Records singles Songs about heroin Songs written by Jet Black Songs written by Hugh Cornwell Songs written by Jean-Jacques Burnel Songs written by Dave Greenfield The Stranglers songs

Toluene (), also known as toluol (), is a substituted aromatic hydrocarbon. It is a colorless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated with paint thinners. It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, consisting of a methyl group (CH3) attached to a phenyl group. As such, its systematic IUPAC name is methylbenzene. Toluene is predominantly used as an industrial feedstock and a solvent. As the solvent in some types of paint thinner, permanent markers, contact cement and certain types of glue, toluene is sometimes used as a recreational inhalant and has the potential of causing severe neurological harm. History The compound was first isolated in 1837 through a distillation of pine oil by the Polish chemist Filip Walter, who named it rétinnaphte. In 1841, French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville isolated a hydrocarbon from balsam of Tolu (an aromatic extract from the tropical Colombian tree Myroxylon balsamum), which Deville recognized as similar to Walter's rétinnaphte and to benzene; hence he called the new hydrocarbon benzoène. In 1843, Jöns Jacob Berzelius recommended the name toluin. In 1850, French chemist Auguste Cahours isolated from a distillate of wood a hydrocarbon which he recognized as similar to Deville's benzoène and which Cahours named toluène. Chemical properties Toluene reacts as a normal aromatic hydrocarbon in electrophilic aromatic substitution. Because the methyl group has greater electron-releasing properties than a hydrogen atom in the same position, toluene is more reactive than benzene toward electrophiles. It undergoes sulfonation to give p-toluenesulfonic acid, and chlorination by Cl2 in the presence of FeCl3 to give ortho and para isomers of chlorotoluene. Importantly, the methyl side chain in toluene is susceptible to oxidation. Toluene reacts with potassium permanganate to yield benzoic acid, and with chromyl chloride to yield benzaldehyde (Étard reaction). The C-H bonds of the methyl group in toluene are benzylic, which means that they are weaker than C-H bonds in simpler alkanes. Reflecting this weakness, the methyl group in toluene undergoes halogenation under free radical conditions. For example, when heated with N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) in the presence of AIBN, toluene converts to benzyl bromide. The same conversion can be effected with elemental bromine in the presence of UV light or even sunlight. Toluene may also be brominated by treating it with HBr and H2O2 in the presence of light. C6H5CH3 + Br2 → C6H5CH2Br + HBr C6H5CH2Br + Br2 → C6H5CHBr2 + HBr The methyl group in toluene undergoes deprotonation only with very strong bases, its pKa is estimated to be approximately 41. Complete hydrogenation of toluene gives methylcyclohexane. The reaction requires a high pressure of hydrogen and a catalyst. Production Toluene occurs naturally at low levels in crude oil and is a byproduct in the production of gasoline by a catalytic reformer or ethylene cracker. It is also a byproduct of the production of coke from coal. Final separation and purification is done by any of the distillation or solvent extraction processes used for BTX aromatics (benzene, toluene, and xylene isomers). Other preparative routes Toluene can be prepared by a variety of methods. For example, benzene reacts with methanol in presence of a solid acid to give toluene: C6H5H + CH3OH → C6H5CH3 + H2O Uses Precursor to benzene and xylene Toluene is mainly used as a precursor to benzene via hydrodealkylation: C6H5CH3 + H2 → C6H6 + CH4 The second ranked application involves its disproportionation to a mixture of benzene and xylene. Nitration Nitration of toluene give mono-, di-, and trinitrotoluene, all of which are widely used. Dinitrotoluene is the precursor to toluene diisocyanate, which used in the manufacture of polyurethane foam. Trinitrotoluene is the explosive typically abbreviated TNT. Oxidation Benzoic acid and benzaldehyde are produced commercially by partial oxidation of toluene with oxygen. Typical catalysts include cobalt or manganese naphthenates. Solvent Toluene is a common solvent, e.g. for paints, paint thinners, silicone sealants, many chemical reactants, rubber, printing ink, adhesives (glues), lacquers, leather tanners, and disinfectants. Fuel Toluene can be used as an octane booster in gasoline fuels for internal combustion engines as well as jet fuel. Toluene at 86% by volume fuelled all the turbocharged engines in Formula One during the 1980s, first pioneered by the Honda team. The remaining 14% was a "filler" of n-heptane, to reduce the octane rating to meet Formula One fuel restrictions. Toluene at 100% can be used as a fuel for both two-stroke and four-stroke engines; however, due to the density of the fuel and other factors, the fuel does not vaporize easily unless preheated to . Honda solved this problem in their Formula One cars by routing the fuel lines through a heat exchanger, drawing energy from the water in the cooling system to heat the fuel. In Australia in 2003, toluene was found to have been illegally combined with petrol in fuel outlets for sale as standard vehicular fuel. Toluene incurs no fuel excise tax, while other fuels are taxed at more than 40%, providing a greater profit margin for fuel suppliers. The extent of toluene substitution has not been determined. Niche applications In the laboratory, toluene is used as a solvent for carbon nanomaterials, including nanotubes and fullerenes, and it can also be used as a fullerene indicator. The color of the toluene solution of C60 is bright purple. Toluene is used as a cement for fine polystyrene kits (by dissolving and then fusing surfaces) as it can be applied very precisely by brush and contains none of the bulk of an adhesive. Toluene can be used to break open red blood cells in order to extract hemoglobin in biochemistry experiments. Toluene has also been used as a coolant for its good heat transfer capabilities in sodium cold traps used in nuclear reactor system loops. Toluene had also been used in the process of removing the cocaine from coca leaves in the production of Coca-Cola syrup. Toxicology and metabolism The environmental and toxicological effects of toluene have been extensively studied. Inhalation of toluene in low to moderate levels can cause tiredness, confusion, weakness, drunken-type actions, memory loss, nausea, loss of appetite, hearing loss, and colour vision loss. Some of these symptoms usually disappear when exposure is stopped. Inhaling high levels of toluene in a short time may cause light-headedness, nausea, or sleepiness, unconsciousness, and even death. Toluene is, however, much less toxic than benzene, and as a consequence, largely replaced it as an aromatic solvent in chemical preparation. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that the carcinogenic potential of toluene cannot be evaluated due to insufficient information. In 2013, worldwide sales of toluene amounted to about 24.5 billion US-dollars. Similar to many other solvents such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane and some alkylbenzenes, toluene has been shown to act as a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist and GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator. Additionally, toluene has been shown to display antidepressant-like effects in rodents in the forced swim test (FST) and the tail suspension test (TST), likely due to its NMDA antagonist properties. Toluene is sometimes used as a recreational inhalant ("glue sniffing"), likely on account of its euphoric and dissociative effects. Toluene inhibits excitatory ion channels including the N-methyl--aspartate (NMDA) glutamate and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and potentiates the function of inhibitory ion channels such as the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor type A, glycine, and serotonin receptors. In addition, toluene disrupts voltage-gated calcium channels and ATP-gated ion channels. Recreational use Toluene is used as an intoxicative inhalant in a manner unintended by manufacturers. People inhale toluene-containing products (e.g., paint thinner, contact cement, model glue, etc.) for its intoxicating effect. The possession and use of toluene and products containing it are regulated in many jurisdictions, for the supposed reason of preventing minors from obtaining these products for recreational drug purposes. As of 2007, 24 U.S. states had laws penalizing use, possession with intent to use, and/or distribution of such inhalants. In 2005 the European Union banned the general sale of products consisting of greater than 0.5% toluene. Bioremediation Several types of fungi including Cladophialophora, Exophiala, Leptodontidium (syn. Leptodontium), Pseudeurotium zonatum, and Cladosporium sphaerospermum, and certain species of bacteria can degrade toluene using it as a source of carbon and energy. References External links ATSDR – Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Toluene Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (public domain) American Industrial Hygiene Association, The Ear Poisons, The Synergist, November 2018. Toluene CDC – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic (DHHS) OSHA-NIOSH 2018. Preventing Hearing Loss Caused by Chemical (Ototoxicity) and Noise Exposure Safety and Health Information Bulletin (SHIB), Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. SHIB 03-08-2018. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2018-124. Hazardous air pollutants Hydrocarbon solvents Antiknock agents Alkylbenzenes Commodity chemicals Petrochemicals GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators Glycine receptor agonists Euphoriants Inhalants Aromatic solvents Phenyl compounds Occupational safety and health

John T. Clark (real name John Terence Kelly) is a fictional character created by Tom Clancy. Clark is Clancy’s second most famous character after Jack Ryan. He has been featured in many of his Ryanverse novels. Although he first appeared in The Cardinal of the Kremlin (1988), his origin story was detailed in Without Remorse (1993). Clark has been described by his creator as "Ryan’s dark side" and "more inclined to take physical action than Jack is." A former Navy SEAL, he became an operations officer for the Central Intelligence Agency, and at one point served as Ryan's driver and bodyguard. During Ryan's first term as President of the United States, Clark served as director of a multinational counterterrorism unit codenamed Rainbow, which is composed of elite soldiers from countries which are part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). After retiring from CIA and Rainbow, Clark then worked for The Campus, an off-the-books intelligence organization created by President Ryan, later acquiring a position as director of operations. In film, Clark has been portrayed by Willem Dafoe, Liev Schreiber, and Michael B. Jordan, the latter in a series including adaptations of Without Remorse and Rainbow Six. Clark has also appeared in the Rainbow Six series of video games. Profile Personal life John Kelly was born in Indianapolis to Irish-American parents somewhere in 1944-1945 and raised as a Catholic. His father, Timothy Kelly, served in the Navy during World War II and was a fireman who perished from a heart attack during a fire. John lost his mother to cancer when he was a young boy. He attended Brebeuf Jesuit Preparatory School in Indianapolis. His first wife Patricia "Tish" was pregnant when she was killed in a car accident. Six months after his wife died, Kelly had a brief relationship with Pamela Madden, a former prostitute who had been forced into working as a courier for a drug ring. She was later recaptured by members of the ring and subsequently tortured, raped, and killed; Kelly was gravely wounded. While recovering from his injuries at Johns Hopkins Hospital, he met his future second wife, nurse Sandra "Sandy" O'Toole. They eventually had two daughters, Patricia Doris and Margaret Pamela. Kelly, who had by now changed his identity to Clark, first met Domingo "Ding" Chavez in the CIA during a black operation in Colombia (Clear and Present Danger). They would later work frequently together in succeeding novels. Chavez becomes Clark's son-in-law when he marries his daughter Patricia, and they later have a son, John Conor, who was born in Rainbow Six, although misnamed as John Patrick in Threat Vector. Professional life When Clark was 18, he joined the US Navy (as John Terence Kelly) and later became a Navy SEAL who participated in several special operations, one of which was the rescue of a naval aviator shot down over North Vietnam. The aviator was the son of Admiral Dutch Maxwell and his rescue earned Kelly a promotion to Chief Petty Officer. After his first tour of duty, Kelly left the Navy but was later re-hired by the Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) Special Activities Division (Special Operations Group) for another mission in Vietnam; a rescue operation on a secret POW camp. At the same time, Kelly was carrying out his own war at home against a drug ring that killed his girlfriend, Pamela Madden. While he succeeded in taking it down, the Baltimore Police Department (including Emmet Ryan, Jack Ryan's father) eventually identifies him as the man who murdered the drug dealers. In response, Kelly faked his own death (with the help of the CIA, which falsifies the identity of his fingerprints in his Navy personnel file) and goes to work for the CIA full-time, under the pseudonym "John Clark". (See Without Remorse) His middle name appears variously with one and two 'R's, and the name "John Terrence Clark" appears in the novel Clear and Present Danger. Throughout his career, Clark has been through a number of real-life crisis zones. In addition to the Vietnam War, he has also been through the Iran hostage crisis (see Debt of Honor) and the Gulf War, plus a number of missions in the Soviet Union, and claims to have "had Abu Nidal's head in my gunsights", but never got the green light allowing him to kill the man (Clear and Present Danger). He first enters the Jack Ryan universe in Without Remorse, which also features police officer Emmet Ryan and his son Jack. Although he does not appear in Patriot Games, it is later revealed that he was the CIA's liaison with a French black ops unit involved in the campaign against the ULA. He also does not appear in Red Rabbit, but is mentioned as giving advice to trainees at The Farm, the CIA training facility. He appears briefly in The Cardinal of the Kremlin, during which he extracts KGB Chairman Gerasimov's wife and daughter from Leningrad after the Chairman decides to defect to the United States. This marks Clark's first published appearance. In Clear and Present Danger, he commands a U.S. Army black-ops unit carrying out a secret war against the Medellín Cartel in Colombia. When the government abandons the men for political reasons, Clark and Jack Ryan fly down to Colombia and rescue the survivors. This is the first time he interacts with Ryan. In The Sum of All Fears, he is Ryan's personal driver and bodyguard. Later in the novel, he is returned to the field for one operation, bugging the aircraft of the Japanese Prime Minister in Mexico City. During the operation, a terrorist bombing in Denver occurs and his mission is changed to intercepting the Palestinian terrorists trying to escape through Mexico, which he does successfully. He interrogates them and secures their confessions, then hands them over to the judicial system for eventual Islamic justice (execution by sword) in Riyadh. In Debt of Honor, he is again a field officer for the CIA's Directorate of Operations (DO). At the beginning of the novel, he and Domingo Chavez capture an Aidid-like African warlord, Mohammed Abdul Corp, and bring him to justice. Soon thereafter, they are sent to Japan to assess the national mood of the country, where Clark is undercover as a Russian reporter. When the situation turns into a war between Japan and the United States, they establish contacts with the opposition in the Japanese government and are also tasked to eliminate a pair of Japanese AWACS planes. Clark spends the first half of the next book, Executive Orders, serving as an instructor for CIA field officers in training. Early in the novel, Jack Ryan, the new President, issues a presidential pardon to John Terence Kelly for his several murders. This clears his name and personal honor, but he will continue his career as John Clark. Towards the end of the book, he and Chavez are returned to the field and ordered to discover who is responsible for an Ebola attack on the United States, an action they quickly trace to the new United Islamic Republic (comprising Iran and Iraq). With the cooperation of the Russian SVR, they are infiltrated into Tehran, where they laser-designate the home of UIR dictator Mahmoud Haji Daryaei so that Air Force stealth aircraft can destroy the house. The next year, Clark writes a memo to the CIA expressing his concerns over the rise of international terrorism since the demise of the Cold War, and recommends creating a NATO response team that could be rapidly deployed in terrorist situations. This special unit is created soon thereafter, with its base in Hereford, England. It is code-named Rainbow, and Clark is put in command of the unit with the equivalent rank of major general. In the book Rainbow Six, Rainbow is first put into operation. It responds successfully to three attacks by "Red" terrorists in Bern, Vienna, and Madrid. It also succeeds in defending itself from an attack by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) against its home base. This is eventually determined to have been ordered by a radical eco-terrorist group, which Rainbow tracks down and destroys in the last pages of the novel. Clark's next appearance is in The Bear and the Dragon, where he is still the head of Rainbow. Initially assigned to train Russian Spetsnaz operatives, Rainbow is temporarily deployed to the Russian-Chinese war being fought in Siberia. In a joint Rainbow-Spetsnaz operation, he is involved in the destruction of China's only ICBM base. The operation is mostly successful: all but one of the missiles is destroyed, and the last one, while it is fired, is destroyed by the Navy before it can reach its intended target. Neither Clark nor Rainbow appears in The Teeth of the Tiger, but it is revealed that Rainbow is still operating. Prior to Jack Ryan resigning as President, Clark's Navy Cross was upgraded to the Medal of Honor. During the Medal of Honor ceremony Jack Ryan, Jr. was present in the Oval Office. Clark returns in Dead or Alive, in which he is part of a Rainbow team that successfully rescues all hostages taken by terrorists at the Swedish embassy in Libya. This proves to be his last act with the CIA, as he is pushed into retirement by Kealty political appointees. He then joins The Campus, an off-the-books intelligence agency that Ryan had founded before the end of his presidency. Clark is immediately involved with the organization's effort to find and neutralize "the Emir", an international terrorist leader modeled on Osama bin Laden, while also serving as mentor and trainer to Jack's son Jack Jr., a Campus analyst who wants to do fieldwork. In Locked On, Clark becomes a pawn in Czech billionaire and Kealty supporter Paul Laska's vendetta to discredit Ryan during the presidential campaign. The Emir had identified him as one of his captors to his Laska-affiliated lawyer. When it was revealed that he killed an East German Stasi operative in Berlin in 1981 (which was not a CIA matter but a personal job by his friend and Berlin station chief who had been blackmailed), he becomes the subject of a manhunt by the FBI and later French investigators hired by Laska. Clark goes on the run and travels to eastern Europe to clear his name, later finding out that rogue SVR operative Valentin Kovalenko had given the information to Laska, who in turn covertly presented it to Kealty. However, he is captured shortly after and later tortured for information about The Campus by Kovalenko's men. He is later rescued by the Russian government, who then assigns him to temporarily lead Rainbow in order to retake a Russian spaceport which had been hijacked by Muslim Dagestani terrorists intent on launching nuclear weapons into Moscow. In Threat Vector, Clark has been exonerated by the outgoing Kealty administration. After an assassination job on a cell of former Libyan intelligence officers in Istanbul, he briefly retires from The Campus due to old age. However, he later comes out of retirement when Chinese special operations forces attack the headquarters of The Campus. He travels to China with fellow Campus operatives and works with the local rebels and FSB to assassinate People's Liberation Army Chairman Su Ke Qiang, who has been waging war against the United States by trying to annex Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and territories in the South China Sea by military force as well as sanctioning cyberattacks on the U.S. In Command Authority, Clark becomes director of operations for The Campus. He travels to Ukraine along with his fellow operatives to gather intelligence on Russian criminal organization Seven Strong Men and its leader Gleb the Scar. They take part in defending a CIA special mission compound in Sevastopol, which came under attack from pro-Russian protesters aided by FSB proxy agents and the Seven Strong Men. Clark later cooperates with Delta Force operatives in capturing Gleb the Scar, revealed to be directly involved in the polonium poisoning of former SVR head Sergey Golovko, in his heavily-guarded base of operations in Kyiv. In Full Force and Effect, Clark and his fellow Campus colleagues investigate a connection between an American corporate espionage firm and the North Korean government, who are intent on producing nuclear weapons. In Commander in Chief, he tracks down the accountant of Russian president Valeri Volodin, who has been moving his personal net worth to a safe place in anticipation of his failure to placate the siloviki should his plan of a covert armed offensive across Europe fail to repair the ongoing economic recession in his country. In True Faith and Allegiance, Clark helps investigate a series of terrorist attacks on American military and intelligence personnel, which is due to a massive intelligence breach. He later assassinates a Saudi technocrat who has been setting up ISIS with the attacks in order to save his country from economic ruin in a quagmire likely to result from American troops being redeployed to the Middle East. In Power and Empire, Clark investigates Chinese agent provocateur Vincent Chen's connection to a sex trafficking ring in Texas. He wages a one-man war on the ring in order to save a prostitute as well, who had been instrumental in revealing China's involvement in several false flag attacks designed to blame the current president, whose moderate stance on several issues compelled a secret cabal to act to have him removed from power. Clark was later arrested for murder, but was released from police custody soon after. Clark briefly appears in Line of Sight, where he assassinates a Romanian crime boss who had a vendetta against Jack Ryan Jr. in revenge for killing one of his associates in a previous novel. In Oath of Office, Clark leads a surveillance operation in Portugal on French arms dealer Hugo Gaspard, who has ties to ISIS. He witnesses Gaspard's murder by French assassin Lucile Fournier, who works under rival arms dealer Urbano da Rocha. Clark and his team then proceed to shadow Da Rocha and Fournier, who later strike a deal intended for Gaspard with a pair of Russian GRU officers. However, the Russians later double cross da Rocha, attempting to kill him in his villa. Clark rescues the arms dealer, who later reveals a plot to provide stolen nuclear weapons to dissident Reza Kazem on behalf of the GRU and the Iranian government. In Code of Honor, Clark leads the Campus's efforts to retrieve Calliope, a next-generation AI software, before the Chinese military uses it for sinister purposes. He later tracks down Kang, an assassin working for the People's Liberation Army who had tried to assassinate a former Navy admiral who now works for a communications company. Outside the novels, John Clark's career continues further in the Rainbow Six video game series. In Rainbow Six: Critical Hour, Clark retires and passes the leadership of Team Rainbow on to Chavez. Although Chavez appears in Rainbow Six: Vegas as Rainbow commander, no mention is made of Clark. Awards John Clark has been awarded the Navy Cross, Silver Star with an oak leaf cluster, Bronze Star with Valor devices with three oak leaf clusters, three Purple Hearts and four Intelligence Stars. He is also a recipient of the Medal of Honor, awarded and presented to him by Jack Ryan (then President of the U.S.) for the rescue of a downed fighter pilot during his time in Vietnam (see Without Remorse). He is a simulated major general in the Rainbow Six book, though he only reached the rank of Chief Boatswain's Mate (Chief Petty Officer) during his Naval career. Distinguishing marks Clark has a small tattoo of a red seal, sitting up on its hind flippers "grinning impudently" on his forearm. Though no other visual details are given, a comment made by Lieutenant Colonel Daniel "Bear" Malloy in Rainbow Six indicated that at least some soldiers in Ryanverse who dealt with special operations had heard of the red seal tattoo and understood that it was associated with the Third Special Operations Group (SOG), with whom Clark served during the Vietnam War. Clark stated that everyone in his unit got the tattoo. In the real world, having such a tattoo would violate operations security (OPSEC); however, similar tattoos are not particularly uncommon, so long as the tattoo is not specifically unit identifiable. Also, the Third SOG is not a real military unit, but a similarly named group, the Studies and Observation Group MACV-SOG, was initially named the Special Operations Group and was active in Vietnam in the types of operations and environments referenced in the series, and had Navy SEALs among its personnel. The symbol of the red seal is actually the unit insignia for SEAL Team 1. Literary appearances The character John Clark appears in the following books: The Cardinal of the Kremlin (1988) Clear and Present Danger (1989) The Sum of All Fears (1991) Without Remorse (1993) Debt of Honor (1994) Executive Orders (1996) Rainbow Six (1998) The Bear and the Dragon (2000) Red Rabbit (2002) (mentioned only) Dead or Alive (2010) Locked On (2011) Threat Vector (2012) Command Authority (2013) Full Force and Effect (2014) Under Fire (2015) Commander in Chief (2015) True Faith and Allegiance (2016) Power and Empire (2017) Oath of Office (2018) Code of Honor (2019) Firing Point (2020) In other media Film In 2012 Paramount Pictures began developing a film adaptation of Without Remorse, and reportedly were in early negotiations with Tom Hardy to play Clark. By September 2018, Michael B. Jordan was cast to play John Clark in the new film series. Without Remorse was released on 30 April 2021 and is directed by Stefano Sollima from a screenplay written by Taylor Sheridan and Will Staples. It is produced by Akiva Goldsman. Rainbow Six is currently in development. Jack Ryan films John Clark has been portrayed by Willem Dafoe in Clear and Present Danger (1994) and Liev Schreiber in The Sum of All Fears (2002). In Clear and Present Danger Clark is initially depicted as a cynical and opportunistic mercenary, but slowly reveals his virtues. Clark aids Ryan in rescuing Clark’s men from Escobedo and Cortez, saving Ryan’s life. In The Sum of All Fears Clark is depicted as a much more sardonic character, though he, like his novel counterpart, has also participated in numerous CIA operations. References See also Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six (video game) Fictional Central Intelligence Agency personnel Fictional characters from Indiana Fictional commanders Fictional vigilantes Fictional United States Navy SEALs personnel Fictional Medal of Honor recipients Fictional Silver Star recipients Fictional secret agents and spies Fictional Vietnam War veterans Tom Clancy characters Ryanverse characters Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Literary characters introduced in 1987 Characters in American novels of the 20th century Action film characters

The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman Emperor Diocletian in 293 to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two senior emperors, the augusti, and their juniors and designated successors, the caesares. This marked the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. Initially Diocletian chose Maximian as his caesar in 285, raising him to co-augustus the following year; Maximian was to govern the western provinces and Diocletian would administer the eastern ones. The role of the augustus was likened to Jupiter, while his caesar was akin to Jupiter's son Hercules. Galerius and Constantius were appointed caesares in March 293. Diocletian and Maximian retired on 1 May 305, raising Galerius and Constantius to the rank of augustus. Their places as caesares were in turn taken by Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza. The orderly system of two senior and two junior emperors endured until Constantius died in July 306, and his son Constantine was unilaterally acclaimed augustus and caesar by his father's army. Maximian's son Maxentius contested Severus' title, styled himself princeps invictus, and was appointed caesar by his retired father in 306. Severus surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius in 307. Maxentius and Constantine were both recognized as augusti by Maximian that same year. Galerius appointed Licinius augustus for the west in 308 and elevated Maximinus Daza to augustus in 310. Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 left him in control of the western part of the empire, while Licinius was left in control of the east on the death of Maximinus Daza. Constantine and Licinius jointly recognized their sons – Crispus, Constantine II, and Licinius II – as caesares in March 317. Ultimately the tetrarchic system lasted until c. 324, when mutually destructive civil wars eliminated most of the claimants to power: Licinius resigned as augustus after the losing the Battle of Chrysopolis, leaving Constantine in control of the entire empire. The Constantinian dynasty's emperors retained some aspects of collegiate rule; Constantine appointed his son Constantius II as another caesar in 324, followed by Constans in 333 and his nephew Dalmatius in 335, and the three surviving sons of Constantine in 337 were declared joint augusti together, and the concept of the division of the empire under multiple joint emperors endured until the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. In the Eastern Roman empire, augusti and caesares continued to be appointed sporadically. Terminology The term "tetrarchy" (from the , tetrarchia, "leadership of four [people]") describes any form of government where power is divided among four individuals. Although the term "tetrarch" was current in antiquity, it was never used of the imperial college under Diocletian. Instead, the term was used to describe independent portions of a kingdom that were ruled under separate leaders. The tetrarchy of Judaea, established after the death of Herod the Great, is the most famous example of the antique tetrarchy. The term was understood in the Latin world as well, where Pliny the Elder glossed it as follows: "each is the equivalent of a kingdom, and also part of one" (regnorum instar singulae et in regna contribuuntur). As used by the ancients, the term describes not only different governments, but also a different system of government from the Diocletianic arrangements. The Judaean tetrarchy was a set of four independent and distinct states, where each tetrarch ruled a quarter of a kingdom as they saw fit; the Diocletianic tetrarchy was a college led by a single supreme leader. When later authors described the period, this is what they emphasized: Ammianus had Constantius II admonish Gallus for disobedience by appealing to the example in submission set by Diocletian's lesser colleagues; his successor Julian compared the Diocletianic tetrarchs to a chorus surrounding a leader, speaking in unison under his command. Only Lactantius, a contemporary of Diocletian and a deep ideological opponent of the Diocletianic state, referred to the tetrarchs as a simple multiplicity of rulers. Much modern scholarship was written without the term. Although Edward Gibbon pioneered the description of the Diocletianic government as a "New Empire", he never used the term "tetrarchy"; neither did Theodor Mommsen. It did not appear in the literature until used in 1887 by schoolmaster Hermann Schiller in a two-volume handbook on the Roman Empire (Geschichte der Römischen Kaiserzeit), to wit: "die diokletianische Tetrarchie". Even so, the term did not catch on in the literature until Otto Seeck used it in 1897. Creation The first phase, sometimes referred to as the diarchy ("rule of two"), involved the designation of the general Maximian as co-emperor—firstly as caesar (junior emperor) in 285, followed by his promotion to augustus in 286. Diocletian took care of matters in the eastern regions of the empire while Maximian similarly took charge of the western regions. In 293, Diocletian thought that more focus was needed on both civic and military problems, so with Maximian's consent, he expanded the imperial college by appointing two caesares (one responsible to each augustus)—Galerius and Constantius I. In 305, the senior emperors jointly abdicated and retired, allowing Constantius and Galerius to be elevated in rank to augustus. They in turn appointed two new caesares—Severus II in the west under Constantius, and Maximinus in the east under Galerius—thereby creating the second Tetrarchy. Regions and capitals The four tetrarchs based themselves not at Rome but in other cities closer to the frontiers, mainly intended as headquarters for the defence of the empire against bordering rivals (notably Sassanian Persia) and barbarians (mainly Germanic, and an unending sequence of nomadic or displaced tribes from the eastern steppes) at the Rhine and Danube. These centres are known as the tetrarchic capitals. Although Rome ceased to be an operational capital, Rome continued to be nominal capital of the entire Roman Empire, not reduced to the status of a province but under its own, unique Prefect of the City (praefectus urbi, later copied in Constantinople). The four tetrarchic capitals were: Nicomedia in northwestern Asia Minor (modern İzmit in Turkey), a base for defence against invasion from the Balkans and Persia's Sassanids was the capital of Diocletian, the eastern (and most senior) augustus; in the final reorganisation by Constantine the Great, in 318, the equivalent of his domain, facing the most redoubtable foreign enemy, Sassanid Persia, became the praetorian prefecture Oriens, 'the East', the core of later Byzantium. Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica in the Vojvodina region of modern Serbia, and near Belgrade, on the Danube border) was the capital of Galerius, the eastern caesar; this was to become the Balkans-Danube prefecture Illyricum. Mediolanum (modern Milan, near the Alps) was the capital of Maximian, the western augustus; his domain became "Italia et Africa", with only a short exterior border. Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier, in Germany) was the capital of Constantius, the western caesar, near the strategic Rhine border; it had been the capital of Gallic emperor Tetricus I. This quarter became the prefecture Galliae. Aquileia, a port on the Adriatic coast, and Eboracum (modern York, in northern England near the Celtic tribes of modern Scotland and Ireland), were also significant centres for Maximian and Constantius respectively. In terms of regional jurisdiction there was no precise division among the four tetrarchs, and this period did not see the Roman state actually split up into four distinct sub-empires. Each emperor had his zone of influence within the Roman Empire, but little more, mainly high command in a 'war theater'. Each tetrarch was himself often in the field, while delegating most of the administration to the hierarchic bureaucracy headed by his respective praetorian prefect, each supervising several vicarii, the governors-general in charge of another, lasting new administrative level, the civil diocese. For a listing of the provinces, now known as eparchy, within each quarter (known as a praetorian prefecture), see Roman province. In the West, the augustus Maximian controlled the provinces west of the Adriatic Sea and the Syrtis, and within that region his caesar, Constantius, controlled Gaul and Britain. In the East, the arrangements between the augustus Diocletian and his caesar, Galerius, were much more flexible. Public image Although power was shared in the tetrarchic system, the public image of the four emperors in the imperial college was carefully managed to give the appearance of a united empire (patrimonium indivisum). This was especially important after the numerous civil wars of the 3rd century. The tetrarchs appeared identical in all official portraits. Coinage dating from the tetrarchic period depicts every emperor with identical features—only the inscriptions on the coins indicate which one of the four emperors is being shown. The Byzantine sculpture Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs shows the tetrarchs again with identical features and wearing the same military costume. Military successes One of the greatest problems facing emperors in the Third Century Crisis was that they were only ever able to personally command troops on one front at any one time. While Aurelian and Probus were prepared to accompany their armies thousands of miles between war regions, this was not an ideal solution. Furthermore, it was risky for an emperor to delegate power in his absence to a subordinate general, who might win a victory and then be proclaimed as a rival emperor himself by his troops (which often happened). All members of the imperial college, on the other hand, were of essentially equal rank, despite two being senior emperors and two being junior; their functions and authorities were also equal. Under the Tetrarchy a number of important military victories were secured. Both the dyarchic and the tetrarchic system ensured that an emperor was near to every crisis area to personally direct and remain in control of campaigns simultaneously on more than just one front. After suffering a defeat by the Persians in 296, Galerius crushed Narseh in 298—reversing a series of Roman defeats throughout the century—capturing members of the imperial household and a substantial amount of booty and gaining a highly favourable peace treaty, which secured peace between the two powers for a generation. Similarly, Constantius defeated the British usurper Allectus, Maximian pacified the Gauls, and Diocletian crushed the revolt of Domitianus in Egypt. Demise When in 305 the 20-year term of Diocletian and Maximian ended, both abdicated. Their caesares, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, were both raised to the rank of augustus, and two new caesares were appointed: Maximinus Daza (caesar to Galerius) and Valerius Severus (caesar to Constantius). These four formed the second tetrarchy. However, the system broke down very quickly thereafter. When Constantius died in 306, Galerius promoted Severus to augustus while Constantine, Constantius' son, was proclaimed augustus by his father's troops. At the same time, Maxentius, the son of Maximian, who also resented being left out of the new arrangements, defeated Severus before forcing him to abdicate and then arranging his murder in 307. Maxentius and Maximian both then declared themselves augusti. By 308 there were therefore no fewer than four claimants to the rank of augustus (Galerius, Constantine, Maximian and Maxentius), and only one to that of caesar (Maximinus Daza). In 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the supposedly retired Maximian, called an imperial "conference" at Carnuntum on the River Danube. The council agreed that Licinius would become augustus in the West, with Constantine as his caesar. In the East, Galerius remained augustus and Maximinus remained his caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper. This agreement proved disastrous: by 308 Maxentius had become de facto ruler of Italy and Africa even without any imperial status, and neither Constantine nor Maximinus—who had both been caesares since 306 and 305 respectively—were prepared to tolerate the promotion of the augustus Licinius as their superior. After an abortive attempt to placate both Constantine and Maximinus with the meaningless title filius augusti ("son of the augustus"), essentially an alternative title for caesar), they both had to be recognised as Augusti in 309. However, four full Augusti all at odds with each other did not bode well for the tetrarchic system. Between 309 and 313 most of the claimants to the imperial office died or were killed in various civil wars. Constantine forced Maximian's suicide in 310. Galerius died naturally in 311. Maxentius was defeated by Constantine at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 and subsequently killed. Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in 313 after being defeated in battle by Licinius. By 313, therefore, there remained only two emperors: Constantine in the West and Licinius in the East. The tetrarchic system was at an end, although it took until 324 for Constantine to finally defeat Licinius, reunite the two halves of the Roman Empire and declare himself sole augustus. Emperors Detailed timeline Simplified timeline Tetrarchy until 1 May 305 Tetrarchy until July 306 After the retirement of the two Augusti both previous caesares succeeded them, and two new caesares were appointed. Maximinus Daia was Galerius' nephew. Tetrarchy until 16 May 307 After the death of Constantius his legions proclaim his son Constantine the new augustus, but Galerius elevates Severus to be the new junior augustus and compensates Constantine with the rank of caesar. Tetrarchy from 18 November 308 to the beginning of May 311 After the death of Severus, Constantine does not succeed him. At the council of Carnutum, Diocletian decides that Licinius will be the new augustus of the West. Tetrarchy from May 311 After the death of Galerius he was succeeded by Maximinus Daza in as augustus of the East, but is crowded by Licinius, who wants to have the status of the senior augustus. Maximinus appoints no new caesar, although it was assumed that this position should later on be filled out with the son of Severus, Flavius Severianus, or at least that he was scheduled for this position. Tetrarchy after 8 October 316 to the end of 316 Shortly before the turn of the year 316/317, Constantine, now augustus in the West, appointed a caesar, while Licinius briefly appointed one of his officers, Valerius Valens, as the third augustus. This was apparent from coins, though Valens was apparently inferior to Licinius, who soon executed him. Even the chronology is unclear, as the date stamping could also be the turn of the year 314/315. Tetrarchy from 1 March 317 to 18 September 324 The tetrarchic system is at its end. Both Augusti appoint their own sons as co-emperors, restoring a dynastic system. However, before his death, Licinius appoints the General Martinianus on 3 July 324 as augustus in name only, as Martinianus was intended to replace Constantine in the west. Legacy Although the tetrarchic system as such only lasted until 313, many aspects of it survived. The fourfold regional division of the empire continued in the form of Praetorian prefectures, each of which was overseen by a praetorian prefect and subdivided into administrative dioceses, and often reappeared in the title of the military supra-provincial command assigned to a magister militum. The pre-existing notion of consortium imperii, the sharing of imperial power, and the notion that an associate to the throne was the designated successor (possibly conflicting with the notion of hereditary claim by birth or adoption), was to reappear repeatedly. The idea of the two halves, the east and the west, re-emerged and eventually resulted in the permanent de facto division into two separate Roman empires after the death of Theodosius I; though, importantly, the Empire was never formally divided. The emperors of the eastern and western halves legally ruled as one imperial college until the Fall of the Western Roman Empire left Byzantium, the "second Rome", as the sole direct heir. Other examples Tetrarchies in the ancient world existed in both Thessaly (in northern Greece) and Galatia (in central Asia Minor; including Lycaonia) as well as among the British Cantiaci. The constellation of Jewish principalities in the Herodian kingdom of Judea was known as a tetrarchy; see Tetrarchy (Judea). In the novel The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, the Pevensie siblings rule Narnia as a tetrarchy of two kings and two queens. See also Notitia dignitatum, a later document from the imperial chancery Notes Citations References External links A detailed chronology of the tetrarchy from Diocletian to Constantine A chart showing the tetrarchy from Diocletian to Constantine 293 establishments 313 disestablishments 290s establishments in the Roman Empire 310s disestablishments in the Roman Empire 3rd century in the Roman Empire 4th century in the Roman Empire States and territories established in the 290s States and territories disestablished in the 4th century Constitutional state types Emperors Monarchy 290s in the Roman Empire Roman emperors

Sir Thomas Hare (28 March 1806 in England – 6 May 1891) was a British lawyer, MP and proponent of electoral reform. In particular he was the inventor of the Single Transferable Voting system, now used in many places in the world. Life He was born on 28 March 1806, was the only son of A Hare of Leigh, Dorset. On 14 November 1828 he was admitted a student of the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar on 22 November 1833. He practised in the chancery courts and from 1841 reported in Vice-chancellor Wigram's court. He studied law, and was called to the Bar in November 1833 and published several works on judges' decisions. In 1853 he became Inspector of Charities and was later Assistant Commissioner on the Royal City Charities Commission, about which he published several books. Elected a Conservative Party Member of Parliament, he resigned from political office in 1846. He became a Peelite, and broke with the Conservatives, but did not wish to join the Liberal Party, preferring to maintain his independence. Family He married, first, in Dorsetshire on 7 August 1837, Mary, daughter of Thomas Samson of Kingston Russell. She died on 21 October 1855, and was buried in the churchyard of Brompton church. They had eight children. The eldest daughter, Marian, wife of the Rev. W. R. Andrews of Eastbourne, has written under the pseudonym of 'Christopher Hare;' the second daughter, Alice, married Professor Westlake. Hare married, secondly, on 4 April 1872, Eleanor Bowes Benson (1833–1890), second sister of Edward White Benson, archbishop of Canterbury, by whom he had issue Mary Eleanor (1874–1883). Views Hare was said to have been 'conspicuous for great industry – to have wide interests in life and clearness of intellectual vision'. He was a member of the London-based Political Economy Club and the British Dictionary of National Biography says of him: Hare's energies were concentrated in an attempt to devise a system which would secure proportional representation of all classes in the United Kingdom, including minorities in the House of Commons and other electoral assemblies. His original electoral system ideas included making The United Kingdom one huge electorate (Hare, in 1854, set the divisor as 654 the number of seats in the UK Parliament) (later he changed this to seven or eight hundred electorates) and that each voter would sign and check his vote. By 1873, however, he had adapted his ideas to take account of the secret vote. Under Hare's method, simply dividing the vote by the number of seats constituted the quota and then the surplus was expected to be distributed 'at random'. Hare's famous original work Machinery of Representation appeared in 1857 (in two editions) and many editions of his equally famous Treatise on the Election of Representatives: Parliamentary and Municipal appeared between 1859 and 1873. In the preface to the fourth edition, he stated his belief that proportional representation would 'end the evils of corruption, violent discontent and restricted power of selection or voter choice'. A great deal of writing on that theory developed and several societies were formed worldwide for its adoption although Hare pointed out that his scheme was not meant to bear the title 'representation for minorities'. Moreover, he noted in the preface to his third edition a point that was to become a feature of Tasmanian politics: Can it be supposed that the moment the electors are allowed a freedom of choice they will immediately be seized with a desire to vote for some distant candidate with whom they are unacquainted, rather than for those whom they know – who are near to them, whose speeches they have heard and who have personal recommendations to the favour and respect of the town and neighbourhood. Finally, with the help of contemporaries such as John Stuart Mill and Catherine Helen Spence, Hare popularised the idea of proportional representation worldwide. The permanent recognition of his name in the Tasmanian system is perhaps appropriate despite little being left of his original proposals. His death in May 1891 occurred several years before the first use of proportional representation in Tasmania in 1897. The former London headquarters of the Electoral Reform Society was named in his honour. Systems Hare lends his name to the following: a system of proportional representation, also known as Single Transferable Vote (STV) a particular quota being used by STV, the Hare quota a seat allocation method, also known as the largest remainder method The Single Transferable Vote method has been widely used for multiple-winner elections. While continuing to be the main method of elections in the Republic of Ireland and for some elections in Australia, it has been widely used in numerous corporations and organizations, and has been employed in local elections in a few jurisdictions of the United States. 2007 saw the reintroduction of STV in public elections on the British mainland in elections to Scottish local authorities. STV had been used for elections to Parliament for some University Seats from 1918 to 1945 and in 1918 for Scottish boards. Mill described Hare's system as "the greatest improvement of which the system of representative government is susceptible; an improvement which…exactly meets and cures the grand, and what before seemed inherent, defect of the representative system". Hare, not a mathematician, never subjected his STV system to a rigorous mathematical analysis. Law reports Hare also obtained minor fame in an entirely different field: law reporting. At a time when there were no official reports of judicial decisions, Hare published reports of key decisions of the courts to enable them to be used as precedents. Two key judicial decisions, which are still frequently cited today, are reported only in Hare's Reports in Chancery: Henderson v Henderson (1843) 3 Hare 100, from which the rule known as "the rule in Henderson v Henderson" is derived. Foss v Harbottle (1843) 2 Hare 461, from which the rule known as "the rule in Foss v Harbottle" is derived, and which is still the cornerstone of minority shareholder rights in company law in common law legal systems over 160 years later. The Hare law reports were published from 1841 to 1853. Works The machinery of representation (1857) A treatise on election of representatives, parliamentary and municipal (1859) The election of representatives parliamentary and municipal: a treatise (1865) References Attribution External links http://www.vladimir.izbirkom.ru/etc/vystuplenie_vn.pdf See also F.D. Parsons, Thomas Hare and Political Representation in Victorian Britain (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) Hare–Clark electoral system 1806 births 1891 deaths British political scientists Voting theorists Single transferable vote

Thomas Andrew Lehrer (; born April 9, 1928) is a retired American musician, singer-songwriter, satirist, and mathematician, having lectured on mathematics and musical theater. He is best known for the pithy and humorous songs that he recorded in the 1950s and 1960s. His songs often parodied popular musical forms, though he usually created original melodies when doing so. A notable exception is "The Elements", in which he set the names of the chemical elements to the tune of the "Major-General's Song" from Gilbert and Sullivan's Pirates of Penzance. Lehrer's early musical work typically dealt with non-topical subject matter and was noted for its black humor in songs such as "Poisoning Pigeons in the Park". In the 1960s, he produced a number of songs that dealt with social and political issues of the day, particularly when he wrote for the U.S. version of the television show That Was the Week That Was. The popularity of these songs has far outlasted their topical subjects and references. Lehrer quoted a friend's explanation: "Always predict the worst and you'll be hailed as a prophet." In the early 1970s, Lehrer largely retired from public performances to devote his time to teaching mathematics and musical theater history at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Early life Thomas Andrew Lehrer was born on April 9, 1928 to a secular Jewish family and grew up on Manhattan's Upper East Side. He was the second and younger son of Moses James Lehrer (1898-?) and Anna Lehrer (née Waller) (1905-1978). He had an older brother. He began studying classical piano at the age of seven, but was more interested in the popular music of the age. Eventually, his mother also sent him to a popular-music piano teacher. At this early age, he began writing show tunes, which eventually helped him as a satirical composer and writer in his years of lecturing at Harvard University and later at other universities. Lehrer attended the Horace Mann School in Riverdale, New York, part of the Bronx. He also attended Camp Androscoggin, both as a camper and a counselor. Lehrer was considered a child prodigy and entered Harvard College, where one of his professors was Irving Kaplansky, at the age of 15 after graduating from Loomis School. As a mathematics undergraduate student at Harvard College, he began to write comic songs to entertain his friends, including "Fight Fiercely, Harvard" (1945). Those songs were later named collectively The Physical Revue, a joking reference to a leading scientific journal, the Physical Review. Academic and military career Lehrer graduated Bachelor of Arts in mathematics from Harvard University, magna cum laude, in 1946. At Harvard, he was the roommate of the Canadian theologian Robert Crouse. He received his AM degree the next year and was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa. He later taught mathematics and other classes at MIT, Harvard, Wellesley, and the University of California, Santa Cruz. Lehrer remained in Harvard's doctoral program for several years, taking time out for his musical career and to work as a researcher at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. Lehrer was drafted into the U.S. Army from 1955 to 1957, working at the National Security Agency (NSA). Lehrer has stated that he invented the Jello shot during this time, as a means of circumventing the base's ban on alcoholic beverages. Despite holding a master's degree in an era when American conscripts often lacked a high school diploma, Lehrer served as an enlisted soldier, achieving the rank of Specialist Third Class, which he described as being a "corporal without portfolio". These experiences became fodder for songs, such as "The Wild West is Where I Want to Be" and "It Makes a Fellow Proud to Be a Soldier". It was many years before Lehrer publicly revealed that he had been assigned to the NSA, since the mere fact of its existence was classified at the time; this left him in the interesting position of implicitly using nuclear weapons work as a cover story for something more sensitive. In 1960, Lehrer returned to full-time math studies at Harvard. From 1962, Lehrer taught in the political science department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). In 1965 he gave up on his mathematics dissertation on modes in statistics, after having worked on it intermittently for 15 years. In 1972, Lehrer joined the faculty of the University of California, Santa Cruz, teaching an introductory course entitled The Nature of Mathematics to liberal arts majors—"math for tenors", according to Lehrer. He also taught a class in musical theater. He occasionally performed songs in his lectures. In 2001, Lehrer taught his last mathematics class, on the topic of infinity, and retired from academia. He has remained in the area, and in 2003 said he still "hangs out" around the University of California, Santa Cruz. Publications The American Mathematical Society database lists him as co-author of two papers: Two of Lehrer's songs were also reprinted, with his permission, in MAD Magazine: Tom Lehrer Sings "The Wild West is Where I Where I Want To Be" (illustrated by George Woodbridge, MAD #32, April 1957) Tom Lehrer's "The Hunting Song" (illustrated by George Woodbridge, MAD #35, October 1957) Musical career Style and influences Lehrer was mainly influenced by musical theater. According to Gerald Nachman's book Seriously Funny, the Broadway musical Let's Face It! made an early and lasting impression on him. Lehrer's style consists of parodying various forms of popular song. For example, his appreciation of list songs led him to write "The Elements", which lists the chemical elements to the tune of Gilbert and Sullivan's "Major-General's Song". In author and Boston University professor Isaac Asimov's second autobiographical volume, In Joy Still Felt, Asimov recounted seeing Lehrer perform in a Boston nightclub on October 9, 1954. Lehrer sang a song about Jim getting it from Louise, and Sally from Jim, "...and after a while you gathered the 'it' was venereal disease. [The song was likely "I Got It From Agnes".] Suddenly, as the combinations grew more grotesque, you realized he was satirizing every known perversion without using a single naughty phrase. It was clearly unsingable outside a nightclub." Asimov also recalled a song that dealt with the Boston subway system, making use of the stations leading into town from Harvard, observing that the local subject-matter rendered the song useless for general distribution. Lehrer subsequently granted Asimov permission to print the lyrics to the subway song in his book. "I haven't gone to nightclubs often," said Asimov, "but of all the times I have gone, it was on this occasion that I had by far the best time." Recordings Lehrer was encouraged by the success of his performances, so he paid $15 () for some studio time in 1953 to record Songs by Tom Lehrer. The initial pressing was 400 copies. Radio stations would not air his songs because of his controversial subjects, so he sold the album on campus at Harvard for $3, , while "several stores near the Harvard campus sold it for $3.50, taking only a minimal markup as a kind of community service. Newsstands on campus sold it for the same price." After one summer, he started to receive mail orders from all parts of the country, as far away as San Francisco, after the San Francisco Chronicle wrote an article on the record. Interest in his recordings spread by word of mouth. People played their records for friends, who then also wanted a copy. Lehrer recalled, "Lacking exposure in the media, my songs spread slowly. Like herpes, rather than ebola." The album included the macabre "I Hold Your Hand in Mine", the mildly risqué "Be Prepared", and "Lobachevsky" regarding plagiarizing mathematicians. It became a cult success by word of mouth, despite being self-published and without promotion. Lehrer embarked on a series of concert tours and recorded a second album in 1959. He released the second album in two versions: the songs were the same, but More of Tom Lehrer was a studio recording and An Evening Wasted with Tom Lehrer was recorded live in concert. In 2013, Lehrer recalled the studio session for "Poisoning Pigeons in the Park", which referred to the practice of controlling pigeons in Boston with strychnine-treated corn: Touring Lehrer had a breakthrough in the United Kingdom on December 4, 1957, when the University of London awarded a doctor of music degree honoris causa to Princess Margaret, and the public orator, Professor J. R. Sutherland, said it was "in the full knowledge that the Princess is a connoisseur of music and a performer of skill and distinction, her taste being catholic, ranging from Mozart to the calypso and from opera to the songs of Miss Beatrice Lillie and Tom Lehrer." This prompted significant interest in Lehrer's works and helped to secure distribution for his five-year-old debut album in Britain. It was there that his music achieved real sales popularity, as a result of the proliferation of university newspapers referring to the material, and inadvertently due to the BBC, which in 1958 banned from broadcast 10 of the 12 songs on the album. By the end of the 1950s, Lehrer had sold 370,000 records. That Was The Week That Was In 1960, Lehrer essentially retired from touring in the U.S. The same year, Lehrer toured Australia and New Zealand, performing a total of 33 concerts to great acclaim and controversy. While in New Zealand, Lehrer wrote a song criticizing the All Blacks rugby team 1960 tour of apartheid South Africa. These tours occurred during a time in which he was, he said, "banned, censored, mentioned in several houses of parliament and threatened with arrest". In particular, "Be Prepared" drew advance resistance in Brisbane from the commissioner of police. He performed several unreleased songs in Australia, including "The Masochism Tango". In the early 1960s, he was employed as the resident songwriter for the U.S. edition of That Was The Week That Was (TW3), a satirical television show. A greater proportion of his output became overtly political, or at least topical, on subjects such as education ("New Math"), the Second Vatican Council ("The Vatican Rag", a tune based on the 1910 "Spaghetti Rag" by Lyons and Yosco), race relations ("National Brotherhood Week"), air and water pollution ("Pollution"), American militarism ("Send the Marines"), and nuclear proliferation ("Who's Next?" and "MLF Lullaby"). He also wrote a song satirizing rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, who worked for Nazi Germany before working for the United States. (Once the rockets are up, who cares where they come down? That's not my department,' says Wernher von Braun.") Lehrer did not appear on the television show; vocalist Nancy Ames performed his songs (to Lehrer's chagrin), and network censors often altered his lyrics. Lehrer later performed these songs on the album That Was The Year That Was (1965) at which point people could hear them the way that he intended. In 1966, BBC TV host David Frost invited him to contribute some of his classic compositions to his BBC program The Frost Report. The show was transmitted live, and he pre-recorded all his segments at one performance. Lehrer was not featured in every edition, but his songs featured in an appropriate part of each show. At least two of his songs were not included on any of his LPs: a reworking of Noël Coward's "That is the End of the News" (with some new lyrics) and a comic explanation of how Britain might adapt to the coming of decimal currency. The record deal with Reprise Records for That Was The Year That Was also gave Reprise distribution rights for his earlier recordings, as Lehrer wanted to wind up his own record imprint. The Reprise issue of Songs by Tom Lehrer was a stereo re-recording. This version was not issued on CD, but the songs were issued on the live Tom Lehrer Revisited CD. The live recording included bonus tracks "L-Y" and "Silent E", two of the ten songs that he wrote for the PBS children's educational series The Electric Company. Lehrer later commented that worldwide sales of the recordings under Reprise surpassed 1.8 million units in 1996. That same year, That Was The Year That Was went gold. The album liner notes promote his songs with self-deprecating humor, such as quoting a New York Times review from 1959: Mr. Lehrer's muse is "not fettered by such inhibiting factors as taste." Lehrer made a short tour in Norway and Denmark in 1967, performing some of the songs from the television program. His performance in Oslo on September 10 was recorded on video tape and aired locally that autumn, then released on DVD some 40 years later. He performed as a prominent international guest at the Studenterforeningen (student association) in Copenhagen, which was televised, and he commented on stage that he might be America's "revenge for Victor Borge". He performed original songs in a Dodge automobile industrial film distributed primarily to automobile dealers and shown at promotional events in 1967, set in a fictional American wild west town and titled The Dodge Rebellion Theatre presents Ballads For '67. He attempted to adapt Sweeney Todd as a Broadway musical, working with Joe Raposo, to star Jerry Colonna. They started a few songs but, as Lehrer noted, "Nothing ever came of it, and of course twenty years later Stephen Sondheim beat me to the punch." Departure from the music scene In the 1970s, Lehrer concentrated on teaching mathematics and musical theater, although he also wrote ten songs for the educational children's television show The Electric Company. His last public performance for many years took place in 1972, on a fundraising tour for Democratic US presidential candidate George McGovern. When asked about his reasons for abandoning his musical career in an interview in the book accompanying his CD box set, released in 2000, Lehrer cited a lack of interest, a disdain of touring, and the monotony of performing the same songs repeatedly. He observed that when he was moved to write and perform songs, he did, and when he was not, he did not, and that after a while he simply lost interest. Even though Lehrer was "a hero of the anti-nuclear, civil rights left" and covered its political issues in many of his songs, and even though he shared the New Left's opposition to the Vietnam War, and advocated for civil rights, he disliked the aesthetics of the counterculture of the 1960s and stopped performing as the movement gained momentum. Lehrer's musical career was relatively brief. He once mentioned that he performed a mere 109 shows and wrote 37 songs over 20 years. Nevertheless, he developed a significant following in the United States and abroad. Revivals and discographic reissues In 1980, Cameron Mackintosh produced Tomfoolery, a revue of Lehrer's songs that was a hit on the London stage. Lehrer was not initially involved with the show, but he was pleased with it; he eventually gave the stage production his full support and updated several of his lyrics for the show. Tomfoolery contained 27 songs and led to more than 200 productions, including an Off-Broadway production at the Village Gate which ran for 120 performances in 1981. Lehrer made a rare TV appearance on BBC's Parkinson show in conjunction with the Tom Foolery premiere in 1980 at the Criterion Theatre in London, where he sang "I Got It from Agnes". There were "Tomfoolery" performances in San Francisco about 1982 and in 2018–19. In 1993, he wrote "That's Mathematics" for the closing credits to a Mathematical Sciences Research Institute video celebrating the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem. On June 7 and 8, 1998, Lehrer performed in public for the first time in 25 years at the Lyceum Theatre, London as part of the show Hey, Mr. Producer! celebrating the career of Cameron Mackintosh, who had produced Tom Foolery. The June 8 show was his only performance before Queen Elizabeth II. Lehrer sang "Poisoning Pigeons in the Park" and an updated version of the nuclear proliferation song "Who's Next?" In 2000 Lehrer commented that he doubted his songs had any real effect on those not already critical of the establishment: "I don't think this kind of thing has an impact on the unconverted, frankly. It's not even preaching to the converted; it's titillating the converted ... I'm fond of quoting Peter Cook, who talked about the satirical Berlin kabaretts of the 1930s, which did so much to stop the rise of Hitler and prevent the Second World War." Lehrer has said, jokingly, of his musical career, "If, after hearing my songs, just one human being is inspired to say something nasty to a friend, or perhaps to strike a loved one, it will all have been worth the while." In 2003, Lehrer commented that his particular brand of political satire is more difficult in the modern world: "The real issues I don't think most people touch. The Clinton jokes are all about Monica Lewinsky and all that stuff and not about the important things, like the fact that he wouldn't ban land mines ... I'm not tempted to write a song about George W. Bush. I couldn't figure out what sort of song I would write. That's the problem: I don't want to satirize George Bush and his puppeteers, I want to vaporize them." In 2000, the boxed CD set The Remains of Tom Lehrer was released by Rhino Entertainment. It included live and studio versions of his first two albums, That Was The Year That Was, the songs that he wrote for The Electric Company, and some previously unreleased material, a small hardbound lyrics book with an introduction by Dr. Demento. In 2010, Shout! Factory launched a reissue campaign, making Lehrer's out-of-print albums available digitally. The CD/DVD combo The Tom Lehrer Collection was also issued, including his best-known songs, with a DVD featuring an Oslo concert. In a February 2008 phone call, Gene Weingarten of The Washington Post interviewed Lehrer off the record. When Weingarten asked if there was anything he could print for the record, Lehrer responded, "Just tell the people that I am voting for Obama." In 2012 rapper 2 Chainz sampled Lehrer's song "Dope Peddler", on his 2012 debut album, Based on a T.R.U. Story. In 2013, Lehrer said he was "very proud" to have his song sampled "literally sixty years after I recorded it". Lehrer went on to describe his official response to the request to use his song: "As sole copyright owner of 'The Old Dope Peddler', I grant you motherfuckers permission to do this. Please give my regards to Mr. Chainz, or may I call him 2?" In 2020, at the age of 92, Lehrer donated all of his lyrics and music written by him to the public domain. Musical legacy In 1967, Swedish actor Lars Ekborg, known outside Sweden for his part in Ingmar Bergman's Summer with Monika, made an album called I Tom Lehrers vackra värld ("In the beautiful world of Tom Lehrer"), with 12 of Lehrer's songs interpreted in Swedish. Lehrer wrote in a letter to the producer Per-Anders Boquist that, "Not knowing any Swedish, I am obviously not equipped to judge, but it sounds to me as though Mr. Ekborg is perfect for the songs," along with further compliments to pianist Leif Asp for unexpected additional flourishes. In 1971, Argentinian singer Nacha Guevara sang Spanish versions of several Lehrer songs for the show/live album Este es el año que es. In 2010, the German musician-comedian Felix Janosa released an album with the title "Tauben vergiften: Die bösen Lieder von Tom Lehrer" ("Poisoning pigeons: The Evil Songs of Tom Lehrer"), with German versions of some of his best-known songs. Composer Randy Newman said of Lehrer, "He's one of the great American songwriters without a doubt, right up there with everybody, the top guys. As a lyricist, as good as there's been in the last half of the 20th century." Singer and comedian Dillie Keane has acknowledged Lehrer's influence on her work. Dr. Demento praised Lehrer as "the best musical satirist of the twentieth century." Other artists who cite Lehrer as an influence include "Weird Al" Yankovic, whose work generally addresses more popular and less technical or political subjects, and educator and scientist H. Paul Shuch, who tours under the stage name Dr. SETI, and calls himself "a cross between Carl Sagan and Tom Lehrer: He sings like Sagan and lectures like Lehrer." From January 16 to February 25, 2006, the play Letters from Lehrer, written and performed by Canadian Richard Greenblatt, ran at CanStage in Toronto. It followed Lehrer's musical career, the meaning of several songs, the politics of the time, and Greenblatt's own experiences with Lehrer's music, while playing some of Lehrer's songs. Performers influenced by Lehrer's style include American political satirist Mark Russell, Canadian comedian and songwriter Randy Vancourt, and the British duo Kit and The Widow. In 2004, British medical satirists Amateur Transplants acknowledge the debt they owe to Lehrer on the back of their first album, Fitness to Practice. Their song "The Menstrual Rag" uses the tune of Lehrer's "The Vatican Rag"; and "The Drugs Song" mirrors Lehrer's song "The Elements", both using the tune of the "Major-General's Song" from The Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan. The Amateur Transplants' second album, Unfit to Practise, opens with an update of Lehrer's "The Masochism Tango" called "Masochism Tango 2008". Discography Studio albums Songs by Tom Lehrer (1953), re-recorded in 1966 More of Tom Lehrer (1959) Live albums An Evening Wasted with Tom Lehrer (1959) Revisited (1960) Tom Lehrer Discovers Australia (And Vice Versa) (1960; Australia-only) That Was the Year That Was (1965) Compilation albums Tom Lehrer in Concert (1994; UK compilation) Songs & More Songs by Tom Lehrer (1997; US compilation of his first two studio albums with additional songs) The Remains of Tom Lehrer (2000) The Tom Lehrer Collection (2010) Many of Lehrer's songs are performed by others in That Was The Week That Was (Radiola LP, 1981). The sheet music of many songs is published in The Tom Lehrer Song Book (Crown Publishers Inc., 1954; Library of Congress Card Catalog Number 54-12068) and Too Many Songs by Tom Lehrer: With Not Enough Drawings by Ronald Searle (Pantheon, 1981, ; Methuen, 1999, ). A second song book, Tom Lehrer's Second Song Book, is out of print, . References External links Archived Tom Lehrer website (from 2008). Song lyrics and music, released for free use. Tom Lehrer interview on BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs, July 18, 1980 Interview with Tom Lehrer by the Library of Congress on July 22, 2015 1928 births Living people 20th-century American mathematicians American agnostics American comedy musicians Jewish American male comedians American lyricists American male singer-songwriters American novelty song performers American satirists Harvard College alumni Horace Mann School alumni Jewish agnostics Jewish American musicians Jewish American songwriters MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty Parody musicians People from the Upper East Side Reprise Records artists Singers from New York City University of California, Santa Cruz faculty Wellesley College faculty 20th-century American pianists Loomis Chaffee School alumni American male non-fiction writers 20th-century American comedians Mathematicians from New York (state) American male pianists 21st-century American pianists 20th-century American male musicians 21st-century American male musicians National Security Agency people United States Army soldiers Singer-songwriters from New York (state)

There Is No Cabal (abbreviated TINC) is a catchphrase and running joke found on Usenet. The journalist Wendy M. Grossman writes that its appearance on the alt.usenet.cabal FAQ reflects conspiracy accusations as old as the Internet itself. The anthropologist Gabriella Coleman writes that the joke reveals "discomfort over the potential for corruption by meritocratic leaders". History The phrase There Is No Cabal was developed to deny the existence of the backbone cabal, which members of the cabal denied. The cabal consisted of operators of major news server newsgroups, allowing them to wield greater control over Usenet. See also Backbone cabal Cabal Internet meme Lumber Cartel External links alt.conspiracy.usenet-cabal FAQ on the Cabal and TINC References Usenet Internet memes Conspiracy theories Phrases fr:Il n'y a pas de cabale

The analogy of the divided line () is presented by the Greek philosopher Plato in the Republic (509d–511e). It is written as a dialogue between Glaucon and Socrates, in which the latter further elaborates upon the immediately preceding analogy of the sun at the former's request. Socrates asks Glaucon to not only envision this unequally bisected line but to imagine further bisecting each of the two segments. Socrates explains that the four resulting segments represent four separate 'affections' (παθήματα) of the psyche. The lower two sections are said to represent the visible while the higher two are said to represent the intelligible. These affections are described in succession as corresponding to increasing levels of reality and truth from conjecture (εἰκασία) to belief (πίστις) to thought (διάνοια) and finally to understanding (νόησις). Furthermore, this analogy not only elaborates a theory of the psyche but also presents metaphysical and epistemological views. Description In The Republic (509d–510a), Plato describes the divided line this way: The visible world Thus AB represents shadows and reflections of physical things, and BC the physical things themselves. These correspond to two kinds of knowledge, the illusion (εἰκασία eikasia) of our ordinary, everyday experience, and belief (πίστις pistis) about discrete physical objects which cast their shadows. In the Timaeus, the category of illusion includes all the "opinions of which the minds of ordinary people are full," while the natural sciences are included in the category of belief. The intelligible world According to some translations, the segment CE, representing the intelligible world, is divided into the same ratio as AC, giving the subdivisions CD and DE (it can be readily verified that CD must have the same length as BC: Plato describes CD, the "lower" of these, as involving mathematical reasoning (διάνοια dianoia), where abstract mathematical objects such as geometric lines are discussed. Such objects are outside the physical world (and are not to be confused with the drawings of those lines, which fall within the physical world BC). However, they are less important to Plato than the subjects of philosophical understanding (νόησις noesis), the "higher" of these two subdivisions (DE): Plato here is using the familiar relationship between ordinary objects and their shadows or reflections in order to illustrate the relationship between the physical world as a whole and the world of Ideas (Forms) as a whole. The former is made up of a series of passing reflections of the latter, which is eternal, more real and "true." Moreover, the knowledge that we have of the Ideas – when indeed we do have it – is of a higher order than knowledge of the mere physical world. In particular, knowledge of the forms leads to a knowledge of the Idea (Form) of the Good. Tabular summary of the divided line Metaphysical importance The analogy of the divided line is the cornerstone of Plato's metaphysical framework. This structure illustrates the grand picture of Plato's metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics, all in one. It is not enough for the philosopher to understand the Ideas (Forms), he must also understand the relation of Ideas to all four levels of the structure to be able to know anything at all. In the Republic, the philosopher must understand the Idea of Justice to live a just life or to organize and govern a just state. The divided line also serves as our guide for most past and future metaphysics. The lowest level, which represents "the world of becoming and passing away" (Republic, 508d), is the metaphysical model for a Heraclitean philosophy of constant flux and for Protagorean philosophy of appearance and opinion. The second level, a world of fixed physical objects, also became Aristotle's metaphysical model. The third level might be a Pythagorean level of mathematics. The fourth level is Plato's ideal Parmenidean reality, the world of highest level Ideas. Epistemological meaning Plato holds a very strict notion of knowledge. For example, he does not accept expertise about a subject, nor direct perception (see Theaetetus), nor true belief about the physical world (the Meno) as knowledge. It is not enough for the philosopher to understand the Ideas (Forms), he must also understand the relation of Ideas to all four levels of the structure to be able to know anything at all. For this reason, in most of the earlier Socratic dialogues, Socrates denies knowledge both to himself and others. For the first level, "the world of becoming and passing away," Plato expressly denies the possibility of knowledge. Constant change never stays the same, therefore, properties of objects must refer to different Ideas at different times. Note that for knowledge to be possible, which Plato believed, the other three levels must be unchanging. The third and fourth level, mathematics and Ideas, are already eternal and unchanging. However, to ensure that the second level, the objective, physical world, is also unchanging, Plato, in the Republic, Book 4 introduces empirically derived axiomatic restrictions that prohibit both motion and shifting perspectives. See also Allegory of the Cave Allegorical interpretations of Plato Self-similarity Notes External links At MIT.edu: Plato's Republic: Translated by Benjamin Jowett At Perseus Project: Plato's Republic: Translated by Paul Shorey (1935) annotated and hyperlinked text (English and Greek) James Danaher, "The Laws of Thought", The Philosopher, Volume LXXXXII No. 1 Plato's Analogy of the Divided Line: A read at the Eastern Division Meetings of the American Philosophical Association, December 1988. Singpurwalla, Rachel G.K. "Plato’s Defense of Justice in the Republic", in Santas, Gerasimos (ed.). The Blackwell Guide to Plato's Republic (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006). Psychology, Philosophy, and Plato's Divided Line. Full text, analysis, and comprehensive hyperlinked bibliography on Plato's divided line. Articles containing proofs Concepts in epistemology Concepts in metaphysics Platonism Philosophical analogies Philosophical arguments

Thomas Gainsborough (14 May 1727 (baptised) – 2 August 1788) was an English portrait and landscape painter, draughtsman, and printmaker. Along with his rival Sir Joshua Reynolds, he is considered one of the most important British artists of the second half of the 18th century. He painted quickly, and the works of his maturity are characterised by a light palette and easy strokes. Despite being a prolific portrait painter, Gainsborough gained greater satisfaction from his landscapes. He is credited (with Richard Wilson) as the originator of the 18th-century British landscape school. Gainsborough was a founding member of the Royal Academy. Youth and training He was born in Sudbury, Suffolk, the youngest son of John Gainsborough, a weaver and maker of woolen goods, and his wife Mary, the sister of the Reverend Humphry Burroughs. One of Gainsborough's brothers, Humphrey, had a faculty for mechanics and was said to have invented the method of condensing steam in a separate vessel, which was of great service to James Watt; another brother, John, was known as Scheming Jack because of his passion for designing curiosities. The artist spent his childhood at what is now Gainsborough's House, on Gainsborough Street, Sudbury. He later resided there, following the death of his father in 1748 and before his move to Ipswich. The building still survives and is now a house-museum dedicated to his life and art. When he was still a boy he impressed his father with his drawing and painting skills, and he almost certainly had painted heads and small landscapes by the time he was ten years old, including a miniature self-portrait. Gainsborough was allowed to leave home in 1740 to study art in London, where he trained under engraver Hubert Gravelot but became associated with William Hogarth and his school. He assisted Francis Hayman in the decoration of the supper boxes at Vauxhall Gardens, and contributed one image to the decoration of what is now the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children. Career Suffolk In 1746, Gainsborough married Margaret Burr, an illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Beaufort, who had settled a £200 annuity on her. The artist's work, then mostly consisting of landscape paintings, was not selling well. He returned to Sudbury in 1748–1749 and concentrated on painting portraits. While still in Suffolk, Gainsborough painted a portrait of The Rev. John Chafy Playing a Violoncello in a Landscape (c.1750–1752; Tate Gallery, London). In 1752, he and his family, now including two daughters, Mary ("Molly", 1750–1826) and Margaret ("Peggy", 1751–1820), moved to Ipswich. Commissions for portraits increased, but his clients included mainly local merchants and squires. He had to borrow against his wife's annuity. Toward the end of his time in Ipswich, he painted a self-portrait, now in the permanent collection of the National Portrait Gallery, London. Bath In 1759, Gainsborough and his family moved to Bath, living at number 17 The Circus. There, he studied portraits by van Dyck and was eventually able to attract a fashionable clientele. In 1761, he began to send work to the Society of Arts exhibition in London (now the Royal Society of Arts, of which he was one of the earliest members); and from 1769 he submitted works to the Royal Academy's annual exhibitions. The exhibitions helped him enhance his reputation, and he was invited to become a founding member of the Royal Academy in 1769. His relationship with the Academy was not an easy one and he stopped exhibiting his paintings in 1773. Despite Gainsborough's increasing popularity and success in painting portraits for fashionable society, he expressed frustration during his Bath period at the demands of such work and that it prevented him from pursuing his preferred artistic interests. In a letter to a friend in the 1760s Gainsborough wrote: "I'm sick of Portraits and wish very much to take my Viol da Gamba and walk off to some sweet Village where I can paint Landskips [landscapes] and enjoy the fag End of Life in quietness and ease". Of the men he had to deal with as patrons and admirers, and their pretensions, he wrote:... damn Gentlemen, there is not such a set of Enemies to a real artist in the world as they are, if not kept at a proper distance. They think ... that they reward your merit by their Company & notice; but I ... know that they have but one part worth looking at, and that is their Purse; their Hearts are seldom near enough the right place to get a sight of it.Gainsborough was so keen a viol da gamba player that he had at this stage five of the instruments, three made by Henry Jaye and two by Barak Norman. London In 1774, Gainsborough and his family moved to London to live in Schomberg House, Pall Mall. A commemorative blue plaque was put on the house in 1951. In 1777, he again began to exhibit his paintings at the Royal Academy, including portraits of contemporary celebrities, such as the Duke and Duchess of Cumberland. Exhibitions of his work continued for the next six years. About this time, Gainsborough began experimenting with printmaking using the then-novel techniques of aquatint and soft-ground etching. During the 1770s and 1780s Gainsborough developed a type of portrait in which he integrated the sitter into the landscape. An example of this is his portrait of Frances Browne, Mrs John Douglas (1746–1811) which can be seen at Waddesdon Manor. The sitter has withdrawn to a secluded and overgrown corner of a garden to read a letter, her pose recalling the traditional representation of Melancholy. Gainsborough emphasised the relationship between Mrs Douglas and her environment by painting the clouds behind her and the drapery billowing across her lap with similar silvery violet tones and fluid brushstrokes. This portrait was included in his first private exhibition at Schomberg House in 1784. In 1776, Gainsborough painted a portrait of Johann Christian Bach, the youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach's former teacher Padre Martini of Bologna, Italy, was assembling a collection of portraits of musicians, and Bach asked Gainsborough to paint his portrait as part of this collection. The portrait now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery in London. In 1780, he painted the portraits of King George III and Queen Charlotte and afterwards received other royal commissions. In February 1780, his daughter Molly was married to his musician friend Johann Christian Fischer, to Gainsborough's dismay, as he realized that Fischer was forming an attachment to Molly while carrying on flirtation with Peggy. The marriage between Molly and Fischer only lasted 8 months due to their discord and Fischer's deceit. In 1784, Principal Painter in Ordinary Allan Ramsay died and the King was obliged to give the job to Gainsborough's rival and Academy president, Joshua Reynolds. Gainsborough remained the Royal Family's favorite painter, however. In his later years, Gainsborough often painted landscapes. With Richard Wilson, he was one of the originators of the eighteenth-century British landscape school; though simultaneously, in conjunction with Reynolds, he was the dominant British portraitist of the second half of the 18th century. William Jackson in his contemporary essays said of him "to his intimate friends he was sincere and honest and that his heart was always alive to every feeling of honour and generosity". Gainsborough did not particularly enjoy reading but letters written to his friends were penned in such an exceptional conversational manner that the style could not be equalled. As a letter writer Henry Bate-Dudley said of him "a selection of his letters would offer the world as much originality and beauty as is ever traced in his paintings". In the 1780s, Gainsborough used a device he called a "Showbox" to compose landscapes and display them backlit on glass. The original box is on display in the Victoria & Albert Museum with a reproduction transparency. He died of cancer on 2 August 1788 at the age of 61. According to his daughter Peggy, his last words were "van Dyck". He is interred in the churchyard St. Anne's Church, Kew, Surrey, (located on Kew Green). It was his express wish to be buried near his friend Joshua Kirby. Later his wife and nephew Gainsborough Dupont were interred with him. Coincidentally Johan Zoffany and Franz Bauer are also buried in the graveyard. As of 2011, an appeal is underway to pay the costs of restoration of his tomb. A street in Kew, Gainsborough Road, is named after him. Technique The art historian Michael Rosenthal described Gainsborough as "one of the most technically proficient and, at the same time, most experimental artists of his time". He was noted for the speed with which he applied paint, and he worked more from observations of nature (and of human nature) than from application of formal academic rules. The poetic sensibility of his paintings caused Constable to say, "On looking at them, we find tears in our eyes and know not what brings them." Gainsborough's enthusiasm for landscapes is shown in the way he merged figures of the portraits with the scenes behind them. His landscapes were often painted at night by candlelight, using a tabletop arrangement of stones, pieces of mirrors, broccoli, and the like as a model. His later work was characterised by a light palette and easy, economical strokes. Gainsborough's only known assistant was his nephew, Gainsborough Dupont. In the last year of his life he collaborated with John Hoppner in painting a full-length portrait of Lady Charlotte Talbot. Reputation His more famous works, The Blue Boy; Mr and Mrs Andrews; Portrait of Mrs. Graham; Mary and Margaret: The Painter's Daughters; William Hallett and His Wife Elizabeth, nee Stephen, known as The Morning Walk; and Cottage Girl with Dog and Pitcher, display the unique individuality of his subjects. Joshua Reynolds considered Girl with Pigs "the best picture he (Gainsborough) ever painted or perhaps ever will". Gainsborough's works became popular with collectors from the 1850s on, after Lionel de Rothschild began buying his portraits. The rapid rise in the value of pictures by Gainsborough and also by Reynolds in the mid 19th century was partly because the Rothschild family, including Ferdinand de Rothschild began collecting them. In 2011, Gainsborough's portrait of Miss Read (Mrs Frances Villebois) was sold by Michael Pearson, 4th Viscount Cowdray, for a record price of £6.54M, at Christie’s in London. She was a matrilineal descendant of Cecily Neville, Duchess of York. Popular culture Cecil Beaton's play Gainsborough's Girls is set in London in 1774 when the painter moved his family to the capital. Previously unpublished, it received its first performance in Sudbury, Suffolk in 2019, followed by a short run at the Tower Theatre, London. Simon Edge's comic novel A Right Royal Face-Off focuses on Gainsborough's relationship with King George III and his family, and his rivalry with Joshua Reynolds. Gainsborough's portrait The Morning Walk (Portrait of Mr and Mrs William Hallett) is clearly visible over actor Daniel Craig's shoulder during a scene in the 2012 James Bond film Skyfall set in the National Gallery. Gallery See also Gainsborough's House Fancy picture Rococo Humphrey Gainsborough Holywells Park, Ipswich References Further reading Thomas Gainsborough, William T. Whitley, (John Murray, 1915) Gainsborough, Ellis Waterhouse, (Edward Hulton, 1958) – the standard catalogue of the portraits etc. The Letters of Thomas Gainborough, ed. Mary Woodall, (Cupid Press, 1963) The Drawings of Thomas Gainsborough, John Hayes, (Two volumes, Zwemmer, 1970) – the standard catalogue of the drawings Gainsborough as Printmaker, John Hayes, (Zwemmer, 1971) – the standard catalogue of the prints Gainsborough, John Hayes, (Phaidon, 1975) Gainsborough & Reynolds in the British Museum, ed. Timothy Clifford, Antony Grffiths and Martin Royalton-Kisch, (BMP, 1978) Thomas Gainborough, John Hayes, (Tate Gallery, 1981) The Landscape Paintings of Thomas Gainsborough, John Hayes (Two volumes, Sotheby's, 1982) – the standard catalogue on the landscape paintings Thomas Gainsborough: His Life and Art, Jack Lindsay, (Harper Collins, 1982) A Nest of Nightingales: Thomas Gainsborough, The Linley Sisters. Paintings and their Context II, ed. Giles Waterfield, (Dulwich PIcture Gallery, 1988) The Paintings of Thomas Gainborough, Malcolm Cormack, (Cambridge University Press, 1991) Gainsborough & Reynolds: Contrasts in Royal Patronage, exhibition catalogue, (Queen's Gallery, 1994) Gainsborough's Vision, Amal Asfour and Paul Williamson (Liverpool University Press, 1999) The Art of Thomas Gainborough: A little business for the Eye, Michael Rosenthal, (Yale University Press, 1999) The Letters of Thomas Gainsborough, ed. John Hayes (Yale University Press, 2001) Gainsborough, eds. Michael Rosenthal and Martin Myrone, (Tate, 2002) Gainsborough in Bath, Susan Sloman, (Yale University Press, 2002) Gainsborough, William Vaughan, (World of Art, Thames & Hudson, 2002) – the most accessible introduction Sensation & Sensibility: Viewing Gainsborough's Cottage Door, ed. Ann Bermingham (Yale University Press, 2005) Thomas Gainsborough's First Self-portrait, Stephen Conrad, in The British Art Journal, Vol. XII, No. 1, Summer 2011, pp. 52–59 Thomas Gainsborough and the Modern Woman, ed. Benedict Leca, (Giles, 2011) Gainsborough's Landscapes: Themes and Variations, Susan Sloman, (Philip Wilson, 2012) Gainsborough: A Portrait, James Hamilton, (W&N, 13 July 2017) External links Gainsborough at the Government Art Collection Thomas Gainsborough's works of art at Waddesdon Manor Ellis Waterhouse archive John Hayes archive; research papers of John Hayes, British art historian and a leading authority on Thomas Gainsborough 1727 births 1788 deaths People from Sudbury, Suffolk Burials at St. Anne's Church, Kew 18th-century English painters English male painters Royal Academicians English portrait painters Landscape artists Rococo painters Deaths from cancer in England People educated at Sudbury Grammar School Waddesdon Manor Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts

was a Japanese samurai and daimyo (feudal lord) of the late Sengoku period regarded as the second "Great Unifier" of Japan. Hideyoshi rose from a peasant background as a retainer of the prominent lord Oda Nobunaga to become one of the most powerful men in Japan. Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga after the Honnō-ji Incident in 1582 and continued Nobunaga's campaign to unite Japan that led to the closing of the Sengoku period. Hideyoshi became the de facto leader of Japan and acquired the prestigious positions of Chancellor of the Realm and Imperial Regent by the mid-1580s. Hideyoshi launched the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592 to initial success, but eventual military stalemate damaged his prestige before his death in 1598. Hideyoshi's young son and successor Toyotomi Hideyori was displaced by Tokugawa Ieyasu at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 which would lead to the founding of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Hideyoshi's rule covers most of the Azuchi–Momoyama period of Japan, partially named after his castle, Momoyama Castle. Hideyoshi left an influential and lasting legacy in Japan, including Osaka Castle, the Tokugawa class system, the restriction on the possession of weapons to the samurai, and the construction and restoration of many temples, some of which are still visible in Kyoto. Early life (1537–1558) Very little is known for certain about Toyotomi Hideyoshi before 1570, when he begins to appear in surviving documents and letters. His autobiography starts in 1577, but in it, Hideyoshi spoke very little about his past. According to tradition, Hideyoshi was born on 17 March 1538 in Nakamura, Owari Province (present-day Nakamura Ward, Nagoya), in the middle of the chaotic Sengoku period under the collapsed Ashikaga Shogunate. Hideyoshi had no traceable samurai lineage, and his father Kinoshita Yaemon was an ashigaru – a peasant employed by the samurai as a foot soldier. Hideyoshi had no surname, and his childhood given name was ("Bounty of the Sun") although variations exist. Yaemon died in 1543 when Hideyoshi was seven years old. Many legends describe Hideyoshi being sent to study at a temple as a young man, but he rejected temple life and went in search of adventure. Under the name , he first joined the Imagawa clan as a servant to a local ruler named . Hideyoshi traveled all the way to the lands of Imagawa Yoshimoto, the daimyo based in Suruga Province, and served there for a time, only to abscond with a sum of money entrusted to him by Matsushita Yukitsuna. Service under Nobunaga (1558–1582) In 1558, Hideyoshi became an ashigaru for the powerful Oda clan, the rulers of his home province of Owari, now headed by the ambitious Oda Nobunaga. Hideyoshi soon became one of Nobunaga's sandal-bearers, a position of relatively high status, and was present at the Battle of Okehazama in 1560 when Nobunaga defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto to become one of the most powerful warlords in the Sengoku period. According to his biographers, Hideyoshi supervised the repair of Kiyosu Castle, a claim described as "apocryphal", and managed the kitchen. In 1561, Hideyoshi married One, the adopted daughter of Asano Nagakatsu, a descendant of Minamoto no Yorimitsu. Hideyoshi carried out repairs on Sunomata Castle with his younger half-brother, Hashiba Koichirō, along with Hachisuka Masakatsu, and Maeno Nagayasu. Hideyoshi's efforts were well-received because Sunomata was in enemy territory, and according to legend Hideyoshi constructed a fort in Sunomata overnight and discovered a secret route into Mount Inaba, after which much of the local garrison surrendered. In 1564, Hideyoshi was very successful as a negotiator. He managed to convince, mostly with liberal bribes, a number of Mino warlords to desert the Saitō clan. Hideyoshi approached many Saitō clan samurai and convinced them to submit to Nobunaga, including the Saitō clan's strategist, Takenaka Shigeharu. Nobunaga's easy victory at the siege of Inabayama Castle in 1567 was largely due to Hideyoshi's efforts, and despite his peasant origins, in 1568 Hideyoshi became one of Nobunaga's most distinguished generals, eventually taking the name . The new surname included two characters, one each from Oda's right-hand men, , and , . In 1570, Hideyoshi protected Nobunaga's retreat from Azai-Asakura forces at Kanegasaki. Hideyoshi's rear-guard defense of his lord's escape is one of his fabled accomplishments under Nobunaga. Later in June 1570, at the Battle of Anegawa, Hideyoshi was assigned to lead Oda troops into open battle for the first time in which Oda Nobunaga allied with Tokugawa Ieyasu to lay siege to two fortresses of the Azai and Asakura clans. In 1573, after victorious campaigns against the Azai and Asakura, Nobunaga appointed Hideyoshi daimyo of three districts in the northern part of Ōmi Province. Initially, Hideyoshi based at the former Azai headquarters at Odani Castle but moved to Kunitomo town and renamed it "Nagahama" in tribute to Nobunaga. Hideyoshi later moved to the port at Imahama on Lake Biwa, where he began work on Imahama Castle and took control of the nearby Kunitomo firearms factory that had been established some years previously by the Azai and Asakura. Under Hideyoshi's administration, the factory's output of firearms increased dramatically. Later, Hideyoshi participated in the 1573 siege of Nagashima. In 1575, Hideyoshi fought in the Battle of Nagashino against the Takeda clan. In 1576, Nobunaga sent Hideyoshi to Himeji Castle to conquer the Chūgoku region from the Mori clan. Hideyoshi then fought in the Battle of Tedorigawa (1577), the siege of Miki (1578), the siege of Itami (1579), the siege of Tottori (1581) and the siege of Takamatsu (1582). Death of Nobunaga On June 21, 1582, Oda Nobunaga and his eldest son Nobutada were killed in the Honnō-ji incident by the forces of the traitorous Akechi Mitsuhide. Their assassination in Honnō-ji temple in Kyoto ended Nobunaga's quest to consolidate centralised power in Japan under his authority. Hideyoshi, seeking vengeance for the death of his lord, made peace with the Mōri clan and thirteen days later met Mitsuhide and defeated him at the Battle of Yamazaki, avenging his lord (Nobunaga) and taking Nobunaga's authority and power for himself. Rise to Power (1582–1585) Construction of Osaka Castle In 1582, Hideyoshi began construction of Osaka Castle. Built on the site of the temple Ishiyama Hongan-ji, who destroyed by Nobunaga, the castle would become the last stronghold of the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death. Conflict with Katsuie In 1583 Hideyoshi was in a very strong position. He summoned the powerful daimyos to Kiyosu Castle so that they could determine Nobunaga's heir. Oda Nobukatsu and Oda Nobutaka quarreled, causing Hideyoshi to instead choose Nobunaga's grandson Samboshi, whose other name was Hidenobu. Having won the support of the other two Oda clan elders, Niwa Nagahide and Ikeda Tsuneoki, Hideyoshi established Hidenobu's position, as well as his own influence in the Oda clan. He distributed Nobunaga's provinces among the generals and formed a council of four generals to help him govern. Tension quickly escalated between Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Shibata Katsuie, and at the Battle of Shizugatake in the following year, Hideyoshi destroyed Katsuie's forces. Hideyoshi had thus consolidated his own power, dealt with most of the Oda clan, and controlled 30 provinces. The famous kirishitan daimyo and samurai Dom Justo Takayama fought on his side at this epic battle. Conflict with Ieyasu In 1584, Nobunaga's other son, Oda Nobukatsu, remained hostile to Hideyoshi. Nobukatsu allied himself with Tokugawa Ieyasu, and the two sides fought at the inconclusive Battle of Komaki and Nagakute. It ultimately resulted in a stalemate, although Hideyoshi's forces were delivered a heavy blow. Ieyasu and Hideyoshi never actually fought against each other themselves but the former managed to check the advance of the latter's allies. Finally, Hideyoshi made peace with Nobukatsu, ending the pretext for war between the Tokugawa and Hashiba clans. Hideyoshi sent Tokugawa Ieyasu his younger sister Asahi no kata and mother Ōmandokoro as hostages. Toyotomi clan Like Oda Nobunaga before him, Hideyoshi never achieved the title of shōgun. Instead, he arranged to have himself adopted by Konoe Sakihisa, one of the noblest men belonging to the Fujiwara clan and secured a succession of high court titles Chancellor (Daijō-daijin), including, in 1585, the prestigious position of Imperial Regent (kampaku). Also in 1585, Hideyoshi was formally given the new clan name Toyotomi (instead of Fujiwara) by the Imperial Court. He built a lavish palace, the Jurakudai, in 1587, and entertained the reigning Emperor, Emperor Go-Yōzei, the following year. Unification of Japan (1585–1592) Negoro-ji campaign Afterwards in 1585, Hideyoshi launched the siege of Negoro-ji and subjugated Kii Province. The Negoro-gumi, the warrior monks of Negoro-ji, were quite skilled in the use of firearms, and were devout followers of Shingi, a branch of the Shingon sect of Buddhism. They were allied with the Ikkō-ikki, and with Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of Toyotomi's chief rivals. In particular, they attracted Hideyoshi's ire for their support of Tokugawa in the Battle of Komaki and Nagakute the previous year. After attacking a number of other warrior monk outposts in the area, Hideyoshi's force turned to the monastery of Negoro-ji, attacking it from two sides. By this time, many of the Negoro-gumi had already fled to Ōta Castle. Later, Hideyoshi besieged Ōta Castle. The complex was set aflame, beginning with the residences of the priests, and Hideyoshi's samurai cut down monks as they escaped the blazing buildings. Shikoku Campaign In the 1585 invasion of Shikoku, Toyotomi forces seized and conquered Shikoku island, the smallest of Japan's four main islands, from Chōsokabe Motochika. Toyotomi's forces arrived 113,000 strong under Toyotomi Hidenaga, Toyotomi Hidetsugu, Ukita Hideie and the Mōri clan's "Two Rivers", Kobayakawa Takakage and Kikkawa Motoharu. Opposing them were 40,000 men of Chōsokabe's. Despite the overwhelming size of Hideyoshi's army, and the suggestions of his advisors, Motochika chose to fight to defend his territories. The battles culminated in the siege of Ichinomiya Castle, which lasted for 26 days. Chōsokabe made a half-hearted attempt to relieve his castle from the siege, but surrendered in the end. He was allowed to keep Tosa Province, while the rest of Shikoku was divided among Hideyoshi's generals. Toyama campaign During the late summer of August 1585, Hideyoshi launched an attack on Etchū Province. Toyotomi Hideyoshi carried out the siege of Toyama Castle. However, the Toyama Castle garrison was led by Sassa Narimasa, one of his former allies many years back. Hideyoshi led his army of around 100,000 soldiers against the 20,000 men of the Sassa Narimasa forces; in the end however, Narimasa's defense was shattered, opening the way for Toyotomi's supremacy over Etchū Province. Kyushu Campaign In 1586 Toyotomi Hideyoshi conquered Kyūshū, wresting control from the Shimazu clan. Toyotomi Hidenaga, half-brother to Hideyoshi, landed to the south of Bungo on Kyūshū's eastern coast. Meanwhile, Hideyoshi took his own forces down a more westerly route, in Chikuzen Province. Later that year, with a total of 200,000 soldiers against the 30,000 men of the Shimazu forces, the two brothers would meet up in the Shimazu home province of Satsuma. They besieged Kagoshima castle, the Shimazu clan's home. The Shimazu surrendered, leaving Hideyoshi to return his attention to the Hōjō clan of Kantō, the last major clan to oppose him. In 1587, Hideyoshi banished Christian missionaries from Kyūshū, to exert greater control over the Kirishitan daimyos. However, since he did much trade with Europeans, individual Christians were overlooked unofficially. In 1588, Hideyoshi forbade ordinary peasants from owning weapons and started a sword hunt to confiscate arms. The swords were melted down to create a statue of the Buddha. This measure effectively stopped peasant revolts, and ensured greater stability at the expense of freedom of the individual daimyos. Odawara campaign In 1590, Hideyoshi carried out the siege of Odawara against the Hōjō clan in the Kantō region. With 220,000 men, the massive army of Toyotomi Hideyoshi surrounded Odawara Castle and its 82,000-strong Hōjō garrison, in what has been called "the most unconventional siege lines in samurai history". The samurai were entertained by everything from concubines, prostitutes, and musicians to acrobats, fire-eaters, and jugglers. The defenders slept on the ramparts with their arquebuses and armor; despite their smaller numbers, they discouraged Hideyoshi from attacking. After three months the Hōjō surrendered, losing the will to fight after the sudden appearance of Ishigakiyama Ichiya Castle. This eliminated the last resistance to Hideyoshi's authority. His victory signified the end of the Sengoku period. During the siege, Hideyoshi offered Ieyasu the eight Hōjō-ruled provinces in the Kantō region, in exchange for the submission of Ieyasu's five provinces. Ieyasu accepted this proposal. Death of Sen no Rikyū In February 1591, Hideyoshi ordered Sen no Rikyū to commit suicide, likely in one of his angry outbursts. Rikyū had been a trusted retainer and master of the tea ceremony under both Hideyoshi and Nobunaga. Under Hideyoshi's patronage, Rikyū made significant changes to the aesthetics of the tea ceremony that had a lasting influence over many aspects of Japanese culture. Even after Rikyū's death, Hideyoshi is said to have built his many construction projects based upon aesthetics promoted by Rikyū, perhaps suggesting that he regretted his actions. Following Rikyū's death, Hideyoshi turned his attention from tea ceremony to Noh, which he had been studying since becoming Imperial Regent. During his brief stay in Nagoya Castle in what is today Saga Prefecture, on Kyūshū, Hideyoshi memorised the shite (lead role) parts of ten Noh plays, which he then performed, forcing various daimyos to accompany him onstage as the waki (secondary, accompanying role). He even performed before the emperor. Kunohe rebellion The Kunohe rebellion was an insurrection in the Sengoku period of Japan, that occurred in Mutsu Province from 13 March to 4 September 1591. Kunohe Masazane, a claimant to daimyo of the Nanbu clan, launched a rebellion against his rival Nanbu Nobunao which spread across Mutsu Province. Nobunao was backed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who along with Tokugawa Ieyasu sent a large army into the Tōhoku region in mid-1591 which quickly defeated the rebels. Hideyoshi's army arrived at Kunohe Castle in early September. Masazane was outnumbered and surrendered Kunohe Castle but he and the castle defenders were executed. The Kunohe rebellion was the final battle in Toyotomi Hideyoshi's campaigns during the Sengoku period and completed the unification of Japan. Korean campaign (1592–1598) Taikō The future stability of the Toyotomi dynasty after Hideyoshi's eventual death was put in doubt with the death of his son Tsurumatsu in September 1591. The three-year-old was his only child. When his half-brother Hidenaga died shortly after, Hideyoshi named his nephew Hidetsugu his heir, adopting him in January 1592. Hideyoshi resigned as kampaku to take the title of taikō (retired regent). Hidetsugu succeeded him as kampaku. With Hideyoshi's health beginning to falter, but still yearning for some accomplishment to solidify his legacy, he adopted Oda Nobunaga's dream of a Japanese conquest of China and launched the conquest of the Ming dynasty by way of Korea (at the time known as Koryu or Joseon). Hideyoshi had been communicating with the Koreans since 1587 requesting unmolested passage into China. As an ally of Ming China, the Joseon government of the time at first refused talks entirely, and in April and July 1591 also refused demands that Japanese troops be allowed to march through Korea. The government of Joseon was concerned that allowing Japanese troops to march through Korea (Joseon) would mean that masses of Ming Chinese troops would battle Hideyoshi's troops on Korean soil before they could reach China, putting Korean security at risk. In August 1591, Hideyoshi ordered preparations for an invasion of Korea to begin. First campaign against Korea In the first campaign, Hideyoshi appointed Ukita Hideie as field marshal, and had him go to the Korean peninsula in April 1592. Konishi Yukinaga occupied Seoul, which was the capital of the Joseon dynasty of Korea, on June 19. After Seoul fell easily, Japanese commanders held a war council in June in Seoul and determined targets of subjugation called Hachidokuniwari (literally, dividing the country into eight routes). Each targeted province was attacked by one of the army's eight divisions: Pyeongan by the First Division led by Konishi Yukinaga. Hamgyong by the Second Division led by Katō Kiyomasa. Hwanghae by the Third Division led by Kuroda Nagamasa. Gangwon by the Fourth Division led by Mōri Katsunaga. Chungcheong by the Fifth Division led by Fukushima Masanori. Jeolla by the Sixth Division led by Kobayakawa Takakage. Gyeongsang by the Seventh Division led by Mōri Terumoto. Gyeonggi by the Eighth Division led by Ukita Hideie. In only four months, Hideyoshi's forces had a route into Manchuria and occupied much of Korea. The Korean king Seonjo of Joseon escaped to Uiju and requested military intervention from China. In 1593, the Wanli Emperor of Ming China sent an army under general Li Rusong to block the planned Japanese invasion of China and recapture the Korean peninsula. The Ming army of 43,000 soldiers headed by general Li Ru-song proceeded to attack Pyongyang. On January 7, 1593, the Ming relief forces under Li recaptured Pyongyang and surrounded Seoul, but Kobayakawa Takakage, Ukita Hideie, Tachibana Muneshige and Kikkawa Hiroie won the Battle of Byeokjegwan in the suburbs of Seoul. At the end of the first campaign, Japan's entire navy was destroyed by Admiral Yi Sun-sin of Korea whose base was located in a part of Korea the Japanese could not control. This, in effect, put an end to Japan's dream of conquering China as the Koreans simply destroyed Japan's ability to resupply their troops who were bogged down in Seoul. Succession dispute The birth of Hideyoshi's second son in 1593, Hideyori, created a potential succession problem. To avoid it, Hideyoshi exiled his nephew and heir Hidetsugu to Mount Kōya and then ordered him to commit suicide in August 1595. Hidetsugu's family members who did not follow his example were then murdered in Kyoto, including 31 women and several children. Twenty-six martyrs of Japan In January 1597, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had twenty-six Christians arrested as an example to Japanese who wanted to convert to Christianity. They are known as the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan. They included five European Franciscan missionaries, one Mexican Franciscan missionary, three Japanese Jesuits and seventeen Japanese laymen including three young boys. They were tortured, mutilated, and paraded through towns across Japan. On February 5, they were executed in Nagasaki by public crucifixion. Second campaign against Korea After several years of negotiations (broken off because envoys of both sides falsely reported to their masters that the opposition had surrendered), Hideyoshi appointed Kobayakawa Hideaki to lead a renewed invasion of Korea, but their efforts on the peninsula met with less success than the first invasion. Japanese troops remained pinned down in Gyeongsang Province. In June 1598, the Japanese forces turned back several Chinese offensives in Suncheon and Sacheon, but they were unable to make further progress as the Ming army prepared for a final assault. While Hideyoshi's battle at Sacheon was a major Japanese victory, all three parties to the war were exhausted. He told his commander in Korea, "Don't let my soldiers become spirits in a foreign land.". Death Toyotomi Hideyoshi died on September 18, 1598. He was delirious, with Sansom asserting that he was babbling of the distribution of fiefs. His last words, delivered to his closest daimyos and generals, were "I depend upon you for everything. I have no other thoughts to leave behind. It is sad to part from you." His death was kept secret by the Council of Five Elders to preserve morale, and they ordered the Japanese forces in Korea to withdraw back to Japan. Because of his failure to capture Korea, Hideyoshi's forces were unable to invade China. Rather than strengthen his position, the military expeditions left his clan's coffers and fighting strength depleted, his vassals at odds over responsibility for the failure, and the clans that were loyal to the Toyotomi name weakened. The Tokugawa government later not only prohibited any further military expeditions to the Asian mainland but closed Japan to nearly all foreigners during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate. It was not until the late 19th century that Japan again fought a war against China through Korea, using much the same route that Hideyoshi's invasion force had used. After his death, the other members of the Council of Five Elders were unable to keep the ambitions of Tokugawa Ieyasu in check. Two of Hideyoshi's top generals, Katō Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori, had fought bravely during the war but returned to find the Toyotomi clan castellan Ishida Mitsunari in power. He held the generals in contempt, and they sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu. Hideyoshi's underage son and designated successor Hideyori lost the power his father once held, and Tokugawa Ieyasu was declared shōgun following the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Family Father: Kinoshita Yaemon (d. 1543) Adopted father: Konoe Sakihisa Mother: Ōmandokoro (1513–1592) Siblings: Toyotomi Hidenaga Tomo, married Soeda Jinbae Asahi no kata Wives and concubines Wife Nene, or One, later Kōdai-in Minami-dono, daughter of Yamana Toyokuni Yodo-dono, or Chacha, later Daikōin, daughter of Azai Nagamasa Minami no Tsubone, daughter of Yamana Toyokuni Matsu no Maru-dono or Kyōgoku Tatsuko, daughter of Kyōgoku Takayoshi Kaga-dono or Maahime, daughter of Maeda Toshiie Kaihime, daughter of Narita Ujinaga Sonnomaru-dono, adopted daughter of Gamō Ujisato, daughter of Oda Nobunaga Kusu no Tsubone, later Hokoin, daughter of Azai Nagamasa Sanjo-dono or Tora, daughter of Gamō Katahide Himeji-dono, daughter of Oda Nobukane Hirozawa no Tsubone, daughter of Kunimitsu Kyosho Ōshima or Shimako, later Gekkein, daughter of Ashikaga Yorizumi Anrunkin or Otane no Kata Ofuku, later Enyu-in, daughter of Miura Noto no Kami and mother of Ukita Hideie Children Hashiba Hidekatsu (Ishimatsumaru) (1570–1576) by Minami-dono daughter (name unknown) Toyotomi Tsurumatsu (1589–1591) by Yodo-dono Toyotomi Hideyori by Yodo-dono Adopted sons Hashiba Hidekatsu (Tsugaru), fourth son of Oda Nobunaga Oda Nobutaka, later Toyotomi Takahiro (1576–1602), seventh son of Oda Nobunaga Oda Nobuyoshi, later Toyotomi Musashi (1573–1615), eighth son of Oda Nobunaga Oda Nobuyoshi (d. 1609), tenth son of Oda Nobunaga Ukita Hideie, son of Ukita Naoie Toyotomi Hidetsugu, first son of Hideyoshi's sister Tomo with Miyoshi Kazumichi Toyotomi Hidekatsu (1569–1592), second son of Hideyoshi's sister Tomo with Miyoshi Kazumichi Toyotomi Hideyasu (1579–1595), third son of Hideyoshi's sister Tomo with Miyoshi Kazumichi Yūki Hideyasu, Tokugawa Ieyasu's second son Ikeda Nagayoshi, third son of Ikeda Nobuteru Kobayakawa Hideaki, Hideyoshi's nephew from his wife Nenes family Prince Hachijō Toshihito, sixth son of Prince Masahito Adopted daughters Gohime (1574–1634), daughter of Maeda Toshiie, married to Ukita Hideie O-hime (1585–1591), daughter of Oda Nobukatsu, married to Tokugawa Hidetada Oeyo, daughter of Azai Nagamasa, married to Saji Kazunari, Toyotomi Hidekatsu, Tokugawa Hidetada Konoe Sakiko, daughter of Konoe Sakihisa, married to Emperor Go-Yōzei Chikurin-in, daughter of Ōtani Yoshitsugu. She was also known as Akihime and Riyohime. She was married to Sanada Yukimura. They had two sons, Sanada Daisuke and Sanada Daihachi, and some daughters Toyotomi Sadako (1592–1658), daughter of Toyotomi Hidekatsu with Oeyo, later became the adopted daughter of Tokugawa Hidetada and married to Kujō Yukiie Daizen-in, daughter of Toyotomi Hidenaga, married to Mōri Hidemoto Kikuhime, daughter of Toyotomi Hidenaga, married to Toyotomi Hideyasu Maeda Kikuhime (1578–1584), daughter of Maeda Toshiie Grandchildren Toyotomi Kunimatsu (1609–1645) Cultural legacy Toyotomi Hideyoshi changed Japanese society in many ways. These include the imposition of a rigid class structure, restrictions on travel, and surveys of land and production. Class reforms affected commoners and warriors. During the Sengoku period, it had become common for peasants to become warriors, or for samurai to farm due to the constant uncertainty caused by the lack of centralised government and always tentative peace. Upon taking control, Hideyoshi decreed that all peasants be disarmed completely. Conversely, he required samurai to leave the land and take up residence in the castle towns. This solidified the social class system for the next 300 years. Furthermore, he ordered comprehensive surveys and a complete census of Japan. Once this was done and all citizens were registered, he required all Japanese to stay in their respective han (fiefs) unless they obtained official permission to go elsewhere. This ensured order in a period when bandits still roamed the countryside and peace was still new. The land surveys formed the basis for systematic taxation. In 1590, Hideyoshi completed construction of the Osaka Castle, the largest and most formidable in all Japan, to guard the western approaches to Kyoto. In that same year, Hideyoshi banned "unfree labour" or slavery in Japan, but forms of contract and indentured labour persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labour. Hideyoshi also influenced the material culture of Japan. He lavished time and money on the Japanese tea ceremony, collecting implements, sponsoring lavish social events, and patronizing acclaimed masters. As interest in the tea ceremony rose among the ruling class, so too did the demand for fine ceramic implements, and during the course of the Korean campaigns, not only were large quantities of prized ceramic ware confiscated, many Korean artisans were forcibly relocated to Japan. Inspired by the dazzling Golden Pavilion in Kyoto, he had the Golden Tea Room constructed, which was covered with gold leaf and lined inside with red gossamer. Using this mobile innovation, he was able to practice the tea ceremony wherever he went, powerfully projecting his unrivalled power and status upon his arrival. Politically, he set up a governmental system that balanced out the most powerful Japanese warlords (or daimyos). A council was created to include the most influential lords. At the same time, a regent was designated to be in command. Just before his death, Hideyoshi hoped to set up a system stable enough to survive until his son grew old enough to become the next leader. A was formed, consisting of the five most powerful daimyos. Following the death of Maeda Toshiie, however, Tokugawa Ieyasu began to secure alliances, including political marriages (which had been forbidden by Hideyoshi). Eventually, the pro-Toyotomi forces fought against the Tokugawa in the Battle of Sekigahara. Ieyasu won and received the title of Seii-Tai Shōgun two years later. Hideyoshi is commemorated at several Toyokuni Shrines scattered over Japan. Ieyasu left in place the majority of Hideyoshi's decrees and built his shogunate upon them. This ensured that Hideyoshi's cultural legacy remained. In a letter to his wife, Hideyoshi wrote: Names Because of his low birth with no family name, to the eventual achievement of Imperial Regent, the highest title of imperial nobility, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had quite a few names throughout his life. At birth, he was given the name . At genpuku, he took the name . Later, he was given the surname Hashiba and the honorary court office Chikuzen no Kami; as a result, he was styled . His surname remained Hashiba even as he was granted the new Uji or sei ( or , clan name) Toyotomi by the Emperor. The Toyotomi Uji was simultaneously granted to a number of Hideyoshi's chosen allies, who adopted the new Uji "" (Toyotomi no ason, courtier of Toyotomi). His full name was in formal documents. The Catholic sources of the time referred to him as (from and the honorific -dono) and "emperor " (from taikō, a retired kampaku (see Sesshō and Kampaku), and the honorific -sama). Toyotomi Hideyoshi had been given the nickname Kozaru, meaning "little monkey", from his lord Oda Nobunaga, because his facial features and skinny form resembled that of a monkey. In popular culture Literature Hideyoshi is depicted by Eiji Yoshikawa in the novel series Taiko Ki. In The 39 Clues series, Hideyoshi is a member of the Tomas branch of the Cahill family, the son of Thomas Cahill. Movies Hideyoshi appears in the film Taikoki (1922). Hideyoshi appeared in Castle of Owls (1963) with Ryutaro Otomo as an Iga ninja hired to assassinate Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi appeared in the famous Shinobi No-Mono series (1962-1967) with Raizo Ichikawa. Hideyoshi also appeared in the movie Sanada Yukimura no Bōryaku (1979). His role is played by Ichiro Ogura. Hideyoshi is played by Asao Koike in Shogun's Ninja (1980). Hideyoshi sends Shiranui Shōgen to an Iga ninja clan in search of the Momochi clan's hidden gold. In the fantasy film Goemon (2009), Hideyoshi (played by Eiji Okuda) is depicted as an evil warlord. The television movie Taikoki (1987) is a biography of Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi appears in the television movie Oda Nobunaga (1992). In the 1949 Mexican hagiographic film Philip of Jesus, Luis Aceves Castañeda plays a character corresponding to Hideyoshi but named "Emperor Iroyoshi Taikosama". TV series Toyotomi Hideyoshi tenka wo toru! (1995). In Dokugan-ryu Masamune (1987), Hideyoshi is portrayed by Shintaro Katsu. In the KBS1 television series Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin (2004–2005), Hideyoshi is portrayed by Lee Hyo-jung. Video games In Onimusha, an action horror video game series by Capcom, Hideyoshi is one of the main antagonists. Similar to his real life counterpart, he makes small appearances during the first three games as a servant of Oda Nobunaga before becoming the main antagonist and ruler of Japan in the fourth game. In the video game Nioh, Toyotomi Hideyoshi does not appear, but is mentioned by other characters and portrayed as a tyrant who committed a number of atrocities during his rule. Nioh 2 later reveals that Toyotomi Hideyoshi is an identity shared by two individuals, the player character Hide and an ambitious merchant-warrior Kinoshita Tōkichirō, and that Tōkichirō's crimes when he usurped the identity of Hideyoshi for himself was in fact committed by the antagonist Kashin Koji possessing his body. In the Samurai Warriors series, Hideyoshi is a playable character whose weapon of choice is the sansetsukon and whose story spanned from his days serving Oda Nobunaga to his eventual conquest of Odawara. In Samurai Warriors 5, Hideyoshi wields the naginata as his main weapon, and he has more stages about his campaign against the Mōri clan while still serving the Oda clan. In the Samurai Warriors: Katana, Hideyoshi frequently appears to give the player advice. Manga Hyouge Mono (, lit. "Jocular Fellow") is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Yamada. It was adapted into an anime series in 2011, and includes a fictional depiction of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's life. In the Sengoku Basara game series and anime, he is described as a brutally strong man who killed his own wife to harden his heart, then raised an army to conquer Japan with conscripts and forced draftees. He is armed only with gauntlets, is large in physique, and is so strong that he can deflect a hail of arrows with a wave of his hand and drain a part of the Seto Inland Sea to defeat Chosokabe Motochika. Many of his subordinates and allies, such as Takenaka Hanbei and Ishida Mitsunari, are also major characters in the series. Anime In the Netflix anime series Great Pretender (2020), Hideyoshi is referenced many times by Laurent Thierry, one of the central protagonists of the series. Documentary In the Netflix documentary series Age of Samurai: Battle for Japan (2021), Hideyoshi is portrayed by Masami Kosaka. The show depicts his life and rise to power. Honours Senior First Rank (August 18, 1915; posthumous) See also People of the Sengoku period in popular culture#Toyotomi Hideyoshi Itsukushima's Senjokaku Hall Dom Justo Takayama Notes References Berry, Mary Elizabeth. (1982). Hideyoshi. Cambridge: Harvard UP, ; Haboush, JaHyun Kim. (2016) The Great East Asian War and the Birth of the Korean Nation (2016) excerpt Jansen, Marius B. (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge: Harvard UP. ; Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; External links The Christian Century in Japan, by Charles Boxer 1537 births 1598 deaths 16th-century Japanese people Daimyo Samurai Sesshō and Kampaku Toyotomi clan Warlords Oda retainers People from Nagoya People of Muromachi-period Japan People of Azuchi–Momoyama-period Japan Military engineers People of the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 16th-century Japanese calligraphers Deified Japanese people

A teleprinter (teletypewriter, teletype or TTY) is an electromechanical device that can be used to send and receive typed messages through various communications channels, in both point-to-point and point-to-multipoint configurations. Initially they were used in telegraphy, which developed in the late 1830s and 1840s as the first use of electrical engineering, though teleprinters were not used for telegraphy until 1887 at the earliest. The machines were adapted to provide a user interface to early mainframe computers and minicomputers, sending typed data to the computer and printing the response. Some models could also be used to create punched tape for data storage (either from typed input or from data received from a remote source) and to read back such tape for local printing or transmission. Teleprinters could use a variety of different communication media. These included a simple pair of wires; dedicated non-switched telephone circuits (leased lines); switched networks that operated similarly to the public telephone network (telex); and radio and microwave links (telex-on-radio, or TOR). A teleprinter attached to a modem could also communicate through standard switched public telephone lines. This latter configuration was often used to connect teleprinters to remote computers, particularly in time-sharing environments. Teleprinters have largely been replaced by fully electronic computer terminals which typically have a computer monitor instead of a printer (though the term "TTY" is still occasionally used to refer to them, such as in Unix systems). Teleprinters are still widely used in the aviation industry (see AFTN and airline teletype system), and variations called Telecommunications Devices for the Deaf (TDDs) are used by the hearing impaired for typed communications over ordinary telephone lines. History The teleprinter evolved through a series of inventions by a number of engineers, including Samuel Morse, Alexander Bain, Royal Earl House, David Edward Hughes, Emile Baudot, Donald Murray, Charles L. Krum, Edward Kleinschmidt and Frederick G. Creed. Teleprinters were invented in order to send and receive messages without the need for operators trained in the use of Morse code. A system of two teleprinters, with one operator trained to use a keyboard, replaced two trained Morse code operators. The teleprinter system improved message speed and delivery time, making it possible for messages to be flashed across a country with little manual intervention. There were a number of parallel developments on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1835 Samuel Morse devised a recording telegraph, and Morse code was born. Morse's instrument used a current to displace the armature of an electromagnet, which moved a marker, therefore recording the breaks in the current. Cooke & Wheatstone received a British patent covering telegraphy in 1837 and a second one in 1840 which described a type-printing telegraph with steel type fixed at the tips of petals of a rotating brass daisy-wheel, struck by an “electric hammer” to print Roman letters through carbon paper onto a moving paper tape. In 1841 Alexander Bain devised an electromagnetic printing telegraph machine. It used pulses of electricity created by rotating a dial over contact points to release and stop a type-wheel turned by weight-driven clockwork; a second clockwork mechanism rotated a drum covered with a sheet of paper and moved it slowly upwards so that the type-wheel printed its signals in a spiral. The critical issue was to have the sending and receiving elements working synchronously. Bain attempted to achieve this using centrifugal governors to closely regulate the speed of the clockwork. It was patented, along with other devices, on April 21, 1841. By 1846, the Morse telegraph service was operational between Washington, D.C., and New York. Royal Earl House patented his printing telegraph that same year. He linked two 28-key piano-style keyboards by wire. Each piano key represented a letter of the alphabet and when pressed caused the corresponding letter to print at the receiving end. A "shift" key gave each main key two optional values. A 56-character typewheel at the sending end was synchronised to coincide with a similar wheel at the receiving end. If the key corresponding to a particular character was pressed at the home station, it actuated the typewheel at the distant station just as the same character moved into the printing position, in a way similar to the (much later) daisy wheel printer. It was thus an example of a synchronous data transmission system. House's equipment could transmit around 40 instantly readable words per minute, but was difficult to manufacture in bulk. The printer could copy and print out up to 2,000 words per hour. This invention was first put in operation and exhibited at the Mechanics Institute in New York in 1844. Landline teleprinter operations began in 1849, when a circuit was put in service between Philadelphia and New York City. In 1855, David Edward Hughes introduced an improved machine built on the work of Royal Earl House. In less than two years, a number of small telegraph companies, including Western Union in early stages of development, united to form one large corporation – Western Union Telegraph Co. – to carry on the business of telegraphy on the Hughes system. In France, Émile Baudot designed in 1874 a system using a five-unit code, which began to be used extensively in that country from 1877. The British Post Office adopted the Baudot system for use on a simplex circuit between London and Paris in 1897, and subsequently made considerable use of duplex Baudot systems on their Inland Telegraph Services. During 1901, Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray (1865–1945, originally from New Zealand), prompted by his development of a typewriter-like keyboard. The Murray system employed an intermediate step, a keyboard perforator, which allowed an operator to punch a paper tape, and a tape transmitter for sending the message from the punched tape. At the receiving end of the line, a printing mechanism would print on a paper tape, and/or a reperforator could be used to make a perforated copy of the message. As there was no longer a direct correlation between the operator's hand movement and the bits transmitted, there was no concern about arranging the code to minimize operator fatigue, and instead Murray designed the code to minimize wear on the machinery, assigning the code combinations with the fewest punched holes to the most frequently used characters. The Murray code also introduced what became known as "format effectors" or "control characters" – the CR (Carriage Return) and LF (Line Feed) codes. A few of Baudot's codes moved to the positions where they have stayed ever since: the NULL or BLANK and the DEL code. NULL/BLANK was used as an idle code for when no messages were being sent. In the United States in 1902, electrical engineer Frank Pearne approached Joy Morton, head of Morton Salt, seeking a sponsor for research into the practicalities of developing a printing telegraph system. Joy Morton needed to determine whether this was worthwhile and so consulted mechanical engineer Charles L. Krum, who was vice president of the Western Cold Storage Company. Krum was interested in helping Pearne, so space was set up in a laboratory in the attic of Western Cold Storage. Frank Pearne lost interest in the project after a year and left to get involved in teaching. Krum was prepared to continue Pearne’s work, and in August, 1903 a patent was filed for a 'typebar page printer'. In 1904, Krum filed a patent for a 'type wheel printing telegraph machine' which was issued in August, 1907. In 1906 Charles Krum's son, Howard Krum, joined his father in this work. It was Howard who developed and patented the start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems, which made possible the practical teleprinter. In 1908, a working teleprinter was produced by the Morkrum Company (formed between Joy Morton and Charles Krum) , called the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, which was field tested with the Alton Railroad. In 1910, the Morkrum Company designed and installed the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between Boston and New York City using the "Blue Code Version" of the Morkrum Printing Telegraph. In 1916, Edward Kleinschmidt filed a patent application for a typebar page printer. In 1919, shortly after the Morkrum company obtained their patent for a start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems, which made possible the practical teleprinter, Kleinschmidt filed an application titled "Method of and Apparatus for Operating Printing Telegraphs" which included an improved start-stop method. The basic start-stop procedure, however, is much older than the Kleinschmidt and Morkrum inventions. It was already proposed by D'Arlincourt in 1870. Instead of wasting time and money in patent disputes on the start-stop method, Kleinschmidt and the Morkrum Company decided to merge and form the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Company in 1924. The new company combined the best features of both their machines into a new typewheel printer for which Kleinschmidt, Howard Krum, and Sterling Morton jointly obtained a patent. In 1924 Britain's Creed & Company, founded by Frederick G. Creed, entered the teleprinter field with their Model 1P, a page printer, which was soon superseded by the improved Model 2P. In 1925 Creed acquired the patents for Donald Murray's Murray code, a rationalised Baudot code. The Model 3 tape printer, Creed’s first combined start-stop machine, was introduced in 1927 for the Post Office telegram service. This machine printed received messages directly on to gummed paper tape at a rate of 65 words per minute. Creed created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals on to paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute. His system was adopted by the Daily Mail for daily transmission of the newspaper's contents. The Creed Model 7 page printing teleprinter was introduced in 1931 and was used for the inland Telex service. It worked at a speed of 50 baud, about 66 words a minute, using a code based on the Murray code. A teleprinter system was installed in the Bureau of Lighthouses, Airways Division, Flight Service Station Airway Radio Stations system in 1928, carrying administrative messages, flight information and weather reports. By 1938, the teleprinter network, handling weather traffic, extended over 20,000 miles, covering all 48 states except Maine, New Hampshire, and South Dakota. Ways in which teleprinters were used There were at least five major types of teleprinter networks: Exchange systems such as Telex and TWX created a real-time circuit between two machines, so that anything typed on one machine appeared at the other end immediately. US and UK systems had telephone dials, and prior to 1981 five North American Numbering Plan (NANPA) area codes were reserved for teleprinter use. German systems did "dialing" via the keyboard. Typed "chat" was possible, but because billing was by connect time, it was common to prepare messages in advance on paper tape and transmit them without pauses for typing. Leased line and radioteletype networks arranged in point-to-point and / or multipoint configurations supported data processing applications for government and industry, such as integrating the accounting, billing, management, production, purchasing, sales, shipping and receiving departments within an organization to speed internal communications. Message switching systems were an early form of E-mail, using electromechanical equipment. See Telegram, Western Union, Plan 55-A. Military organizations had similar but separate systems, such as Autodin. Broadcast systems such as weather information distribution and "news wires". Examples were operated by Associated Press, National Weather Service, Reuters, and United Press (later UPI). Information was printed on receive-only teleprinters, without keyboards or dials. "Loop" systems, where anything typed on any machine on the loop printed on all the machines. American police departments used such systems to interconnect precincts. Teleprinter operation Most teleprinters used the 5-bit International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2). This limited the character set to 32 codes (25 = 32). One had to use a "FIGS" (for "figures") shift key to type numbers and special characters. Special versions of teleprinters had FIGS characters for specific applications, such as weather symbols for weather reports. Print quality was poor by modern standards. The ITA2 code was used asynchronously with start and stop bits: the asynchronous code design was intimately linked with the start-stop electro-mechanical design of teleprinters. (Early systems had used synchronous codes, but were hard to synchronize mechanically). Other codes, such as FIELDATA and Flexowriter, were introduced but never became as popular as ITA2. Mark and space are terms describing logic levels in teleprinter circuits. The native mode of communication for a teleprinter is a simple series DC circuit that is interrupted, much as a rotary dial interrupts a telephone signal. The marking condition is when the circuit is closed (current is flowing), the spacing condition is when the circuit is open (no current is flowing). The "idle" condition of the circuit is a continuous marking state, with the start of a character signalled by a "start bit", which is always a space. Following the start bit, the character is represented by a fixed number of bits, such as 5 bits in the ITA2 code, each either a mark or a space to denote the specific character or machine function. After the character's bits, the sending machine sends one or more stop bits. The stop bits are marking, so as to be distinct from the subsequent start bit. If the sender has nothing more to send, the line simply remains in the marking state (as if a continuing series of stop bits) until a later space denotes the start of the next character. The time between characters need not be an integral multiple of a bit time, but it must be at least the minimum number of stop bits required by the receiving machine. When the line is broken, the continuous spacing (open circuit, no current flowing) causes a receiving teleprinter to cycle continuously, even in the absence of stop bits. It prints nothing because the characters received are all zeros, the ITA2 blank (or ASCII) null character. Teleprinter circuits were generally leased from a communications common carrier and consisted of ordinary telephone cables that extended from the teleprinter located at the customer location to the common carrier central office. These teleprinter circuits were connected to switching equipment at the central office for Telex and TWX service. Private line teleprinter circuits were not directly connected to switching equipment. Instead, these private line circuits were connected to network hubs and repeaters configured to provide point to point or point to multipoint service. More than two teleprinters could be connected to the same wire circuit by means of a current loop. Earlier teleprinters had three rows of keys and only supported upper case letters. They used the 5 bit ITA2 code and generally worked at 60 to 100 words per minute. Later teleprinters, specifically the Teletype Model 33, used ASCII code, an innovation that came into widespread use in the 1960s as computers became more widely available. "Speed", intended to be roughly comparable to words per minute, is the standard term introduced by Western Union for a mechanical teleprinter data transmission rate using the 5-bit ITA2 code that was popular in the 1940s and for several decades thereafter. Such a machine would send 1 start bit, 5 data bits, and 1.42 stop bits. This unusual stop bit time is actually a rest period to allow the mechanical printing mechanism to synchronize in the event that a garbled signal is received. This is true especially on high frequency radio circuits where selective fading is present. Selective fading causes the mark signal amplitude to be randomly different from the space signal amplitude. Selective fading, or Rayleigh fading can cause two carriers to randomly and independently fade to different depths. Since modern computer equipment cannot easily generate 1.42 bits for the stop period, common practice is to either approximate this with 1.5 bits, or to send 2.0 bits while accepting 1.0 bits receiving. For example, a "60 speed" machine is geared at 45.5 baud (22.0 ms per bit), a "66 speed" machine is geared at 50.0 baud (20.0 ms per bit), a "75 speed" machine is geared at 56.9 baud (17.5 ms per bit), a "100 speed" machine is geared at 74.2 baud (13.5 ms per bit), and a "133 speed" machine is geared at 100.0 baud (10.0 ms per bit). 60 speed became the de facto standard for amateur radio RTTY operation because of the widespread availability of equipment at that speed and the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restrictions to only 60 speed from 1953 to 1972. Telex, news agency wires and similar services commonly used 66 speed services. There was some migration to 75 and 100 speed as more reliable devices were introduced. However, the limitations of HF transmission such as excessive error rates due to multipath distortion and the nature of ionospheric propagation kept many users at 60 and 66 speed. Most audio recordings in existence today are of teleprinters operating at 60 words per minute, and mostly of the Teletype Model 15. Another measure of the speed of a teletypewriter was in total "operations per minute (OPM)". For example, 60 speed was usually 368 OPM, 66 speed was 404 OPM, 75 speed was 460 OPM, and 100 speed was 600 OPM. Western Union Telexes were usually set at 390 OPM, with 7.0 total bits instead of the customary 7.42 bits. Both wire-service and private teleprinters had bells to signal important incoming messages and could ring 24/7 while the power was turned on. For example, ringing 4 bells on UPI wire-service machines meant an "Urgent" message; 5 bells was a "Bulletin"; and 10 bells was a FLASH, used only for very important news, such as the assassination of John F. Kennedy. The teleprinter circuit was often linked to a 5-bit paper tape punch (or "reperforator") and reader, allowing messages received to be resent on another circuit. Complex military and commercial communications networks were built using this technology. Message centers had rows of teleprinters and large racks for paper tapes awaiting transmission. Skilled operators could read the priority code from the hole pattern and might even feed a "FLASH PRIORITY" tape into a reader while it was still coming out of the punch. Routine traffic often had to wait hours for relay. Many teleprinters had built-in paper tape readers and punches, allowing messages to be saved in machine-readable form and edited off-line. Communication by radio, known as radioteletype or RTTY (pronounced ritty), was also common, especially among military users. Ships, command posts (mobile, stationary, and even airborne) and logistics units took advantage of the ability of operators to send reliable and accurate information with a minimum of training. Amateur radio operators continue to use this mode of communication today, though most use computer-interface sound generators, rather than legacy hardware teleprinter equipment. Numerous modes are in use within the "ham radio" community, from the original ITA2 format to more modern, faster modes, which include error-checking of characters. Control characters A typewriter or electromechanical printer can print characters on paper, and execute operations such as move the carriage back to the left margin of the same line (carriage return), advance to the same column of the next line (line feed), and so on. Commands to control non-printing operations were transmitted in exactly the same way as printable characters by sending control characters with defined functions (e.g., the line feed character forced the carriage to move to the same position on the next line) to teleprinters. In modern computing and communications a few control characters, such as carriage return and line feed, have retained their original functions (although they are often implemented in software rather than activating electromechanical mechanisms to move a physical printer carriage) but many others are no longer required and are used for other purposes. Answer back mechanism Some teleprinters had a "Here is" key, which transmitted a fixed sequence of 20 or 22 characters, programmable by breaking tabs off a drum. This sequence could also be transmitted automatically upon receipt of an ENQ (control E) signal, if enabled. This was commonly used to identify a station; the operator could press the key to send the station identifier to the other end, or the remote station could trigger its transmission by sending the ENQ character, essentially asking "who are you?" Manufacturers Creed & Company British Creed & Company built teleprinters for the GPO's teleprinter service. Creed model 7 (page printing teleprinter introduced in 1931) Creed model 7B (50 baud page printing teleprinter) Creed model 7E (page printing teleprinter with overlap cam and range finder) Creed model 7/TR (non-printing teleprinter reperforator) Creed model 54 (page printing teleprinter introduced in 1954) Creed model 75 (page printing teleprinter introduced in 1958) Creed model 85 (printing reperforator introduced in 1948) Creed model 86 (printing reperforator using 7/8" wide tape) Creed model 444 (page printing teleprinter introduced in 1966, GPO type 15) Kleinschmidt Labs In 1931, American inventor Edward Kleinschmidt formed Kleinschmidt Labs to pursue a different design of teleprinter. In 1944 Kleinschmidt demonstrated their lightweight unit to the Signal Corps and in 1949 their design was adopted for the Army's portable needs. In 1956, Kleinschmidt Labs merged with Smith-Corona, which then merged with the Marchant Calculating Machine Co., forming the SCM Corporation. By 1979, the Kleinschmidt division was turning to Electronic Data Interchange and away from mechanical products. Kleinschmidt machines, with the military as their primary customer, used standard military designations for their machines. The teleprinter was identified with designations such as a TT-4/FG, while communication "sets" to which a teleprinter might be a part generally used the standard Army/Navy designation system such as AN/FGC-25. This includes Kleinschmidt teleprinter TT-117/FG and tape reperforator TT-179/FG. Morkrum Morkrum made their first commercial installation of a printing telegraph with the Postal Telegraph Company in Boston and New York in 1910. It became popular with railroads, and the Associated Press adopted it in 1914 for their wire service. Morkrum merged with their competitor Kleinschmidt Electric Company to become Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Corporation shortly before being renamed the Teletype Corporation. Olivetti Italian office equipment maker Olivetti (est. 1908) started to manufacture teleprinters in order to provide Italian post offices with modern equipment to send and receive telegrams. The first models typed on a paper ribbon, which was then cut and glued into telegram forms. Olivetti T1 (1938–1948) Olivetti T2 (1948–1968) Olivetti Te300 (1968–1975) Olivetti Te400 (1975–1991) Siemens & Halske Siemens & Halske, later Siemens AG, a German company, founded in 1897. Teleprinter Model 100 Ser 1 (end of the 1950s) – Used for Telex service Teleprinter Model 100 Ser. 11 – Later version with minor changes Teleprinter Model T100 ND (single current) NDL (double current) models Teleprinter Model T 150 (electromechanical) Offline tape punch for creating messages Teleprinter T 1000 electronic teleprinter (processor based) 50-75-100 Bd. Tape punch and reader attachments ND/NDL/SEU V21modem model Teleprinter T 1000 Receive only units as used by newsrooms for unedited SAPA/Reuters/AP feeds etc. Teleprinter T 1200 electronic teleprinter (processor based) 50-75-100-200 Bd.Green LED text display, 1.44M 3.5" floppy disk ("stiffy") attachment PC-Telex Teleprinter with dedicated dot matrix printer Connected to IBM compatible PC (as used by Telkom South Africa) T4200 Teletex Teleprinter With two floppy disc drives and black and white monitor/daisy wheel typewriter (DOS2) Teletype Corporation The Teletype Corporation, a part of American Telephone and Telegraph Company's Western Electric manufacturing arm since 1930, was founded in 1906 as the Morkrum Company. In 1925, a merger between Morkrum and Kleinschmidt Electric Company created the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Company. The name was changed in December 1928 to Teletype Corporation. In 1930, Teletype Corporation was purchased by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and became a subsidiary of Western Electric. In 1984, the divestiture of the Bell System resulted in the Teletype name and logo being replaced by the AT&T name and logo, eventually resulting in the brand being extinguished. The last vestiges of what had been the Teletype Corporation ceased in 1990, bringing to a close the dedicated teleprinter business. Despite its long-lasting trademark status, the word Teletype went into common generic usage in the news and telecommunications industries. Records of the United States Patent and Trademark Office indicate the trademark has expired and is considered dead. Teletype machines tended to be large, heavy, and extremely robust, capable of running non-stop for months at a time if properly lubricated. The Model 15 stands out as one of a few machines that remained in production for many years. It was introduced in 1930 and remained in production until 1963, a total of 33 years of continuous production. Very few complex machines can match that record. The production run was stretched somewhat by World War II—the Model 28 was scheduled to replace the Model 15 in the mid-1940s, but Teletype built so many factories to produce the Model 15 during World War II, it was more economical to continue mass production of the Model 15. The Model 15, in its receive only, no keyboard, version was the classic "news Teletype" for decades. Model 15 = Baudot version, 45 Baud, optional tape punch and reader Model 28 = Baudot version, 45-50-56-75 Baud, optional tape punch and reader Model 32 = small lightweight machine (cheap production) 45-50-56-75 Baud, optional tape punch and reader Model 33 = same as Model 32 but for 8 level ASCII-plus-parity-bit, used as computer terminal, optional tape punch and reader Model 35 = same as Model 28 but for 8 level ASCII-plus-parity-bit, used as heavy-duty computer terminal, optional tape punch and reader Model 37 = improved version of the Model 35, higher speeds up to 150 Baud, optional tape punch and reader Model 38 = similar to Model 33, but for 132 char./line paper (14 inches wide), optional tape punch and reader Model 40 = new system processor based, w/ monitor screen, but mechanical "chain printer" Model 42 = new cheap production Baudot machine to replace Model 28 and Model 32, paper tape acc. Model 43 = same but for 8 level ASCII-plus-parity-bit, to replace Model 33 and Model 35, paper tape acc. Several different high-speed printers like the "Ink-tronic" etc. Gretag The Gretag ETK-47 teleprinter developed in Switzerland by Edgar Gretener in 1947 uses a 14-bit start-stop transmission method similar to the 5-bit code used by other teleprinters. However, instead of a more-or-less arbitrary mapping between 5-bit codes and letters in the Latin alphabet, all characters (letters, digits, and punctuation) printed by the ETK are built from 14 basic elements on a print head, very similar to the 14 elements on a modern fourteen-segment display, each one selected independently by one of the 14 bits during transmission. Because it doesn't use a fixed character set, but instead builds up characters from smaller elements, the ETK printing element does not require modification to switch between Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek characters. Telex A global teleprinter network, called the "Telex network", was developed in the late 1920s, and was used through most of the 20th century for business communications. The main difference from a standard teleprinter is that Telex includes a switched routing network, originally based on pulse-telephone dialing, which in the United States was provided by Western Union. AT&T developed a competing network called "TWX" which initially also used rotary dialing and Baudot code, carried to the customer premises as pulses of DC on a metallic copper pair. TWX later added a second ASCII-based service using Bell 103 type modems served over lines whose physical interface was identical to regular telephone lines. In many cases, the TWX service was provided by the same telephone central office that handled voice calls, using class of service to prevent POTS customers from connecting to TWX customers. Telex is still in use in some countries for certain applications such as shipping, news, weather reporting and military command. Many business applications have moved to the Internet as most countries have discontinued telex/TWX services. Teletypesetter In addition to the 5-bit Baudot code and the much later seven-bit ASCII code, there was a six-bit code known as the Teletypesetter code (TTS) used by news wire services. It was first demonstrated in 1928 and began to see widespread use in the 1950s. Through the use of "shift in" and "shift out" codes, this six-bit code could represent a full set of upper and lower case characters, digits, symbols commonly used in newspapers, and typesetting instructions such as "flush left" or "center", and even "auxiliary font", to switch to italics or bold type, and back to roman ("upper rail"). The TTS produces aligned text, taking into consideration character widths and column width, or line length. A Model 20 Teletype machine with a paper tape punch ("reperforator") was installed at subscriber newspaper sites. Originally these machines would simply punch paper tapes and these tapes could be read by a tape reader attached to a "Teletypesetter operating unit" installed on a Linotype machine. The "operating unit" was essentially a tape reader which actuated a mechanical box, which in turn operated the Linotype's keyboard and other controls, in response to the codes read from the tape, thus creating type for printing in newspapers and magazines. This allowed higher production rates for the Linotype, and was used both locally, where the tape was first punched and then fed to the machine, as well as remotely, using tape transmitters and receivers. Remote use played an essential role for distributing identical content, such as Syndicated columns, News agency news, Classified advertising, and more, to different publications across wide geographical areas. In later years the incoming 6-bit current loop signal carrying the TTS code was connected to a minicomputer or mainframe for storage, editing, and eventual feed to a phototypesetting machine. Teleprinters in computing Computers used teleprinters for input and output from the early days of computing. Punched card readers and fast printers replaced teleprinters for most purposes, but teleprinters continued to be used as interactive time-sharing terminals until video displays became widely available in the late 1970s. Users typed commands after a prompt character was printed. Printing was unidirectional; if the user wanted to delete what had been typed, further characters were printed to indicate that previous text had been cancelled. When video displays first became available the user interface was initially exactly the same as for an electromechanical printer; expensive and scarce video terminals could be used interchangeably with teleprinters. This was the origin of the text terminal and the command-line interface. Paper tape was sometimes used to prepare input for the computer session off line and to capture computer output. The popular Teletype Model 33 used 7-bit ASCII code (with an eighth parity bit) instead of Baudot. The common modem communications settings, Start/Stop Bits and Parity, stem from the Teletype era. In early operating systems such as Digital's RT-11, serial communication lines were often connected to teleprinters and were given device names starting with . This and similar conventions were adopted by many other operating systems. Unix and Unix-like operating systems use the prefix , for example , or (for pseudo-tty), such as . In many computing contexts, "TTY" has become the name for any text terminal, such as an external console device, a user dialing into the system on a modem on a serial port device, a printing or graphical computer terminal on a computer's serial port or the RS-232 port on a USB-to-RS-232 converter attached to a computer's USB port, or even a terminal emulator application in the window system using a pseudoterminal device. Teleprinters were also used to record fault printout and other information in some TXE telephone exchanges. Obsolescence of teleprinters Although printing news, messages, and other text at a distance is still universal, the dedicated teleprinter tied to a pair of leased copper wires was made functionally obsolete by the fax, personal computer, inkjet printer, email, and the Internet. In the 1980s, packet radio became the most common form of digital communications used in amateur radio. Soon, advanced multimode electronic interfaces such as the AEA PK-232 were developed, which could send and receive not only packet, but various other modulation types including Baudot. This made it possible for a home or laptop computer to replace teleprinters, saving money, complexity, space and the massive amount of paper which mechanical machines used. As a result, by the mid-1990s, amateur use of actual teleprinters had waned, though a core of "purists" still operate on equipment originally manufactured in the 1940s, 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. See also Letter-quality printer Plan 55-A, a message switching system for telegrams Radioteletype Siemens and Halske T52 – the Geheimfernschreiber (secrets teleprinter) References Further reading "Teletype Messages Sent Through Switch Board", Popular Mechanics, April 1932. AT&T offering two way service through switchboards on the role of the teleprinter code in WWII External links A first-hand report of Teletype Corporation's early years A Gallery of Teletype Images History of Teletypewriter Development by R.A. Nelson "Some Notes on Teletype Corporation" Mass.gov: TTY explanation and government best practices for TTY use Patents "Telegraph printer" (Type 12 Teletype), filed June 1924, issued April 1928 "Telegraph receiver" (Type 14 Teletype), filed December 1924, issued February 1930 "Signalling system and apparatus therefor" (Type 15 Teletype) – filed July 1930, issued April 1933 "Frequency-Shift Teletypewriter" – filed August 1966, issued April 1970 History of telecommunications Impact printing Telegraphy Typewriters

A tachyon () or tachyonic particle is a hypothetical particle that always travels faster than light. Physicists believe that faster-than-light particles cannot exist because they are not consistent with the known laws of physics. If such particles did exist they could be used to send signals faster than light. According to the theory of relativity this would violate causality, leading to logical paradoxes such as the grandfather paradox. Tachyons would exhibit the unusual property of increasing in speed as their energy decreases, and would require infinite energy to slow down to the speed of light. No verifiable experimental evidence for the existence of such particles has been found. In the 1967 paper that coined the term, Gerald Feinberg proposed that tachyonic particles could be made from excitations of a quantum field with imaginary mass. However, it was soon realized that Feinberg's model did not in fact allow for superluminal (faster-than-light) particles or signals and that tachyonic fields merely give rise to instabilities, not causality violations. Nevertheless, in modern physics the term often refers to imaginary mass fields rather than to faster-than-light particles. Such fields play a significant role in modern physics. The term comes from the , tachy, meaning . The complementary particle types are called luxons (which always move at the speed of light) and bradyons (which always move slower than light); both of these particle types are known to exist. History The term was coined by Gerald Feinberg in a 1967 paper titled "Possibility of faster-than-light particles". He had been inspired by the science-fiction story "Beep" by James Blish. Feinberg studied the kinematics of such particles according to special relativity. In his paper he also introduced fields with imaginary mass (now also referred to as tachyons) in an attempt to understand the microphysical origin such particles might have. The first hypothesis regarding faster-than-light particles is sometimes attributed to German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in 1904, who named them "meta-particles". More recent discussions happened in 1962 and 1969. The possibility of existence of faster-than-light particles was also proposed by Lev Yakovlevich Shtrum in 1923 (see https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.10739 and references therein). In September 2011, it was reported that a tau neutrino had traveled faster than the speed of light in a major release by CERN; however, later updates from CERN on the OPERA project indicate that the faster-than-light readings were due to a faulty element of the experiment's fibre optic timing system. Tachyons in relativity In special relativity, a faster-than-light particle would have space-like four-momentum, in contrast to ordinary particles that have time-like four-momentum. Although in some theories the mass of tachyons is regarded as imaginary, in some modern formulations the mass is considered real, the formulas for the momentum and energy being redefined to this end. Moreover, since tachyons are constrained to the spacelike portion of the energy–momentum graph, they could not slow down to subluminal (meaning slower-than-light) speeds. Mass In a Lorentz invariant theory, the same formulas that apply to ordinary slower-than-light particles (sometimes called "bradyons" in discussions of tachyons) must also apply to tachyons. In particular, the energy–momentum relation: (where p is the relativistic momentum of the bradyon and m is its rest mass) should still apply, along with the formula for the total energy of a particle: This equation shows that the total energy of a particle (bradyon or tachyon) contains a contribution from its rest mass (the "rest mass–energy") and a contribution from its motion, the kinetic energy. When (the particle's velocity) is larger than (the speed of light), the denominator in the equation for the energy is imaginary, as the value under the square root is negative. Because the total energy of the particle must be real (and not a complex or imaginary number) in order to have any practical meaning as a measurement, the numerator must also be imaginary: i.e. the rest mass m must be imaginary, as a pure imaginary number divided by another pure imaginary number is a real number. In some modern formulations of the theory, the mass of tachyons is regarded as real. Speed One curious effect is that, unlike ordinary particles, the speed of a tachyon increases as its energy decreases. In particular, approaches zero when approaches infinity. (For ordinary bradyonic matter, increases with increasing speed, becoming arbitrarily large as approaches , the speed of light). Therefore, just as bradyons are forbidden to break the light-speed barrier, so too are tachyons forbidden from slowing down to below c, because infinite energy is required to reach the barrier from either above or below. As noted by Albert Einstein, Tolman, and others, special relativity implies that faster-than-light particles, if they existed, could be used to communicate backwards in time. Neutrinos In 1985, Chodos proposed that neutrinos can have a tachyonic nature. The possibility of standard model particles moving at faster-than-light speeds can be modeled using Lorentz invariance violating terms, for example in the Standard-Model Extension. In this framework, neutrinos experience Lorentz-violating oscillations and can travel faster than light at high energies. This proposal was strongly criticized. Cherenkov radiation A tachyon with an electric charge would lose energy as Cherenkov radiation—just as ordinary charged particles do when they exceed the local speed of light in a medium (other than a hard vacuum). A charged tachyon traveling in a vacuum, therefore, undergoes a constant proper time acceleration and, by necessity, its world line forms a hyperbola in space-time. However reducing a tachyon's energy increases its speed, so that the single hyperbola formed is of two oppositely charged tachyons with opposite momenta (same magnitude, opposite sign) which annihilate each other when they simultaneously reach infinite speed at the same place in space. (At infinite speed, the two tachyons have no energy each and finite momentum of opposite direction, so no conservation laws are violated in their mutual annihilation. The time of annihilation is frame dependent.) Even an electrically neutral tachyon would be expected to lose energy via gravitational Cherenkov radiation (unless gravitons are themselves tachyons), because it has a gravitational mass, and therefore increases in speed as it travels, as described above. If the tachyon interacts with any other particles, it can also radiate Cherenkov energy into those particles. Neutrinos interact with the other particles of the Standard Model, and Andrew Cohen and Sheldon Glashow used this to argue that the 2011 faster-than-light neutrino anomaly cannot be explained by making neutrinos propagate faster than light, and must instead be due to an error in the experiment. Further investigation of the experiment showed that the results were indeed erroneous. Causality Causality is a fundamental principle of physics. If tachyons can transmit information faster than light, then according to relativity they violate causality, leading to logical paradoxes of the "kill your own grandfather" type. This is often illustrated with thought experiments such as the "tachyon telephone paradox" or "logically pernicious self-inhibitor." The problem can be understood in terms of the relativity of simultaneity in special relativity, which says that different inertial reference frames will disagree on whether two events at different locations happened "at the same time" or not, and they can also disagree on the order of the two events (technically, these disagreements occur when the spacetime interval between the events is 'space-like', meaning that neither event lies in the future light cone of the other). If one of the two events represents the sending of a signal from one location and the second event represents the reception of the same signal at another location, then as long as the signal is moving at the speed of light or slower, the mathematics of simultaneity ensures that all reference frames agree that the transmission-event happened before the reception-event. However, in the case of a hypothetical signal moving faster than light, there would always be some frames in which the signal was received before it was sent so that the signal could be said to have moved backward in time. Because one of the two fundamental postulates of special relativity says that the laws of physics should work the same way in every inertial frame, if it is possible for signals to move backward in time in any one frame, it must be possible in all frames. This means that if observer A sends a signal to observer B which moves faster than light in A's frame but backwards in time in B's frame, and then B sends a reply which moves faster than light in B's frame but backwards in time in A's frame, it could work out that A receives the reply before sending the original signal, challenging causality in every frame and opening the door to severe logical paradoxes. This is known as the tachyonic antitelephone. Reinterpretation principle The reinterpretation principle asserts that a tachyon sent back in time can always be reinterpreted as a tachyon traveling forward in time, because observers cannot distinguish between the emission and absorption of tachyons. The attempt to detect a tachyon from the future (and violate causality) would actually create the same tachyon and send it forward in time (which is causal). However, this principle is not widely accepted as resolving the paradoxes. Instead, what would be required to avoid paradoxes is that, unlike any known particle, tachyons do not interact in any way and can never be detected or observed, because otherwise a tachyon beam could be modulated and used to create an anti-telephone or a "logically pernicious self-inhibitor". All forms of energy are believed to interact at least gravitationally, and many authors state that superluminal propagation in Lorentz invariant theories always leads to causal paradoxes. Fundamental models In modern physics, all fundamental particles are regarded as excitations of quantum fields. There are several distinct ways in which tachyonic particles could be embedded into a field theory. Fields with imaginary mass In the paper that coined the term "tachyon", Gerald Feinberg studied Lorentz invariant quantum fields with imaginary mass. Because the group velocity for such a field is superluminal, naively it appears that its excitations propagate faster than light. However, it was quickly understood that the superluminal group velocity does not correspond to the speed of propagation of any localized excitation (like a particle). Instead, the negative mass represents an instability to tachyon condensation, and all excitations of the field propagate subluminally and are consistent with causality. Despite having no faster-than-light propagation, such fields are referred to simply as "tachyons" in many sources. Tachyonic fields play an important role in modern physics. Perhaps the most famous is the Higgs boson of the Standard Model of particle physics, which has an imaginary mass in its uncondensed phase. In general, the phenomenon of spontaneous symmetry breaking, which is closely related to tachyon condensation, plays an important role in many aspects of theoretical physics, including the Ginzburg–Landau and BCS theories of superconductivity. Another example of a tachyonic field is the tachyon of bosonic string theory. Tachyons are predicted by bosonic string theory and also the Neveu-Schwarz (NS) and NS-NS sectors, which are respectively the open bosonic sector and closed bosonic sector, of RNS Superstring theory prior to the GSO projection. However such tachyons are not possible due to the Sen conjecture, also known as tachyon condensation. This resulted in the necessity for the GSO projection. Lorentz-violating theories In theories that do not respect Lorentz invariance, the speed of light is not (necessarily) a barrier, and particles can travel faster than the speed of light without infinite energy or causal paradoxes. A class of field theories of that type is the so-called Standard Model extensions. However, the experimental evidence for Lorentz invariance is extremely good, so such theories are very tightly constrained. Fields with non-canonical kinetic term By modifying the kinetic energy of the field, it is possible to produce Lorentz invariant field theories with excitations that propagate superluminally. However, such theories, in general, do not have a well-defined Cauchy problem (for reasons related to the issues of causality discussed above), and are probably inconsistent quantum mechanically. In fiction Tachyons have appeared in many works of fiction. They have been used as a standby mechanism upon which many science fiction authors rely to establish faster-than-light communication, with or without reference to causality issues. The word tachyon has become widely recognized to such an extent that it can impart a science-fictional connotation even if the subject in question has no particular relation to superluminal travel (a form of technobabble, akin to positronic brain). See also Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations Massive particle — bradyon, aka tardyon Massless particle — luxon Retrocausality Tachyonic antitelephone Virtual particle Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory Footnotes References External links Hypothetical particles String theory Time travel

Toledo ( , , ) is a city and municipality of Spain, capital of the province of Toledo and the de jure seat of the government and parliament of the autonomous community of Castilla–La Mancha. Toledo was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986 for its extensive monumental and cultural heritage. Located on the banks of the Tagus in central Iberia, Toledo is known as the "Imperial City" because it was the main venue of the court of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in Spain, and as the "City of the Three Cultures" for the cultural influences of Christians, Muslims, and Jews reflected in its history. It was the capital from 542 to 725 AD of the Visigothic kingdom, which followed the fall of the Roman Empire, and the location of historic events such as the Councils of Toledo. The city, seat of a powerful archdiocese for much of its history, has a Gothic Cathedral, the Catedral Primada de España ("The Primate Cathedral of Spain"), and a long history in the production of bladed weapons, which are now common souvenirs of the city. People who were born or have lived in Toledo include Brunhilda of Austrasia, Al-Zarqali, Garcilaso de la Vega, Eleanor of Toledo, Alfonso X, Israeli ben Joseph, Judah Halevi, and El Greco. , the city had a population of 83,226. The municipality has an area of . Coat of arms The town was granted arms in the 16th century, which by special royal privilege was based on the royal of arms of Spain. History Antiquity Toledo (Latin: Toletum) is mentioned by the Roman historian Livy (ca. 59 BC – 17 AD) as urbs parva, sed loco munita ("a small city, but fortified by location"). Roman general Marcus Fulvius Nobilior fought a battle near the city in 193 BC against a confederation of Celtic tribes including the Vaccaei, Vettones, and Celtiberi, defeating them and capturing a king called Hilermus. At that time, Toletum was a city of the Carpetani tribe, and part of the region of Carpetania. It was incorporated into the Roman Empire as a civitas stipendiaria, that is, a tributary city of non-citizens, and by Flavian times it had achieved the status of a municipium. With this status, city officials, even of Carpetani origin, obtained Roman citizenship for public service, and the forms of Roman law and politics were increasingly adopted. At approximately this time, a Roman circus, city walls, public baths, and a municipal water supply and storage system were constructed in Toletum. The Roman circus in Toledo was one of the largest in Hispania, at long and wide, with a track dimension of long and wide. Chariot races were only held on Roman holidays and were also commissioned by private citizens to celebrate career achievements. A fragmentary stone inscription records circus games paid for by a citizen of unknown name to celebrate his achieving the sevirate, a kind of priesthood conferring high status. Archaeologists have also identified portions of a special seat of the sort used by the city elites to attend circus games, called a sella curulis. The circus could hold up to 15000 spectators. During Roman times, Toledo was never a provincial capital nor a conventus iuridicus, but it started to gain importance in late antiquity. There are indications that large private houses (domus) within the city walls were enlarged, while several large villas were built north of the city through the third and fourth centuries. Games were held in the circus into the late fourth and early fifth centuries C.E., also an indication of active city life and ongoing patronage by wealthy elites. A church council was held in Toledo in the year 400 to discuss the conflict with Priscillianism. A second council of Toledo was held in 527. The Visigothic king Theudis was in Toledo in 546, where he promulgated a law. This is strong though not certain evidence that Toledo was the chief residence for Theudis. King Athanagild died in Toledo, probably in 568. Although Theudis and Athangild based themselves in Toledo, Toledo was not yet the capital city of the Iberian peninsula, as Theudis and Athangild's power was limited in extent, the Suevi ruling Galicia and local elites dominating Lusitania, Betica, and Cantabria. This changed with Liuvigild (Leovigild), who brought the peninsula under his control. The Visigoths ruled from Toledo until the Moors conquered the Iberian peninsula in the early years of 8th century (711–719). Today in the historic center basements, passages, wells, baths and ancient water pipes are preserved that since Roman times have been used in the city. Visigothic Toledo A series of church councils were held in Toledo under the Visigoths. A synod of Arian bishops was held in 580 to discuss theological reconciliation with Nicene Christianity. Liuvigild's successor, Reccared, hosted the Third Council of Toledo, at which the Visigothic kings abandoned Arianism and reconciled with the existing Hispano-Roman episcopate. A synod held in 610 transferred the metropolitanate of the old province of Carthaginensis from Cartagena to Toledo. At that time, Cartagena was ruled by the Byzantines, and this move ensured a closer relation between the bishops of Spain and the Visigothic kings. King Sisebut forced Jews in the Visigothic kingdom to convert to Christianity; this act was criticized and efforts were made to reverse it at the Fourth Council of Toledo in 633. The Fifth and Sixth Councils of Toledo placed church sanctions on anyone who would challenge the Visigothic kings. The Seventh Council of Toledo instituted a requirement that all bishops in the area of a royal city, that is, of Toledo, must reside for one month per year in Toledo. This was a stage in "the elevation of Toledo as the primatial see of the whole church of the Visgothic kingdom". In addition, the seventh council declared that any clergy fleeing the kingdom, assisting conspirators against the king, or aiding conspirators, would be excommunicated and no one should remove this sentence. The ban on lifting these sentences of excommunication was lifted at the Eighth Council of Toledo in 653, at which, for the first time, decisions were signed by palace officials as well as bishops. The eighth council of Toledo took measures that enhanced Toledo's significance as the center of royal power in the Iberian peninsula. The council declared that the election of a new king following the death of the old one should only take place in the royal city, or wherever the old king died. In practice this handed the power to choose kings to only such palace officials and military commanders who were in regular attendance on the king. The decision also took king-making power away from the bishops, who would be in their own sees and would not have time to come together to attend the royal election. The decision did allow the bishop of Toledo, alone among bishops, to be involved in decisions concerning the royal Visigothic succession. The ninth and tenth councils were held in rapid succession in 655 and 656. When Reccesuinth died in 672 at his villa in Gerticos, his successor Wamba was elected on the spot, then went to Toledo to be anointed king by the bishop of Toledo, according to the procedures laid out in prior church councils. In 673, Wamba defeated a rebel duke named Paul, and held his victory parade in Toledo. The parade included ritual humiliation and scalping of the defeated Paul. Wamba carried out renovation works in Toledo in 674–675, marking these with inscriptions above the city gates that are no longer extant but were recorded in the eighth century. The Eleventh Council of Toledo was held in 675 under king Wamba. Wamba weakened the power of the bishop of Toledo by creating a new bishopric outside Toledo at the church of Saints Peter and Paul. This was one of the main churches of Toledo and was the church where Wamba was anointed king, and the church from which Visigothic kings departed for war after special ceremonies in which they were presented with a relic of the True Cross. By creating a new bishopric there, Wamba removed power over royal succession from the bishop of Toledo and granted it to the new bishop. The Twelfth Council of Toledo was held in 681 after Wamba's removal from office. Convinced that he was dying, Wamba had accepted a state of penitence that according to the decision of a previous church council, made him ineligible to remain king. The Twelfth Council, led by newly installed bishop Julian confirmed the validity of Wamba's removal from office and his succession by Ervig. The Twelfth Council eliminated the new bishopric that Wamba had created and returned the powers over succession to the bishop of Toledo. The Twelfth Council of Toledo approved 28 laws against the Jews. Julian of Toledo, despite a Jewish origin, was strongly anti-Semitic as reflected in his writings and activities. The leading Jews of Toledo were assembled in the church of Saint Mary on January 27, 681, where the new laws were read out to them. The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Councils of Toledo were held in 683, 684, and 688. The Thirteenth Council restored property and legal rights to those who had rebelled against King Wamba in 673. The Thirteenth Council also approved laws protecting the king's family after the king's death. In 687, Ervig took the penitent state before dying, and the kingship passed to Egica, who was anointed king in Toledo on November 24. In 688, the Fifteenth Council lifted the ban on taking property from the families of former kings, whereupon Egica was able to plunder Ervig's family properties. In the late seventh century, Toledo became a main center of literacy and writing in the Iberian peninsula. Toledo's development as a center of learning was influenced by Isidore of Seville, an author and advocate of literacy who attended several church councils in Toledo. King Chindasuinth had a royal library in Toledo, and at least one count called Laurentius had a private library. Sometime before 651, Chindasuinth sent the bishop of Zaragoza, Taio, to Rome to obtain books that were not available in Toledo. Taio obtained, at least, parts of pope Gregory's Moralia. The library also contained a copy of a Hexameron by Dracontius, which Chindasuinth liked so much that he commissioned Eugenius II to revise it by adding a new part dealing with the seventh day of creation. Chindasuinth issued laws that were gathered together in a book called Liber Iudiciorum by his successor Reccesuinth in 654; this book was revised twice, widely copied, and was an important influence on medieval Spanish law. Three bishops of Toledo wrote works that were widely copied and disseminated in western Europe and parts of which survive to this day: Eugenius II, Ildefonsus, and Julian. "In intellectual terms the leading Spanish churchmen of the seventh century had no equals before the appearance of Bede." In 693, the Sixteenth Council of Toledo condemned Sisebert, Julian's successor as bishop of Toledo, for having rebelled against King Egica in alliance with Liuvigoto, the widow of king Ervig. A rebel king called Suniefred seized power in Toledo briefly at about this time. Whether or not Sisebert's and Suniefred's rebellions were the same or separate is unknown. Suniefred is known only from having minted coins in Toledo during what should have been Egica's reign. The Seventeenth Council of Toledo was held in 694. The Eighteenth Council of Toledo, the last one, took place shortly after Egica's death around 702 or 703. By the end of the seventh century the bishop of Toledo was the leader of the Spanish bishops, a situation unusual in Europe: "The metropolitan bishops of Toledo had achieved by the last quarter of the seventh century an authority and a primacy that was unique in Western Europe. Not even the pope could count on such support from neighbouring metropolitans." Toledo "had been matched by no other city in western Europe outside Italy as the governmental and symbolic center of a powerful monarchy". Toledo had "emerged from relative obscurity to become the permanent governmental centre of the Visigothic monarchy; a true capital, whose only equivalent in western Europe was to be Lombard Pavia". When Wittiza died around 710, Ruderic became Visigothic king in Toledo, but the kingdom was split, as a rival king Achila ruled Tarraconensis and Narbonensis. Meanwhile, Arabic and Berber troops under Musa ibn Nusayr had conquered Tangiers and Ceuta between 705 and 710, and commenced raids into the Visigothic kingdom in 711. Ruderic led an army to confront the raiders. He was defeated and killed in battle, apparently after being betrayed by Visigothic nobles who wished to replace him as king and did not consider the Arabs and Berbers a serious threat. The commander of the invading forces was Tariq bin Ziyad, a Luwata Berber freedman in the service of governor Musa. It is possible that a king called Oppa ruled in Toledo between Ruderic's death and the fall of Toledo. Tariq, seizing the opportunity presented by the death of Ruderic and the internal divisions of the Visigothic nobles, captured Toledo, in 711 or 712. Governor Musa disembarked in Cádiz and proceeded to Toledo, where he executed numerous Visigothic nobles, thus destroying much of the Visigothic power structure. Collins suggests that the Visigothic emphasis on Toledo as the center of royal ceremony became a weakness. Since the king was chosen in or around Toledo, by nobles based in Toledo, and had to be anointed king by the bishop of Toledo in a church in Toledo, when Tariq captured Toledo and executed the Visigothic nobles, having already killed the king, there was no way for the Visigoths to select a legitimate king. Toledo under Moorish rule Soon after the conquest, Musa and Tariq returned to Damascus. The Arab centre of administration was placed first in Seville, then moved to Córdoba. With most of the rest of the Iberian peninsula, Toledo was ruled from Córdoba by the governor of Al-Andalus, under the ultimate notional command of the Umayyad Caliph in Damascus. Arab conquerors had often replaced former capital cities with new ones to mark the change in political power, and they did so here: "Toledo suffered a period of profound decline throughout much of the earlier centuries of Arab dominance in the peninsula." The invaders were ethnically diverse, and available evidence suggests that in the area of Toledo, Berber settlement predominated over Arab. In 742 the Berbers in Al-Andalus rebelled against the Arab Umayyad governors. They took control of the north and marched south, laying siege to Toledo. After a siege of one month the Berber troops were defeated outside Toledo by troops sent from Cordoba by the governor Abd al-Malik ibn Katan and commanded by the governor's son. However, while Ibn Katan's troops were engaged with the Berbers, his Arab allies betrayed and killed him and took over Cordoba. After the Arabs' first leader, Talama ibn Salama, died, Yusuf al-Fihri became ruler of Al-Andalus. The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus collapsed and Yusuf ruled independently with the support of his Syrian Arab forces. The Qays Arab commander As-Sumayl was made governor of Toledo under Yusuf around 753. There is evidence that Toledo retained its importance as a literary and ecclesiastical centre into the middle 700s, in the Chronicle of 754, the life of Saint Ildefonsus by Cixila, and ecclesiastical letters sent from Toledo. The eighth century bishop of Toledo, Cixila, wrote a life of Saint Ildefonsus of Toledo, probably before 737. This life of Ildefonsus emphasised two episodes in the life of the bishop of Toledo. In the first episode the covering of the tomb of Saint Leocadia levitated while Ildefonsus was saying mass, with king Reccesuinth present. In the second episode Mary appears to Ildefonsus and Reccesuinth. These episodes are said to have resulted from Ildefonsus' devotion to Saint Leocadia, patroness saint of Toledo. Collins suggests that Cixila's life of Ildefonsus helped maintain Ildefonsus' appeal and helped the church in Toledo to retain some of its authority among Christian churches in the Iberian peninsula. An archdeacon in Toledo called Evantius, who was active around 720 and died in 737, wrote a letter to address the existence of judaizing tendencies among the Christians of Zaragoza, specifically the belief that there are unclean forms of meat and the literal interpretation of Deuteronomic law. A deacon and cantor from Toledo called Peter wrote a second letter, to Seville, in about the year 750, to explain that they were celebrating Easter and a September liturgical fast incorrectly, again confusing them with Jewish feasts celebrated at the same time. These letters show that some of the primacy of the church of Toledo within the Iberian peninsula still existed in the 700s: "Not only were its clerics still well enough equipped in intellectual terms to provide authoritative guidance on a wide range of ecclesiastical discipline and doctrine, but this was also actively sought." There is a strong possibility that the Chronicle of 754 was written in Toledo (though scholars have also proposed Cordoba and Guadix) based on the information available to the chronicler. The chronicler showed awareness of the Historia Gothorum, the Etymologiae, and the chronicle of Isidore of Seville, the work of Braulio of Zaragoza, the acts of the councils of Toledo, De Perpetua Virginitate by Ildefonsus, and De Comprobatione Sextae Aetatis and Historia Wambae by Julian of Toledo, all works that would have existed in the Visigothic libraries of seventh century Toledo and whose existence together "makes more sense in a Toledan context than in any other". In 756 Abd ar-Rahman, a descendant of the fallen Umayyad caliphs, came to Al-Andalus and initiated a revolt against Yusuf. He defeated Yusuf and forced him to reside in Cordoba, but Yusuf broke the agreement and raised a Berber army to fight Abd ar-Rahman. In this conflict, Toledo was held against Abd ar-Rahman by Yusuf's cousin Hisham ibn Urwa. Yusuf attempted to march on Seville, but was defeated and instead attempted to reach his cousin in Toledo. He was either killed on his way to Toledo, or he reached Toledo and held out there for as many as two or three years before being betrayed and killed by his own people. Whether or not Yusuf himself held out in Toledo, Hisham ibn Urwa did hold power in Toledo for several years, resisting the authority of Abd ar-Rahman. In 761 Hisham is reported as again being in rebellion in Toledo against Abd ar-Rahman. Abd ar-Rahman failed to take Toledo by force and instead signed a treaty allowing Hisham to remain in control of Toledo, but giving one of his sons as hostage to Abd ar-Rahman. Hisham continued to defy Abd ar-Rahman, who had Hisham's son executed and the head catapulted over the city walls into Toledo. Abd ar-Rahman attacked Toledo in 764, winning only when some of Hisham's own people betrayed him and turned him over to Abd ar-Rahman and his freedman Badr. Ibn al-Athir states that towards the end of Abd ar-Rahman's reign, a governor of Toledo raided in force into the Kingdom of Asturias during the reign of Mauregatus, though the Asturian chronicles do not record the event. Under the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba, Toledo was the centre of numerous insurrections dating from 761 to 857. Twenty years after the rebellion of Hisham ibn Urwa, the last of Yusuf's sons, Abu al-Aswad ibn Yusuf, rebelled in Toledo in 785. After the suppression of ibn Yusuf's revolt, Abd ar-Rahman's oldest son Sulayman was made governor of Toledo. However, Abd ar-Rahman designated as his successor a younger son, Hisham. On Hisham's accession to the Emirate in 788, Sulayman refused to make the oath of allegiance at the mosque, as succession custom would have dictated, and thus declared himself in rebellion. He was joined in Toledo by his brother Abdallah. Hisham laid siege to Toledo. While Abdallah held Toledo against Hisham, Sulayman escaped and attempted to find support elsewhere, but was unsuccessful. In 789, Abdallah submitted and Hisham took control of Toledo. The following year, Sulayman gave up the fight and went into exile. Hisham's son Al-Hakam was governor of Toledo from 792 to 796 when he succeeded his father as emir in Cordoba. After Al-Hakam's accession and departure, a poet resident in Toledo named Girbib ibn-Abdallah wrote verses against the Umayyads, helping to inspire a revolt in Toledo against the new emir in 797. Chroniclers disagree as to the leader of this revolt, though Ibn Hayyan states that it was led by Ibn Hamir. Al-Hakam sent Amrus ibn Yusuf to fight the rebellion. Amrus took control of the Berber troops in Talavera. From there, Amrus negotiated with a faction inside Toledo called the Banu Mahsa, promising to make them governors if they would betray Ibn Hamir. The Banu Mahsa brought Ibn Hamir's head to Amrus at Talavera, but instead of making them governors, Amrus executed them. Amrus now persuaded the remaining factions in Toledo to submit to him. Once he entered Toledo, he invited the leaders to a celebratory feast. As they entered Amrus' fortress, the guests were beheaded one by one and their bodies thrown in a specially dug ditch. The massacre was thus called "The Day of the Ditch". Amrus' soldiers killed about 700 people that day. Amrus was governor of Toledo until 802. "In 785, Bishop Elipandus of Toledo wrote a letter condemning the teaching of a certain Migetius." In his letter, Elipandus asserted that Christ had adopted his humanity, a position that came to be known as Adoptionism. Two Asturian bishops, Beatus and Eterius, bishop of Osma, wrote a treatise condemning Elipandus' views. Pope Hadrian wrote a letter between 785 and 791 in which he condemned Migetius, but also the terminology used by Elipandus. The Frankish court of Charlemagne also condemned Adoptionism at the Synod of Frankfurt in 794. Although Ramon Abadals y de Vinyals argued that this controversy represented an ideological assertion of independence by the Asturian church against the Moslem-ruled church of Toledo, Collins believes this argument applies eleventh century ideology to the eighth century and is anachronistic. However, Collins notes that the controversy and the alliances formed during it between Asturias and the Franks broke the old unity of the Spanish church. The influence of the bishops of Toledo would be much more limited until the eleventh century. By the end of the 700s, the Umayyads had created three frontier districts stretching out from the southern core of their Iberian territories. These were called the Lower March (al-Tagr al-Adna), Central March (al-Tagr al-Awsat), and Upper March (al-Tagr al-A'la). Toledo became the administrative center of the Central March, while Merida became the centre of the Lower March and Zaragoza of the Upper March. Following the death of Abd al-Rahman II, a new revolt broke out in Toledo. The Umayyad governor was held hostage in order to secure the return of Toledan hostages held in Córdoba. Toledo now engaged in an inter-city feud with the nearby city of Calatrava la Vieja. Toledan soldiers attacked Calatrava, destroyed the walls, and massacred or expelled many inhabitants of Calatrava in 853. Soldiers from Cordoba came to restore the walls and protect Calatrava from Toledo. The new emir, Muhammad I, sent a second army to attack the Toledans, but was defeated. Toledo now made an alliance with King Ordoño I of Asturias. The Toledans and Asturians were defeated at the Battle of Guadacelete, with sources claiming 8000 Toledan and Asturian soldiers were killed and their heads sent back to Cordoba for display throughout Al-Andalus. Despite this defeat, Toledo did not surrender to Cordoba. The Umayyads reinforced nearby fortresses with cavalry forces to try to contain the Toledans. Toledans attacked Talavera in 857, but were again defeated. In 858 emir Muhammad I personally led an expedition against Toledo and destroyed a bridge, but was unable to take the city. In 859, Muhammad I negotiated a truce with Toledo. Toledo became virtually independent for twenty years, though locked in conflict with neighboring cities. Muhammad I recovered control of Toledo in 873, when he successfully besieged the city and forced it to submit. The Banu Qasi gained nominal control of the city until 920 and in 932 Abd-ar-Rahman III captured the city following an extensive siege. According to the Chronicle of Alfonso III, Musa ibn Musa of the Banu Qasi had, partly by war and partly by strategy, made himself master of Zaragoza, Tudela, Huesca, and Toledo. He had installed his son Lupus (Lubb) as governor of Toledo. King Ordoño I of Asturias fought a series of battles with Musa ibn Musa. According to the Chronicle, Musa ibn Musa allied with his brother-in-law Garcia, identified as Garcia Iñiquez, King of Pamplona. Ordoño defeated Musa's forces at the Battle of Monte Laturce. Musa died of injuries, and his son Lubb submitted to Ordoño's authority in 862 or 863, for the duration of Ordoño's reign (up to 866). Thus, according to the Chronicle of Alfonso III, Toledo was ruled by the Asturian kings. However, Arabic sources do not confirm these campaigns, instead stating that Musa ibn Musa was killed in a failed attack on Guadalajara, and that Andalusi forces repeatedly defeated Asturian forces in the area of Alava from 862 to 866. By the 870s the Umayyad had regained control over Toledo. In 878 Al-Mundhir led an expedition against Asturias, of which one of the main components was a force from Toledo. One source portrays this raid as an attack by the 'King of Toledo', but other sources portray it as an Umayyad raid involving substantial Toledan forces. The forces from Toledo were defeated by Alfonso III of Asturias at the Battle of Polvoraria. Spanish chronicles state that twelve to thirteen thousand in the Toledo army were killed in the battle. Collins states that these figures are "totally unreliable" but demonstrate that Asturian chroniclers thought of this as an important and decisive battle. In 920s and 930s, the governors of Toledo were in rebellion against the Umayyad regime in Cordoba, led by Abd al-Rahman III. In 930, Abd al-Rahman III, having now adopted the title of caliph, attacked Toledo. The governor of Toledo asked for help from King Ramiro II of Leon, but Ramiro was preocuppied with a civil war against his brother Alfonso IV and was unable to help. In 932, Abd al-Rahman III conquered Toledo, re-establishing control of al-Tagr al-Awsat, the Central March of the Umayyad state. In 1009 one of the last Umayyad caliphs, Muhammad II al-Mahdi, fled to Toledo after being expelled from Cordoba by Berber forces backing the rival claimant Sulayman. Al-Mahdi and his Siqlabi general Wadih formed an alliance with the Count of Barcelona and his brother the Count of Urgell. These Catalans joined with Wadih and al-Mahdi in Toledo in 1010 and marched on Cordoba. The combination of Wadih's army and the Catalans defeated the Berbers in a battle outside Cordoba in 1010. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in the early 11th century, Toledo became an independent taifa kingdom. The population of Toledo at this time was about 28 thousand, including a Jewish population estimated at 4 thousand. The Mozarab community had its own Christian bishop, and after the Christian conquest of Toledo, the city was a destination for Mozarab immigration from the Muslim south. The taifa of Toledo was centered on the Tajo River. The border with the taifa of Badajoz was on the Tajo between Talavera de la Reina and Coria. North, the border was the Sierra de Guadarrama. Northeast, Toledo lands stretched past Guadalajara to Medinaceli. Southeast was the border with the taifa of Valencia, in La Mancha between Cuenca and Albacete. South were the borders with Badajoz around the Mountains of Toledo. In 1062, Fernando I of Leon and Castile attacked the taifa of Toledo. He conquered Talamanca de Jarama and besieged Alcala de Henares. To secure Fernando's withdrawal, king al-Mamun of Toledo agreed to pay an annual tribute, or parias, to Fernando. Three years later in 1065, al-Mamun invaded the taifa of Valencia through La Mancha, successfully conquering it. Toledo controlled the taifa of Valencia until al-Mamun's death in 1075. After the death of Fernando I in 1065, the kingdom of Leon and Castilla was divided in three: the kingdoms of Galicia, Leon, and Castilla. The parias that had been paid by Toledo to Fernando I were assigned to the Kingdom of León, which was inherited by Alfonso VI. However, in 1071, Alfonso's older brother Sancho II invaded Leon and defeated his younger brother. Alfonso VI was allowed to go into exile with al-Mamun in Toledo. Alfonso VI was in exile in Toledo approximately from June to October 1071, but after Sancho II was killed later in the same year, Alfonso left Toledo and returned to Leon. Some sources state that al-Mamun forced Alfonso to swear support for al-Mamun and his heirs before allowing him to leave. In 1074, Alfonso VI campaigned against the taifa of Granada with the assistance of al-Mamun of Toledo. Alfonso received troops from al-Mamun in addition to the parias payment, facilitating his military campaigns. The campaign was successful, and Granada was forced to begin parias payments to Alfonso VI. After this, al-Mamun proceeded to attack Cordoba, which was then under the control of his enemy al-Mutamid, taifa king of Sevilla. He conquered Cordoba in January 1075. The parias of Toledo to Alfonso VI in the 1070s amounted to approximately 12 thousand gold dinars. This money contributed strongly to Alfonso VI's ability to project military strength throughout the Iberian peninsula. In 1076, al-Mamun of Toledo was killed in the city of Cordoba, which he had conquered only the year before. The taifa king of Sevilla took the opportunity to reconquer Cordoba and seize other territory on the borderlands between the taifas of Sevilla and Toledo. Al-Mamun was succeeded by his son, al-Qadir, the last taifa king of Toledo. Possibly keeping an earlier promise to al-Mamun, Alfonso VI at first supported the succession of al-Qadir. The taifa of Valencia, which had been conquered by al-Mamun, revolted against al-Qadir and ceased parias payments to Toledo. Taking advantage of al-Qadir's weakness, al-Mutamid of Sevilla took lands in La Mancha from the taifa of Toledo, and from there conquered the taifas of Valencia and Denia in 1078. After this, al-Qadir lost popularity in Toledo. There was a revolt against him, and he was forced to flee the city and appeal to Alfonso VI for help. The rebels invited the king of Badajoz, al-Mutawakkil, to rule Toledo. The king of Badajoz occupied Toledo in 1079, but Alfonso VI sent forces to help al-Qadir recover Toledo. Alfonso captured the fortress town of Coria, which controlled a pass from Castilian lands into the lands of the taifa of Badajoz. Since Alfonso now threatened him through Coria, al-Mutawakkil withdrew from Toledo and al-Qadir was able to return to Toledo. As the price of his help, Alfonso obtained the right to station two garrisons of his soldiers on the lands of Toledo, at al-Qadir's expense. A second revolt against al-Qadir took place in 1082. This time al-Qadir defeated the rebels in Toledo, chased them to Madrid, and defeated them there. It was about this time at the latest that Alfonso VI decided to seize Toledo for himself, though some authors have argued that the plan to conquer Toledo existed by 1078. In 1083, Alfonso VI campaigned against al-Mutamid, bringing his forces right up against Sevilla and reaching the city of Tarifa, with the intention of dissuading al-Mutamid from any resistance against the coming seizure of Toledo. In 1084, Alfonso set siege to Toledo, preventing the city from being supplied and also preventing agricultural work in the area. Over the winter of 1084 to 1085 the siege was maintained, while the king spent the winter north in Leon and Sahagun. In spring 1085 Alfonso personally rejoined the siege with new forces. The city soon fell and Alfonso made his triumphant entry to the city on May 24, 1085. Under Islamic Arab rule, Toledo was called Ṭulayṭulah. After the fall of the caliphate, Toledo was the capital city of one of the richest Taifas of Al-Andalus. Its population was overwhelmingly Muwallad, and, because of its central location in the Iberian Peninsula, Toledo took a central position in the struggles between the Muslim and Christian rulers of northern Spain. The conquest of Toledo by Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085 marked the first time a major city in Al-Andalus was captured by Christian forces; it served to sharpen the religious aspect of the Christian reconquest. Medieval Toledo after the Reconquista On May 25, 1085, Alfonso VI of Castile took Toledo and established direct personal control over the Moorish city from which he had been exacting tribute, ending the medieval Taifa's Kingdom of Toledo. This was the first concrete step taken by the combined kingdom of Leon-Castile in the Reconquista by Christian forces. After Castilian conquest, Toledo continued to be a major cultural centre; its Arab libraries were not pillaged, and a tag-team translation centre was established in which books in Arabic or Hebrew would be translated into Castilian by Muslim and Jewish scholars, and from Castilian into Latin by Castilian scholars, thus letting long-lost knowledge spread through Christian Europe again. Toledo served as the capital city of Castile intermittently (Castile did not have a permanent capital) from 1085, and the city flourished. Under the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo multiple persecutions (633, 653, 693) and stake burnings of Jews (638 CE) occurred; the Kingdom of Toledo followed up on this tradition (1368, 1391, 1449, 1486–1490 CE) including forced conversions and mass murder and the rioting and blood bath against the Jews of Toledo (1212 CE). During the persecution of the Jews in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, members of the Jewish community of Toledo produced texts on their long history in Toledo. It was at this time that Don Isaac Abrabanel, a prominent Jewish figure in Spain in the 15th century and one of the king's trusted courtiers who witnessed the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492, wrote that Toledo was named Ṭulayṭulah by its first Jewish inhabitants who, he stated, settled there in the 5th century BCE, and which name – by way of conjecture – may have been related to its Hebrew cognate טלטול (= wandering), on account of their wandering from Jerusalem. He says, furthermore, that the original name of the city was Pirisvalle, so-called by its early pagan inhabitants. However, there is no archaeological or historical evidence for Jewish presence in this region prior to the time of the Roman Empire; when the Romans first wrote about Toledo it was a Celtic city. Modern era After the crushing of the Revolt of the Comuneros, Charles V's court was installed in Toledo, with the monarch choosing the city as his residence at least 15 times from 1525 on. Charles granted the city a coat of arms. From 1528 to 1561 the population increased from 31,930 to 56,270. In 1561, during the first years of his son Philip II's reign, the Royal Court was set in Madrid. The archbishops of Toledo remained as powerful brokers in the political and religious affairs of Spain for the rest of the Ancien Régime, also owning an extensive seigneurial land across most of the southern half of the Inner Plateau and some nearing territories. The mass arrival of deported unruly moriscos from Granada ('moriscos nuevos') in Toledo and its lands (6,000 arrived to the city only, at least temporarily) on the wake of the Alpujarras rebellion posed a formidable logistic challenge, and the uneasy preexisting system of social relations between the moros viejos ('old moors') and the old christians was disrupted. By and large, Granadan new moriscos were subject to xenophobic abuse and became stigmatised as bloodthirsty and sacrilegious. The city excelled in silk manufacturing during the Early Modern Period. The silk industry reached a peak in the 16th century, entering a protracted decline in the later years of that century and ultimately disappearing by the turn of the 19th century. Following the exclusion of Toledo from the railway to the Portuguese border in the 1850s, a project of railway connection from Castillejo to Toledo lobbied by the Marquis of Salamanca was passed in June 1856. The line was opened on 12 June 1858. Following the July 1936 coup d'etat in Spain, the acting military commander in Toledo, José Moscardó, refused to provide weapons to Madrid and hid instead in the alcázar with a garrison of about 1,000 rebels, food, ammunition and some hostages. After 21 July, they became subject to an unsuccessful siege by forces loyal to the Republic during the early stages of the Spanish Civil War. Leading rebel general (and soon-to-be "caudillo") Francisco Franco and his Army of Africa took a detour from their advance towards Madrid (that gave time to the Republicans to build up the defenses in Madrid and receive early foreign support) and lifted the siege of the alcázar in late September 1936. The two months of resistance of the garrisoned rebel military would become a core symbolical feature of the mythology built around the Francoist regime and its ideology. In the late 20th century, Toledo became the de facto capital of the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha, hosting the seat of the Cortes of Castilla–La Mancha and the presidency of the regional government. Climate Toledo has a typical cold semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk). Winters are cool while summers are hot and dry. Precipitation is low and mainly concentrated in the period mid autumn through to mid spring. The highest temperature ever recorded in Toledo was on 13 August 2021; the lowest was on 12 January 2021. Economy The metal-working industry has historically been Toledo's economic base, with a great tradition in the manufacturing of swords and knives and a significant production of razor blades, medical devices and electrical products. (The Toledo Blade, the American newspaper in Toledo's Ohio namesake city, is named in honor of the sword-making tradition.) Soap and toothpaste industries, flour milling, glass and ceramics have also been important. Goya Foods has its Madrid offices in Toledo. The manufacture of swords in the city of Toledo goes back to Roman times, but it was under Moorish rule and during the Reconquista that Toledo and its guild of sword-makers played a key role. Between the 15th and 17th centuries the Toledo sword-making industry enjoyed a great boom, to the point where its products came to be regarded as the best in Europe. Swords and daggers were made by individual craftsmen, although the sword-makers guild oversaw their quality. In the late 17th and early 18th century production began to decline, prompting the creation of the Royal Arms Factory in 1761 by order of King Carlos III. The Royal Factory brought together all the sword-makers guilds of the city and it was located in the former mint. In 1777, recognizing the need to expand the space, Carlos III commissioned the architect Sabatini to construct a new building on the outskirts of the city. This was the beginning of several phases of expansion. Its importance was such that it eventually developed into a city within the city of Toledo. In the 20th century, the production of knives and swords for the army was reduced to cavalry weapons only, and after the Spanish Civil War, to the supply of swords to the officers and NCOs of the various military units. Following the closure of the factory in the 1980s, the building was renovated to house the campus of the Technological University of Castilla-La Mancha in Toledo. According to the Statistical Institute of Castilla-La Mancha, in 2007 the recent distribution of employment by sectors of occupation was as follows: 86.5% of the population engaged in the services, 6.6% in construction, 5.4% in industry and 1.5% in agriculture and livestock. Unemployment In the decade to 2008, unemployment in absolute terms remained fairly stable in the city of Toledo, but in 2009 this figure increased significantly: nearly 62% compared to 2008, with the number of unemployed rising from 2,515 to 4,074 (figures at 31 March each year), according to the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha. Of this 62%, one third of the increase took place in the first quarter. According to other statistics from the same source, almost half the unemployed in the city of Toledo (1,970 persons) are among those whose education does not go beyond the compulsory secondary level. However, there are groups whose level of studies is such that they have not been registered as unemployed, such as those who have completed class 1 professional training, or those with virtually nonexistent unemployment rates (less than 0.1%), which is the case of unemployed with high school degrees or professional expertise. The largest group among the unemployed is those who have no qualifications (27.27%). Politics Toledo has a 25-member City Council, elected by closed lists every four years. The 2011 election saw a pact made between the 11 members of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the 2 members of the United Left, to retain the position of the PSOE's Emiliano García-Page Sánchez as mayor, which he has been since 2007. Culture The old city is located on a mountaintop with a 150-degree view, surrounded on three sides by a bend in the Tagus River, and contains many historical sites, including the Alcázar, the cathedral (the primate church of Spain), and the Zocodover, a central market place. From the 4th century to the 16th century about thirty synods were held at Toledo. The earliest, directed against Priscillian, assembled in 400. At the synod of 589 the Visigothic King Reccared declared his conversion from Arianism to Catholicism; the synod of 633 decreed uniformity of catholic liturgy throughout the Visigothic kingdom and took stringent measures against baptized Jews who had relapsed into their former faith. Other councils forbade circumcision, Jewish rites and observance of the Sabbath and festivals. Throughout the seventh century, Jews were flogged, executed, had their property confiscated, were subjected to ruinous taxes, forbidden to trade and, at times, dragged to the baptismal font. The council of 681 assured to the archbishop of Toledo the primacy of Spain. At Guadamur, very close to Toledo, was dug in 1858 the Treasure of Guarrazar, the best example of Visigothic art in Spain. As nearly one hundred early canons of Toledo found a place in the Decretum Gratiani, they exerted an important influence on the development of ecclesiastical law. The synod of 1565–1566 concerned itself with the execution of the decrees of the Council of Trent; and the last council held at Toledo, 1582–1583, was guided in detail by Philip II. Toledo had large communities of Muslims and Jews until they were expelled from Spain in 1492 (Jews) and 1502 (Mudéjars). Today's city contains the religious monuments the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca, the Synagogue of El Transito, Mosque of Cristo de la Luz and the church of San Sebastián dating from before the expulsion, still maintained in good condition. Among Ladino-speaking Sephardi Jews, in their various diasporas, the family name Toledano is still prevalent – indicating an ancestry traced back to this city (the name is also attested among non-Jews in various Spanish-speaking countries). In the 13th century, Toledo was a major cultural centre under the guidance of Alfonso X, called "El Sabio" ("the Wise") for his love of learning. The Toledo School of Translators, that had commenced under Archbishop Raymond of Toledo, continued to bring vast stores of knowledge to Europe by rendering great academic and philosophical works in Arabic into Latin. The Palacio de Galiana, built in the Mudéjar style, is one of the monuments that remain from that period. The Cathedral of Toledo (Catedral de Toledo) was built between 1226 and 1493 and modeled after the Bourges Cathedral, though it also combines some characteristics of the Mudéjar style. It is remarkable for its incorporation of light and features the Baroque altar called El Transparente, several stories high, with fantastic figures of stucco, paintings, bronze castings, and multiple colors of marble, a masterpiece of medieval mixed media by Narciso Tomé topped by the daily effect for just a few minutes of a shaft of light from which this feature of the cathedral derives its name. Two notable bridges secured access to Toledo across the Tajo, the Alcántara bridge and the later built San Martín bridge. The Monasterio de San Juan de los Reyes is a Franciscan monastery, built 1477–1504, in a remarkable combination of Gothic-Spanish-Flemish style with Mudéjar ornamentation. Toledo was home to El Greco for the latter part of his life, and is the subject of some of his most famous paintings, including The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, exhibited in the Church of Santo Tomé. When Philip II moved the royal court from Toledo to Madrid in 1561, the old city went into a slow decline from which it never recovered. Toledo steel Toledo has been a traditional sword-making, steel-working centre since about 500 BC, and came to the attention of Rome when used by Hannibal in the Punic Wars. Soon, it became a standard source of weaponry for Roman legions. Toledo steel was famed for its very high quality alloy, whereas Damascene steel, a competitor from the Middle Ages on, was also famed for a specific metal-working technique. Today there is a significant trade, and many shops offer all kinds of swords to their customers, whether historical or modern films swords, as well as medieval armors and from other times, which are also exported to other countries. Gastronomy Toledo's cuisine is grouped with that of Castile–La Mancha, well-set in its traditions and closely linked to hunting and grazing. A good number of recipes are the result of a combination of Moorish and Christian influences. Some of its specialties include lamb roast or stew, cochifrito, alubias con perdiz (beans with partridge) and perdiz estofoda (partridge stew), carcamusa, migas, gachas manchegas, and tortilla a la magra. In addition, in Toledo there are local versions of dishes from the nearby capital of Spain, Madrid, as is the case of the cocido toledano, La Mancha version of the famous Madrid stew. Two of the city's most famous food productions are Manchego cheese and marzipan, which has a Protected Geographical Indication (mazapán de Toledo). Holidays Virgen del Valle: This pilgrimage is celebrated on May 1 at the Ermita de la Virgen del Valle, with a concentration popular holiday in that place. Holy Week: Declared of National Tourist Interest, is held in spring with various processions, highlighting those that take place on Good Friday, and religious and cultural events. Since the Civil War, most of the steps were burned or destroyed, so it had to create new steps or using images from other churches and convents Toledo. Many people take advantage of the Easter break to visit the monastery churches that are only open to the general public at this time of year. Corpus Christi: Feast declared International Tourist Interest. Its origins lie in the thirteenth century. The processional cortege travels around of streets and richly decorated awnings. In recent years, following the transfer of the traditional holiday Thursday present Sunday, was chosen to conduct two processions, one each of these days, with certain differences in members and protocol between them. [43] Virgen del Sagrario: On August 15 they celebrate the festival in honor of the Virgen del Sagrario. Procession is held inside the Cathedral and drinking water of the Virgin in jars. Main sights The city of Toledo was declared a Historic-Artistic Site in 1940, UNESCO later given the title of World Heritage in 1987. Sights include: Tomb of Saint Beatrice of Silva, founder of the Order of the Immaculate Conception, at the Conceptionist Monastery of Toledo. Castillo de San Servando, medieval castle near the banks of the Tagus river and the Infantry Academy. The Gothic Cathedral, dating from the thirteenth century. Inside there is the Clear from Narciso Tome, in Baroque. Monasterio de San Juan de los Reyes, in Isabelline Gothic style (15th century). The Renaissance Museo-Hospital de Santa Cruz (16th century). El Greco Museum, a house-museum designed as a recreation of the artist's home, which was lost centuries ago. It houses several important paintings. Santa María la Blanca, the oldest synagogue building in Europe still standing, now owned by the Catholic Church. Synagogue of El Transito, in the Jewish Quarter. It is home to the Sephardic Museum. Hospital de Tavera Museum Duque de Lerma. Renaissance style, dates from the sixteenth century. Influenced the layout of El Escorial. Church of Santiago del Arrabal, in Mudéjar style. Iglesia de Santo Tome. Mudéjar style, the fourteenth century, houses the famous Burial of Count Orgaz, by El Greco. El Cristo de la Luz, a small mosque-oratory built in 999, later extended with Mudéjar apse for conversion into a church. Galiana Palace (13th century), in Mudéjar style. Tornerías Mosque (11th century). Alcazar fortress (16th century), located in the highest part of town, overlooking the city. From 2009 it houses the collection of the Army Museum. Iglesia de San Andrés, In its crypt are 60 mummies of infantes, dukes, nuns and others, in a good state of preservation, open to visitors. Puerta Bab al-Mardum (10th century), the oldest city gate of Toledo. Puerta de Bisagra Antigua (10th century), the main entrance to the city in Andalusian times. Also known as "Puerta de Alfonso VI". Puerta del Sol (14th century), built by the Knights Hospitallers. Puerta de Bisagra Nueva (16th century), of Moorish origin re-built by Alonso de Covarrubias. The main entrance and face of Toledo today. Puerta del Cambrón, of Muslim origin, re-built in the 16th century. San Román (Museum of the Councils and Visigoth culture). Ermita del Cristo de la Vega, in Mudéjar style (11th century). Alcántara bridge, Roman bridge across the Tagus. Puente de San Martin, medieval bridge across the Tagus. To mark the fourth centenary of the publication of the first part of Don Quixote, the Council of Communities of Castile–La Mancha designed a series of routes through the region crossing the various points cited in the novel. Known as the Route of Don Quixote, two of the pathways designated, sections 1 and 8, are based in Toledo; those linking the city with La Mancha Castile and Montes de Toledo exploit the natural route which passes through the Cigarrales and heads to Cobisa, Nambroca Burguillos of Toledo, where it takes the Camino Real from Sevilla to suddenly turn towards Mascaraque Almonacid de Toledo, deep into their surroundings, near Mora, in La Mancha. This stretch, Mascaraque-Toledo, of the Route of Don Quixote has recently been included in an official way on the Camino de Santiago in Levantine branch with origins in Cartagena, Alicante and Valencia, as both routes are declared a European Cultural Route on this stretch. Infrastructure Toledo has long been an obligatory stop in the centre of the peninsula. The roads leading to historic Toledo are still used and in many cases have provided the basis to existing roads leading into the city. Roads From Toledo part of N-400, which links this city with Cuenca by Ocaña and Tarancón. It is currently in the process of transformation in the future A-40 motorway Castilla La Mancha, which will link Maqueda (where it joins the motorway Extremadura), Toledo, Ocaña (where it attaches to the Motorway of Andalusia), Tarancón (where connects with the motorway Levante), Cuenca and Teruel. The old National Road 401 Madrid-Toledo-Ciudad Real was transformed in the late 1980s into the current A-42 as a result of splitting and deleting the path that the various crossings counted (Illescas, Yuncos, etc.). The split path can take south of Toledo, in effect Ciudad Real, where it continues as conventional road. At this point, the A-42 connects with the Highway of the Vineyard that reaches Tomelloso. It is planned to extend the A-42, by a toll road, to Ciudad Real and Jaén. In the early twenty-first century the toll motorway AP-41 was built, in order to reduce traffic congestion between Toledo and Madrid. Another way of State Highway Network that Toledo is part of the N-403, Toledo-Maqueda – Ávila – Adanero. Part of the route of this road will be replaced by that of the aforementioned Highway of Castilla La Mancha. In addition to these roads, several regional and provincial-level roads depart from Toledo linking the city with the regions of Montes de Toledo, La Jara and La Mancha. Rail In the mid-nineteenth century Toledo was one of the first Spanish cities to receive rail service, with the arrival of the Madrid – Aranjuez line, which was inaugurated by Isabella II on June 12 of 1858. The current station, Toledo Railway Station (built in Neo-Mudéjar style), was opened on April 24 of 1919. The line suffered some technical issues and service disruptions, but continued to serve as the main intercity route until the early twenty-first century. On 2 July, 2003 the last conventional train service between the two capitals ended and work began on a high-speed link to Madrid, which entered service on November 16 of 2005. The new line reduced the travel time to Madrid to just under 30 minutes. Health In the early 1960s began the construction of the Residence Health Social Security "Virgen de la Salud". The original building still remains in use, although successive extensions were added (maternity, outpatient clinics, operating rooms, etc.) into the existing complex. The complex was also extended to move the clinic to a new nearby building, now converted into Specialty Centre San Ildefonso. The , inaugurated on 7 October 1974, became a centre of reference at the national level in the treatment of spinal cord injuries. It also focuses on the social integration of their patients. The transfer of powers from the state health at the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha will give new impetus to the health infrastructure, manifested in 2007 with the commencement of construction of the new General Hospital of Toledo in Santa María de Benquerencia. Also have been provided to the different parts of the relevant health centres. In the Toledo Hospital Complex [36] is also integrated Geriatric Hospital Virgen del Valle, a result of reform and modernization of old tuberculosis hospital built in the mid twentieth century. The centre is located outside the city, near the Parador Nacional de Turismo Conde de Orgaz. With regard to private health, at present the city of Toledo has several centres: Hospital de las Tres Culturas, Clínica Nuestra Señora del Rosario, and so on. Sport Toledo suffered from a shortage of sports facilities. Much of this problem was resolved when the Central School of Physical Education of the Army moved its headquarters to the premises of the Academy of Infantry. In the 1990s, the city council took over the old facilities of the military centre, which now include an athletics track, Olympic swimming pool and an indoor sports hall, from the former military installations, and numerous outdoor courts built in the area of the former runway of application, having been demolished and the old gym complex pools (indoor and outdoor). Besides these facilities, the city of Toledo has covered sports pavilions in the districts of Santa María de Benquerencia, Santa Bárbara, San Antón (Complejo Deportivo "Leaping Horse"), outdoor pools in sugar, Palomarejos, Santa María de Benquerencia, Santa Barbara, Santa Teresa and indoor swimming pools in the gardens of the Alcazar (old town), Santa María de Benquerencia and San Antonio. Toledo has a football team, CD Toledo, founded on 24 April 1928. Their home turf is the Estadio Salto del Caballo, inaugurated on 23 November 1973. The team played for 7 seasons in the Segunda División, during which it reached the play-off final for promotion to La Liga at the end of the 1993–94 season, losing 4–1 on aggregate to Real Valladolid. Toledo players have included Abel Resino, Luis Garcia, former Arsenal coach Unai Emery, Rufete and Casquero. In the 2020-21 season, CD Toledo will play in the Tercera División, the fourth tier of Spanish football. Toledo also has teams of handball. The Toledo Handball, after five years in the Division de Honor B, start the 2009–2010 season as ASOBAL new club for the first time in its history. A refurbished town hall "Javier Lozano Cid ', with capacity for around 1,500 spectators, is its new headquarters. Moreover, the city has two other Division II team in the National, the Toledo Handball Lábaro-B and Club Deportivo Amibal. Toledo has two basketball teams: the CIS Toledo, with a long history that has gone through ups and downs in both regional and in national leagues (EBA) and has just promoted to 1st Autonomic, and CB Polígono, currently the most representative, whose team has promoted male, seven years after leaving, to EBA League to start the 2009/10 season. This club based in the Santa María de Benquerencia district and has one of the largest youth systems of Castilla-La Mancha. Toledo has been represented in athletics since 2 April 1979 by the Toledo Athletic Club, that is characterised by its actions, mainly in cross-country, where he managed a large number of medals in the championships team Spain's specialty, in addition to their combined male and female military in the late 1990s in the 1st division league national track. Among the athletes who have passed through its lanes are great athletes as Julio Rey, Roberto Parra, Chema Martinez and Julia Lobato. Cycling, meanwhile, after the victory in the Tour de France in 1959 by Federico Bahamontes, 'The Eagle of Toledo', has been one of the sports with more followers in the city, although, at present, no school despite having a velodrome in Santa María de Benquerencia. Other leading professional cyclists from the city have been Nemesio Jiménez (Mexico Olympics 1968) and Ángel de las Heras. The FS and Volleyball Toledo Toledo Association Toledo complete representation in the National League of First and Second Division, after a brief journey in Fantasy, respectively, while the Toledo Rugby Club, with many fans, is immersed in the League Madrid's Primera Liga. At the individual level, the swimmer Javier Noriega and Julio Rey marathon athletes are more representative of the city, both in Athens Olympics 2004 and Beijing Olympics 2008, in recent years. Rey, Spanish current marathon record holder, with 2h.06:52, announced his retirement in October 2009. Media Various local and provincial newspapers are published in the city. In addition, national newspapers such as the daily ABC publish unique local editions. Among the local newspapers are the subscription-based La Tribuna de Toledo, and Toledo Day, as well as the free Global Castilla la Mancha and Toledo News. The general information weekly magazines Echoes and Here are also published. There is also local media in television, radio, and Internet. The regional public television headquarters, CMT, are in Toledo. In addition, there are several local television stations, as well as local fare: the diocesan Popular TV, Teletoledo, Canal Regional de Noticia and La Tribuna TV. For radio stations, there is the dean of radio Radio Toledo (Onda Cero), as well as COPE, Cadena SER, RNE, RCM and Radio Aquí, and the local fare Onda Polígono and the diocesan station Radio Santa Maria. Within the digital and social media, Onda Toledo, Toledo Magic, Toledo Digital, and La Cerca. Twin towns – sister cities Toledo is twinned with: Aachen, Germany (1984) Agen, France (1973) Corpus Christi, Texas, United States (1989) Damascus, Syria (1994) Guanajuato City, Mexico (1978) Heraklion, Greece (2014) Nara, Japan (1972) Old Havana, Cuba (2005) Safed, Israel (1981) Toledo, Ohio, United States (1931) Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria (1983) See also Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain Councils of Toledo Toledo School of Translators Toledo steel Iglesia de San Andrés, Toledo Palacio de Galiana Cerro del Bu History of Toledo, Spain Artificio de Juanelo List of people from Toledo, Spain References Informational notes Citations External links Municipality Exhibit on Toledo, Ohio Sister City Agreement Photography of Toledo by Antony Marsh "La Historia de Fermosa". Abraham S. Marrache, Hebraica Ediciones 2009, a historical novel in Spanish about the love affair in 1179 between King Alfonso VIII of Castile and the young Toledan Jew, Fermosa. Sunset in Toledo, Eretz Acheret Magazine Legends of Toledo Spain's official website – Info about Toledo Castilla–La Mancha Historic Jewish communities Archaeological sites in Spain Roman sites in Spain Roman towns and cities in Spain World Heritage Sites in Spain

The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck (Lo) is a serial of 12 comic book stories written and drawn by Don Rosa, lettered by Todd Klein (American editions), first published by the Danish publisher Egmont in the magazine Anders And & Co. from 1992–94 and later in English in Uncle Scrooge #285 through #296 (1994–96). The stories chronicle the in-universe biography of Scrooge McDuck before his introduction in 1947. The stories were later collected and published together in a single volume. Rosa later published additional stories which expanded on Scrooge's biography. These were released as The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion. The story follows the main events of Scrooge's life between 1877 and 1947, including almost all references found in Carl Barks stories about Scrooge's life until 1947 but leaving some room for Rosa and other creators to add more details later. The comic also provides information on the backgrounds and origins of many characters related to Scrooge. Don Rosa earned the Will Eisner Award for Best Serialized Story in 1995 for this work. The trade paperback collection was also a top vote-getter for the Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award for Favorite Reprint Graphic Novel/Album for 1997. After being out of print for several years with high demand, the book was reprinted under the BOOM! Studios label in two deluxe hardcover volumes. The Finnish composer Tuomas Holopainen released a concept album based on the book, titled Music Inspired by the Life and Times of Scrooge. Don Rosa illustrated the cover artwork for the album. Chapter list Note: Chapters Zero, and all "in-between" chapters with B or C added to the numbers are not included in the softcover collection in North America. These chapters were later reprinted in a separate book published by Gemstone, titled The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion. The 12 original chapters The additional "in-between" stories Scrooge McDuck timeline according to Rosa 1867: Scrooge was born in Glasgow, Scotland to Fergus McDuck and Downy O'Drake. He would have two younger sisters, namely Matilda McDuck (born in 1871) and Hortense McDuck (born in 1876). 1877: Scrooge, age 10, goes into business with a shoeshine kit that Fergus built for him, but his first customer fools him and pays him with an American dime (which was actually a plan of his father's). He keeps the dime he cannot spend as his symbol of success. 1880: Scrooge, age 13, emigrates to the United States. He first meets his uncle, Mississippi riverboater Angus "Pothole" McDuck, and the Beagle Boys, a family of outlaws that remain his enemies for the rest of his life. 1882: His uncle retires and leaves his riverboat, named Dilly Dollar, to Scrooge, now 15 years old. The Beagle Boys destroy the riverboat in an act of revenge. Scrooge decides to try his luck in the American West and later in the year gets hired as a cowboy by cattle baron Murdo MacKenzie (an actual historical figure, one of the many that Scrooge met). 1883: Scrooge, age 16, becomes a miner searching for silver and copper. 1885: Scrooge's father calls his son back to Scotland on an important family matter. Just a week before he leaves he meets and befriends the millionaire Howard Rockerduck, who had become rich in the California gold rush of 1849. He also meets Howard's seven-year-old spoiled son John D. Rockerduck, who will grow up to become one of Scrooge's main rivals. 1886–1889: Scrooge, age 19–22, searches for gold in South Africa (during the Witwatersrand Gold Rush). During his first year there he saves the life of a duck about his age named Flintheart Glomgold, though Scrooge learns his name more than half a century later. A little later they become bitter enemies, and remain as such for the rest of their lives. Glomgold later became the second richest duck in the world. 1889–1893: Scrooge, age 22–26, returns to the United States to search for gold, most notably near Pizen Bluff, Arizona. He meets many famous historical figures but his search fails. 1893–1896: Scrooge, age 26–29, goes to Coolgardie, Western Australia to search for gold but his search again fails. 1896–1899: Scrooge, age 29–32, searches for gold in the Klondike. During his years there he meets the saloon owner, singer and occasional thief "Glittering" Goldie O'Gilt. He carries a love/hate relationship with her for the rest of his life. His search for gold succeeds. 1897: Scrooge's mother Downy O'Drake dies, aged 57, in Dismal Downs. Scrooge is now 30. 1899–1902: Scrooge, at 32, becomes a millionaire and buys a bank in Whitehorse, Yukon. He starts building a small financial empire; by 1902, at 35, he has become a billionaire. 1902: Scrooge, age 35, returns to Scotland intending to make Castle McDuck at Dismal Downs the heart of his empire, but he soon finds local culture too stagnant and decides to return to America. His sisters Matilda McDuck and Hortense McDuck go to America with him. Also in 1902, Scrooge's father Fergus McDuck dies, aged 67, in Dismal Downs. Scrooge, Matilda and Hortense are the last of the McDuck clan. Scrooge settles in the small village of Duckburg, Calisota, United States, which he chose as his home base. 1909–1930: While his sisters remain in Duckburg and run his empire, Scrooge, age 42–63, travels the world expanding his empire in every continent. 1930: Scrooge, at 63, becomes the richest duck in the world, but a fight with his family leaves him with no contact with them for the next seventeen years. Note that during this year he met his ten-year-old nephew Donald Duck and his nephew's twin sister Della Duck for the first time. (It was possibly the only time Scrooge met his niece Della, ignoring the girl completely.) 1942: Scrooge, age 75, feels depressed and tired and decides to retire. 1947: Scrooge, age 80, meets his nephew Donald Duck, now age 27, as well as his grandnephews, Della's children, Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck, who are under Donald's care. He decides to become active again and soon a circle of activities whirl around him as he attracts the attention of relatives, old and new enemies and friends. 1955: Scrooge, age 88, is reunited and reconciled with his sister Matilda, thanks to Donald (In the story "A Letter From Home"). 1967: According to Don Rosa's unofficial timeline, Scrooge McDuck died at the age of 100 years after a life of adventure. Historical figures appearing in the work Several notable historical figures appear in the series: John Jacob Astor IV Phineas Taylor Barnum Roy Bean Buffalo Bill Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid The Dalton Gang Marcus Daly Wyatt Earp Geronimo Esteban Huertas Frank and Jesse James Jack London Macbeth, King of Scotland Murdo MacKenzie Bat Masterson William Henry Moody Capt. E. Moore Nicholas II of Russia Annie Oakley Parita Robert Peary Edith Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt Captain George R. Shanton, Canal Zone Police John Frank Stevens Royal Canadian Mounted Police Colonel Sam Steele Other notable historical figures mentioned include: Manuel Amador Guerrero Philippe Bunau-Varilla "Gentleman Jim" Corbett Sitting Bull John Philip Sousa Collected editions References External links The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck at the INDUCKS The Making of The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck 1992 comics debuts 1994 comics endings Humor graphic novels Eisner Award winners Western (genre) comics Comedy-drama comics Comics set in the 19th century Fiction set in the 1870s Fiction set in the 1880s Fiction set in the 1890s Comics set in the 1900s Comics set in the 1910s Comics set in the 1920s Comics set in the 1930s Comics set in the 1940s Scrooge McDuck Disney comics stories Disney comics titles

Tel Aviv-Yafo (, Tel Aviv-Yafo ; , Tall ʾAbīb-Yāfā), often referred to as just Tel Aviv, is the most populous city in the Gush Dan metropolitan area of Israel. Located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline and with a population of , it is the economic and technological center of the country. If East Jerusalem is considered part of Israel, Tel Aviv is the country's second most populous city after Jerusalem; if not, Tel Aviv is the most populous city ahead of West Jerusalem. Tel Aviv is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, headed by Mayor Ron Huldai, and is home to many foreign embassies. It is a beta+ world city and is ranked 41st in the Global Financial Centres Index. Tel Aviv has the third- or fourth-largest economy and the largest economy per capita in the Middle East. The city currently has the highest cost of living in the world. Tel Aviv receives over 2.5 million international visitors annually. A "party capital" in the Middle East, it has a lively nightlife and 24-hour culture. Tel Aviv has been called The World's Vegan Food Capital, as it possesses the highest per capita population of vegans in the world, with many vegan eateries throughout the city. Tel Aviv is home to Tel Aviv University, the largest university in the country with more than 30,000 students. The city was founded in 1909 by the Yishuv (Jewish residents) as a modern housing estate on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa, then part of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem within the Ottoman Empire. It was at first called 'Ahuzat Bayit' (lit. "House Estate" or "Homestead"), the name of the association which established the neighbourhood. Its name was changed the following year to 'Tel Aviv', after the biblical name Tel Abib adopted by Nahum Sokolow as the title for his Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzl's 1902 novel Altneuland ("Old New Land"). Other Jewish suburbs of Jaffa established before Tel Aviv eventually became part of Tel Aviv, the oldest among them being Neve Tzedek (est. 1886). Tel Aviv was given "township" status within the Jaffa Municipality in 1921, and became independent from Jaffa in 1934. After the 1947–1949 Palestine war Tel Aviv began the municipal annexation of parts of Jaffa, fully unified with Jaffa under the name "Tel Aviv" in April 1950, and was renamed to "Tel Aviv-Yafo" in August 1950. Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced that of Jaffa, which had a majority Arab population at the time. Tel Aviv and Jaffa were later merged into a single municipality in 1950, two years after the Israeli Declaration of Independence, which was proclaimed in the city. Tel Aviv's White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, comprises the world's largest concentration of International Style buildings, including Bauhaus and other related modernist architectural styles. Etymology and origins Tel Aviv is the Hebrew title of Theodor Herzl's Altneuland ("Old New Land"), translated from German by Nahum Sokolow. Sokolow had adopted the name of a Mesopotamian site near the city of Babylon mentioned in Ezekiel: "Then I came to them of the captivity at Tel Aviv, that lived by the river Chebar, and to where they lived; and I sat there overwhelmed among them seven days." The name was chosen in 1910 from several suggestions, including "Herzliya". It was found fitting as it embraced the idea of a renaissance in the ancient Jewish homeland. Aviv is Hebrew for "spring", symbolizing renewal, and tel is an artificial mound created over centuries through the accumulation of successive layers of civilization built one over the other and symbolizing the ancient. Although founded in 1909 as a small settlement on the sand dunes north of Jaffa, Tel Aviv was envisaged as a future city from the start. Its founders hoped that in contrast to what they perceived as the squalid and unsanitary conditions of neighbouring Arab towns, Tel Aviv was to be a clean and modern city, inspired by the European cities of Warsaw and Odessa. The marketing pamphlets advocating for its establishment stated: History Jaffa The walled city of Jaffa was the only urban centre in the general area where now Tel Aviv is located in early modern times. Jaffa was an important port city in the region for millennia. Archaeological evidence shows signs of human settlement there starting in roughly 7,500 BC. The city was established around 1,800 BC at the latest. Its natural harbour has been used since the Bronze Age. By the time Tel Aviv was founded as a separate city during Ottoman rule of the region, Jaffa had been ruled by the Canaanites, Egyptians, Philistines, Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Phoenicians, Ptolemies, Seleucids, Hasmoneans, Romans, Byzantines, the early Islamic caliphates, Crusaders, Ayyubids, and Mamluks before coming under Ottoman rule in 1515. It had been fought over numerous times. The city is mentioned in ancient Egyptian documents, as well as the Hebrew Bible. Other ancient sites in Tel Aviv include: Tell Qasile, Tel Gerisa, Abattoir Hill. Tel Hashash and Tell Qudadi. During the First Aliyah in the 1880s, when Jewish immigrants began arriving in the region in significant numbers, new neighborhoods were founded outside Jaffa on the current territory of Tel Aviv. The first was Neve Tzedek, founded in 1887 by Mizrahi Jews due to overcrowding in Jaffa and built on lands owned by Aharon Chelouche. Other neighborhoods were Neve Shalom (1890), Yafa Nof (1896), Achva (1899), Ohel Moshe (1904), Kerem HaTeimanim (1906), and others. Once Tel Aviv received city status in the 1920s, those neighborhoods joined the newly formed municipality, now becoming separated from Jaffa. 1904–1917: Foundation in the Late Ottoman Period The Second Aliyah led to further expansion. In 1906, a group of Jews, among them residents of Jaffa, followed the initiative of Akiva Aryeh Weiss and banded together to form the Ahuzat Bayit (lit. "homestead") society. One of the society's goals was to form a "Hebrew urban centre in a healthy environment, planned according to the rules of aesthetics and modern hygiene." The urban planning for the new city was influenced by the garden city movement. The first 60 plots were purchased in Kerem Djebali near Jaffa by Jacobus Kann, a Dutch citizen, who registered them in his name to circumvent the Turkish prohibition on Jewish land acquisition. Meir Dizengoff, later Tel Aviv's first mayor, also joined the Ahuzat Bayit society. His vision for Tel Aviv involved peaceful co-existence with Arabs. On 11 April 1909, 66 Jewish families gathered on a desolate sand dune to parcel out the land by lottery using seashells. This gathering is considered the official date of the establishment of Tel Aviv. The lottery was organised by Akiva Aryeh Weiss, president of the building society. Weiss collected 120 sea shells on the beach, half of them white and half of them grey. The members' names were written on the white shells and the plot numbers on the grey shells. A boy drew names from one box of shells and a girl drew plot numbers from the second box. A photographer, Abraham Soskin, documented the event. The first water well was later dug at this site, located on what is today Rothschild Boulevard, across from Dizengoff House. Within a year, Herzl, Ahad Ha'am, Yehuda Halevi, Lilienblum, and Rothschild streets were built; a water system was installed; and 66 houses (including some on six subdivided plots) were completed. At the end of Herzl Street, a plot was allocated for a new building for the Herzliya Hebrew High School, founded in Jaffa in 1906. The cornerstone for the building was laid on 28 July 1909. The town was originally named Ahuzat Bayit. On 21 May 1910, the name Tel Aviv was adopted. The flag and city arms of Tel Aviv (see above) contain under the red Star of David 2 words from the biblical book of Jeremiah: "I (God) will build You up again and you will be rebuilt." (Jer 31:4) Tel Aviv was planned as an independent Hebrew city with wide streets and boulevards, running water for each house, and street lights. By 1914, Tel Aviv had grown to more than . In 1915 a census of Tel Aviv was conducted, recording a population 2,679. However, growth halted in 1917 when the Ottoman authorities expelled the residents of Jaffa and Tel Aviv as a wartime measure. A report published in The New York Times by United States Consul Garrels in Alexandria, Egypt described the Jaffa deportation of early April 1917. The orders of evacuation were aimed chiefly at the Jewish population. Jews were free to return to their homes in Tel Aviv at the end of the following year when, with the end of World War I and the defeat of the Ottomans, the British took control of Palestine. The town had rapidly become an attraction to immigrants, with a local activist writing: British administration 1917–34: Townships within the Jaffa Municipality A master plan for the Tel Aviv township was created by Patrick Geddes, 1925, based on the garden city movement. The plan consisted of four main features: a hierarchical system of streets laid out in a grid, large blocks consisting of small-scale domestic dwellings, the organization of these blocks around central open spaces, and the concentration of cultural institutions to form a civic center. Tel Aviv, along with the rest of the Jaffa municipality, was conquered by the British imperial army in late 1917 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I and became part of British-administered Mandatory Palestine until 1948. Tel Aviv, established as suburb of Jaffa, received "township" or local council status within the Jaffa Municipality in 1921. According to a census conducted in 1922 by the British Mandate authorities, the Tel Aviv township had a population of 15,185 inhabitants, consisting of 15,065 Jews, 78 Muslims and 42 Christians. Increasing in the 1931 census to 46,101, in 12,545 houses. With increasing Jewish immigration during the British administration, friction between Arabs and Jews in Palestine increased. On 1 May 1921, the Jaffa riots resulted in the deaths of 48 Arabs and 47 Jews and injuries to 146 Jews and 73 Arabs. In the wake of this violence, many Jews left Jaffa for Tel Aviv. The population of Tel Aviv increased from 2,000 in 1920 to around 34,000 by 1925. Tel Aviv began to develop as a commercial center. In 1923, Tel Aviv was the first town to be wired to electricity in Palestine, followed by Jaffa later in the same year. The opening ceremony of the Jaffa Electric Company powerhouse, on 10 June 1923, celebrated the lighting of the two main streets of Tel Aviv. In 1925, the Scottish biologist, sociologist, philanthropist and pioneering town planner Patrick Geddes drew up a master plan for Tel Aviv which was adopted by the city council led by Meir Dizengoff. Geddes's plan for developing the northern part of the district was based on Ebenezer Howard's garden city movement. While most of the northern area of Tel Aviv was built according to this plan, the influx of European refugees in the 1930s necessitated the construction of taller apartment buildings on a larger footprint in the city. Ben Gurion House was built in 1930–31, part of a new workers' housing development. At the same time, Jewish cultural life was given a boost by the establishment of the Ohel Theatre and the decision of Habima Theatre to make Tel Aviv its permanent base in 1931. 1934 municipal independence from Jaffa Tel Aviv was granted the status of an independent municipality separate from Jaffa in 1934. The Jewish population rose dramatically during the Fifth Aliyah after the Nazis came to power in Germany. By 1937 the Jewish population of Tel Aviv had risen to 150,000, compared to Jaffa's mainly Arab 69,000 residents. Within two years, it had reached 160,000, which was over a third of Palestine's total Jewish population. Many new Jewish immigrants to Palestine disembarked in Jaffa, and remained in Tel Aviv, turning the city into a center of urban life. Friction during the 1936–39 Arab revolt led to the opening of a local Jewish port, Tel Aviv Port, independent of Jaffa, in 1938. It closed on 25 October 1965. Lydda Airport (later Ben Gurion Airport) and Sde Dov Airport opened between 1937 and 1938. Many German Jewish architects trained at the Bauhaus, the Modernist school of architecture in Germany, and left Germany during the 1930s. Some, like Arieh Sharon, came to Palestine and adapted the architectural outlook of the Bauhaus and similar schools to the local conditions there, creating what is recognized as the largest concentration of buildings in the International Style in the world. Tel Aviv's White City emerged in the 1930s, and became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. During World War II, Tel Aviv was hit by Italian airstrikes on 9 September 1940, which killed 137 people in the city. During the Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine, Jewish Irgun and Lehi guerrillas launched repeated attacks against British military, police, and government targets in the city. In 1946, following the King David Hotel bombing, the British carried out Operation Shark, in which the entire city was searched for Jewish militants and most of the residents questioned, during which the entire city was placed under curfew. During the March 1947 martial law in Mandatory Palestine, Tel Aviv was placed under martial law by the British authorities for 15 days, with the residents kept under curfew for all but three hours a day as British forces scoured the city for militants. In spite of this, Jewish guerrilla attacks continued in Tel Aviv and other areas under martial law in Palestine. According to the 1947 UN Partition Plan for dividing Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, Tel Aviv, by then a city of 230,000, was to be included in the proposed Jewish state. Jaffa with, as of 1945, a population of 101,580 people—53,930 Muslims, 30,820 Jews and 16,800 Christians—was designated as part of the Arab state. Civil War broke out in the country and in particular between the neighbouring cities of Tel Aviv and Jaffa, which had been assigned to the Jewish and Arab states respectively. After several months of siege, on 13 May 1948, Jaffa fell and the Arab population fled en masse. State of Israel Independence When Israel declared Independence on 14 May 1948, the population of Tel Aviv was over 200,000. Tel Aviv was the temporary government center of the State of Israel until the government moved to Jerusalem in December 1949. Due to the international dispute over the status of Jerusalem, most embassies remained in or near Tel Aviv. Growth in the 1950s and 1960s The boundaries of Tel Aviv and Jaffa became a matter of contention between the Tel Aviv municipality and the Israeli government in 1948. The former wished to incorporate only the northern Jewish suburbs of Jaffa, while the latter wanted a more complete unification. The issue also had international sensitivity, since the main part of Jaffa was in the Arab portion of the United Nations Partition Plan, whereas Tel Aviv was not, and no armistice agreements had yet been signed. On 10 December 1948, the government announced the annexation to Tel Aviv of Jaffa's Jewish suburbs, the Palestinian neighborhood of Abu Kabir, the Arab village of Salama and some of its agricultural land, and the Jewish 'Hatikva' slum. On 25 February 1949, the depopulated Palestinian village of al-Shaykh Muwannis was also annexed to Tel Aviv. On 18 May 1949, Manshiya and part of Jaffa's central zone were added, for the first time including land that had been in the Arab portion of the UN partition plan. The government voted on the unification of Tel Aviv and Jaffa on 4 October 1949, but the decision was not implemented until 24 April 1950 due to the opposition of Tel Aviv mayor Israel Rokach. The name of the unified city was Tel Aviv until 19 August 1950, when it was renamed Tel Aviv-Yafo in order to preserve the historical name Jaffa. Tel Aviv thus grew to . In 1949, a memorial to the 60 founders of Tel Aviv was constructed. In the 1960s, some of the older buildings were demolished, making way for the country's first high-rises. The historic Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium was controversially demolished, to make way for the Shalom Meir Tower, which was completed in 1965, and remained Israel's tallest building until 1999. Tel Aviv's population peaked in the early 1960s at 390,000, representing 16 percent of the country's total. 1970s and 1980s population and urban decline By the early 1970s, Tel Aviv had entered a long and steady period of continuous population decline, which was accompanied by urban decay. By 1981, Tel Aviv had entered not just natural population decline, but an absolute population decline as well. In the late 1980s the city had an aging population of 317,000. Construction activity had moved away from the inner ring of Tel Aviv, and had moved to its outer perimeter and adjoining cities. A mass out-migration of residents from Tel Aviv, to adjoining cities like Petah Tikva and Rehovot, where better housing conditions were available, was underway by the beginning of the 1970s, and only accelerated by the Yom Kippur War. Cramped housing conditions and high property prices pushed families out of Tel Aviv and deterred young people from moving in. From the beginning of 1970s, the common image of Tel Aviv became that of a decaying city, as Tel Aviv's population fell 20%. In the 1970s, the apparent sense of Tel Aviv's urban decline became a theme in the work of novelists such as Yaakov Shabtai, in works describing the city such as Sof Davar (The End of Things) and Zikhron Devarim (The Memory of Things). A symptomatic article of 1980 asked "Is Tel Aviv Dying?" and portrayed what it saw as the city's existential problems: "Residents leaving the city, businesses penetrating into residential areas, economic and social gaps, deteriorating neighbourhoods, contaminated air - Is the First Hebrew City destined for a slow death? Will it become a ghost town?". However, others saw this as a transitional period. By the late 1980s, attitudes to the city's future had become markedly more optimistic. It had also become a center of nightlife and discotheques for Israelis who lived in the suburbs and adjoining cities. By 1989, Tel Aviv had acquired the nickname "Nonstop City", as a reflection of the growing recognition of its nightlife and 24/7 culture, and "Nonstop City" had to some extent replaced the former moniker of "First Hebrew City". The largest project built in this era was the Dizengoff Center, Israel's first shopping mall, which was completed in 1983. Other notable projects included the construction of Marganit Tower in 1987, the opening of the Suzanne Dellal Center for Dance and Theater in 1989, and the Tel Aviv Cinematheque (opened in 1973 and located to the current building in 1989). In the early 1980s, 13 embassies in Jerusalem moved to Tel Aviv as part of the UN's measures responding to Israel's 1980 Jerusalem Law. Today, most national embassies are located in Tel Aviv or environs. 1990s to present In the 1990s, the decline in Tel Aviv's population began to be reversed and stabilized, at first temporarily due to a wave of immigrants from the former Soviet Union. Tel Aviv absorbed 42,000 immigrants from the FSU, many educated in scientific, technological, medical and mathematical fields. In this period, the number of engineers in the city doubled. Tel Aviv soon began to emerge as a global high-tech center. The construction of many skyscrapers and high-tech office buildings followed. In 1993, Tel Aviv was categorized as a world city. However, the city's municipality struggled to cope with an influx of new immigrants. Tel Aviv's tax base had been shrinking for many years, as a result of its preceding long term population decline, and this meant there was little money available at the time to invest in the city's deteriorating infrastructure and housing. In 1998, Tel Aviv was on the "verge of bankruptcy". Economic difficulties would then be compounded by a wave of Palestinian suicide bombings in the city from the mid 1990s, to the end of the Second Intifada, as well as the Dot-com bubble, which affected the city's rapidly growing hi-tech sector. On 4 November 1995, Israel's prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin, was assassinated at a rally in Tel Aviv in support of the Oslo peace accord. The outdoor plaza where this occurred, formerly known as Kikar Malchei Yisrael, was renamed Rabin Square. New laws were introduced to protect Modernist buildings, and efforts to preserve them were aided by UNESCO recognition of the Tel Aviv's White City as a world heritage site in 2003. In the early 2000s, Tel Aviv municipality focused on attracting more young residents to the city. It made significant investment in major boulevards, to create attractive pedestrian corridors. Former industrial areas like the city's previously derelict Northern Tel Aviv Port and the Jaffa railway station, were upgraded and transformed into leisure areas. A process of gentrification began in some of the poor neighborhoods of southern Tel Aviv and many older buildings began to be renovated. The demographic profile of the city changed in the 2000s, as it began to attract a higher proportion of young residents. By 2012, 28 percent of the city's population was aged between 20 and 34 years old. Between 2007 and 2012, the city's population growth averaged 6.29 percent. As a result of its population recovery and industrial transition, the city's finances were transformed, and by 2012 it was running a budget surplus and maintained a credit rating of AAA+. In the 2000s and early 2010s, Tel Aviv received tens of thousands of illegal immigrants, primarily from Sudan and Eritrea, changing the demographic profile of areas of the city. In 2009, Tel Aviv celebrated its official centennial. In addition to city- and country-wide celebrations, digital collections of historical materials were assembled. These include the History section of the official Tel Aviv-Yafo Centennial Year website; the Ahuzat Bayit collection, which focuses on the founding families of Tel Aviv, and includes photographs and biographies; and Stanford University's Eliasaf Robinson Tel Aviv Collection, documenting the history of the city. Today, the city is regarded as a strong candidate for global city status. Over the past 60 years, Tel Aviv had developed into a secular, liberal-minded center with a vibrant nightlife and café culture. Arab–Israeli conflict In the Gulf War in 1991, Tel Aviv was attacked by Scud missiles from Iraq. Iraq hoped to provoke an Israeli military response, which could have destroyed the US–Arab alliance. The United States pressured Israel not to retaliate, and after Israel acquiesced, the US and Netherlands rushed Patriot missiles to defend against the attacks, but they proved largely ineffective. Tel Aviv and other Israeli cities continued to be hit by Scuds throughout the war, and every city in the Tel Aviv area except for Bnei Brak was hit. A total of 74 Israelis died as a result of the Iraqi attacks, mostly from suffocation and heart attacks, while approximately 230 Israelis were injured. Extensive property damage was also caused, and some 4,000 Israelis were left homeless. It was feared that Iraq would fire missiles filled with nerve agents or sarin. As a result, the Israeli government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. The inhabitants of the southeastern suburb of HaTikva erected an angel-monument as a sign of their gratitude that "it was through a great miracle, that many people were preserved from being killed by a direct hit of a Scud rocket." Since the First Intifada, Tel Aviv has suffered from Palestinian political violence. The first suicide attack in Tel Aviv occurred on 19 October 1994, on the Line 5 bus, when a bomber killed 22 civilians and injured 50 as part of a Hamas suicide campaign. On 6 March 1996, another Hamas suicide bomber killed 13 people (12 civilians and 1 soldier), many of them children, in the Dizengoff Center suicide bombing. Three women were killed by a Hamas terrorist in the Café Apropo bombing on 27 March 1997. One of the deadliest attacks occurred on 1 June 2001, during the Second Intifada, when a suicide bomber exploded at the entrance to the Dolphinarium discothèque, killing 21, mostly teenagers, and injuring 132. Another Hamas suicide bomber killed six civilians and injured 70 in the Allenby Street bus bombing. Twenty-three civilians were killed and over 100 injured in the Tel Aviv central bus station massacre. Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack. In the Mike's Place suicide bombing, an attack on a bar by a British Muslim suicide bomber resulted in the deaths of three civilians and wounded over 50. Hamas and Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed joint responsibility. An Islamic Jihad bomber killed five and wounded over 50 on 25 February 2005 Stage Club bombing. The most recent suicide attack in the city occurred on 17 April 2006, when 11 people were killed and at least 70 wounded in a suicide bombing near the old central bus station. Another attack took place on 29 August 2011 in which a Palestinian attacker stole an Israeli taxi cab and rammed it into a police checkpoint guarding the popular Haoman 17 nightclub in Tel Aviv which was filled with 2,000 Israeli teenagers. After crashing, the assailant went on a stabbing spree, injuring eight people. Due to an Israel Border Police roadblock at the entrance and immediate response of the Border Police team during the subsequent stabbings, a much larger and fatal mass-casualty incident was avoided. On 21 November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, the Tel Aviv area was targeted by rockets, and air raid sirens were sounded in the city for the first time since the Gulf War. All of the rockets either missed populated areas or were shot down by an Iron Dome rocket defense battery stationed near the city. During the operation, a bomb blast on a bus wounded at least 28 civilians, three seriously. This was described as a terrorist attack by Israel, Russia, and the United States and was condemned by the United Nations, United States, United Kingdom, France and Russia, whilst Hamas spokesman Sami Abu Zuhri declared that the organisation "blesses" the attack. More than 300 rockets were fired towards the Tel Aviv Metropolitan area in the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis. Geography Tel Aviv is located around on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline, in central Israel, the historic land bridge between Europe, Asia and Africa. Immediately north of the ancient port of Jaffa, Tel Aviv lies on land that used to be sand dunes and as such has relatively poor soil fertility. The land has been flattened and has no important gradients; its most notable geographical features are bluffs above the Mediterranean coastline and the Yarkon River mouth. Because of the expansion of Tel Aviv and the Gush Dan region, absolute borders between Tel Aviv and Jaffa and between the city's neighborhoods do not exist. The city is located northwest of Jerusalem and south of the city of Haifa. Neighboring cities and towns include Herzliya to the north, Ramat HaSharon to the northeast, Petah Tikva, Bnei Brak, Ramat Gan and Giv'atayim to the east, Holon to the southeast, and Bat Yam to the south. The city is economically stratified between the north and south. Southern Tel Aviv is considered less affluent than northern Tel Aviv with the exception of Neve Tzedek and northern and north-western Jaffa. Central Tel Aviv is home to Azrieli Center and the important financial and commerce district along Ayalon Highway. The northern side of Tel Aviv is home to Tel Aviv University, Hayarkon Park, and upscale residential neighborhoods such as Ramat Aviv and Afeka. Climate Tel Aviv has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), and enjoys plenty of sunshine throughout the year. Most precipitation falls in the form of rain between the months of October and April, with intervening dry summers. The average annual temperature is , and the average sea temperature is during the winter, and during the summer. The city averages of precipitation annually. Summers in Tel Aviv last about five months, from June to October. August, the warmest month, averages a high of , and a low of . The high relative humidity due to the location of the city by the Mediterranean Sea, in a combination with the high temperatures, creates a thermal discomfort during the summer. Summer low temperatures in Tel Aviv seldom drop below . Winters are mild and wet, with most of the annual precipitation falling within the months of December, January and February as intense rainfall and thunderstorms. In January, the coolest month, the average maximum temperature is , the minimum temperature averages . During the coldest days of winter, temperatures may vary between and . Both freezing temperatures and snowfall are extremely rare in the city. Autumns and springs are characterized by sharp temperature changes, with heat waves that might be created due to hot and dry air masses that arrive from the nearby deserts. During heatwaves in autumn and springs, temperatures usually climb up to and even up to , accompanied with exceptionally low humidity. An average day during autumn and spring has a high of to , and a low of to . The highest recorded temperature in Tel Aviv was on 17 May 1916, and the lowest is on 7 February 1950, during a cold wave that brought the only recorded snowfall in Tel Aviv. Local government Tel Aviv is governed by a 31-member city council elected for a five-year term in direct proportional elections. All Israeli citizens over the age of 18 with at least one year of residence in Tel Aviv are eligible to vote in municipal elections. The municipality is responsible for social services, community programs, public infrastructure, urban planning, tourism and other local affairs. The Tel Aviv City Hall is located at Rabin Square. Ron Huldai has been mayor of Tel Aviv since 1998. Huldai was reelected for a fifth term in the 2018 municipal elections, defeating former deputy Asaf Zamir, founder of the Ha'Ir party. Huldai's has become the longest-serving mayor of the city, exceeding Shlomo Lahat 19-year term, and will be term-limited from running for a sixth term. The shortest-serving was David Bloch, in office for two years, 1925–27. Politically, Tel Aviv is known to be a stronghold for the left, in both local and national issues. The left wing vote is especially prevalent in the city's mostly affluent central and northern neighborhoods, though not the case for its working-class southeastern neighborhoods which tend to vote for right wing parties in national elections. Outside the kibbutzim, Meretz receives more votes in Tel Aviv than in any other city in Israel. List of Mayors of Tel Aviv Mandatory Palestine (1920–1948) State of Israel (1948–present) City council Following the 2013 municipal elections, Meretz gained an unprecedented 6 seats on the council. However, having been reelected as mayor, Huldai and the Tel Aviv 1 list lead the coalition, which controls 29 of 31 seats. Education In 2006, 51,359 children attended school in Tel Aviv, of whom 8,977 were in municipal kindergartens, 23,573 in municipal elementary schools, and 18,809 in high schools. Sixty-four percent of students in the city are entitled to matriculation, more than 5 percent higher than the national average. About 4,000 children are in first grade at schools in the city, and population growth is expected to raise this number to 6,000. As a result, 20 additional kindergarten classes were opened in 2008–09 in the city. A new elementary school is planned north of Sde Dov as well as a new high school in northern Tel Aviv. The first Hebrew high school, called Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium, was established in Jaffa in 1905 and moved to Tel Aviv after its founding in 1909, where a new campus on Herzl Street was constructed for it. Tel Aviv University, the largest university in Israel, is known internationally for its physics, computer science, chemistry and linguistics departments. Together with Bar-Ilan University in neighboring Ramat Gan, the student population numbers over 50,000, including a sizeable international community. Its campus is located in the neighborhood of Ramat Aviv. Tel Aviv also has several colleges. The Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium moved from Jaffa to old Tel Aviv in 1909 and moved to Jabotinsky Street in the early 1960s. Other notable schools in Tel Aviv include Shevah Mofet, the second Hebrew school in the city, Ironi Alef High School for Arts and Alliance. Demographics Tel Aviv has a population of spread over a land area of , yielding a population density of 7,606 people per square km (19,699 per square mile). According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Tel Aviv's population is growing at an annual rate of 0.5 percent. Jews of all backgrounds form 91.8 percent of the population, Muslims and Arab Christians make up 4.2 percent, and the remainder belong to other groups (including various Christian and Asian communities). As Tel Aviv is a multicultural city, many languages are spoken in addition to Hebrew. According to some estimates, about 50,000 unregistered African and Asian foreign workers live in the city. Compared with Westernised cities, crime in Tel Aviv is relatively low. According to Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, the average income in the city, which has an Unemployment Rate of 4.6%, is 20% above the national average. The city's education standards are above the national average: of its 12th-grade students, 64.4 percent are eligible for matriculation certificates. The age profile is relatively even, with 22.2 percent aged under 20, 18.5 percent aged 20–29, 24 percent aged 30–44, 16.2 percent aged between 45 and 59, and 19.1 percent older than 60. Tel Aviv's population reached a peak in the early 1960s at around 390,000, falling to 317,000 in the late 1980s as high property prices forced families out and deterred young couples from moving in. Since the 1990s, population has steadily grown. Today, the city's population is young and growing. In 2006, 22,000 people moved to the city, while only 18,500 left, and many of the new families had young children. The population is expected to reach 450,000 by 2025; meanwhile, the average age of residents fell from 35.8 in 1983 to 34 in 2008. The population over age 65 stands at 14.6 percent compared with 19% in 1983. Religion Tel Aviv has 544 active synagogues, including historic buildings such as the Great Synagogue, established in the 1930s. In 2008, a center for secular Jewish studies and a secular yeshiva opened in the city. Tensions between religious and secular Jews before the 2006 gay pride parade ended in vandalism of a synagogue. The number of churches has grown to accommodate the religious needs of diplomats and foreign workers. The population was 93% Jewish, 1% Muslim, and 1% Christian. The remaining 5 percent were not classified by religion. Israel Meir Lau is Chief Rabbi of the city. Tel Aviv is an ethnically diverse city. The Jewish population, which forms the majority group in Tel Aviv, consists of the descendants of immigrants from all parts of the world, including Ashkenazi Jews from Europe, North America, South America, Australia and South Africa, as well as Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews from Southern Europe, North Africa, India, Central Asia, West Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula. There are also a sizable number of Ethiopian Jews and their descendants living in Tel Aviv. In addition to Muslim and Arab Christian minorities in the city, several hundred Armenian Christians who reside in the city are concentrated mainly in Jaffa and some Christians from the former Soviet Union who immigrated to Israel with Jewish spouses and relatives. In recent years, Tel Aviv has received many non-Jewish migrants from Asia and Africa, students, foreign workers (documented and undocumented) and refugees. There are many economic migrants and refugees from African countries, primarily Eritrea and Sudan, located in the southern part of the city. Neighborhoods Tel Aviv is divided into nine districts that have formed naturally over the city's short history. The oldest of these is Jaffa, the ancient port city out of which Tel Aviv grew. This area is traditionally made up demographically of a greater percentage of Arabs, but recent gentrification is replacing them with a young professional and artist population. Similar processes are occurring in nearby Neve Tzedek, the original Jewish neighborhood outside of Jaffa. Ramat Aviv, a district in the northern part of the city that is largely made up of luxury apartments and includes Tel Aviv University, is currently undergoing extensive expansion and is set to absorb the beachfront property of Sde Dov Airport after its decommissioning. The area known as HaKirya is the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) headquarters and a large military base. Moreover, in the past few years, Rothschild Boulevard which is located in Neve Tzedek has become an attraction for tourists, businesses and startups. It features a wide, tree-lined central strip with pedestrian and bike lanes. Historically, there was a demographic split between the Ashkenazi northern side of the city, including the district of Ramat Aviv, and the southern, more Sephardi and Mizrahi neighborhoods including Neve Tzedek and Florentin. Since the 1980s, major restoration and gentrification projects have been implemented in southern Tel Aviv. Baruch Yoscovitz, city planner for Tel Aviv beginning in 2001, reworked old British plans for the Florentin neighborhood from the 1920s, adding green areas, pedestrian malls, and housing. The municipality invested two million shekels in the project. The goal was to make Florentin the Soho of Tel Aviv, and attract artists and young professionals to the neighborhood. Indeed, street artists, such as Dede, installation artists such as Sigalit Landau, and many others made the upbeat neighborhood their home base. Florentin is now known as a hip, "cool" place to be in Tel Aviv with coffeehouses, markets, bars, galleries and parties. Cityscape Architecture Tel Aviv is home to different architectural styles that represent influential periods in its history. The early architecture of Tel Aviv consisted largely of European-style single-storey houses with red-tiled roofs. Neve Tzedek, the first neighbourhood to be built outside of Jaffa, is characterised by two-storey sandstone buildings. By the 1920s, a new eclectic Orientalist style came into vogue, combining European architecture with Eastern features such as arches, domes and ornamental tiles. Municipal construction followed the "garden city" master plan drawn up by Patrick Geddes. Two- and three-storey buildings were interspersed with boulevards and public parks. Various architectural styles, such as Art Deco, classical and modernist also exist in Tel Aviv. International Style and Bauhaus Bauhaus architecture was introduced in the 1920s and 1930s by German Jewish architects who settled in Palestine after the rise of the Nazis. Tel Aviv's White City, around the city center, contains more than 5,000 Modernist-style buildings inspired by the Bauhaus school and Le Corbusier. Construction of these buildings, later declared protected landmarks and, collectively, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, continued until the 1950s in the area around Rothschild Boulevard. Some 3,000 buildings were created in this style between 1931 and 1939 alone. In the 1960s, this architectural style gave way to office towers and a chain of waterfront hotels and commercial skyscrapers. Some of the city's Modernist buildings were neglected to the point of ruin. Before legislation to preserve this landmark architecture, many of the old buildings were demolished. Efforts are under way to refurbish Bauhaus buildings and restore them to their original condition. High-rise construction and towers The Shalom Meir Tower, Israel's first skyscraper, was built in Tel Aviv in 1965 and remained the country's tallest building until 1999. At the time of its construction, the building rivaled Europe's tallest buildings in height, and was the tallest in the Middle East. In the mid-1990s, the construction of skyscrapers began throughout the entire city, altering its skyline. Before that, Tel Aviv had had a generally low-rise skyline. However, the towers were not concentrated in certain areas, and were scattered at random locations throughout the city, creating a disjointed skyline. New neighborhoods, such as Park Tzameret, have been constructed to house apartment towers such as Yoo Tel Aviv towers, designed by Philippe Starck. Other districts, such as Sarona, have been developed with office towers. Other recent additions to Tel Aviv's skyline include the 1 Rothschild Tower and First International Bank Tower. As Tel Aviv celebrated its centennial in 2009, the city attracted a number of architects and developers, including I. M. Pei, Donald Trump, and Richard Meier. American journalist David Kaufman reported in New York magazine that since Tel Aviv "was named a UNESCO World Heritage site, gorgeous historic buildings from the Ottoman and Bauhaus era have been repurposed as fabulous hotels, eateries, boutiques, and design museums." In November 2009, Haaretz reported that Tel Aviv had 59 skyscrapers more than 100 meters tall. Currently, dozens of skyscrapers have been approved or are under construction throughout the city, and many more are planned. The tallest building approved is the Egged Tower, which would become Israel's tallest building upon completion. According to current plans, the tower is planned to have 80 floors, rise to a height of 270 meters, and will have a 50-meter spire. In 2010, the Tel Aviv Municipality's Planning and Construction Committee launched a new master plan for the city for 2025. It decided not to allow the construction of any additional skyscrapers in the city center, while at the same time greatly increasing the construction of skyscrapers in the east. The ban extends to an area between the coast and Ibn Gabirol Street, and also between the Yarkon River and Eilat Street. It did not extend to towers already under construction or approved. One final proposed skyscraper project was approved, while dozens of others had to be scrapped. Any new buildings there will usually not be allowed to rise above six and a half stories. However, hotel towers along almost the entire beachfront will be allowed to rise up to 25 stories. According to the plan, large numbers of skyscrapers and high-rise buildings at least 18 stories tall would be built in the entire area between Ibn Gabirol Street and the eastern city limits, as part of the master plan's goal of doubling the city's office space to cement Tel Aviv as the business capital of Israel. Under the plan, "forests" of corporate skyscrapers will line both sides of the Ayalon Highway. Further south, skyscrapers rising up to 40 stories will be built along the old Ottoman railway between Neve Tzedek and Florentine, with the first such tower there being the Neve Tzedek Tower. Along nearby Shlavim Street, passing between Jaffa and south Tel Aviv, office buildings up to 25 stories will line both sides of the street, which will be widened to accommodate traffic from the city's southern entrance to the center. In November 2012, it was announced that to encourage investment in the city's architecture, residential towers throughout Tel Aviv would be extended in height. Buildings in Jaffa and the southern and eastern districts may have two and a half stories added, while those on Ibn Gabirol Street might be extended by seven and a half stories. Economy Tel Aviv has been ranked as the twenty-fifth most important financial center in the world. As it was built on sand dunes in an area unsuitable for farming, it instead developed as a hub of business and scientific research. In 1926, the country's first shopping arcade, Passage Pensak, was built there. By 1936, as tens of thousands of middle class immigrants arrived from Europe, Tel Aviv was already the largest city in Palestine. A small port was built at the Yarkon estuary, and many cafes, clubs and cinemas opened. Herzl Street became a commercial thoroughfare at this time. Economic activities account for 17 percent of the GDP. In 2011, Tel Aviv had an unemployment rate of 4.4 percent. The city has been described as a "flourishing technological center" by Newsweek and a "miniature Los Angeles" by The Economist. In 1998, the city was described by Newsweek as one of the 10 most technologically influential cities in the world. Since then, high-tech industry in the Tel Aviv area has continued to develop. The Tel Aviv metropolitan area (including satellite cities such as Herzliya and Petah Tikva) is Israel's center of high-tech, sometimes referred to as Silicon Wadi. Tel Aviv is home to the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange (TASE), Israel's only stock exchange, which has reached record heights since the 1990s. The Tel Aviv Stock exchange has also gained attention for its resilience and ability to recover from war and disasters. For example, the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange was higher on the last day of both the 2006 Lebanon war and the 2009 Operation in Gaza than on the first day of fighting Many international venture-capital firms, scientific research institutes and high-tech companies are headquartered in the city. Industries in Tel Aviv include chemical processing, textile plants and food manufacturers. In 2016, the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) at Loughborough University reissued an inventory of world cities based on their level of advanced producer services. Tel Aviv was ranked as an alpha- world city. The Kiryat Atidim high tech zone opened in 1972 and the city has become a major world high tech hub. In December 2012, the city was ranked second on a list of top places to found a high tech startup company, just behind Silicon Valley. In 2013, Tel Aviv had more than 700 startup companies and research and development centers, and was ranked the second-most innovative city in the world, behind Medellín and ahead of New York City. According to Forbes, nine of its fifteen Israeli-born billionaires live in Israel; four live in Tel Aviv and its suburbs. The cost of living in Israel is high, with Tel Aviv being its most expensive city to live in. In 2021, Tel Aviv became the worlds most expensive city to live in, according to the Economist Intelligence Unit. Shopping malls in Tel Aviv include Dizengoff Center, Ramat Aviv Mall and Azrieli Shopping Mall and markets such as Carmel Market, Ha'Tikva Market, and Bezalel Market. Culture and contemporary life Entertainment and performing arts Tel Aviv is a major center of culture and entertainment. Eighteen of Israel's 35 major centers for the performing arts are located in the city, including five of the country's nine large theatres, where 55% of all performances in the country and 75 percent of all attendance occurs. The Tel Aviv Performing Arts Center is home of the Israeli Opera, where Plácido Domingo was house tenor between 1962 and 1965, and the Cameri Theatre. With 2,482 seats, the Heichal HaTarbut is the city's largest theatre and home to the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra. Habima Theatre, Israel's national theatre, was closed down for renovations in early 2008, and reopened in November 2011 after major remodeling. Enav Cultural Center is one of the newer additions to the cultural scene. Other theatres in Tel Aviv are the Gesher Theatre and Beit Lessin Theater; Tzavta and Tmuna are smaller theatres that host musical performances and fringe productions. In Jaffa, the Simta and Notzar theatres specialize in fringe as well. Tel Aviv is home to the Batsheva Dance Company, a world-famous contemporary dance troupe. The Israeli Ballet is also based in Tel Aviv. Tel Aviv's center for modern and classical dance is the Suzanne Dellal Center for Dance and Theatre in Neve Tzedek. The city often hosts international musicians at venues such as Yarkon Park, Expo Tel Aviv, the Barby Club, the Zappa Club and Live Park Rishon Lezion just south of Tel Aviv. After Israel's victory in 2018, Tel Aviv was named host city for the 2019 Eurovision Song Contest (the first Israeli-hosted Eurovision held outside of Jerusalem). Opera and classical music performances are held daily in Tel Aviv, with many of the world's leading classical conductors and soloists performing on Tel Aviv stages over the years. The Tel Aviv Cinematheque screens art movies, premieres of short and full-length Israeli films, and hosts a variety of film festivals, among them the Festival of Animation, Comics and Caricatures, "Icon" Science Fiction and Fantasy Festival, the Student Film Festival, the Jazz, Film and Videotape Festival and Salute to Israeli Cinema. The city has several multiplex cinemas. Tourism and recreation Tel Aviv receives about 2.5 million international visitors annually, the fifth-most-visited city in the Middle East & Africa. In 2010, Knight Frank'''s world city survey ranked it 34th globally. Tel Aviv has been named the third "hottest city for 2011" (behind only New York City and Tangier) by Lonely Planet, third-best in the Middle East and Africa by Travel + Leisure magazine (behind only Cape Town and Jerusalem), and the ninth-best beach city in the world by National Geographic. Tel Aviv is consistently ranked as one of the top LGBT destinations in the world. The city has also been ranked as one of the top 10 oceanfront cities. Tel Aviv is known as "the city that never sleeps" and a "party capital" due to its thriving nightlife, young atmosphere and famous 24-hour culture. Tel Aviv has branches of some of the world's leading hotels, including the Crowne Plaza, Sheraton, Dan, Isrotel and Hilton. It is home to many museums, architectural and cultural sites, with city tours available in different languages. Apart from bus tours, architectural tours, Segway tours, and walking tours are also popular. Tel Aviv has 44 hotels with more than 6,500 rooms. The beaches of Tel Aviv and the city's promenade play a major role in the city's cultural and touristic scene, often ranked as some of the best beaches in the world. Hayarkon Park is the most visited urban park in Israel, with 16 million visitors annually. Other parks within city limits include Charles Clore Park, Independence Park, Meir Park and Dubnow Park. About 19% of the city land are green spaces. Nightlife Tel Aviv is an international hub of highly active and diverse nightlife with bars, dance bars and nightclubs staying open well past midnight. The largest area for nightclubs is the Tel Aviv port, where the city's large, commercial clubs and bars draw big crowds of young clubbers from both Tel Aviv and neighboring cities. The South of Tel Aviv is known for the popular Haoman 17 club, as well as for being the city's main hub of alternative clubbing, with underground venues including established clubs like the Block Club, Comfort 13 and Paradise Garage, as well as various warehouse and loft party venues. The Allenby/Rothschild area is another popular nightlife hub, featuring such clubs as the Pasaz, Radio EPGB and the Penguin. In 2013, Absolut Vodka introduced a specially designed bottle dedicated to Tel Aviv as part of its international cities series. Fashion Tel Aviv has become an international center of fashion and design. It has been called the "next hot destination" for fashion. Israeli designers, such as swimwear company Gottex show their collections at leading fashion shows, including New York's Bryant Park fashion show. In 2011, Tel Aviv hosted its first Fashion Week since the 1980s, with Italian designer Roberto Cavalli as a guest of honor. LGBT culture Named "the best gay city in the world" by American Airlines, Tel Aviv is one of the most popular destinations for LGBT tourists internationally, with a large LGBT community. American journalist David Kaufman has described the city as a place "packed with the kind of 'we're here, we're queer' vibe more typically found in Sydney and San Francisco. The city hosts its well-known pride parade, the biggest in Asia, attracting over 200,000 people yearly. In January 2008, Tel Aviv's municipality established the city's LGBT Community centre, providing all of the municipal and cultural services to the LGBT community under one roof. In December 2008, Tel Aviv began putting together a team of gay athletes for the 2009 World Outgames in Copenhagen. In addition, Tel Aviv hosts an annual LGBT film festival, known as TLVFest. Tel Aviv's LGBT community is the subject of Eytan Fox's 2006 film The Bubble. Cuisine Tel Aviv is famous for its wide variety of world-class restaurants, offering traditional Israeli dishes as well as international fare. More than 100 sushi restaurants, the third highest concentration in the world, do business in the city. In Tel Aviv there are some dessert specialties, the most known is the Halva ice cream traditionally topped with date syrup and pistachios Museums Israel has the highest number of museums per capita of any country, with three of the largest located in Tel Aviv. Among these are the Eretz Israel Museum, known for its collection of archaeology and history exhibits dealing with the Land of Israel, and the Tel Aviv Museum of Art. Housed on the campus of Tel Aviv University is Beit Hatfutsot, a museum of the international Jewish diaspora that tells the story of Jewish prosperity and persecution throughout the centuries of exile. Batey Haosef Museum specializes in Israel Defense Forces military history. The Palmach Museum near Tel Aviv University offers a multimedia experience of the history of the Palmach. Right next to Charles Clore Park is a museum of the Irgun. The Israel Trade Fairs & Convention Center, located in the northern part of the city, hosts more than 60 major events annually. Many offbeat museums and galleries operate in the southern areas, including the Tel Aviv Raw Art contemporary art gallery. Sports Maccabi Tel Aviv Sports Club was founded in 1906 and competes in more than 10 sport fields. Its basketball team, Maccabi Tel Aviv Basketball Club, is a world-known professional team, that holds 54 Israeli titles, has won 45 editions of the Israel cup, and has six European Championships, and its football team Maccabi Tel Aviv Football Club has won 23 Israeli league titles and has won 24 State Cups, seven Toto Cups and two Asian Club Championships. Yael Arad, an athlete in Maccabi's judo club, won a silver medal in the 1992 Olympic Games. Hapoel Tel Aviv Sports Club, founded in 1923, comprises more than 11 sports clubs, including Hapoel Tel Aviv Football Club (13 championships, 16 State Cups, one Toto Cup and once Asian champions) which plays in Bloomfield Stadium, and Hapoel Tel Aviv Basketball Club. Bnei Yehuda Tel Aviv (once Israeli champion, twice State Cup winners and twice Toto Cup winner) is the Israeli football team that represents a neighborhood, the Hatikva Quarter in Tel Aviv, and not a city. Beitar Tel Aviv Bat Yam formerly played in the top division, the club now playing in Liga Leumit and also represents the city Bat Yam. Maccabi Jaffa formerly played in the top division, the club now playing in Liga Alef and represents the Jaffa. Shimshon Tel Aviv formerly played in the top division, the club now playing in Liga Alef. There are more Tel Aviv football teams: Hapoel Kfar Shalem, F.C. Bnei Jaffa Ortodoxim, Beitar Ezra, Beitar Jaffa, Elitzur Jaffa Tel Aviv, F.C. Roei Heshbon Tel Aviv, Gadna Tel Aviv Yehuda, Hapoel Kiryat Shalom, Hapoel Neve Golan and Hapoel Ramat Yisrael. The city has a number of football stadiums, the largest of which is Bloomfield Stadium, which contains 29,400 seats used by Hapoel Tel Aviv, Maccabi Tel Aviv and Bnei Yehuda. Another stadium in the city is the Hatikva Neighborhood Stadium. Menora Mivtachim Arena is a large multi-purpose sports indoor arena, The arena is home to the Maccabi Tel Aviv, and the Drive in Arena, a multi-purpose hall that serves as the home ground of the Hapoel Tel Aviv. National Sport Center Tel Aviv (also Hadar Yosef Sports Center) is a compound of stadiums and sports facilities. It also houses the Olympic Committee of Israel and the National Athletics Stadium with the Israeli Athletic Association. Two rowing clubs operate in Tel Aviv. The Tel Aviv Rowing Club, established in 1935 on the banks of the Yarkon River, is the largest rowing club in Israel. Meanwhile, the beaches of Tel Aviv provide a vibrant Matkot (beach paddleball) scene. Tel Aviv Lightning represent Tel Aviv in the Israel Baseball League. Tel Aviv also has an annual half marathon, run in 2008 by 10,000 athletes with runners coming from around the world. In 2009, the Tel Aviv Marathon was revived after a fifteen-year hiatus, and is run annually since, attracting a field of over 18,000 runners. Tel Aviv is also ranked to be 10th best to-skateboarding city by Transworld Skateboarding. Media The three largest newspaper companies in Israel: Yedioth Ahronoth, Maariv and Haaretz are all based within the city limits. Several radio stations cover the Tel Aviv area, including the city-based Radio Tel Aviv. The two major Israeli television networks, Keshet Media Group and Reshet, are based in the city, as well as two of the most popular radio stations in Israel: Galatz and Galgalatz, which are both based in Jaffa. Studios of the international news channel i24news is located at Jaffa Port Customs House. An English language radio station, TLV1, is based at Kikar Hamedina. Environment and urban restoration Tel Aviv is ranked as the greenest city in Israel. Since 2008, city lights are turned off annually in support of Earth Hour. In February 2009, the municipality launched a water saving campaign, including competition granting free parking for a year to the household that is found to have consumed the least water per person. In the early 21st century, Tel Aviv's municipality transformed a derelict power station into a public park, now named "Gan HaHashmal" ("Electricity Park"), paving the way for eco-friendly and environmentally conscious designs. In October 2008, Martin Weyl turned an old garbage dump near Ben Gurion International Airport, called Hiriya, into an attraction by building an arc of plastic bottles. The site, which was renamed Ariel Sharon Park to honor Israel's former prime minister, will serve as the centerpiece in what is to become a urban wilderness on the outskirts of Tel Aviv, designed by German landscape architect, Peter Latz. At the end of the 20th century, the city began restoring historical neighborhoods such as Neve Tzedek and many buildings from the 1920s and 1930s. Since 2007, the city hosts its well-known, annual Open House Tel Aviv weekend, which offers the general public free entrance to the city's famous landmarks, private houses and public buildings. In 2010, the design of the renovated Tel Aviv Port (Nemal Tel Aviv) won the award for outstanding landscape architecture at the European Biennial for Landscape Architecture in Barcelona. In 2014, the Sarona Market Complex opened, following an 8-year renovation project of Sarona colony. Transportation Tel Aviv is a major transportation hub, served by a comprehensive public transport network, with many major routes of the national transportation network running through the city. Bus and taxi As with the rest of Israel, bus transport is the most common form of public transport and is very widely used. The Tel Aviv Central Bus Station is located in the southern part of the city. The main bus network in Tel Aviv metropolitan area operated by Dan Bus Company, Metropoline and Kavim. the Egged Bus Cooperative, Israels's largest bus company, provides intercity transportation. The city is also served by local and inter-city share taxis. Many local and inter-city bus routes also have sherut taxis that follow the same route and display the same route number in their window. Fares are standardised within the region and are comparable to or less expensive than bus fares. Unlike other forms of public transport, these taxis also operate on Fridays and Saturdays (the Jewish sabbath "Shabbat"). Private taxis are white with a yellow sign on top. Fares are standardised and metered, but may be negotiated ahead of time with the driver. Rail The Tel Aviv Central railway station is the main railway station of the city, and the busiest station in Israel. The city has three additional railway stations along the Ayalon Highway: Tel Aviv University, HaShalom (adjacent to Azrieli Center) and HaHagana (near the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station), Tel Aviv Mercaz. It is estimated that over a million passengers travel by rail to Tel Aviv monthly. The trains do not run on Saturday and the principal Jewish festivals (Rosh Hashana (2 days), Yom Kippur, Sukkot, Simkhat Torah, Pessach (Passover) first and fifth days and Shavuot (Pentecost)). Jaffa Railway Station was the first railway station in the Middle East. It served as the terminus for the Jaffa–Jerusalem railway. The station opened in 1891 and closed in 1948. In 2005–2009, the station was restored and converted into an entertainment and leisure venue marketed as "HaTachana", Hebrew for "the station" (see homepage here:). Light rail Tel Aviv Light Rail is a planned mass transit system for the Tel Aviv metropolitan area, As of 2021, three LRT lines are under construction. Work on the Red Line, the first in the project, started on September 21, 2011, following years of preparatory works, and is expected to be completed in late 2022 after numerous delays. Construction of the Purple Line started in December 2018; work on the Green Line was set to begin in January 2019. Metro Tel Aviv Metro is a proposed subway system for the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area. It will augment the Tel Aviv Light Rail and Israel Railways suburban lines and 3 underground metro lines to form a rapid transit transportation solution for the city. Construction is expected to start in 2025, with the first public opening in 2032. Roads The main highway leading to and within the city is the Ayalon Highway (Highway 20), which runs in the eastern side of the city from north to south along the Ayalon River riverbed. Driving south on Ayalon gives access to Highway 4 leading to Ashdod, Highway 1, leading to Ben Gurion International Airport and Jerusalem and Highway 431 leading to Jerusalem, Modiin, Rehovot and the Highway 6 Trans-Israel Highway. Driving north on Ayalon gives access to the Highway 2 coastal road leading to Netanya, Hadera and Haifa. Within the city, main routes include Kaplan Street, Allenby Street, Ibn Gabirol Street, Dizengoff Street, Rothschild Boulevard, and in Jaffa the main route is Jerusalem Boulevard. Namir Road connects the city to Highway 2, Israel's main north–south highway, and Begin/Jabotinsky Road, which provides access from the east through Ramat Gan, Bnei Brak and Petah Tikva. Tel Aviv, accommodating about 500,000 commuter cars daily, suffers from increasing congestion. In 2007, the Sadan Report recommended the introduction of a congestion charge similar to that of London in Tel Aviv as well as other Israeli cities. Under this plan, road users traveling into the city would pay a fixed fee. Air The main airport serving Greater Tel Aviv is Ben Gurion International Airport. Located in the neighbouring city of Lod, it handled over 20 million passengers in 2017. Ben Gurion is the main hub of El Al, Arkia, Israir Airlines and Sun D'Or. The airport is southeast of Tel Aviv, on Highway 1 between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. Sde Dov (IATA: SDV), in northwestern Tel Aviv, is a domestic airport and was closed in 2019 in favor of real-estate development. All services to Sde Dov will be transferred to Ben Gurion Airport. Cycling Tel Aviv Municipality encourages the use of bicycles in the city. Plans called for expansion of the paths to by 2009. By 2020, the city had 140 kilometres of bicycle paths with plans to reach 300 km by 2025. In April 2011, Tel Aviv municipality launched Tel-O-Fun, a bicycle sharing system, in which 150 stations of bicycles for rent were installed within the city limits. Health care Tel Aviv is home to Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, the third-largest hospital complex in Israel. It contains Ichilov Hospital, the Ida Sourasky Rehabilitation Center, Lis Maternity and Women's Hospital, and Dana-Dwek Children's Hospital. The city also contains Assuta Medical Center, a private hospital which offers surgical and diagnostic services in all fields of medicine and has an IVF clinic. Foreign relations The municipality of Tel Aviv signed agreements with many cities worldwide. Future The population of Tel Aviv is expected to be about 535,000 in 2030. Notable people In alphabetical order by surname; stage names are treated as single names: Ron Arad (born 1951), architect and industrial designer Miri Ben-Ari (born 1978), "The Hip Hop Violinist" Borgore (born 1987), dubstep producer and DJ Dana International (born 1969), musician and singer Noam Dar (born 1993), professional wrestler Oded Fehr (born 1970), actor Uri Geller (born 1946), illusionist Esti Ginzburg (born 1990), model and actress Ofra Haza (1957–2000), singer Erez Komarovsky (born 1962), chef, baker, educator, and author Yair Lapid (born 1963), politician T. J. Leaf (born 1997), professional basketball player Tzipi Livni (born 1958), politician Shlomit Malka (born 1993), model Benjamin Netanyahu (born 1949), politician Ido Pariente (born 1978), mixed martial artist fighter and trainer Itzhak Perlman (born 1945), musician and conductor Sasha Roiz (born 1973), actor Daniel Samohin (born 1998), figure skater Hamutal Shabtai, novelist Denis Shapovalov (born 1999), Canadian tennis player Orli Shoshan (born 1974), Star Wars film actress Subliminal (born 1979), rapper and record producer Ayelet Zurer (born 1969), actress Explanatory notes References General bibliography Michael Turner, Catherine Weill-Rochant, Geneviève Blondiau, Silvina Sosnovsky, Philippe Brandeis, Sur les traces du modernisme, Tel-Aviv-Haïfa-Jérusalem, CIVA (ed.), Bruxelles 2004. Catherine Weill-Rochant, L'Atlas de Tel-Aviv 1908–2008, Paris, CNRS Editions, 2008. (Historical maps and photos, French, soon in Hebrew and English) Catherine Weill-Rochant, Bauhaus " – Architektur in Tel-Aviv, L'architecture " Bauhaus " à Tel- Aviv, Rita Gans (éd.), Zürich, Yad Yearim, 2008. Catherine Weill-Rochant, "The Tel-Aviv School: a constrained rationalism", DOCOMOMO journal (Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the modern movement), April 2009. And: Catherine Weill-Rochant, Le travail de Patrick Geddes à Tel-Aviv, un plan d'ombre et de lumière, Saarbrücken, ةditions Universitaires Européennes, May 2010. Jochen Visscher (ed.): Tel Aviv: The White City'', Photographs by Stefan Boness, JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2012, External links The official Tel Aviv municipality website The History of Tel Aviv The Tel Aviv Foundation (archive)—A charitable foundation dedicated to improving life in Tel Aviv-Yafo 1909 establishments in the Ottoman Empire Articles containing video clips Cities in Israel Cities in Tel Aviv District Jewish villages in the Ottoman Empire Mediterranean port cities and towns in Israel Populated places established in 1909

is a Japanese company that specializes in video games, toys, arcade cabinets and game centers, based in Shinjuku, Tokyo. The company was founded by Michael Kogan in 1953 as the importing vodka, vending machines and jukeboxes into Japan. It began production of video games in 1973. In 2005, Taito was purchased by Square Enix, becoming a wholly owned subsidiary by 2006. Taito is recognized as an important industry influencer in the early days of video games, producing a number of hit arcade games such as Speed Race (1974), Western Gun (1975), Space Invaders (1978), Bubble Bobble (1986) and Arkanoid (1986). Alongside Konami, Namco and Sega, it is one of the most prominent video game companies from Japan and the first that exported its games into other countries. Several of its games have since been recognized as important and revolutionary for the industry - Space Invaders in particular was a major contributor to the growth of video games in the late-1970s, and the aliens featured in the games are seen as iconic emblems within the video game industry. The company maintains a chain of arcade centers, known as "Game Taito Stations", across Japan, alongside being a manufacturer of toys, plush dolls and UFO-catcher prizes. History In 1944, Ukrainian Jewish businessman Michael Kogan founded Taitung in Shanghai. A refugee of the Soviet Union, Kogan previously worked in a factory in Japan during the country's involvement in World War II, before moving to Shanghai to join his father. Taitung, which translated to "Taito" in Japanese, dealt in floor coverings, natural hair wigs, and hog bristles. 1950s–1960s The Communist takeover of China prompted Kogan to liquidate the business in 1950 and move operations to Japan, which after the war was suffering a significant economic decline. The second business, a clothing distributor named Taito Yoko, struggled financially as a result of employee carelessness and constant loss of products. On August 24, 1953, Taito Yoko was abolished and replaced with the Taito Trading Company, where Kogan was joined by lawyer and retired newspaperman Akio Nakatani. Taito Trading Company began as a vodka distillery—the first company to produce vodka in Japan—and an importer of peanut vending machines and perfume machines. Increasing competition led to Taito abandoning the vodka business in 1955 and focusing on its successful vending machines, in addition to importing jukeboxes. As Taito lacked a proper license to import jukeboxes into Japan, it purchased broken-down machines from United States military bases and refurbished them with working parts from defective units. The recovering Japanese economy allowed Taito to become the official distributor of AMI jukeboxes in the country. Though the deal had little impact at first, over 1,500 machines were sold by 1960 when the company began mixing Japanese records with American folk songs. A partnership with the Seeburg Corporation made Taito its exclusive agent in Japan and one of the nation's leading jukebox companies. Taito began manufacturing electro-mechanical games (EM games) in the 1960s. In 1967, they released Crown Soccer Special (1967), a two-player sports game that simulated association football using electronic components such as pinball flippers. In 1968, Crown Basketball debuted in the US as the highest-earning arcade game at the 1968 Tampa Fair. 1970s–1980s Taito changed its name from Taito Trading Company to Taito Corporation in August 1972 and introduced its first arcade video game in 1973. It established its American subsidiary in 1973 in downtown Chicago, Taito America. Tomohiro Nishikado, a Tokyo Denki University engineering graduate who joined the company in 1968, was instrumental in the company's transition to video games. After developing the hit electro-mechanical target shooting games Sky Fighter (1971) and Sky Fighter II, his bosses at Taito believed transistor-transistor logic (TTL) technology would play a significant role in the arcade industry, so they tasked Nishikado with investigating TTL technology as he was the company's only employee who knew how to work with integrated circuit (IC) technology, and one of the few engineers at any Japanese coin-op company with significant expertise in solid-state electronics. He spent six months dissecting Atari's Pong arcade unit and learning how the game's IC chips worked, and began modifying the game. This led to his development of the Pong-style sports video games Soccer and Davis Cup for Taito, with Soccer developed first but both released in November 1973. He then developed several original arcade video game hits for Taito, notably the sports game TV Basketball (1974), the racing game Speed Race (1974), and the shooter game Western Gun (1975); these three titles were localized by Midway Manufacturing in North America as TV Basketball, Wheels, and Gun Fight, respectively. In 1978, Nishikado created Space Invaders, which became the company's most popular title and one of the most memorable games in arcade history, responsible for beginning the golden age of arcade video games. After Michael Kogan died in February 1984, his son, Abraham "Abba" Kogan, became Taito's chairman and Akio Nakanishi became its president. In April 1986 and barely a month after becoming part of the Kyocera group, Taito merged with two of its subsidiaries, Pacific Industrial Co., Ltd. and the Japan Vending Machine Co., Ltd, and absorbed them both. Japan Vending Machine was once an independent company but was purchased by Taito in July 1971 to strengthen its presence in the operation of amusement facilities. Pacific Industrial was created by Taito itself in 1963 to develop products for the company. 1990s–2000s In 1992, Taito announced a CD-ROM-based video game console named WOWOW, that would have allowed people to play near-exact ports of Taito's arcades (similar to the Neo Geo), as well as download games from a satellite transmission (as the Satellaview would do later). It was named after the Japanese television station WOWOW and would have utilized its stations to download games. The WOWOW was never released. Taito America ceased operations in July 1996 after more than 20 years of existence. Taito had already sold exclusive rights for publishing its games in America to Acclaim Entertainment the previous year. Similarly, a division existed in London, England, United Kingdom to distribute Taito games in Europe. Taito (Europe) Corporation Limited was created in 1988 and liquidated in February 1998. When Taito was owned by Kyocera, its headquarters were in Hirakawachō, Chiyoda. In October 2000, Taito merged with Kyocera Multimedia Corporation to enter the market of mobile phones for the first time. On August 22, 2005, it was announced that the gaming conglomerate Square Enix would purchase 247,900 Taito shares worth ¥45.16 billion (US$409.1 million), to make Taito Corporation a subsidiary of Square Enix. The purpose of the takeover by Square Enix was to both increase Taito's profit margin exponentially as well as begin its company's expansion into new forms of gaming (most notably, the arcade scene), and various other entertainment venues. The takeover bid from Square Enix was accepted by previous stockholder Kyocera, making Taito a Square Enix subsidiary. On September 22, 2005, Square Enix announced successfully acquiring 93.7% of all shares of Taito, effectively owning the company by September 28, 2005. By March, 2006 Taito became a subsidiary wholly owned by Square Enix and was delisted from the First Section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange. In March 2006, Square Enix wanted to make Taito a wholly owned subsidiary. To accomplish this goal, Square Enix merged Taito into SQEX Corporation. Although the combined company took on the name "Taito Corporation", it was actually Taito that was dissolved and SQEX that was the surviving entity. Square Enix announced on July 28, 2008, that it would liquidate two subsidiaries of Taito, Taito Art Corporation (an insurance and travel agent subsidiary) and Taito Tech Co., Ltd. (an amusement and maintenance subsidiary) on the grounds that both had fulfilled their business purpose. The process ended in October 2008. 2010s–present In February 2010, Taito's unit for home video games split into a separate company called Taito Soft Corporation (not to be confused with Taito Software, the North American division of the late 1980s). On March 11, 2010, Taito Soft was folded into Square Enix. All of Taito's franchises for video game consoles in Japan are since published by Square Enix. Square Enix Holdings wanted all of its arcade operations to be regrouped into one subsidiary. And so, the third and present Taito Corporation came to being on February 1, 2010, by merging the second company (formerly SQEX/Game Designers Studio) with ES1 Corporation. In an "absorption-type company split" move, the second company was split and renamed Taito Soft Corporation, while ES1 Corporation became the third Taito Corporation. During its merger with the second company to become itself the new Taito Corporation, ES1 inherited all of Taito's arcade and mobile businesses, and nearly the totality of its employees. On the other hand, Taito Soft Corporation (formerly SQEX) was left with 10 employees to concentrate exclusively on the development and publishing of video games for home consoles. Taito Soft Corporation was eventually merged into Square Enix in March 2010 and dissolved. ES1 Corporation was established on June 1, 2009, as an operator of arcade facilities. ES1 Corporation was owned by the shell company SPC1, itself a wholly owned subsidiary of Square Enix Holdings. SCP1 dissolved when ES1 became Taito Corporation in February 2010. As such, the current Taito Corporation is technically the company formerly called ES1 Corporation. On November 30, 2016, Taito announced that it will distribute Space Invaders and Arkanoid for Facebook with Instant Games on Facebook Messenger and Facebook News Feed. On July 3, 2018, Taito announced in Famitsu that it will return to the software publishing business for the eighth generation of video game consoles. The intention to return to the home console market came about because the company decided that it would be necessary to release Taito's intellectual properties on current platforms in order to increase profit. The company has various properties planned in its software pipeline, from re-releases to new titles for various platforms; however, Taito highlighted that the console software market is a challenging business for the company. Taito intends to develop original games for consoles in the future. See also List of Taito games Taito of Brazil Notes References External links Japanese companies established in 1953 2005 mergers and acquisitions Video game companies established in 1953 Software companies based in Tokyo Square Enix Video game companies of Japan Video game development companies Video game publishers

The State of the World (SoW) was a series of books published annually from 1984 to 2017 by the U.S. based Worldwatch Institute, a thinktank that was founded in the 1970s by renowned environmentalist Lester R. Brown and ceased operations in 2017. The series attempted to identify the planet's most significant environmental challenges. The last five State of the World reports were: State of the World 2013: Is Sustainability Still Possible? State of the World 2014: Governing for Sustainability State of the World 2015: Confronting Hidden Threats to Sustainability State of the World 2016: Can a City Be Sustainable? State of the World 2017: Earth ED: Rethinking Education on a Changing Planet The 2010 edition discussed different ways of changing current cultures such that it felt as natural to live sustainably as living as a consumer felt at the time. The 2011 edition looked at the global food crisis and surrounding environmental and social problems, with a particular emphasis on global innovations that could help solve that worldwide problem. The 2012 edition showcased innovative projects, creative policies, and fresh approaches that were advancing sustainable development in the twenty-first century. The 2013 edition defined the term sustainability, and assessed attempts to cultivate it. Editions State of the World 1984 State of the World 1985 State of the World 1986 State of the World 1987 State of the World 1988 State of the World 1989 State of the World 1990 State of the World 1991 State of the World 1992 State of the World 1993 State of the World 1994 State of the World 1995 State of the World 1996 State of the World 1997 State of the World 1998 State of the World 1999 State of the World 2000 State of the World 2001 State of the World 2002 State of the World 2003 State of the World 2004: Special Focus: The Consumer Society State of the World 2005: Redefining Global Security State of the World 2006: Special Focus: China and India State of the World 2007: Our Urban Future State of the World 2008: Innovations for a Sustainable Economy State of the World 2009: Into a Warming World State of the World 2010: Transforming Cultures: From Consumerism to Sustainability State of the World 2011: Innovations that Nourish the Planet State of the World 2012: Moving Toward Sustainable Prosperity The Path to Degrowth in Overdeveloped Countries, ch. 2. State of the World 2013: Is Sustainability Still Possible? State of the World 2014: Governing for Sustainability State of the World 2015: Confronting Hidden Threats to Sustainability State of the World 2016: Can a City Be Sustainable? State of the World 2017: Earth ED: Rethinking Education on a Changing Planet External links archived link at the Worldwatch Institute, last present 2019. 1984 in the environment Series of books Environmental non-fiction books

The Book of Ether () is one of the books of the Book of Mormon. It describes the Jaredites, descendants of Jared and his companions, who were led by God to the Americas shortly after the confusion of tongues and the destruction of the Tower of Babel. Ether consists of fifteen chapters. The title refers to Ether, a Jaredite prophet who lived at the end of the time period covered by the book, believed to be circa 2600 or 2100 BC through 600 BC or later, at least 1500 but possibly as long as 2500 years. Narrative Lineage of Ether Jared → Orihah → Kib → Shule → Omer → Emer → Coriantum → Com → Heth → Shez → Riplakish → Morianton → Kim → Levi → Corom → Kish → Lib → Hearthom → Heth → Aaron → Amnigaddah → Coriantum → Com → Shiblon → Seth → Ahah → Ethem → Moron → Coriantor → Ether Journey to America Jared and his people were among the many scattered peoples from the destruction of the Tower of Babel. The brother of Jared is described as "a large and mighty man ... highly favored of the Lord", and seems to have been the spiritual leader of the group. He was given a vision of the history of the world, and inscribed prophecies, which were "sealed up" until the Lord decides to reveal them. The Lord told the brother of Jared to build unpowered submarines, termed "barges" or "vessels", to cross the ocean to the promised land. The barges could circulate fresh air because of openings in the top and bottom of the vessel. The hole in the top could be "stopped up" when the waves crashed over the vessel to prevent scuttling. The hole in the bottom is assumed to have been constructed as a sort of moon pool with the lip above the waterline so it would not flood the vessel. This would also allow wave action and the buoying of the vessel to pump fresh air in and out of the vessel when the upper opening was uncapped. Because the vessels could not sustain fire or windows for light, the brother of Jared went to a mountain and prayed for help. God touched several molten stones and made them shine. Because of the brother of Jared's great faith, he saw the finger of God. He then saw and spoke with Jehova. The people launched the vessels and traveled through great storms. After 344 days, they arrived at the Americas. Jared and his brother led the people to successfully establish a righteous nation. Parallels The Book of Ether parallels in many ways the story of the Book of Mormon as a whole. A small group (Jared and his companions; Lehi and his family) separate themselves from a wicked society (the Tower of Babel; Jerusalem just prior to its destruction) and establish a new nation (the Jaredites; the Nephites) in "the promised land." In each case the group is divided following the death of the original leaders and the divisions contend for many generations. The fortunes of the nations are dependent upon their obedience to God—righteousness brings prosperity and wickedness brings destruction (sometimes delayed). Ultimately, the wicked prevail and the nation is destroyed. These parallels are often emphasized in Mormonism as applicable to the present day. The Americas are still considered "the promised land" and the continued prosperity of the present nations are believed to be contingent on the righteousness of their people. Provenance As the story is told in the Book of Mormon, what later was named the Book of Ether was taken from a set of twenty-four plates written by Ether and discovered by the people of Limhi during the time of King Mosiah (son of King Benjamin). Joseph Smith claimed the book was abridged by Moroni onto the golden plates, which Joseph Smith claimed to translate into English. However, according to Daniel H. Ludlow, it is not clarified in the Book of Mormon whether Moroni made his abridgment of the record of Ether from Mosiah's earlier translation or whether Moroni took his account directly from the plates of Ether—in which case Joseph Smith would have needed to translate the record as well as abridge it. See also Archaeology and the Book of Mormon Anachronisms in the Book of Mormon Columbian Exchange Dené–Yeniseian languages Genetics and the Book of Mormon Historicity of the Book of Mormon Linguistics and the Book of Mormon List of pre-Columbian engineering projects in the Americas Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Notes Further reading , as reprinted by the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, BYU. External links The Book of Ether from the official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Event Diagram of the Book of Ether at Wikimedia Commons Ether

The Twentieth Amendment (Amendment XX) to the United States Constitution moved the beginning and ending of the terms of the president and vice president from March4 to January 20, and of members of Congress from March4 to January 3. It also has provisions that determine what is to be done when there is no president-elect. The Twentieth Amendment was adopted on January 23, 1933. The amendment reduced the presidential transition and the "lame duck" period, by which members of Congress and the president serve the remainder of their terms after an election. The amendment established congressional terms to begin before presidential terms and that the incoming Congress, rather than the outgoing one, would hold a contingent election if the Electoral College deadlocked regarding either the presidential or vice presidential elections. Text Historical background Original text of the Constitution Article I, Section 4, Clause2 of the Constitution states that Congress must meet at least once a year. The default date specified is the first Monday in December, though Congress is empowered to set another date and the president can summon special sessions. The original text of the Constitution set a duration for the terms of federal elected officials, but not the specific dates on which those terms would begin or end. In September 1788, after the necessary nine states had ratified the Constitution, the Congress of the Confederation set March 4, 1789, as the date "for commencing proceedings" of the newly reorganized government. Despite the fact that the new Congress and presidential administration did not begin operation until April, March4 was deemed to be the beginning of the newly elected officials' terms of office, and thus of the terms of their successors. The Constitution did not specify a date for federal elections, but by the time of the second presidential election in 1792, Congress had passed a law requiring presidential electors to be chosen during November or early December. By 1845, this was narrowed to a single day, in early November. Congressional elections were generally held on the same day. Issues The result of these scheduling decisions was that there was a long, four-month lame duck period between the election and inauguration of the new president. For Congress, the situation was perhaps even more awkward. Because Article I, Section 4, Clause2 mandated a Congressional meeting every December, after the election but before Congressional terms of office had expired, a lame-duck session was required by the Constitution in even-numbered years; the next session was not required until the next December, meaning new members of Congress might not begin their work until more than a year after they had been elected. Special sessions sometimes met earlier in the year, but this never became a regular practice, despite the Constitution allowing for it. In practice, Congress usually met in a long session beginning in Decembers of odd-numbered years, and in a short lame-duck session in December of even-numbered years. The long lame-duck period might have been a practical necessity at the end of the 18th century, when any newly elected official might require several months to put his affairs in order and then undertake an arduous journey from his home to the national capital, but it eventually had the effect of impeding the functioning of government in the modern age. From the early 19th century, it also meant a lame-duck Congress and presidential administration would fail to adequately respond to a significant national crisis in a timely manner. Each institution could do this on the theory that, at best, a lame-duck Congress or administration had neither the time nor the mandate to tackle problems, whereas the incoming administration or Congress would have both the time and a fresh electoral mandate, to examine and address the problems the nation faced. These problems very likely would have been at the center of the debate of the just-completed election cycle. This dilemma was seen most notably in 1861 and 1933, after the elections of Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt, respectively, plus the newly elected Senators and Representatives. Under the Constitution at the time, these presidents had to wait four months before they and the incoming Congresses could deal with the secession of Southern states and the Great Depression respectively. In 1916, during World War I, President Woodrow Wilson devised an unorthodox plan to avoid a lame-duck presidency and allow his Republican opponent Charles Evans Hughes to assume presidential powers immediately if Hughes had won the election. In that case, Wilson planned to appoint Hughes as Secretary of State, who under the Presidential Succession Act of 1886 was second in the presidential line of succession. President Wilson and Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would have then both resigned, leaving Hughes to become acting President. The plan was never implemented because Wilson was narrowly re-elected. Proposal and ratification The 72nd Congress proposed the Twentieth Amendment on March 2, 1932, and the amendment was ratified by the following states. The Amendment was adopted on January 23, 1933 after 36 states, being three-fourths of the then-existing 48 states, ratified the Amendment. Virginia: March 4, 1932 New York: March 11, 1932 Mississippi: March 16, 1932 Arkansas: March 17, 1932 Kentucky: March 17, 1932 New Jersey: March 21, 1932 South Carolina: March 25, 1932 Michigan: March 31, 1932 Maine: April 1, 1932 Rhode Island: April 14, 1932 Illinois: April 21, 1932 Louisiana: June 22, 1932 West Virginia: July 30, 1932 Pennsylvania: August 11, 1932 Indiana: August 15, 1932 Texas: September 7, 1932 Alabama: September 13, 1932 California: January 4, 1933 North Carolina: January 5, 1933 North Dakota: January 9, 1933 Minnesota: January 12, 1933 Arizona: January 13, 1933 Montana: January 13, 1933 Nebraska: January 13, 1933 Oklahoma: January 13, 1933 Kansas: January 16, 1933 Oregon: January 16, 1933 Delaware: January 19, 1933 Washington: January 19, 1933 Wyoming: January 19, 1933 Iowa: January 20, 1933 South Dakota: January 20, 1933 Tennessee: January 20, 1933 Idaho: January 21, 1933 New Mexico: January 21, 1933 Missouri: January 23, 1933This satisfied the requirement for three-fourths of the then-existing 48 states. The amendment was subsequently ratified by: Georgia: January 23, 1933 Ohio: January 23, 1933 Utah: January 23, 1933 Massachusetts: January 24, 1933 Wisconsin: January 24, 1933 Colorado: January 24, 1933 Nevada: January 26, 1933 Connecticut: January 27, 1933 New Hampshire: January 31, 1933 Vermont: February 2, 1933 Maryland: March 24, 1933 Florida: April 26, 1933 Effects Section 1 of the Twentieth Amendment prescribes that the start and end of the four-year term of both the President and Vice President shall be at noon on January 20. The change superseded the Twelfth Amendment's reference to March4 as the date by which the House of Representatives must—under circumstances where no candidate won an absolute majority of votes for president in the Electoral College—conduct a contingent presidential election. The new date reduced the period between election day in November and Inauguration Day, the presidential transition, by about six weeks. Section1 also specifies noon January 3 as the start and end of the terms of members of the Senate and the House of Representatives; the previous date had also been March 4. Section 2 moves the yearly start date of congressional sessions from the first Monday in December, as mandated by Article I, Section 4, Clause 2, to noon on January3 of the same year, though Congress still can by law set another date and the president can summon special sessions. This change eliminated the extended lame duck congressional sessions. As a result of this change, if the Electoral College vote has not resulted in the election of either a President or Vice President, the incoming Congress, as opposed to the outgoing one, would conduct a contingent election, following the process set out in the Twelfth Amendment. Section 3 further refines the Twelfth Amendment by declaring that if the president-elect dies before Inauguration Day, the vice president-elect will be sworn in as president on that day and serve for the full four-year term to which that person was elected. It further states that if, on Inauguration Day, a president-elect has not yet been chosen, or if the president-elect fails to qualify, the vice president-elect would become acting president on Inauguration Day until a president-elect is chosen or the president-elect qualifies; previously, the Constitution did not stipulate what was to be done if the Electoral College attempted to elect a constitutionally unqualified person as President. Section3 also authorizes Congress to determine who should be acting president if a new president and vice president have not been chosen by Inauguration Day. Acting on this authority, Congress added "failure to qualify" as a possible condition for presidential succession in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947. The constitution had previously been silent on this point, and this lack of guidance nearly caused constitutional crises on two occasions: when the House of Representatives seemed unable to break the deadlocked election of 1800, and when Congress seemed unable to resolve the disputed election of 1876. Section 4 permits Congress to statutorily clarify what should occur if either the House of Representatives must elect the president, and one of the candidates from whom it may choose dies, or if the Senate must elect the vice president and one of the candidates from whom it may choose dies. Congress has never enacted such a statute. Effect on the terms of elected officials On February 15, 1933, 23 days after the amendment was adopted, President-elect Roosevelt was the target of an assassination attempt by Giuseppe Zangara. While Roosevelt was not injured, had the attempt been successful, then Vice President-elect John Nance Garner would have become president on March 4, 1933 pursuant to Section 3. Section 5 delayed Sections 1 and 2 taking effect until the first October 15 following the amendment's ratification. As it was adopted on January 23, 1933, Section 1 shortened the terms of representatives elected to the 73rd Congress (1933–35), as well as those of senators elected for terms ending in 1935, 1937, and 1939, by 60 days, by ending those terms on January 3 of each odd-numbered year rather than the March 4 date on which those terms originally were due to expire. Section 5 also resulted in the 73rd Congress not being required to meet until January 3, 1934. The first Congress to open its first session and begin its members' terms on the new date was the 74th Congress in 1935. The first presidential and vice presidential terms to begin on the date appointed by the Twentieth Amendment were the second terms of President Roosevelt and Vice President Garner, on January 20, 1937. As Section 1 had shortened the first term of both (1933–37) by 43 days, Garner thus served as vice-president for two full terms, but he did not serve a full eight years: his vice presidency spanned from March 4, 1933, to January 20, 1941. References External links CRS Annotated Constitution: Twentieth Amendment Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution 1933 in American politics 72nd United States Congress 73rd United States Congress Amendments to the United States Constitution United States presidential succession Presidency of the United States Vice presidency of the United States

Since Alaska became a U.S. state in 1959, it has sent congressional delegations to the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives. Each state elects two senators to serve for six years, and member(s) of the House to two-year terms. Before becoming a state, the Territory of Alaska elected a non-voting delegate at-large to Congress from 1906 to 1959. These are tables of congressional delegations from Alaska to the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. Current delegation Alaska's current congressional delegation in the consists of its two Senators, and its sole Representative, all of whom are Republicans. Lisa Murkowski is the first elected senator born in Alaska. The current dean of the Alaska delegation is Representative Don Young, having served in the House since 1973. He is also the current Dean of the House and the longest-serving member of the House from the Republican Party. United States Senate Each state elects two senators by statewide popular vote every six years. The terms of the two senators are staggered so that they are not elected in the same year, meaning that each seat also has a class determining the years in which the seat will be up for election. Alaska's senators are elected in classes 2 and 3. There have been eight senators from Alaska, of whom four have been Democrats and four have been Republicans. Ernest Gruening was elected to the Senate on October 6, 1955 for the 84th Congress but did not take the oath of office and was not accorded senatorial privileges, since Alaska was not yet a state. Alaska's current senators, both Republicans, are Dan Sullivan, in office since 2015, and Lisa Murkowski, in office since 2002. United States House of Representatives 1906–1959: 1 non-voting delegate Starting on August 14, 1906, Alaska sent a non-voting delegate to the House. From May 17, 1884 to August 24, 1912, Alaska was designated as the District of Alaska. From then to January 3, 1959, it was the Alaska Territory. 1959–present: 1 seat Since statehood on January 3, 1959, Alaska has had one seat in the House. Key Notes References Congressional delegations Politics of Alaska Alaska

Uganda (Ugandan Languages: Yuganda), officially the Republic of Uganda (), is a landlocked country in East Africa. The country is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the south by Tanzania. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, shared with Kenya and Tanzania. Uganda is in the African Great Lakes region. Uganda also lies within the Nile basin and has a varied but generally a modified equatorial climate. It has a population of over 42 million, of which 8.5 million live in the capital and largest city of Kampala. Uganda is named after the Buganda kingdom, which encompasses a large portion of the south of the country, including the capital Kampala. Beginning in 1894, the area was ruled as a protectorate by the UK, which established administrative law across the territory. Uganda gained independence from the UK on 9 October 1962. The period since then has been marked by violent conflicts, including an eight-year-long military dictatorship led by Idi Amin. The official languages are English and Swahili, although the Constitution states that "any other language may be used as a medium of instruction in schools or other educational institutions or for legislative, administrative or judicial purposes as may be prescribed by law." Luganda, a central region-based language, is widely spoken across the Central and South Eastern regions of the country, and several other languages are also spoken, including Lango, Acholi, Runyoro, Runyankole, Rukiga, Luo, Rutooro, Samia, Jopadhola, and Lusoga. Uganda's current president is Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, who took power in January 1986 after a protracted six-year guerrilla war. Following constitutional amendments that removed term limits for the president, he was able to stand and was elected president of Uganda in the 2011, 2016 and in the 2021 general elections. History Precolonial Uganda Much of Uganda was inhabited by Central sudanic and Kuliak speaking agro-pastoralists before Bantu speakers arrived in southern Uganda 3,000 years ago in 1,000BC. According to oral tradition and archeological studies, the Empire of Kitara covered an important part of the great lakes area, from the northern lakes Albert and Kyoga to the southern lakes Victoria and Tanganyika. Bunyoro-Kitara is claimed as the antecedent of the Toro, Ankole, and Busoga kingdoms. Some Luo invaded the area of Bunyoro and assimilated with the Bantu society there, establishing the Babiito dynasty of the current Omukama (ruler) of Bunyoro-Kitara. Arab traders moved inland from the Indian Ocean coast of East Africa in the 1830s for trade and commerce. In the late 1860s, Bunyoro in Mid-Western Uganda found itself threatened from the north by Egyptian-sponsored agents. Unlike the Arab traders from the East African coast who sought trade, these agents were promoting foreign conquest. In 1869, Khedive Ismail Pasha of Egypt, seeking to annex the territories north of the borders of Lake Victoria and east of Lake Albert and "south of Gondokoro," sent a British explorer, Samuel Baker, on a military expedition to the frontiers of Northern Uganda, with the objective of suppressing the slave-trade there and opening the way to commerce and "civilization." The Banyoro resisted Baker, and he had to fight a desperate battle to secure his retreat. Baker regarded the resistance as an act of treachery, and he denounced the Banyoro in a book (Ismailia – A Narrative Of The Expedition To Central Africa For The Suppression Of Slave Trade, Organised By Ismail, Khadive Of Egypt (1874)) that was widely read in Britain. Later, the British arrived in Uganda with a predisposition against Bunyoro and siding with Buganda which eventually would cost the kingdom half of its territory given to Buganda as a reward from the British. Two of the numerous "lost counties" were restored to Bunyoro after independence. In the 1860s, while Arabs sought influence from the north, British explorers searching for the source of the Nile arrived in Uganda. They were followed by British Anglican missionaries who arrived in the kingdom of Buganda in 1877 and French Catholic missionaries in 1879. This situation gave rise to the death of the Uganda Martyrs in 1885—after the conversion of Muteesa I and much of his court, and the succession of his anti-Christian son Mwanga. The British government chartered the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) to negotiate trade agreements in the region beginning in 1888. From 1886, there was a series of religious wars in Buganda, initially between Muslims and Christians and then, from 1890, between ba-Ingleza Protestants and ba-Fransa Catholics. Because of civil unrest and financial burdens, IBEAC claimed that it was unable to "maintain their occupation" in the region. British commercial interests were ardent to protect the trade route of the Nile, which prompted the British government to annex Buganda and adjoining territories to create the Uganda Protectorate in 1894. Uganda Protectorate (1894–1962) The Protectorate of Uganda was a protectorate of the British Empire from 1894 to 1962. In 1893, the Imperial British East Africa Company transferred its administration rights of territory consisting mainly of the Kingdom of Buganda to the British government. The IBEAC relinquished its control over Uganda after Ugandan internal religious wars had driven it into bankruptcy. In 1894, the Uganda Protectorate was established, and the territory was extended beyond the borders of Buganda by signing more treaties with the other kingdoms (Toro in 1900, Ankole in 1901, and Bunyoro in 1933) to an area that roughly corresponds to that of present-day Uganda. The status of Protectorate had significantly different consequences for Uganda than had the region been made a colony like neighboring Kenya, insofar as Uganda retained a degree of self-government that would have otherwise been limited under a full colonial administration. In the 1890s, 32,000 labourers from British India were recruited to East Africa under indentured labour contracts to construct the Uganda Railway. Most of the surviving Indians returned home, but 6,724 decided to remain in East Africa after the line's completion. Subsequently, some became traders and took control of cotton ginning and sartorial retail. From 1900 to 1920, a sleeping sickness epidemic in the southern part of Uganda, along the north shores of Lake Victoria, killed more than 250,000 people. World War II encouraged the colonial administration of Uganda to recruit 77,143 soldiers to serve in the King's African Rifles. They were seen in action in the Western Desert campaign, the Abyssinian campaign, the Battle of Madagascar and the Burma campaign. Independence (1962 to 1965) Uganda gained independence from the UK on 9 October 1962 with Queen Elizabeth II as head of state and Queen of Uganda. In October 1963, Uganda became a republic but maintained its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. The first post-independence election, held in 1962, was won by an alliance between the Uganda People's Congress (UPC) and Kabaka Yekka (KY). UPC and KY formed the first post-independence government with Milton Obote as executive prime minister, with the Buganda Kabaka (King) Edward Muteesa II holding the largely ceremonial position of president. Buganda crisis (1962–1966) Uganda's immediate post-independence years were dominated by the relationship between the central government and the largest regional kingdom – Buganda. From the moment the British created the Uganda protectorate, the issue of how to manage the largest monarchy within the framework of a unitary state had always been a problem. Colonial governors had failed to come up with a formula that worked. This was further complicated by Buganda's nonchalant attitude to its relationship with the central government. Buganda never sought independence but rather appeared to be comfortable with a loose arrangement that guaranteed them privileges above the other subjects within the protectorate or a special status when the British left. This was evidenced in part by hostilities between the British colonial authorities and Buganda prior to independence. Within Buganda, there were divisions – between those who wanted the Kabaka to remain a dominant monarch and those who wanted to join with the rest of Uganda to create a modern secular state. The split resulted in the creation of two dominant Buganda based parties – the Kabaka Yekka (Kabaka Only) KY, and the Democratic Party (DP) that had roots in the Catholic Church. The bitterness between these two parties was extremely intense especially as the first elections for the post-Colonial parliament approached. The Kabaka particularly disliked the DP leader, Benedicto Kiwanuka. Outside Buganda, a soft-spoken politician from Northern Uganda, Milton Obote, had forged an alliance of non-Buganda politicians to form the Uganda People's Congress (UPC). The UPC at its heart was dominated by politicians who wanted to rectify what they saw as the regional inequality that favoured Buganda's special status. This drew in substantial support from outside Buganda. The party however remained a loose alliance of interests, but Obote showed great skill at negotiating them into a common ground based on a federal formula. At Independence, the Buganda question remained unresolved. Uganda was one of the few colonial territories that achieved independence without a dominant political party with a clear majority in parliament. In the pre-Independence elections, the UPC ran no candidates in Buganda and won 37 of the 61 directly elected seats (outside Buganda). The DP won 24 seats outside Buganda. The "special status" granted to Buganda meant that the 21 Buganda seats were elected by proportional representation reflecting the elections to the Buganda parliament – the Lukikko. KY won a resounding victory over DP, winning all 21 seats. The UPC reached a high at the end of 1964 when the leader of the DP in parliament, Basil Kiiza Bataringaya, crossed the parliamentary floor with five other MPs, leaving DP with only nine seats. The DP MPs were not particularly happy that the hostility of their leader, Benedicto Kiwanuka, towards the Kabaka was hindering their chances of compromise with KY. The trickle of defections turned into a flood when 10 KY members crossed the floor when they realised the formal coalition with the UPC was no longer viable. Obote's charismatic speeches across the country were sweeping all before him, and the UPC was winning almost every local election held and increasing its control over all district councils and legislatures outside Buganda. The response from the Kabaka was mute – probably content in his ceremonial role and symbolism in his part of the country. However, there were also major divisions within his palace that made it difficult for him to act effectively against Obote. By the time Uganda had become independent, Buganda "was a divided house with contending social and political forces" There were however problems brewing inside the UPC. As its ranks swelled, the ethnic, religious, regional, and personal interests began to shake the party. The party's apparent strength was eroded in a complex sequence of factional conflicts in its central and regional structures. And by 1966, the UPC was tearing itself apart. The conflicts were further intensified by the newcomers who had crossed the parliamentary floor from DP and KY. The UPC delegates arrived in Gulu in 1964 for their delegates conference. Here was the first demonstration as to how Obote was losing control of his party. The battle over the Secretary-General of the party was a bitter contest between the new moderate's candidate – Grace Ibingira and the radical John Kakonge. Ibingira subsequently became the symbol of the opposition to Obote within the UPC. This is an important factor when looking at the subsequent events that led to the crisis between Buganda and the Central government. For those outside the UPC (including KY supporters), this was a sign that Obote was vulnerable. Keen observers realised the UPC was not a cohesive unit. The collapse of the UPC-KY alliance openly revealed the dissatisfaction Obote and others had about Buganda's "special status". In 1964, the government responded to demands from some parts of the vast Buganda Kingdom that they were not the Kabaka's subjects. Prior to colonial rule, Buganda had been rivalled by the neighbouring Bunyoro kingdom. Buganda had conquered parts of Bunyoro and the British colonialists had formalised this in the Buganda Agreements. Known as the "lost counties", the people in these areas wished to revert to being part of Bunyoro. Obote decided to allow a referendum, which angered the Kabaka and most of the rest of Buganda. The residents of the counties voted to return to Bunyoro despite the Kabaka's attempts to influence the vote. Having lost the referendum, KY opposed the bill to pass the counties to Bunyoro, thus ending the alliance with the UPC. The tribal nature of Ugandan politics was also manifesting itself in government. The UPC which had previously been a national party began to break along tribal lines when Ibingira challenged Obote in the UPC. The "North/South" ethnic divide that had been evident in economic and social spheres now entrenched itself in politics. Obote surrounded himself with mainly northern politicians – A. A. Neykon, Felix Onama, Alex Ojera – while Ibingira's supporters who were subsequently arrested and jailed with him, were mainly from the South – George Magezi, B. Kirya, Matthias Ngobi. In time, the two factions acquired ethnic labels – "Bantu" (the mainly Southern Ibingira faction) and "Nilotic" (the mainly Northern Obote faction). The perception that the government was at war with the Bantu was further enhanced when Obote arrested and imprisoned the mainly Bantu ministers who backed Ibingira. These labels brought into the mix two very powerful influences. First Buganda – the people of Buganda are Bantu and therefore naturally aligned to the Ibingira faction. The Ibingira faction further advanced this alliance by accusing Obote of wanting to overthrow the Kabaka. They were now aligned to opposing Obote. Second – the security forces – the British colonialists had recruited the army and police almost exclusively from Northern Uganda due to their perceived suitability for these roles. At independence, the army and police was dominated by northern tribes – mainly Nilotic. They would now feel more affiliated to Obote, and he took full advantage of this to consolidate his power. In April 1966, Obote passed out eight hundred new army recruits at Moroto, of whom seventy percent came from the Northern Region. At the time there was a tendency to perceive central government and security forces as dominated by "northerners" – particularly the Acholi who through the UPC had significant access to government positions at national level. In northern Uganda there were also varied degrees of anti-Buganda feelings, particularly over the kingdom's "special status" before and after independence, and all the economic and social benefits that came with this status. "Obote brought significant numbers of northerners into the central state, both through the civil service and military, and created a patronage machine in Northern Uganda". However, both "Bantu" and "Nilotic" labels represent significant ambiguities. The Bantu category for example includes both Buganda and Bunyoro – historically bitter rivals. The Nilotic label includes the Lugbara, Acholi, and Langi, all of whom have bitter rivalries that were to define Uganda's military politics later. Despite these ambiguities, these events unwittingly brought to fore the northerner/southerner political divide which to some extent still influences Ugandan politics. The UPC fragmentation continued as opponents sensed Obote's vulnerability. At local level where the UPC dominated most councils discontent began to challenge incumbent council leaders. Even in Obote's home district, attempts were made to oust the head of the local district council in 1966. A more worrying fact for the UPC was that the next national elections loomed in 1967 – and without the support of KY (who were now likely to back the DP), and the growing factionalism in the UPC, there was the real possibility that the UPC would be out of power in months. Obote went after KY with a new act of parliament in early 1966 that blocked any attempt by KY to expand outside Buganda. KY appeared to respond in parliament through one of their few remaining MPs, the terminally ill Daudi Ochieng. Ochieng was an irony – although from Northern Uganda, he had risen high in the ranks of KY and become a close confidant to the Kabaka who had gifted him with large land titles in Buganda. In Obote's absence from Parliament, Ochieng laid bare the illegal plundering of ivory and gold from the Congo that had been orchestrated by Obote's army chief of staff, Colonel Idi Amin. He further alleged that Obote, Onama and Neykon had all benefited from the scheme. Parliament overwhelmingly voted in favour of a motion to censure Amin and investigate Obote's involvement. This shook the government and raised tensions in the country. KY further demonstrated its ability to challenge Obote from within his party at the UPC Buganda conference where Godfrey Binaisa (the Attorney General) was ousted by a faction believed to have the backing of KY, Ibingira and other anti-Obote elements in Buganda. Obote's response was to arrest Ibingira and other ministers at a cabinet meeting and to assume special powers in February 1966. In March 1966, Obote also announced that the offices of President and Vice-President would cease to exist – effectively dismissing the Kabaka. Obote also gave Amin more power – giving him the Army Commander position over the previous holder (Opolot) who had relations to Buganda through marriage (possibly believing Opolot would be reluctant to take military action against the Kabaka if it came to that). Obote abolished the constitution and effectively suspended elections due in a few months. Obote went on television and radio to accuse the Kabaka of various offences including requesting foreign troops which appears to have been explored by the Kabaka following the rumours of Amin plotting a coup. Obote further dismantled the authority of the Kabaka by announcing among other measures: The abolition of independent public service commissions for federal units. This removed the Kabaka's authority to appoint civil servants in Buganda. The abolition of the Buganda High Court – removing any judicial authority the Kabaka had. The bringing of Buganda financial management under further central control. Abolition of lands for Buganda chiefs. Land is one of the key sources of Kabaka's power over his subjects. The lines were now drawn for a show down between Buganda and the Central government. Historians may argue about whether this could have been avoided through compromise. This was unlikely as Obote now felt emboldened and saw the Kabaka as weak. Indeed, by accepting the presidency four years earlier and siding with the UPC, the Kabaka had divided his people and taken the side of one against the other. Within Buganda's political institutions, rivalries driven by religion and personal ambition made the institutions ineffective and unable to respond to the central government moves. The Kabaka was often regarded as aloof and unresponsive to advice from the younger Buganda politicians who better understood the new post-Independence politics, unlike the traditionalists who were ambivalent to what was going on as long as their traditional benefits were maintained. The Kabaka favoured the neo-traditionalists. In May 1966, the Kabaka made his move. He asked for foreign help, and the Buganda parliament demanded that the Uganda government leave Buganda (including the capital, Kampala). In response Obote ordered Idi Amin to attack the Kabaka's palace. The battle for the Kabaka's palace was fierce – the Kabaka's guards putting up more resistance than had been expected. The British trained Captain – the Kabaka with about 120 armed men kept Idi Amin at bay for twelve hours. It is estimated that up to 2,000 people died in the battle which ended when the army called in heavier guns and overran the palace. The anticipated countryside uprising in Buganda did not materialise and a few hours later a beaming Obote met the press to relish his victory. The Kabaka escaped over the palace walls and was transported into exile in London by supporters. He died there three years later. 1966–1971 (before the coup) In 1966, following a power struggle between the Obote-led government and King Muteesa, Obote suspended the constitution and removed the ceremonial president and vice-president. In 1967, a new constitution proclaimed Uganda a republic and abolished the traditional kingdoms. Obote was declared the president. 1971 (after the coup) –1979 (end of Amin regime) After a military coup on 25 January 1971, Obote was deposed from power and General Idi Amin seized control of the country. Amin ruled Uganda as dictator with the support of the military for the next eight years. He carried out mass killings within the country to maintain his rule. An estimated 80,000–500,000 Ugandans lost their lives during his regime. Aside from his brutalities, he forcibly removed the entrepreneurial Indian minority from Uganda. In June 1976, Palestinian terrorists hijacked an Air France flight and forced it to land at Entebbe airport. One hundred of the 250 passengers originally on board were held hostage until an Israeli commando raid rescued them ten days later. Amin's reign was ended after the Uganda-Tanzania War in 1979, in which Tanzanian forces aided by Ugandan exiles invaded Uganda. 1979–present Yoweri Museveni has been president since his forces toppled the previous regime in January 1986. Political parties in Uganda were restricted in their activities beginning that year, in a measure ostensibly designed to reduce sectarian violence. In the non-party "Movement" system instituted by Museveni, political parties continued to exist, but they could operate only a headquarters office. They could not open branches, hold rallies, or field candidates directly (although electoral candidates could belong to political parties). A constitutional referendum cancelled this nineteen-year ban on multi-party politics in July 2005. In 1993, Pope John Paul II visited Uganda during his 6-day pastoral trip to urge Ugandans to seek reconciliation. During mass celebrations, he paid homage to the slain Christian martyrs. In the mid-to-late 1990s, Museveni was lauded by western countries as part of a new generation of African leaders. His presidency has been marred, however, by invading and occupying the Democratic Republic of the Congo during the Second Congo War, resulting in an estimated 5.4 million deaths since 1998, and by participating in other conflicts in the Great Lakes region of Africa. He has struggled for years in the civil war against the Lord's Resistance Army, which has been guilty of numerous crimes against humanity, including child slavery, the Atiak massacre, and other mass murders. Conflict in northern Uganda has killed thousands and displaced millions. Parliament abolished presidential term limits in 2005, allegedly because Museveni used public funds to pay US$2,000 to each member of parliament who supported the measure. Presidential elections were held in February 2006. Museveni ran against several candidates, the most prominent of them being Kizza Besigye. On 20 February 2011, the Uganda Electoral Commission declared the incumbent president Yoweri Kaguta Museveni the winning candidate of the 2011 elections that were held on 18 February 2011. The opposition however, were not satisfied with the results, condemning them as full of sham and rigging. According to the official results, Museveni won with 68 percent of the votes. This easily topped his nearest challenger, Besigye, who had been Museveni's physician and told reporters that he and his supporters "downrightly snub" the outcome as well as the unremitting rule of Museveni or any person he may appoint. Besigye added that the rigged elections would definitely lead to an illegitimate leadership and that it is up to Ugandans to critically analyse this. The European Union's Election Observation Mission reported on improvements and flaws of the Ugandan electoral process: "The electoral campaign and polling day were conducted in a peaceful manner [...] However, the electoral process was marred by avoidable administrative and logistical failures that led to an unacceptable number of Ugandan citizens being disfranchised." Since August 2012, hacktivist group Anonymous has threatened Ugandan officials and hacked official government websites over its anti-gay bills. Some international donors have threatened to cut financial aid to the country if anti-gay bills continue. Indicators of a plan for succession by the president's son, Muhoozi Kainerugaba, have increased tensions. President Yoweri Museveni has ruled the country since 1986 and he was latest re-elected in January 2021 presidential elections. According to official results Museveni won the elections with 58% of the vote while popstar-turned-politician Bobi Wine had 35%. The opposition challenged the result because of allegations of widespread fraud and irregularities. Geography Uganda is located in southeast Africa between 1º N and 4º N latitude, and between 30º E and 35º E longitude. Its geography is very diverse consisting of volcanic hills, mountains, and lakes. The country sits at an average of 900 meters above sea level. Both the eastern and western borders of Uganda have mountains. The Ruwenzori mountain range contains the highest peak in Uganda, which is named Alexandra and measures 5,094 meters. Lakes and rivers Much of the south of the country is heavily influenced by one of the world's biggest lakes, Lake Victoria, which contains many islands. Most important cities are located in the south, near this lake, including the capital Kampala and the nearby city of Entebbe. Lake Kyoga is in the centre of the country and is surrounded by extensive marshy areas. Although landlocked, Uganda contains many large lakes. Besides Lakes Victoria and Kyoga, there are Lake Albert, Lake Edward, and the smaller Lake George. Uganda lies almost completely within the Nile basin. The Victoria Nile drains from Lake Victoria into Lake Kyoga and thence into Lake Albert on the Congolese border. It then runs northwards into South Sudan. An area in eastern Uganda is drained by the Suam River, part of the internal drainage basin of Lake Turkana. The extreme north-eastern part of Uganda drains into the Lotikipi Basin, which is primarily in Kenya. Biodiversity and conservation Uganda has 60 protected areas, including ten national parks: Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and Rwenzori Mountains National Park (both UNESCO World Heritage Sites), Kibale National Park, Kidepo Valley National Park, Lake Mburo National Park, Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Mount Elgon National Park, Murchison Falls National Park, Queen Elizabeth National Park, and Semuliki National Park. Uganda is home to a vast number of species, including a population of mountain gorillas in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, gorillas and golden monkeys in the Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, and hippos in the Murchison Falls National Park. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.36/10, ranking it 128th globally out of 172 countries. Government and politics The President of Uganda is both head of state and head of government. The president appoints a vice-president and a prime minister to aid him in governing. The parliament is formed by the National Assembly, which has 449 members. These include; 290 constituency representatives, 116 district woman representatives, 10 representatives of the Uganda Peoples Defence Forces, 5 representatives of the youth, 5 representatives of workers, 5 representatives of persons with disabilities and 18 ex-official members. Foreign relations Uganda is a member of the East African Community (EAC), along with Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan. According to the East African Common Market Protocol of 2010, the free trade and free movement of people is guaranteed, including the right to reside in another member country for purposes of employment. This protocol, however, has not been implemented because of work permit and other bureaucratic, legal, and financial obstacles. Uganda is a founding member of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) an eight-country bloc including governments from the Horn of Africa, Nile Valley and the African Great Lakes. Its headquarters are in Djibouti City. Uganda is also a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. Military In Uganda, the Uganda People's Defence Force serves as the military. The number of military personnel in Uganda is estimated at 45,000 soldiers on active duty. The Uganda army is involved in several peacekeeping and combat missions in the region, with commentators noting that only the United States Armed Forces is deployed in more countries. Uganda has soldiers deployed in the northern and eastern areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in the Central African Republic, Somalia, and South Sudan. Corruption Transparency International has rated Uganda's public sector as one of the most corrupt in the world. In 2016, Uganda ranked 151st worst out of 176 and had a score of 25 on a scale from 0 (perceived as most corrupt) to 100 (perceived as clean). The World Bank's 2015 Worldwide Governance Indicators ranked Uganda in the worst 12 percentile of all countries. According to the United States Department of State's 2012 Human Rights Report on Uganda, "The World Bank's most recent Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected corruption was a severe problem" and that "the country annually loses 768.9 billion shillings ($286 million) to corruption." Ugandan parliamentarians in 2014 earned 60 times what was earned by most state employees, and they sought a major increase. This caused widespread criticism and protests, including the smuggling of two piglets into the parliament in June 2014 to highlight corruption amongst members of parliament. The protesters, who were arrested, used the word "MPigs" to highlight their grievance. A specific scandal, which had significant international consequences and highlighted the presence of corruption in high-level government offices, was the embezzlement of $12.6 million of donor funds from the Office of the Prime Minister in 2012. These funds were "earmarked as crucial support for rebuilding northern Uganda, ravaged by a 20-year war, and Karamoja, Uganda's poorest region." This scandal prompted the EU, the UK, Germany, Denmark, Ireland, and Norway to suspend aid. Widespread grand and petty corruption involving public officials and political patronage systems have also seriously affected the investment climate in Uganda. One of the high corruption risk areas is the public procurement in which non-transparent under-the-table cash payments are often demanded from procurement officers. What may ultimately compound this problem is the availability of oil. The Petroleum Bill, passed by parliament in 2012 and touted by the NRM as bringing transparency to the oil sector, has failed to please domestic and international political commentators and economists. For instance, Angelo Izama, a Ugandan energy analyst at the US-based Open Society Foundation said the new law was tantamount to "handing over an ATM (cash) machine" to Museveni and his regime. According to Global Witness in 2012, a non-governmental organisation devoted to international law, Uganda now has "oil reserves that have the potential to double the government's revenue within six to ten years, worth an estimated US $2.4 billion per year." The Non-Governmental Organizations (Amendment) Act, passed in 2006, has stifled the productivity of NGOs through erecting barriers to entry, activity, funding and assembly within the sector. Burdensome and corrupt registration procedures (i.e. requiring recommendations from government officials; annual re-registration), unreasonable regulation of operations (i.e. requiring government notification prior to making contact with individuals in NGO's area of interest), and the precondition that all foreign funds be passed through the Bank of Uganda, among other things, are severely limiting the output of the NGO sector. Furthermore, the sector's freedom of speech has been continually infringed upon through the use of intimidation, and the recent Public Order Management Bill (severely limiting freedom of assembly) will only add to the government's stockpile of ammunition. Human rights There are many areas which continue to attract concern when it comes to human rights in Uganda. Conflict in the northern parts of the country continues to generate reports of abuses by both the rebel Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), led by Joseph Kony, and the Ugandan Army. A UN official accused the LRA in February 2009 of "appalling brutality" in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The number of internally displaced persons is estimated at 1.4 million. Torture continues to be a widespread practice amongst security organisations. Attacks on political freedom in the country, including the arrest and beating of opposition members of parliament, have led to international criticism, culminating in May 2005 in a decision by the British government to withhold part of its aid to the country. The arrest of the main opposition leader Kizza Besigye and the siege of the High Court during a hearing of Besigye's case by heavily armed security forces – before the February 2006 elections – led to condemnation. Child labour is common in Uganda. Many child workers are active in agriculture. Children who work on tobacco farms in Uganda are exposed to health hazards. Child domestic servants in Uganda risk sexual abuse. Trafficking of children occurs. Slavery and forced labour are prohibited by the Ugandan constitution. The US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants reported several violations of refugee rights in 2007, including forcible deportations by the Ugandan government and violence directed against refugees. Torture and extrajudicial killings have been a pervasive problem in Uganda in recent years. For instance, according to a 2012 US State Department report, "the African Center for Treatment and Rehabilitation for Torture Victims registered 170 allegations of torture against police, 214 against the UPDF, 1 against military police, 23 against the Special Investigations Unit, 361 against unspecified security personnel, and 24 against prison officials" between January and September 2012. In September 2009 Museveni refused Kabaka Muwenda Mutebi, the Baganda king, permission to visit some areas of Buganda Kingdom, particularly the Kayunga district. Riots occurred and over 40 people were killed while others remain imprisoned to this date. Furthermore, 9 more people were killed during the April 2011 "Walk to Work" demonstrations. According to the Humans Rights Watch 2013 World Report on Uganda, the government has failed to investigate the killings associated with both of these events. LGBT rights In 2007, a Ugandan newspaper, the Red Pepper, published a list of allegedly gay men, many of whom suffered harassment as a result. On 9 October 2010, the Ugandan newspaper Rolling Stone published a front-page article titled "100 Pictures of Uganda's Top Homos Leak" that listed the names, addresses, and photographs of 100 homosexuals alongside a yellow banner that read "Hang Them". The paper also alleged that homosexuals aimed to recruit Ugandan children. This publication attracted international attention and criticism from human rights organisations, such as Amnesty International, No Peace Without Justice and the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. According to gay rights activists, many Ugandans have been attacked since the publication. On 27 January 2011, gay rights activist David Kato was murdered. In 2009, the Ugandan parliament considered an Anti-Homosexuality Bill that would have broadened the criminalisation of homosexuality by introducing the death penalty for people who have previous convictions, or are HIV-positive, and engage in same-sex sexual acts. The bill also included provisions for Ugandans who engage in same-sex sexual relations outside of Uganda, asserting that they may be extradited back to Uganda for punishment, and included penalties for individuals, companies, media organisations, or non-governmental organizations that support legal protection for homosexuality or sodomy. The private member's bill was submitted by MP David Bahati in Uganda on 14 October 2009, and was believed to have had widespread support in the Uganda parliament. The hacktivist group Anonymous hacked into Ugandan government websites in protest of the bill. The debate of the bill was delayed in response to global condemnation but was eventually passed on 20 December 2013 and signed by President Yoweri Museveni on 24 February 2014. The death penalty was dropped in the final legislation. The law was widely condemned by the international community. Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden said they would withhold aid. The World Bank on 28 February 2014 said it would postpone a US$90 million loan, while the United States said it was reviewing ties with Uganda. On 1 August 2014, the Constitutional Court of Uganda ruled the bill invalid as it was not passed with the required quorum. A 13 August 2014 news report said that the Ugandan attorney general had dropped all plans to appeal, per a directive from President Museveni who was concerned about foreign reaction to the bill and who also said that any newly introduced bill should not criminalise same-sex relationships between consenting adults. Progress on the continent of Africa has been slow but progressing with South Africa being the only country where same sex marriages are recognised. Administrative divisions As of 2018, Uganda is divided into 121 districts. Rural areas of districts are subdivided into sub-counties, parishes, and villages. Municipal and town councils are designated in urban areas of districts. Political subdivisions in Uganda are officially served and united by the Uganda Local Governments Association (ULGA), a voluntary and non-profit body which also serves as a forum for support and guidance for Ugandan sub-national governments. Parallel with the state administration, five traditional Bantu kingdoms have remained, enjoying some degrees of mainly cultural autonomy. The kingdoms are Toro, Busoga, Bunyoro, Buganda, and Rwenzururu. Furthermore, some groups attempt to restore Ankole as one of the officially recognised traditional kingdoms, to no avail yet. Several other kingdoms and chiefdoms are officially recognised by the government, including the union of Alur chiefdoms, the Iteso paramount chieftaincy, the paramount chieftaincy of Lango and the Padhola state. Economy and infrastructure The Bank of Uganda is the central bank of Uganda and handles monetary policy along with the printing of the Ugandan shilling. In 2015, Uganda's economy generated export income from the following merchandise: coffee (US$402.63 million), oil re-exports (US$131.25 million), base metals and products (US$120.00 million), fish (US$117.56 million), maize (US$90.97 million), cement (US$80.13 million), tobacco (US$73.13 million), tea (US$69.94 million), sugar (US$66.43 million), hides and skins (US$62.71 million), cocoa beans (US$55.67 million), beans (US$53.88 million), simsim (US$52.20 million), flowers (US$51.44 million), and other products (US$766.77 million). The country has been experiencing consistent economic growth. In fiscal year 2015–16, Uganda recorded gross domestic product growth of 4.6 percent in real terms and 11.6 percent in nominal terms. This compares to 5.0 percent real growth in fiscal year 2014–15. The country has largely untapped reserves of both crude oil and natural gas. While agriculture accounted for 56 percent of the economy in 1986, with coffee as its main export, it has now been surpassed by the services sector, which accounted for 52 percent of GDP in 2007. In the 1950s, the British colonial regime encouraged some 500,000 subsistence farmers to join co-operatives. Since 1986, the government (with the support of foreign countries and international agencies) has acted to rehabilitate an economy devastated during the regime of Idi Amin and the subsequent civil war. In 2012, the World Bank still listed Uganda on the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries list. Economic growth has not always led to poverty reduction. Despite an average annual growth of 2.5 percent between 2000 and 2003, poverty levels increased by 3.8 percent during that time. This has highlighted the importance of avoiding jobless growth and is part of the rising awareness in development circles of the need for equitable growth not just in Uganda, but across the developing world. With the Uganda securities exchanges established in 1996, several equities have been listed. The government has used the stock market as an avenue for privatisation. All government treasury issues are listed on the securities exchange. The Capital Markets Authority has licensed 18 brokers, asset managers, and investment advisors including: African Alliance Investment Bank, Baroda Capital Markets Uganda Limited, Crane Financial Services Uganda Limited, Crested Stocks and Securities Limited, Dyer & Blair Investment Bank, Equity Stock Brokers Uganda Limited, Renaissance Capital Investment Bank and UAP Financial Services Limited. As one of the ways of increasing formal domestic savings, pension sector reform is the centre of attention (2007). Uganda traditionally depends on Kenya for access to the Indian Ocean port of Mombasa. Efforts have intensified to establish a second access route to the sea via the lakeside ports of Bukasa in Uganda and Musoma in Tanzania, connected by railway to Arusha in the Tanzanian interior and to the port of Tanga on the Indian Ocean. Uganda is a member of the East African Community and a potential member of the planned East African Federation. Uganda has a large diaspora, residing mainly in the United States and the United Kingdom. This diaspora has contributed enormously to Uganda's economic growth through remittances and other investments (especially property). According to the World Bank, Uganda received in 2016 an estimated US$1.099 billion in remittances from abroad, second only to Kenya (US$1.574 billion) in the East African Community. and seventh in Africa Uganda also serves as an economic hub for a number of neighbouring countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan, and Rwanda. The Ugandan Bureau of Statistics announced inflation was 4.6 percent in November 2016. On 29 June 2018, Uganda's statistics agency said the country registered a drop in inflation to 3.4 percent in the financial year ending 2017/18 compared to the 5.7 percent recorded in the financial year 2016/17. Industry Uganda ranked as number 102 among the countries of the world in nominal Gross Domestic Product by the International Monetary Fund with a GDP of 26,349 (US$million). The World Bank ranked Uganda as number 99 in nominal GDP with a GDP of 25,891 (US$million). Based on the GDP with purchasing power parity the IMF ranked Uganda as number 86 (91,212 million of current Int$) and the World Bank ranked them 90 (79,889 million of current Int$). Since the 1990s, the economy in Uganda is growing. Real gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average of 6.7% annually during the period 1990–2015, whereas real GDP per capita grew at 3.3% per annum during the same period. Poverty Uganda is one of the poorest nations in the world. In 2012, 37.8 percent of the population lived on less than $1.25 a day. Despite making enormous progress in reducing the countrywide poverty incidence from 56 percent of the population in 1992 to 24.5 percent in 2009, poverty remains deep-rooted in the country's rural areas, which are home to 84 percent of Ugandans. People in rural areas of Uganda depend on farming as the main source of income and 90 per cent of all rural women work in the agricultural sector. In addition to agricultural work, rural women are responsible for the caretaking of their families. The average Ugandan woman spends 9 hours a day on domestic tasks, such as preparing food and clothing, fetching water and firewood, and caring for the elderly, the sick as well as orphans. As such, women on average work longer hours than men, between 12 and 18 hours per day, with a mean of 15 hours, as compared to men, who work between 8 and 10 hours a day. To supplement their income, rural women may engage in small-scale entrepreneurial activities such as rearing and selling local breeds of animals. Nonetheless, because of their heavy workload, they have little time for these income-generating activities. The poor cannot support their children at school and in most cases, girls drop out of school to help out in domestic work or to get married. Other girls engage in sex work. As a result, young women tend to have older and more sexually experienced partners and this puts women at a disproportionate risk of getting affected by HIV, accounting for about 5.7 per cent of all adults living with HIV in Uganda. Maternal health in rural Uganda lags behind national policy targets and the Millennium Development Goals, with geographical inaccessibility, lack of transport and financial burdens identified as key demand-side constraints to accessing maternal health services; as such, interventions like intermediate transport mechanisms have been adopted as a means to improve women's access to maternal health care services in rural regions of the country. Gender inequality is the main hindrance to reducing women's poverty. Women are subjected to an overall lower social status than men. For many women, this reduces their power to act independently, participate in community life, become educated and escape reliance upon abusive men. Air transportation There are 35 airports in Uganda. Commercial airlines operate scheduled passenger services out of four airports. Uganda has an international airport, Entebbe International Airport, which is located south-west of Kampala. In 2017 the airport traffic hit 1.53 million passengers, 8% more than the previous year. A second international airport, Hoima International Airport, is currently under construction. Road network Road transportation is the most important way of transportation in Uganda. 95% of freight and passenger traffic is handled by road traffic. The road network in Uganda is approximately long. About 4% of these roads are paved which means about . The different types of roads are national roads (—17%), district roads (—26%), urban roads (—7%), and community roads (—50%). The national roads make up about 17% of the road network but carry over 80% of the total road traffic. In Uganda there are 83,000 private cars which means 2.94 cars per 1000 inhabitants. Railroad The rail network in Uganda is approximately long. The longest lines are the main line from Kampala to Tororo (), the western line from Kampala to Kasese (), the northern line from Tororo to Pakwach (). Communications There are seven telecommunications companies serving over 21 million subscribers in a population of over 34 million. More than 95 percent of internet connections are made using mobile phones. The total mobile and fixed telephony subscriptions increased from over 20 million to over 21 million yielding an increment of over 1.1 million subscribers (5.4 increase) compared to the 4.1 percent increases realised in the previous quarter Q4 2014 (October–December). Energy Uganda is richly endowed with abundant energy resources, which are fairly distributed throughout the country. These include hydropower, biomass, solar, geothermal, peat and fossil fuels. In the 1980s, the majority of energy in Uganda came from charcoal and wood. However, oil was found in the Lake Albert area, totaling an estimated barrels of crude. Heritage Oil discovered one of the largest crude oil finds in Uganda, and continues operations there. Uganda and Tanzania signed a deal on 13 September 2016 that will see the two countries build a 1,445 km, $3.5bn crude oil pipeline. The Uganda–Tanzania Crude Oil Pipeline (UTCOP), also known as the East African Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP) will be the first of its kind in East Africa, will connect Uganda's oil-rich Hoima region with the Indian Ocean through the Tanga port in Tanzania. Water supply and sanitation According to a 2006 published report, the Ugandan water supply and sanitation sector had made substantial progress in urban areas since the mid-1990s, with substantial increases in coverage as well as in operational and commercial performance. Sector reforms in the period 1998–2003 included the commercialisation and modernisation of the National Water and Sewerage Corporation operating in cities and larger towns, as well as decentralisation and private sector participation in small towns. Although these reforms have attracted significant international attention, 38 percent of the population still had no access to an improved water source in 2010. Concerning access to improved sanitation, figures have varied widely. According to government figures, it was 70 percent in rural areas and 81 percent in urban areas in 2011, while according to UN figures it was only 34 percent. The water and sanitation sector was recognised as a key area under the 2004 Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), Uganda's main strategy paper to fight poverty. According to a 2006 published report, a comprehensive expenditure framework had been introduced to co-ordinate financial support by external donors, the national government, and nongovernmental organisations. The PEAP estimated that from 2001 to 2015, about US$1.4 billion, or US$92 million per year, was needed to increase water supply coverage up to 95 percent, with rural areas needing US$956 million, urban areas and large towns needing US$281 million, and small towns needing US$136 million. Education Uganda's educational system, while lacking in many areas, has seen significant change in recent years. The educational system is set up so that children spend seven years in primary school, six years in secondary school, and three to five years in post secondary school. In 1997, the government declared that primary school would be free for all children. This amendment has had huge benefits. In 1986, only two million children were attending primary school. By 1999, six million children were attending primary school, and this number has continued to climb. Following significant gains in access to primary education since 1997 when universal primary education (UPE) was introduced, Uganda in 2007 became the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to introduce universal secondary education (USE). This bold step by the Government of Uganda led to an increase in lower secondary enrolment of nearly 25% between 2007 and 2012. At the 2002 census, Uganda had a literacy rate of 66.8 percent (76.8 percent male and 57.7 percent female). Public spending on education was at 5.2 percent of the 2002–2005 GDP. , the NCHE website listed 46 private accredited universities. to mention a few, Makerere University, Mbarara University of science and technology, Kyambogo University, Gulu University, Uganda Christian University, Kampala international University among many more. Health There were eight physicians per 100,000 persons in the early 2000s. Uganda's elimination of user fees at state health facilities in 2001 has resulted in an 80 percent increase in visits, with over half of this increase coming from the poorest 20 percent of the population. This policy has been cited as a key factor in helping Uganda achieve its Millennium Development Goals and as an example of the importance of equity in achieving those goals. Despite this policy, many users are denied care if they do not provide their own medical equipment, as happened in the highly publicised case of Jennifer Anguko. Poor communication within hospitals, low satisfaction with health services and distance to health service providers undermine the provision of quality health care to people living in Uganda, and particularly for those in poor and elderly-headed households. The provision of subsidies for poor and rural populations, along with the extension of public private partnerships, have been identified as important provisions to enable vulnerable populations to access health services. Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 63.4 years in 2019. The infant mortality rate was approximately 61 deaths per 1,000 children in 2012. In July 2012, there was an Ebola outbreak in the Kibaale District of the country. On 4 October 2012, the Ministry of Health officially declared the end of the outbreak after at least 16 people had died. The Health Ministry announced on 16 August 2013 that three people had died in northern Uganda from a suspected outbreak of Congo Crimean Hemorrhagic Fever. Uganda has been among the rare HIV success stories. Infection rates of 30 per cent of the population in the 1980s fell to 6.4 percent by the end of 2008. Meanwhile, the practice of abstinence was found to have decreased. Less than half of all sexually active unmarried women use a modern contraceptive method, a fraction that has barely changed from 2000 to 2011. However, only ~26% of married women used contraceptives in 2011. The use of contraceptives also differs substantially between poor (~15%) and wealthy women (~40%). As a result, Ugandan women have ~6 children while they prefer to have around ~4. According to the 2011 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), more than 40% of births are unplanned. In 2010, the Ugandan Ministry of Health estimated that unsafe abortion accounted for 8% of the country's maternal deaths. The 2006 Uganda Demographic Health Survey (UDHS) indicated that roughly 6,000 women die each year from pregnancy-related complications. Pilot studies in 2012 by Future Health Systems have shown that this rate could be significantly reduced by implementing a voucher scheme for health services and transport to clinics. The prevalence of female genital mutilation (FGM) is low: according to a 2013 UNICEF report, only 1 percent of women in Uganda have undergone FGM, with the practice being illegal in the country. Crime and law enforcement In Uganda, the Allied Democratic Forces is considered a violent rebel force that opposes the Ugandan government. These rebels are an enemy of the Uganda People's Defence Force and are considered an affiliate of Al-Shabaab. Tourism Tourism in Uganda is focused on Uganda's landscape and wildlife. It is a major driver of employment, investment and foreign exchange, contributing 4.9 trillion Ugandan shillings (US$1.88 billion or €1.4 billion as of August 2013) to Uganda's GDP in the financial year 2012–13. The Uganda Tourism Board is responsible for maintaining information pertaining to tourism in Uganda. The main attractions are photo safaris through the National parks and game Reserves. Other attractions include the Mountain Gorillas found in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) and Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP), Uganda having some of the oldest cultural kingdom in Africa has many Cultural sites. Uganda is a birding paradise boasting a massive bird list of more of than 1073 recorded bird species ranking 4th in Africa's bird species and 16th internationally. Uganda has landscapes ranging from white-capped Rwenzori mountains and the Great Rift Valley. Science and technology The National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy dates from 2009. Its overarching goal is to ‘strengthen national capability to generate, transfer and apply scientific knowledge, skills and technologies that ensure sustainable utilization of natural resources for the realisation of Uganda's development objectives.’ The policy precedes Uganda Vision 2040, which was launched in April 2013 to transform ‘Ugandan society from a peasant to a modern and prosperous country within 30 years,’ in the words of the Cabinet. Uganda Vision 2040 vows to strengthen the private sector, improve education and training, modernize infrastructure and the underdeveloped services and agriculture sectors, foster industrialization and promote good governance, among other goals. Potential areas for economic development include oil and gas, tourism, minerals and information and communication technologies (ICTs). Uganda was ranked 114th in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, down from 102nd in 2019. Research funding climbed between 2008 and 2010 from 0.33% to 0.48% of GDP. Over the same period, the number of researchers doubled (in head counts) from 1 387 to 2 823, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. This represents a leap from 44 to 83 researchers per million inhabitants over the same period. One in four researchers is a woman. Uganda has been able to manufacture prototype of cars called kiira in which the government invested 70usd. Demographics Uganda's population grew from 9.5 million people in 1969 to 34.9 million in 2014. With respect to the last inter-censal period (September 2002), the population increased by 10.6 million people in the past 12 years. Uganda's median age of 15 years is the lowest in the world. Uganda has the fifth highest total fertility rate in the world, at 5.97 children born per woman (2014 estimates). There were about 80,000 Indians in Uganda before Idi Amin required the expulsion of Ugandan-Asians (mostly of Indian origin) in 1972, which reduced the population to as low as 7,000. Many Indians, however, returned to Uganda after Amin's fall ouster in 1979. Around 90 percent of Ugandan Indians reside in Kampala. According to the UNHCR, Uganda hosts over 1.1 million refugees on its soil as of November 2018. Most come from neighbouring countries in the African Great Lakes region, particularly South Sudan (68.0 percent) and Democratic Republic of the Congo (24.6%). Languages Swahili, a widely used language throughout the African Great Lakes region, was approved as the country's second official national language in 2005. English was the only official language until the constitution was amended in 2005. Although Swahili has not been favoured by the Bantu-speaking populations of the south and south-west of the country, it is an important lingua franca in the northern regions. It is also widely used in the police and military forces, which may be a historical result of the disproportionate recruitment of northerners into the security forces during the colonial period. The status of Swahili has thus alternated with the political group in power. For example, Idi Amin, who came from the north-west, declared Swahili to be the national language. Religion The Roman Catholic Church had the largest number of adherents (39.3 percent, down from 41.6 in 2002), followed by the Anglican Church of Uganda (32 percent, down from 35.9 percent). The category of Evangelical/Pentecostal/Born-Again showed the most growth, rising from 4.7% in 2002 to 11.1% in 2018. Adventist and other Protestant churches claimed most of the remaining Christians, although there was also a small Eastern Orthodox community. The next most reported religion of Uganda was Islam, with Muslims representing 13.7 percent of the population, up from 12.1% in 2002. The remainder of the population according to the 2014 census followed traditional religions (0.1 percent, down from 1% in 2002), other religions (1.4 percent), or had no religious affiliation (0.2 percent). Largest cities and towns Culture Owing to the large number of communities, culture within Uganda is diverse. Many Asians (mostly from India) who were expelled during the regime of Idi Amin have returned to Uganda. Sport Football is the national sport in Uganda. The Uganda national football team, nicknamed "The Cranes" is controlled by the Federation of Uganda Football Associations. They have never qualified for the FIFA World Cup finals. Their best finish in the African Cup of Nations was second in 1978. , Uganda at the Olympics has won a total of two gold, three silver, and two bronze medals; four of which were in boxing and three in athletics. Uganda at the Commonwealth Games has collected 13 gold medals and a total 49 medals, all in boxing and athletics. The Uganda national boxing team is called The Bombers. They have won four medals at the Summer Olympics from 1968 to 1980, as well as two medals the 1974 World Amateur Boxing Championships. Notable boxers include Cornelius Boza-Edwards, Justin Juuko, Ayub Kalule, John Mugabi, Eridadi Mukwanga, Joseph Nsubuga, Kassim Ouma, Sam Rukundo and Leo Rwabwogo. In athletics, John Akii-Bua won the first Olympic gold medal for Uganda. At the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, he won the 400m hurdles race with a world record time of 47.82 seconds. 400 metres runner Davis Kamoga earned the bronze medal at 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta and the silver medal at the 1997 World Championships. Dorcus Inzikuru won the 3000 m steeplechase at the 2005 World Championships and the 2006 Commonwealth Games. Stephen Kiprotich has won the marathon at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London and the 2013 World Championships, and finished second at the 2015 Tokyo Marathon. Joshua Cheptegei has won 10 km races at the World Championships, World Athletics Cross Country Championships and Commonwealth Games, and has set world records in 5 km and 15 km. Halimah Nakaayi won the 800 meters race at the 2019 World Championships. In cricket, Uganda was part of the East Africa team that qualified for the Cricket World Cup in 1975. The country has an increasingly successful national basketball team. It is nicknamed "The Silverbacks," and made its debut at the 2015 FIBA Africa Championship. In July 2011, Kampala, Uganda qualified for the 2011 Little League World Series in Williamsport, Pennsylvania for the first time, beating Saudi Arabian baseball team Dharan LL, although visa complications prevented them from attending the series. Little League teams from Uganda qualified for and attended the 2012 Little League World Series. Cinema The Ugandan film industry is relatively young. It is developing quickly, but still faces an assortment of challenges. There has been support for the industry as seen in the proliferation of film festivals such as Amakula, Pearl International Film Festival, Maisha African Film Festival and Manya Human Rights Festival. However, filmmakers struggle against the competing markets from other countries on the continent such as those in Nigeria and South Africa in addition to the big budget films from Hollywood. The first publicly recognised film that was produced solely by Ugandans was Feelings Struggle, which was directed and written by Hajji Ashraf Ssemwogerere in 2005. This marks the year of ascent of film in Uganda, a time where many enthusiasts were proud to classify themselves as cinematographers in varied capacities. The local film industry is polarised between two types of filmmakers. The first are filmmakers who use the Nollywood video film era's guerrilla approach to film making, churning out a picture in around two weeks and screening it in makeshift video halls. The second is the filmmaker who has the film aesthetic, but with limited funds has to depend on the competitive scramble for donor cash. Though cinema in Uganda is evolving, it still faces major challenges. Along with technical problems such as refining acting and editing skills, there are issues regarding funding and lack of government support and investment. There are no schools in the country dedicated to film, banks do not extend credit to film ventures, and distribution and marketing of movies remains poor. The Uganda Communications Commission (UCC) is preparing regulations starting in 2014 that require Ugandan television to broadcast 70 percent Ugandan content and of this, 40 percent to be independent productions. With the emphasis on Ugandan Film and the UCC regulations favouring Ugandan productions for mainstream television, Ugandan film may become more prominent and successful in the near future. See also Index of Uganda-related articles Outline of Uganda References Further reading Encyclopedias Appiah, Anthony and Henry Louis Gates (ed.) (2010). Encyclopaedia of Africa. Oxford University Press. Middleton, John (ed.) (2008). New encyclopaedia of Africa. Detroit: Thompson-Gale. Shillington, Kevin (ed.) (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. CRC Press. Selected books and scholarly articles BakamaNume, Bakama B. (2011). A Contemporary Geography of Uganda. African Books Collective. overview written for younger readers. Carney, J. J. For God and My Country: Catholic Leadership in Modern Uganda (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020). Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). The great lakes of Africa: two thousand years of history. New York: Zone Books. Clarke, Ian, ed. Uganda - Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture (2014) excerpt Datzberger, Simone, and Marielle L.J. Le Mat. "Just add women and stir?: Education, gender and peacebuilding in Uganda." International Journal of Educational Development 59 (2018): 61-69 online. Griffin, Brett, Robert Barlas, and Jui Lin Yong. Uganda. (Cavendish Square Publishing, 2019). Hepner, Tricia Redeker. "At the Boundaries of Life and Death: Notes on Eritrea and Northern Uganda." African Conflict and Peacebuilding Review 10.1 (2020): 127-142 online. Hodd, Michael and Angela Roche Uganda handbook. (Bath: Footprint, 2011). Izama, Angelo. "Uganda." Africa Yearbook Volume 16. Brill, 2020 pp. 413–422. Jagielski, Wojciech and Antonia Lloyd-Jones (2012). The night wanderers: Uganda's children and the Lord's Resistance Army. New York: Seven Stories Press. Jørgensen, Jan Jelmert, Uganda: a modern history (1981) online Langole, Stephen, and David Monk. "Background to peace and conflict in northern Uganda." in Youth, education and work in (post-) conflict areas (2019): 16+ online. Otiso, Kefa M. (2006). Culture and Customs of Uganda. Greenwood Publishing Group. Reid, Richard J. A history of modern Uganda (Cambridge University Press, 2017), the standard scholarly history. Buy from Amazon - online review Sobel, Meghan, and Karen McIntyre. "The State of Press Freedom in Uganda." International Journal of Communication 14 (2020): 20+. online External links Overview Uganda. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Uganda from UCB Libraries GovPubs. Country Profile from BBC News. Uganda Corruption Profile from the Business Anti-Corruption Portal Maps Printable map of Uganda from UN.org Government and economy Chief of State and Cabinet Members Key Development Forecasts for Uganda from International Futures Humanitarian issues Humanitarian news and analysis from IRIN – Uganda Humanitarian information coverage on ReliefWeb Radio France International – dossier on Uganda and Lord's Resistance Army Trade World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Uganda Tourism Uganda Tourism Board Uganda Wildlife Authority Visit Kampala with Kampala Capital City Authority Immigration Department East African countries English-speaking countries and territories Landlocked countries Least developed countries Member states of the African Union Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation States and territories established in 1962 Swahili-speaking countries and territories Current member states of the United Nations Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations 1962 establishments in Uganda Countries in Africa

The demographics of Uzbekistan are the demographic features of the population of Uzbekistan, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. The nationality of any person from Uzbekistan is Uzbek, while the ethnic Uzbek majority call themselves Uzbeks. Much of the data is estimated because the last census was carried out in Soviet times in 1989. Demographic trends Uzbekistan is Central Asia's most populous country. Its million people ( estimate) comprise nearly half the region's total population. The population of Uzbekistan is very young: 34.1% of its people are younger than 14. According to official sources, Uzbeks comprise a majority (80%) of the total population. Other ethnic groups, as of 1996 estimates, include Russians (5.5% of the population), Tajiks (5%), Kazakhs (3%), Karakalpaks (2.5%), and Tatars (1.5%). Uzbekistan has an ethnic Korean population that was forcibly relocated to the region from the Soviet Far East in 1937–1938. There are also small groups of Armenians in Uzbekistan, mostly in Tashkent and Samarkand. The nation is 88% Muslim (mostly Sunni, with a 5% Shi'a minority), 9% Eastern Orthodox and 3% other faiths (which include small communities of Korean Christians, other Christian denominations, Buddhists, Baha'is, and more). The Bukharan Jews have lived in Central Asia, mostly in Uzbekistan, for thousands of years. There were 94,900 Jews in Uzbekistan in 1989 (about 0.5% of the population according to the 1989 census), but now, since the collapse of the USSR, most Central Asian Jews left the region for the United States or Israel. Fewer than 5,000 Jews remain in Uzbekistan. Much of Uzbekistan's population was engaged in cotton farming in large-scale collective farms when the country was part of the Soviet Union. The population continues to be heavily rural and dependent on farming for its livelihood, although the farm structure in Uzbekistan has largely shifted from collective to individual since 1990. Vital statistics UN estimates Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs website > World Population Prospects: The 2019 revision. Sources: Current vital statistics Fertility and births Total fertility rate (TFR) and crude birth rate (CBR): Total fertility rate (TFR) According to the CIA World Factbook, the total fertility rate (TFR) estimated as of 2011 is 1.89 children born/woman. In 2002, the estimated TFR was 2.92; Uzbeks 2.99, Russians 1.35, Karakalpak 2.69, Tajik 3.19, Kazakh 2.95, Tatar 2.05, others 2.53; Tashkent City 1.96, Karakalpakstan 2.90, Fergana 2.73; Eastern region 2.71, East Central 2.96, Central 3.43, Western 3.05. The high fertility rate during the Soviet Union and during its period of disintegration is partly due to the historical cultural preferences for large families, economic reliance upon agriculture, and the greater relative worth of Soviet child benefits in Uzbekistan. Abortion was the preferred method of birth control. Legalized in 1955, the number of abortions increased by 231% from 1956-1973. By 1991, the abortion ratio was 39 abortions per 1,000 women of reproductive age per year. However, in the past few decades, fertility control methods have shifted considerably from abortion to modern contraceptive methods, especially IUDs. By the mid-1980s IUDS became the main method of contraception through government and organizational policies that aimed to introduce women to modern contraceptives. According to a UHES report from 2002, 73% of married Uzbek woman had used the IUD, 14% male condom, and 13% the pill. The government supported the use of modern contraceptives to control fertility rates because of national economic difficulties that followed the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Thus the government has been influential in determining the popularity of the IUD. Despite family planning programs that educate women on different methods of contraception, the IUD has remained women’s first choice of contraception. Word of mouth and social relations also account for the strong preference for the IUD. Nevertheless, factors such as class and level of education have been shown to give women more freedom in their choice of contraception methods. Regional differences The regions of Surxondaryo and Qashqadaryo have the highest birth rate and the lowest death rates in Uzbekistan. On the other hand, the city of Tashkent has the lowest birth rate and the highest death rate of the country. Life expectancy Source: UN World Population Prospects 2017 Ethnic groups Ethnic composition according to the 1989 population census (latest available): Uzbek 71%, Russian 6%, Khowar 2%, Tajik 5% (believed to be much higher), Kazakh 4%, Tatar 3%, Karakalpak 2%, other 7%. Estimates of ethnic composition in 1996 from CIA World Factbook: Uzbek 80%, Russian 5.5%, Tajik 5%, Kazakh 3%, Karakalpak 2.5%, Tatar 1.5%, other 2.5% (1996 est.) The table shows the ethnic composition of Uzbekistan's population (in percent) according to four population censuses between 1926 and 1989 (no population census was carried out in 1999, and the next census is now being planned for 2010). The increase in the percentage of Tajik from 3.9% of the population in 1979 to 4.7% in 1989 may be attributed, at least in part, to the change in census instructions: in the 1989 census for the first the nationality could be reported not according to the passport, but freely self-declared on the basis of the respondent's ethnic self-identification. Languages According to the CIA factbook, the current language distribution is: Uzbek 74.3%, Russian 14.2%, Tajik 4.4% and Other 7.1%. The Latin script replaced Cyrillic in the mid-1990s. Following independence, Uzbek was made the official state language. President Islam Karimov, the radical nationalist group Birlik (Unity), and the Uzbek Popular Front promoted this change. These parties believed that Uzbek would stimulate nationalism and the change itself was part of the process of de-Russification, which was meant to deprive Russian language and culture of any recognition. Birlik held campaigns in the late 1980s to achieve this goal, with one event in 1989 culminating in 12,000 people in Tashkent calling for official recognition of Uzbek as the state language. In 1995, the government adopted the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan on State Language, which mandates that Uzbek be used in all public spheres and official jobs. Scholars studying migration and ethnic minorities have since criticized the law as a source of discrimination toward minorities who do not speak Uzbek. Nevertheless, Russian remains the de facto language when it comes to science, inter-ethnic communication, business, and advertising. Multiple sources suggest that the Persian-speaking Tajik population of Uzbekistan may be as large as 25%-30% of the total population, but these estimates are based on unverifiable reports of "Tajiks around the country". The Tajik language is the dominant language spoken in the cities of Bukhara and Samarqand. The delineation of territory in 1924 and the process of “Uzbekisation” caused many Tajiks to identify as Uzbek. Thus there are many Tajiks who speak Tajik but are considered Uzbek. Religion Muslims constitute 88% of the population according to a 2013 US State Department release. Approximately 10% of the population are Russian Orthodox Christians. There were 94,900 Jews in Uzbekistan in 1989 (about 0.5% of the population according to the 1989 census), but fewer than 5,000 remained in 2007. A study showed that 35% of surveyed consider religion as "very important". CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook as of September 2009, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure 2009 estimate: 0–14 years: 26% (male 3,970,386 / female 3,787,371) 15–64 years: 67% (male 9,191,439 / female 9,309,791) 65 years and over: 6% (male 576,191 / female 770,829) Sex ratio 2009 estimate: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 12 years 1.05 male(s)/female 15–64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female Infant mortality rate 2009 estimate: Total: 23.43 deaths per 1,000 live births Male: 27.7 deaths per 1,000 live births Female: 18.9 deaths per 1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth 2009 estimate: total population: 71.96 years male: 68.95 years female: 75.15 years Literacy 2003 estimate: Literacy is defined as the percentage of the population aged 15 and over that can read and write. total population: 99.3% male: 99.6% female: 99% Education The educational system has achieved 99% literacy, and the mean amount of schooling for both men and women is 12 years. The government provides free and compulsory 12-year education. In 2016 Uzbekistan acknowledged the country's lack of higher education services to support its market needs. In addition, private higher education providers have begun to emerge on the market to provide students with the necessary knowledge and skills needed in the labor market. TEAM University, a private university in Tashkent, aims to develop the skills required to start entrepreneurial activities, thereby contributing to the development of businesses and private enterprises. Migration As of 2011, Uzbekistan has a net migration rate of -2.74 migrant(s)/ 1000 population. The process of migration changed after the fall of the Soviet Union. During the Soviet Union, passports facilitated movement throughout the fifteen republics and movement throughout the republics was relatively less expensive than it is today. An application for a labor abroad permit from a special department of the Uzbek Agency of External Labor Migration in Uzbekistan is required since 2003. The permit was originally not affordable to many Uzbeks and the process was criticized for the bureaucratic red tape it required. The same departments and agencies involved in creating this permit are consequently working to substantially reduce the costs as well as simplifying the procedure. On July 4, 2007, the Russian First Deputy Prime Minister Sergey Ivanov signed three agreements that would address labor activity and protection of the rights of the working migrants (this includes Russian citizens in Uzbekistan and Uzbek citizens in Russia) as well as cooperation in fighting undocumented immigration and the deportation of undocumented workers. Uzbek Migration Economic difficulties have increased labor migration to Russia, Kazakhstan, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Turkey, South Korea, and Europe over the past decade. At least 10% of Uzbekistan’s labor force works abroad. Approximately 58% of the labor force that migrates, migrates to Russia. High unemployment rates and low wages are responsible for labor migration. Migrants typically are people from the village, farmers, blue-collar workers, and students who are seeking work abroad. However, many migrants are not aware of the legal procedures required to leave the country, causing many to end up unregistered in Uzbekistan or the host country. Without proper registration, undocumented migrants are susceptible to underpayment, no social guarantees and bad treatment by employers. According to data from the Russian Federal Immigration Service, there were 102,658 officially registered labor migrants versus 1.5 million unregistered immigrants from Uzbekistan in Russia in 2006. The total remittances for both groups combined was approximately US $1.3 billion that same year, eight percent of Uzbekistan’s GDP. Minorities A significant number of ethnic and national minorities left Uzbekistan after the country became independent, but actual numbers are unknown. The primary reasons for migration by minorities include: few economic opportunities, a low standard of living, and a poor prospect for educational opportunities for future generations. Although Uzbekistan's language law has been cited as a source of discrimination toward those who do not speak Uzbek, this law has intertwined with social, economic, and political factors that have led to migration as a solution to a lack of opportunities in Uzbekistan. Russians, who constituted a primarily urban population made up half of the population of Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan, until the 1980s. Since then, the population has been gradually diminishing as many Russians have migrated to Russia. Nevertheless, Russian registration permits (propiska) constrain migration. The decision to migrate is complicated by the fact that many Russians or other minority groups who have a “homeland” may view Uzbekistan as the “motherland.” It is also complicated by the fact that these groups might not speak the national language of their “homeland” or may be registered under another nationality on their passports. Nonetheless, “native” embassies facilitate this migration. Approximately 200 visas are given out to Jews from the Israel embassy weekly. See also Demography of Central Asia References

The University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) is a public land-grant research university in San Francisco, California. It is part of the University of California system and it is dedicated entirely to health science. It is a major center of medical and biological research and teaching. UCSF was founded as Toland Medical College in 1864, and in 1873 it affiliated itself with the University of California, becoming its Medical Department. In the same year, it incorporated the California College of Pharmacy and in 1881 it established a dentistry school. Its facilities were located in both Berkeley and San Francisco. In 1964, the school gained full administrative independence as a campus of the UC system headed by a chancellor, and in 1970 it gained its current name. Historically based at Parnassus Heights and several other locations throughout the city, in the early 2000s it developed a second major campus in the newly redeveloped Mission Bay. UCSF is considered one of the world's preeminent medical and life sciences universities. According to the U.S. News & World Report, UCSF's medical school is ranked 2nd nationally for its clinical training, its pharmacy school is ranked 2nd nationally, and many of its nursing programs are ranked similarly highly. UCSF attracts the 9th most research funding from the National Institutes of Health, and its research output is ranked in the top 10 in the world in numerous biomedical fields. Despite focusing exclusively on health sciences, UCSF's research output is ranked in the top 20 in the world across all fields. As a healthcare provider, UCSF is ranked 9th nationally, and 1st in neurology and neurosurgery. With 25,398 employees, UCSF is the second-largest public agency employer in the San Francisco Bay Area. UCSF faculty have treated patients and trained residents since 1873 at the San Francisco General Hospital and for over 50 years at the San Francisco VA Medical Center. History Beginnings The University of California, San Francisco traces its history to Hugh Toland, a South Carolina surgeon who found great success and wealth after moving to San Francisco in 1852. A previous school, the Cooper Medical College of the University of Pacific (founded 1858), entered a period of uncertainty in 1862 when its founder, Elias Samuel Cooper, died. In 1864, Toland founded a new medical school, Toland Medical College, and the faculty of Cooper Medical College chose to suspend operations and join the new school. The University of California was founded on March 23, 1868, with the enacting of its Organic Act. Section 8 of the Organic Act authorized the Board of Regents to affiliate the University of California with independent self-sustaining professional colleges. In 1870, Toland Medical School began to negotiate an affiliation with the new public university. Meanwhile, some faculty of Toland Medical School elected to reopen the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific, which would later become Stanford University School of Medicine. Negotiations between Toland and UC were complicated by Toland's demand that the medical school continue to bear his name, an issue on which he finally conceded. In March 1873, the trustees of Toland Medical College transferred it to the Regents of the University of California, and it became The Medical Department of the University of California. At the same time, the University of California also negotiated the incorporation of the California College of Pharmacy, the first pharmacy school in the West, established in 1872 by the California Pharmaceutical Society. The Pharmacy College was affiliated in June 1873, and together the Medical College and the Pharmacy College came to be known as the "Affiliated Colleges". The third college, the College of Dentistry, was established in 1881. Expansion and growth Initially, the three Affiliated Colleges were located at different sites around San Francisco, but near the end of the 19th Century interest in bringing them together grew. To make this possible, San Francisco Mayor Adolph Sutro donated 13 acres in Parnassus Heights at the base of Mount Parnassus (now known as Mount Sutro). The new site, overlooking Golden Gate Park, opened in the fall of 1898, with the construction of the new Affiliated Colleges buildings. The school's first female student, Lucy Wanzer, graduated in 1876, after having to appeal to the UC Board of Regents to gain admission in 1873. Until 1906, the faculty of the medical school had provided care at the City-County Hospital (San Francisco General Hospital, 1915–2016, but Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and Trauma Center (SFGH) since 2016), but the medical school still did not have a teaching hospital of its own. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, more than 40,000 people were relocated to a makeshift tent city in Golden Gate Park and were treated by the faculty of the Affiliated Colleges. This brought the Affiliated Colleges, which until then were located on the western outskirts of the city, in contact with significant population numbers. By fueling the Affiliated Colleges' commitment to civic responsibility and health care, the earthquake increased the momentum towards the eventual construction of their own healthcare facilities. Within a month after the 1906 earthquake, the faculty of the medical school voted to make room in their building for a teaching hospital by moving the three departments responsible for the first two years of preclinical instruction—anatomy, pathology, and physiology—across San Francisco Bay to the Berkeley campus. As a result, for over 50 years, students pursuing the M.D. degree took their first two years at Berkeley and their last two years at Parnassus Heights. By October 1906, an outpatient clinic was operational on the first floor of the medical building, and by April 1907, the new teaching hospital started to admit inpatients. This created the need to train nursing students, of whom the first was informally admitted in June; in December 1907, the UC Training School for Nurses was formally established, adding a fourth professional school to the Affiliated Colleges. Around this time, the Affiliated Colleges agreed to submit to the Regents' governance during the term of President Benjamin Ide Wheeler, as the Board of Regents had come to recognize the problems inherent in the existence of independent entities that shared the UC brand but over which UC had no real control. The last of the Affiliated Colleges to become an integral part of the university was the pharmacy school, in 1934. Post-War 20th century The schools continued to grow in numbers and reputation in the following years. One notable event was the incorporation of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research in 1914, a medical research institute second only to the Rockefeller Institute. This addition bolstered the prestige of the Parnassus site during the long-running dispute over whether the schools should consolidate at Parnassus or in Berkeley. The final decision came in 1949 when the Regents of the University of California designated the Parnassus campus as the UC Medical Center in San Francisco. After the medical facilities were updated and expanded, the preclinical departments returned to San Francisco in 1958, and from that point forward the M.D. degree program was again provided entirely in Parnassus Heights. During this period a number of research institutes were established, and many new facilities were added, such as the 225-bed UC Hospital (1917), the Clinics Building (1934), the Langley Porter Clinic (1942) and the Herbert C. Moffitt Hospital (1955). In 1958, the addition of the Guy S. Millberry Union offered dorms and services for students. With medical education again concentrated in San Francisco, the UC Medical Center gained more independence and autonomy from the Berkeley campus during the 1960s. The four departments were renamed as "School of ..." and the Graduate Division was founded in 1961. Further along this line, in 1964 the institution obtained full administrative independence under the name University of California, San Francisco Medical Center, becoming the ninth campus in the University of California system and the only one devoted exclusively to the health sciences. The first Chancellor under the new independent configuration was John B. de C.M. Saunders, previously Provost, who had a strong preference for medical training over research. This stance led to his resignation and the naming of Willard C. Fleming, DDS, as the second Chancellor in 1966. Fleming brought balance between clinicians and researchers and a new level of stability to the administration. By the end of the 1960s, the university was starting to become a leading research center; its research enterprise was bolstered by the opening of Health Sciences East and Health Sciences West the same year. Under the guidance of the third Chancellor, Philip R. Lee, the institution was renamed to its current form, the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), a symbol of its coequal status as a UC campus and a research university, while the Medical Center name was kept for its hospital facilities. Lee also was crucial in guiding UCSF through the turmoil of the late 1960s and worked to increase minority recruitment and enrollment. By then, UCSF had already reached the top ranks of US schools in the health sciences through its innovative programs that blended basic science, research, and clinical instruction. This stature was further augmented by Francis A. Sooy, fourth Chancellor, who dedicated his ten years to recruiting the top physicians and scientists in the field. Late 20th century The 1970s saw a dramatic expansion of UCSF, both in its medical capacities and as a research institute. The increase in researchers, physicians and students brought a need for additional space. The nursing school opened its own building in 1972 and the medical center opened the Ambulatory Care Center in 1973. The discovery of recombinant DNA technology by UCSF and Stanford scientists in the mid-1970s opened many new avenues of research and attracted more people. UCSF scientists also played a central role in the birth and development of the biotechnology industry in the San Francisco Bay area during this period. Herbert Boyer, a Professor of UCSF’s biochemistry and biophysics department co-founded Genentech, the first therapeutic biotech firm, and UCSF scientists were also involved in the formation of most other major biotech firms in the San Francisco region that date back to the late 1970s and early 1980s. Furthermore, a 2006 analysis of the roots of the ten largest biotech firms measured in terms of their market capitalization in the San Francisco region highlighted the central position of UCSF continued to play within the region’s industry: six biotech firms out of the top ten were either directly or indirectly linked to UCSF—a direct link meaning that the firm was founded by a UCSF scientist, an indirect link meaning that the firm was spun-off from a firm founded by a UCSF scientist. On the clinical side, great advances in patient care, diagnostics, and treatments advanced UCSF's reputation in the health field. 1975 also saw the opening of the UCSF Center in Fresno. Julius R. Krevans, the fifth Chancellor from 1982 to 1993, was a strong advocate of biomedical research and public policy in the health sciences. During his tenure, UCSF rose to become one of the leading recipients of NIH funding. This led to the need for new space, and additions included the Marilyn Reed Lucia Child Care Center in 1978, the Dental Clinics Building (1980), the new Joseph M. Long Hospital in 1983 (which was integrated with the existing Moffitt Hospital), the Beckman Vision Center and the Koret Vision Research Laboratory (1988), and the Kalmanovitz Library (1990). Due to the space constraints of the Parnassus Heights campus, UCSF started looking into expanding into other areas of the city. The university opened UCSF Laurel Heights in 1985 in the Laurel Heights neighborhood. Initially intended for pharmacy school laboratory research and instruction, neighborhood concerns pushed the university to instead employ the building for academic desktop research, social and behavioral science departments, and administrative offices. On the western side of the city, the university acquired Mount Zion Hospital in 1990, which became the second major clinical site and since 1999 has hosted the first comprehensive cancer center in Northern California. Under the chancellorship of Joseph B. Martin, UCSF attempted a short-lived merger of its health system with Stanford Health and laid the groundwork for the expansion into Mission Bay. 21st century A pivotal moment in UCSF history was the deal between Vice Chancellor Bruce Spaulding and San Francisco Mayor Willie Brown for the development of the Mission Bay campus in 1999. The development of a second campus in San Francisco was planned carefully and with business and community input. The Mission Bay neighborhood was occupied by old warehouses and rail yards. Initially, the campus consisted of 29.2 acres donated by the Catellus Development Corporation and 13.2 acres donated by the City and County of San Francisco. A later addition of a 14.5-acre parcel brought the total campus area to about 57 acres. The Mission Bay expansion was overseen by a one-year chancellorship of surgeon Haile Debas. Under his guidance, UCSF further increased its lead in the field of surgery, transplant surgery, and surgical training. The Mission Bay Campus doubled the university's research and provided new opportunities for biomedical discovery and student training. The first phase of construction cost $800 million and included four research buildings, a community center, a student housing complex, two parking structures, and development of large open spaces. Scientist J. Michael Bishop, a Nobel Prize in Medicine recipient, became the eighth Chancellor in 1998. He oversaw one of UCSF's transition and growth periods, including the expanding Mission Bay development and philanthropic support recruitment. During his tenure, he unveiled the first comprehensive, campus-wide, strategic plan to promote diversity and foster a supportive work environment. During this time, UCSF also adopted a new mission: "advancing health worldwide"™. In 2009, Susan Desmond-Hellmann became the ninth Chancellor and first woman to lead UCSF. She was tasked with guiding the university through the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. In the same year, UCSF professor Elizabeth Blackburn won the Nobel Prize for Medicine and in 2012 UCSF professor Shinya Yamanaka won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The 2010s saw increased construction and expansion at Mission Bay, with the Smith Cardiovascular Research Building, the UCSF Medical Center at Mission Bay, the Benioff Children's Hospital in 2010, the Sandler Neuroscience Center in 2012, Mission Hall and the Baker Cancer Hospital in 2013. The Children's Hospital was named after Marc Benioff, who donated $100 million toward the new facility. In 2011, expansion also resumed at the Parnassus campus, with the construction of the Regeneration Medicine Building, a $123 million construction designed by New York architect Rafael Viñoly. The Stem Cell Center was named in honor of Eli Broad, who donated $25 million to the cause of research for diabetes, cardiovascular disease, Parkinson’s disease, HIV/AIDS, and cancer. In 2014, UCSF celebrated its 150th anniversary with a year of events. That same year Neonatologist and Dean of the UCSF School of Medicine Sam Hawgood, MBBS, became the tenth Chancellor. In 2015, the Mission Bay campus saw the grand opening of the new UCSF Medical Center at Mission Bay, a 289-bed integrated hospital complex dedicated to serving children, women and cancer patients. Since 2015 UCSF has increased its focus on novel biomedical research and has attracted many acts of philanthropy. UCSF became one of the three institutions (together with UC Berkeley and Stanford University) which comprise the Biohub, which is housed on the Mission Bay campus. The project consists of a medical science research center funded by a $600 million commitment from Facebook CEO and founder Mark Zuckerberg and UCSF alumna pediatrician Priscilla Chan, his wife. In January 2017, UCSF announced a $500 million gift from the Helen Diller Foundation to increase financial aid for faculty and students, invest in cutting-edge research projects, and expand scholarships for dental, medical, nursing and pharmacy students. This gift is tied with that of Nike Inc. co-founder Phil Knight for the largest single donation ever to a public university. In 2017, UCSF launched a capital campaign, The Campaign, to raise $5 billion to increase the endowment and funds for research and medical services. In 2018, UCSF received a commitment of $500 million for the construction of a new hospital, which will be built at Parnassus, replacing the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute. In June 2020 the UCSF paid $1.1 million in 116 bitcoins to the Netwalker criminal gang who had attacked their computer systems with malware and stole student data. The university negotiated with the gang after initially offering $780,000 which was rejected by the criminals due to their perception of UCSF's wealth. USCF said in a statement to the BBC that they had "made the difficult decision to pay some portion of the ransom...to the individuals behind the malware attack in exchange for a tool to unlock the encrypted data and the return of the data they obtained. It would be a mistake to assume that all of the statements and claims made in the negotiations are factually accurate". Campus UCSF operates four major campus sites within the city of San Francisco and one in Fresno, California, as well as numerous other minor sites scattered through San Francisco and the San Francisco Bay Area. Parnassus The Parnassus Heights campus was the site of the Affiliated Colleges, which later evolved into the present-day institution. The site was established along Parnassus Avenue in 1898 on land donated by Mayor Adolph Sutro. At the time, the site was in the remote and uninhabited western part of San Francisco, but its medical facilities became vital in saving lives when 40,000 people were hosted in the nearby Golden Gate Park after the 1906 earthquake. In the early 1900s, the medical research operations of the medical center were split between Parnassus and UC Berkeley, and discussions arose about which site should become the center of medical activity. In 1914, the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research decided to move its research work to the Parnassus site, becoming the first medical research foundation in the United States to be incorporated into a university. This expansion led to a 1949 decision by the UC Board of Regents designating the UCSF campus, rather than UC Berkeley, as the main site for all medical sciences of the UC system. The 20th century saw remarkable growth, with the expansion of new research institutes and facilities, which led to the administrative independence of UCSF and the selection of John B. de C.M. Saunders as the first Chancellor in 1964. Parnassus serves as the main campus of the University and includes administration offices, numerous research labs, the 600-bed UCSF Medical Center, the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute, the Mulberry Student Union, and the UCSF Library. Additionally, the Schools of Dentistry, Pharmacy, Medicine, Nursing are also located at Parnassus. It also houses the UCSF neurology outpatient practice that serves as a referral center for most of northern California and Reno, Nevada. UCSF's Beckman Vision Center is also located at the Parnassus campus. It is a center for the diagnosis, treatment, and research of all areas of eye care, including vision correction surgery. Also located on the Parnassus campus is the UCSF Fetal Treatment Center, a multidisciplinary care center dedicated to the diagnosis, treatment, and long-term follow-up of fetal birth defects. Mission Bay UCSF's Mission Bay Campus, also located in San Francisco, is the largest ongoing biomedical construction project in the world. The Mission Bay campus, opened in 2003 with construction still ongoing, contains additional research space and facilities to foster biotechnology and life sciences companies. It will double the size of UCSF's research enterprise over the next 10 years. The biotechnology company Genentech contributed $50 million toward construction of a building as part of a settlement regarding alleged theft of UCSF technology several decades earlier. Also located on the Mission Bay campus, the Arthur and Toni Rembe Rock Hall was designed by César Pelli and opened in February 2004. The building is named in honor of Arthur Rock and his wife, who made a $25 million gift to the university. Byers Hall serves as the headquarters for the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), a cooperative effort between the UC campuses at San Francisco, Berkeley, and Santa Cruz. The building is named after venture capitalist Brook Byers, co-chair of UCSF's capital campaign that concluded in 2005 and raised over $1.6 billion. Additionally, the William J. Rutter Center, designed along with the adjacent 600-space parking structure by Ricardo Legorreta, opened in October 2005 and contains a fitness and recreation center, swimming pools, student services, and conference facilities. The building is named in honor of William J. Rutter, former Chairman of the university's Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics and co-founder of Chiron Corporation. A housing complex for 750 students and postdoctoral fellows and an 800-space parking garage also opened in late 2005. And a fourth research building, designed by Rafael Viñoly and named the Helen Diller Family Cancer Research Building, opened in June 2009. Two additional research buildings designated for neuroscience and cardiovascular research are currently in the planning and design phase. A new specialty hospital focused on women, children, and cancer on the Mission Bay campus opened in February 2015. Other centers, institutes, and programs The Mount Zion Campus contains UCSF's NCI-designated Comprehensive Cancer Center, its Women's Health Center, the Osher Center for Integrative Medicine and outpatient resources. The San Francisco General Hospital campus cares for the indigent population of San Francisco and contains San Francisco's only Level I trauma center. The hospital itself is owned and operated by the City and County of San Francisco, but all of its doctors are UCSF faculty physicians and UCSF maintains research laboratories at the hospital campus. The earliest cases of HIV/AIDS were discovered at San Francisco General Hospital in the 1980s. To this day SF General Hospital has one of the world's leading HIV/AIDS treatment and research centers. UCSF is also affiliated with the San Francisco VA Medical Center and the J. David Gladstone Institutes, a private biomedical research entity that has recently moved to a new building adjacent to UCSF's Mission Bay campus. Since 2014, there has also been an affiliation with UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland (formerly Children's Hospital & Research Center Oakland). UCSF has its own police department, which serves its two major campuses as well as all satellite sites within the city and South San Francisco. Health policy Among the related Institutes that are part of UCSF is the Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies, founded in 1972 by Philip Randolph Lee. UCSF cooperates with the Hastings College of Law, a separate University of California institution located in San Francisco. This includes the formation of the UCSF/Hastings Consortium on Law, Science, and Health Policy. The program offers an LLM and MSL Degree program for health and science professionals. The Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies is a partner in this consortium. UCSF is home to the Industry Documents Library (IDL), a digital library of previously secret internal industry documents, including over 14 million documents in the internationally known Truth Tobacco Industry Documents, the Food Industry Documents Archive, Chemical Industry Documents Archive and the Drug Industry Documents Archive. The IDL contains millions of documents created by major companies related to their advertising, manufacturing, marketing, sales, and scientific research activities. Academics University of California, San Francisco is unique among University of California campuses in that it performs only biomedical and patient-centered research in its Schools of Medicine, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Dentistry, and the Graduate Division, and their hundreds of associated laboratories. The university is known for innovation in medical research, public service, and patient care. UCSF's faculty includes five Nobel Prize winners, 31 members of the National Academy of Sciences, 69 members of the Institute of Medicine, and 30 members of the Academy of Arts and Sciences. UCSF confers a number of degrees, including Master of Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Dental Surgery, and Doctor of Physical Therapy in a variety of fields. Rankings UCSF is considered one of the world's preeminent medical and life sciences universities. In 2019, the Academic Ranking of World Universities, published annually by Shanghai Jiaotong University, ranked UCSF 1st in the world for Clinical Medicine and 2nd in the world for Pharmacy. Previously, UCSF had been second in the world for Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy from 2007–2015, ceding the #2 position to the University of Washington in 2016. The professional schools of the University of California, San Francisco are among the top in the nation, according to current U.S. News & World Report graduate school and other rankings. The schools also rank at or near the top in research funding from the National Institutes of Health. Among U.S. medical schools, UCSF is ranked 6th for research and ranked 2nd for clinical training in the primary care specialties (internal medicine, family medicine, and pediatrics) by U.S. News and World Report. The UCSF Medical Center is the nation's 8th-ranked hospital and California's 3rd highest-ranked hospital (behind UCLA Medical Center and Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, which are both located in Los Angeles) according to U.S. News & World Report. Faculty UCSF has 3,000 full-time faculty. Among its 2018 faculty members are: 6 Nobel Prize winners 53 members of the National Academy of Sciences 100 members of the National Academy of Medicine 3 MacArthur Foundation “geniuses” 18 Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigators 38 NIH Innovator and Young Innovator Awards 9 members of the Royal Society 65 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 68 members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 2 Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences winners 4 National Medal of Science winners 6 Shaw Prize winners 10 Lasker Award winners School of Medicine The UCSF school of medicine is the oldest in the Western United States. In 2020, the School of Medicine was the top recipient of National Institutes of Health research funds among all US medical schools (followed by Johns Hopkins School of Medicine) receiving awards totaling $680 million. In 2016, the School of Medicine launched the Bridges curriculum, more than half of which is dedicated to diagnostic reasoning. In 2017, 8,078 people applied and 505 were interviewed for 145 positions in the entering class. Graduate Division The Graduate Division, established in 1961, is home to 1,600 students enrolled in 31 degree programs (both PhD and Masters) and 1,100 postdoctoral scholars. Programs are based basic, translational, clinical, social, and population sciences, and focus on the understanding of the mechanisms of biology, analyzing the social, cultural, and historical determinants of health, alleviating human disease, reducing health disparities, and advancing health worldwide. U.S. News & World Report. In 2018, UCSF graduate programs ranked 1st in immunology and molecular biology, 3rd in neuroscience, 4th in cell biology and biochemistry, fifth in biochemistry/biophysics/structural biology. School of Nursing The School of Nursing was established in 1907, following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which lead to UCSF becoming active in providing health care in San Francisco. It is recognized as one of the premier nursing schools in the United States. In the U.S. News & World Report for 2016, the UCSF School of Nursing tied for 2nd overall in the nation. UCSF also ranked in the top 10 in all six of its rated nursing specialties, including ranking #1 for its psychiatric/mental health nurse practitioner program, and ranking #2 for its family nurse practitioner program. Previously, in 2012, the nursing specialties were ranked as #1 for adult/medical-surgical nurse, family nurse practitioner and psychiatric/mental health nurse programs, and #2 for its adult nurse practitioner program. The School of Nursing in 2016 ranked first nationally in total NIH research funds with $7.85 million, for the 10th time in the last dozen years. This was the second year in a row that all four of UCSF's professional schools (Medicine, Nursing, Pharmacy, and Dentistry) ranked first for "federal biomedical research funding in their fields." School of Pharmacy Founded in 1872, it is the oldest pharmacy school in California and the western United States. For 39 consecutive years it has been the number one pharmacy school by NIH funding, with close to $29 million in 2018. In 2015, U.S. News & World Report ranked the UCSF School of Pharmacy number three in its "America's Best Graduate Schools" edition. In 2014, the School of Pharmacy also ranked first in NIH research funding among all US pharmacy schools, receiving awards totaling $31.8 million. The UCSF School of Pharmacy was also ranked as the top program in the US, according to a 2002 survey published in The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, which weighed key criteria, including funding for research and the frequency of scientific publications by faculty, that are not considered in other rankings. In 2013, the UCSF pharmacy program implemented the multiple mini interview, developed by McMaster University Medical School, as a replacement for the more traditional panel interview as the MMI had shown to be a better predictor of subsequent performance in school. School of Dentistry Founded in 1881, the School of Dentistry is the oldest dental school in the state of California and in the Western United States. It is accredited by the American Dental Association and offers the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), PhD in Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, MS in Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, and MS in Dental Hygiene degrees. The School of Dentistry in 2016 ranked first among all dental schools in NIH research funding for the 25th consecutive year, with $19.5 million in awards. In Quacquarelli Symonds's Dentistry Subject Ranking in 2021, UCSF was ranked 7th in the world and 2nd in the United States. UCSF Health UCSF Medical Center In 2021-22, U.S. News & World Report named the UCSF Medical Center the 9th hospital in the nation, the 3rd in California (behind UCLA Medical Center and Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, which are both located in Los Angeles). UCSF received following ranking in 16 adult medical specialities: The UCSF Medical Center at Mission Bay opened February 1, 2015 and hosts three hospitals (UCSF Benioff children's hospital, UCSF Betty Irene Moore Women's Hospital, and UCSF Bakar Cancer Hospital) and an outpatient facility. Research UCSF is among the world's leading institutions in biological and medical research. Its departments span all fields of biomedical science, from basic to translational sciences. In fiscal year 2018, it spent $1.596 billion in research and development, the third most among institutions of higher education in the U.S. In fiscal year 2020, UCSF received $680 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health, which is the 2nd highest of all US domestic higher education universities. Milestones include: The discovery of oncogenes and the conversion of normal cellular genes can be converted to cancer genes (Nobel Prize in Medicine, J. Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus, 1989) The techniques of recombinant DNA, the seminal step in the creation of the biotechnology industry, together with Stanford The precise recombinant DNA techniques that led to the creation of a hepatitis B vaccine The first successful in-utero fetal surgery (Michael R. Harrison) First to clone an insulin gene into bacteria, leading to the mass production of recombinant human insulin to treat diabetes First to synthesize human growth hormone and clone into bacteria, setting the stage for genetically engineered human growth hormone First to develop prenatal tests for sickle cell anemia and thalassemia Discovery of prions, a unique type of infectious agent responsible for a variety of neurodegenerative diseases (Nobel Prize in Medicine, Stanley B. Prusiner, 1997) Development of catheter ablation therapy for tachycardia Discovery of the molecular nature of telomeres Discovery that missing pulmonary surfactants are responsible for the death of newborns with respiratory distress syndrome; first to develop a synthetic substitute for it, reducing infant death rates significantly The first care units for AIDS patients and pioneer work in treatment of AIDS First to train pharmacists as drug therapy specialists First university west of the Mississippi to offer a doctoral degree in nursing First to develop an academic hospitalist program (and coined the term "hospitalist") (Robert M. Wachter) First high volume HIV counseling and testing program at the UCSF Alliance Health Project First US medical school to offer an elective for medical students to get academic credit for editing health-related articles on Wikipedia. On June 5, 2015, surgeons at UCSF and California Pacific Medical Center successfully completed 18 surgeries in the nation's first nine-way, two-day kidney transplant chain in a single city. Student life There are more than 180 registered campus organizations at UCSF. These groups and clubs cover a broad range of interests, including educational, social, cultural, artistic, recreational, political and spiritual. Every year, these organizations sponsor more than 1,200 activities and events. The student government at UCSF consists of the Graduate and Professional Student Association (GPSA), which serves the collective interests of graduate and professional students. It aims at improving student life on a university and system-wide level with dialogue, action, and activities between students, faculty, and staff. It focuses on discussing University policy, informing constituents, advocating student interests, fostering relationships between academic programs, strengthening connections to better support students, and initiating actions and proposals, Synapse is the student newspaper at UCSF. It was founded in 1957, and since 1997 the newspaper has been both in print and online. In the fall 2015 the newspaper rebranded from Synapse: The UCSF Newspaper to Synapse: UCSF Student Voices. The mission of Synapse is to serve as the forum for the campus community, and it covers campus news and events, entertainment, and restaurant reviews, and a wide range of feature stories, editorials, and weekly columns, to the entire UCSF community. The newspaper focuses heavily on science and health, but it also covers arts, national news, and opinion articles. UCSF students are eligible to become University of California student regent, a position on the University of California Board of Regents created by a 1974 California ballot proposition to represent University of California students on the university system's governing board. Student regents serve an approximately one-year term as 'student regent-designate', followed by a one-year term as a full voting member of the Regents. Virtually any UC student in good academic standing may apply to be student regent. Traditionally, the position alternates between undergraduate and graduate students as well as between the various UC campuses. Notable people Chancellors John Bertrand Morant Saunders (1964–1966) Willard Fleming (1966–1969) Philip Randolph Lee (1969–1972) Francis A. Sooy (1972–1982) Julius R. Krevans (1982–1993) Joseph B. Martin (1993–1997) Haile Debas (1997–1998) J. Michael Bishop (1998–2009) Susan Desmond-Hellmann (2009–2014) Sam Hawgood (2014–present) Notable alumni and faculty Bruce Alberts, 2016 Albert Lasker Special Achievement Award for fundamental discoveries in DNA replication and protein biochemistry, 2012 National Medal of Science Andy Baldwin – bachelor for the tenth season of The Bachelor J. Michael Bishop – former UCSF Chancellor. Nobel laureate in Medicine (1989), worked to discover the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes Elizabeth Blackburn, professor of biology and physiology at UCSF, Nobel laureate in Medicine (2009), discoverer of the ribonucleoprotein enzyme, telomerase. Appointed a member of the President's Council on Bioethics in 2001 and fired in February 2004, reportedly for her public disagreements and political differences with Council chair Leon Kass and the Bush Administration, particularly on the issue of therapeutic cloning Herbert Boyer, National Medal of Science (1990) and Shaw prize 2004, cofounder of Genentech Richard Carmona – former Surgeon General of the United States Priscilla Chan – pediatrician, spouse of Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg John Allen Clements, first to isolate pulmonary surfactant and to develop it artificially Terence Coderre – Professor of Medicine and the Harold Griffith Chair in Anaesthesia Research at McGill University Eric Coleman is an American geriatrician and professor at the University of Colorado. His research concerns care transitions. Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2012. Zubin Damania, physician, comedian, internet personality, musician, and founder of Turntable Health Haile T. Debas, former UCSF Chancellor; former Dean, School of Medicine; founding Executive Director, Department of Global Health Sciences Joseph DeRisi biochemist, specializing in molecular biology, parasitology, genomics, virology, and computational biology. In 2004 was named a MacArthur Fellow, in 2008 was awarded the 14th Annual Heinz Award for Technology, the Economy, and Employment, in 2014 he received the John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science from the National Academy of Sciences, and in 2016 he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences Michael V. Drake – former University of California, Irvine Chancellor; former University of California Vice President-Health Affairs; former president of Ohio State University; current president of the University of California Jennifer Doudna – Adjunct professor of cellular and molecular pharmacology, Nobel laureate in Chemistry (2020) Laura J. Esserman, surgeon and breast cancer oncology specialist, named in TIME Magazine's 100 most influential people in the world in 2016. Paul Ekman, who showed that human emotional expressions were universal and developed the Facial Action Coding System Richard Feachem, founding Executive Director of the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (2002–2007) Diana E. Forsythe, anthropologist noted for her work on artificial intelligence and medical informatics David E. Garfin, made significant contributions to electrophoresis in both the engineering and biology communities. Julie Gerberding – Director, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Stanton Glantz, regarded as the Ralph Nader of the anti-big-tobacco movement Joseph Goldyne – M.D., fine artist, printmaker, painter, curator. Jere E. Goyan, former commissioner of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Walter S. Graf, cardiologist, pioneer in creation of emergency paramedic care system Victoria Hale, both alumna and professor, founded the nonprofit pharmaceutical company The Institute for OneWorld Health, 2006 MacArthur Fellow Joseph Gilbert Hamilton, Hamilton studied the medical effects of exposure to radioactive isotopes, which included the use of unsuspecting human subjects Eva Harris, professor in the School of Public Health at the University of California, Berkeley, and the founder and president of the Sustainable Sciences Institute. Research efforts focused on combating diseases that primarily afflict people in developing nations; 1997 MacArthur Fellows Program Michael R. Harrison – developed the initial techniques for fetal surgery and performed the first fetal surgery in 1981, and then went on to establish the UCSF Fetal Treatment Center, which was the first of its kind in the United States Griffith R. Harsh - Vice Chair of the Stanford Department of Neurosurgery and the Director of the Stanford Brain Tumor Center. He is also the spouse of Meg Whitman. Ira Herskowitz, geneticist, noted for his work on cellular differentiation, 1987 MacArthur Fellows Program Julien Hoffman – professor emeritus of pediatrics; senior member of the Cardiovascular Research Institute Dorothy M. Horstmann (1911–2001), virologist who made important discoveries about polio. Nola Hylton, radiologist and pioneer in the use of Breast MRI Janet Iwasa, cell biologist and animator David Julius - physiologist known for his work on molecular mechanisms underlying detection of thermal stimuli and natural products. Received the 2010 Shaw Prize, 2017 Gairdner Award, 2020 Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences, 2020 Kavli Prize in neuroscience, 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Sarah H. Kagan is an American gerontological nurse, and Lucy Walker Honorary Term Professor of Gerontological Nursing at the University of Pennsylvania. She is a MacArthur Fellow. Yuet Wai Kan, Lasker Award (1991) and Shaw Prize (2004) Selna Kaplan - former professor of pediatrics; pediatric endocrinologist Stuart Kauffman is an American medical doctor, theoretical biologist, and complex systems researcher who studies the origin of life on Earth. He was a professor the University of Chicago, University of Pennsylvania, and University of Calgary. He has a number of awards including a MacArthur Fellowship and a Wiener Medal. Uzma Khanum, sister of Pakistani Politician Imran Khan. David Kessler – former dean of the UCSF School of Medicine and Yale University School of Medicine, and former Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration in the Clinton Administration Peter Kollman – developer of the AMBER force field in molecular dynamics simulation and an internationally renowned computational chemist Arthur Lander, M.D. PhD Developmental biologist at University of California, Irvine Marguerita Lightfoot, Professor of Medicine and Chief of Prevention Science, Jay A. Levy, who, along with Robert Gallo at the National Cancer Institute and Luc Montagnier at the Pasteur Institute, was among the first to identify and isolate HIV as the causative agent in AIDS Richard Locksley, medical doctor, professor and researcher of infectious diseases at the University of California, San Francisco Michael Marletta is currently Ch and Annie Li Chair in the Molecular Biology of Diseases at the University of California, Berkeley. 1995 MacArthur Fellow. C. Cameron Macauley, photographer and film producer Wendy Max, professor of Health Economics Michael Merzenich, Professor emeritus neuroscientist – brain plasticity research, basic and clinical sciences of hearing pioneer – CEO Scientific Learning, Posit Science Dean Ornish, who first established that coronary artery disease could be reversed with lifestyle changes alone, author of the few bestseller books on the subject of healthy lifestyle choices Laura Otis is an American historian of science, and Professor of English, at Emory University, 2000 MacArthur Fellows Program William W. Parmley – Former Editor of the Journal of the American College of Cardiology and General Authority of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Stanley Prusiner – Nobel laureate in Medicine (1997), discovered and described prions Shuvo Roy, Inventor of artificial kidney William Seeley, alumni, neurology professor at UCSFv, where he leads the Selective Vulnerability Research Lab. He is a 2011 MacArthur Fellow. Steve Schroeder – Former CEO, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Michelle Tam, creator of Nom Nom Paleo and James Beard Foundation Award nominated cookbook author, blogger, and food writer Julie Theriot, microbiologist, professor at the Stanford University School of Medicine, and heads the Theriot Lab. She was a Predoctoral Fellow, and Investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 2004 MacArthur Fellows Program Thea Tlsty, professor of pathology, known for her research in cancer biology Kay Tye – neuroscientist Harold Varmus – Nobel laureate in Medicine (1989), worked with J. Michael Bishop to discover the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes. Also served as director of the National Institutes of Health during the Clinton Administration, as president of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center from 2000 to 2010, and currently as the director of the National Cancer Institute. Paul Volberding, whose pioneering work in the early days of the AIDS pandemic was noted in Randy Shilts' book And the Band Played On Robert M. Wachter, a prominent expert in patient safety, who coined the term hospitalist and is considered the academic leader of the field of hospital medicine. Wachter is now chair of UCSF's Department of Medicine. Peter Walter molecular biologist and biochemist, Shaw Prize (2014) and Lasker Award (2014) Ted Wong - United States Army Major General, Chief of the U.S. Army Dental Corps (2011-2014) Ron Vale molecular motors particularly on kinesin and dynein, he has received the Lasker Award (2012) and the Shaw Prize (2017)- Pablo DT Valenzuela – co-founder of the American biotech company Chiron Corporation, the first Chilean biotech company Bios Chile, and of Fundacion Ciencia para la Vida in Santiago Chile. V. Sasisekharan, proposed an alternate model for the Watson-Crick double helix Eric M. Verdin, MD - fifth President and Chief Executive Officer of the Buck Institute for Research on Aging Rachel Wilson, professor of neurobiology at Harvard Medical School, 2008 MacArthur Fellow Shinya Yamanaka, who developed for reprogramming adult cells to pluripotential precursors, thus circumventing an approach in which embryos would be destroyed. Yamanaka won Shaw prize in 2008 and the Nobel prize for Medicine in 2012. References External links San Francisco University of California, San Francisco Universities and colleges in San Francisco Medical schools in California Pharmacy schools in California Sunset District, San Francisco Educational institutions established in 1864 1864 establishments in California Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges

Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm (with a corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight, and constitutes about 10% of the total electromagnetic radiation output from the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although long-wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms, it can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Consequently, the chemical and biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules. Short-wave ultraviolet light damages DNA and sterilizes surfaces with which it comes into contact. For humans, suntan and sunburn are familiar effects of exposure of the skin to UV light, along with an increased risk of skin cancer. The amount of UV light produced by the Sun means that the Earth would not be able to sustain life on dry land if most of that light were not filtered out by the atmosphere. More energetic, shorter-wavelength "extreme" UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground. However, ultraviolet light (specifically, UVB) is also responsible for the formation of vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum, thus, has effects both beneficial and harmful to life. The lower wavelength limit of human vision is conventionally taken as 400 nm, so ultraviolet rays are invisible to humans, although people can sometimes perceive light at shorter wavelengths than this. Insects, birds, and some mammals can see near-UV (NUV) (i.e., slightly shorter wavelengths than what humans can see). Visibility Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans. The lens of the human eye blocks most radiation in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. Humans also lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are sensitive to near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV as whitish-blue or whitish-violet. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths around 310 nm. Near-UV radiation is visible to insects, some mammals, and some birds. Birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays; this, coupled with eye structures that transmit more UV gives smaller birds "true" UV vision. History and discovery "Ultraviolet" means "beyond violet" (from Latin ultra, "beyond"), violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher frequency (thus a shorter wavelength) than violet light. UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter observed that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more quickly than violet light itself. He called them "(de-)oxidizing rays" () to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays", discovered the previous year at the other end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term "chemical rays" was adopted soon afterwards, and remained popular throughout the 19th century, although some said that this radiation was entirely different from light (notably John William Draper, who named them "tithonic rays"). The terms "chemical rays" and "heat rays" were eventually dropped in favor of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, respectively. In 1878, the sterilizing effect of short-wavelength light by killing bacteria was discovered. By 1903, the most effective wavelengths were known to be around 250 nm. In 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths below 200 nm, named "vacuum ultraviolet" because it is strongly absorbed by the oxygen in air, was made in 1893 by German physicist Victor Schumann. Subtypes The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), defined most broadly as 10–400 nanometers, can be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by the ISO standard ISO-21348: Several solid-state and vacuum devices have been explored for use in different parts of the UV spectrum. Many approaches seek to adapt visible light-sensing devices, but these can suffer from unwanted response to visible light and various instabilities. Ultraviolet can be detected by suitable photodiodes and photocathodes, which can be tailored to be sensitive to different parts of the UV spectrum. Sensitive UV photomultipliers are available. Spectrometers and radiometers are made for measurement of UV radiation. Silicon detectors are used across the spectrum. Vacuum UV, or VUV, wavelengths (shorter than 200 nm) are strongly absorbed by molecular oxygen in the air, though the longer wavelengths around 150–200 nm can propagate through nitrogen. Scientific instruments can, therefore, use this spectral range by operating in an oxygen-free atmosphere (commonly pure nitrogen), without the need for costly vacuum chambers. Significant examples include 193-nm photolithography equipment (for semiconductor manufacturing) and circular dichroism spectrometers. Technology for VUV instrumentation was largely driven by solar astronomy for many decades. While optics can be used to remove unwanted visible light that contaminates the VUV, in general; detectors can be limited by their response to non-VUV radiation, and the development of "solar-blind" devices has been an important area of research. Wide-gap solid-state devices or vacuum devices with high-cutoff photocathodes can be attractive compared to silicon diodes. Extreme UV (EUV or sometimes XUV) is characterized by a transition in the physics of interaction with matter. Wavelengths longer than about 30 nm interact mainly with the outer valence electrons of atoms, while wavelengths shorter than that interact mainly with inner-shell electrons and nuclei. The long end of the EUV spectrum is set by a prominent He+ spectral line at 30.4 nm. EUV is strongly absorbed by most known materials, but synthesizing multilayer optics that reflect up to about 50% of EUV radiation at normal incidence is possible. This technology was pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding rockets in the 1990s, and it has been used to make telescopes for solar imaging. See also the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer satellite. Some sources use the distinction of "hard UV" and "soft UV". For instance, in the case of astrophysics, the boundary may be at the Lyman limit (wavelength 91.2 nm), with "hard UV" being more energetic; the same terms may also be used in other fields, such as cosmetology, optoelectronic, etc. The numerical values of the boundary between hard/soft, even within similar scientific fields, do not necessarily coincide; for example, one applied-physics publication used a boundary of 190 nm between hard and soft UV regions. Solar ultraviolet Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see black-body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m2 in vacuum. The atmosphere blocks about 77% of the Sun's UV, when the Sun is highest in the sky (at zenith), with absorption increasing at shorter UV wavelengths. At ground level with the sun at zenith, sunlight is 44% visible light, 3% ultraviolet, and the remainder infrared. Of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth's surface, more than 95% is the longer wavelengths of UVA, with the small remainder UVB. Almost no UVC reaches the Earth's surface. The fraction of UVB which remains in UV radiation after passing through the atmosphere is heavily dependent on cloud cover and atmospheric conditions. On "partly cloudy" days, patches of blue sky showing between clouds are also sources of (scattered) UVA and UVB, which are produced by Rayleigh scattering in the same way as the visible blue light from those parts of the sky. UVB also plays a major role in plant development, as it affects most of the plant hormones. During total overcast, the amount of absorption due to clouds is heavily dependent on the thickness of the clouds and latitude, with no clear measurements correlating specific thickness and absorption of UVB. The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more-energetic UV radiation produced by the Sun, are absorbed by oxygen and generate the ozone in the ozone layer when single oxygen atoms produced by UV photolysis of dioxygen react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer is especially important in blocking most UVB and the remaining part of UVC not already blocked by ordinary oxygen in air. Blockers, absorbers, and windows Ultraviolet absorbers are molecules used in organic materials (polymers, paints, etc.) to absorb UV radiation to reduce the UV degradation (photo-oxidation) of a material. The absorbers can themselves degrade over time, so monitoring of absorber levels in weathered materials is necessary. In sunscreen, ingredients that absorb UVA/UVB rays, such as avobenzone, oxybenzone and octyl methoxycinnamate, are organic chemical absorbers or "blockers". They are contrasted with inorganic absorbers/"blockers" of UV radiation such as carbon black, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide. For clothing, the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to sun protection factor (SPF) ratings for sunscreen. Standard summer fabrics have UPFs around 6, which means that about 20% of UV will pass through. Suspended nanoparticles in stained-glass prevent UV rays from causing chemical reactions that change image colors. A set of stained-glass color-reference chips is planned to be used to calibrate the color cameras for the 2019 ESA Mars rover mission, since they will remain unfaded by the high level of UV present at the surface of Mars. Common soda–lime glass, such as window glass, is partially transparent to UVA, but is opaque to shorter wavelengths, passing about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but blocking over 90% of the light below 300 nm. A study found that car windows allow 3-4% of ambient UV to pass through, especially if the UV was greater than 380 nm. Other types of car windows can reduce transmission of UV that is greater than 335 nm. Fused quartz, depending on quality, can be transparent even to vacuum UV wavelengths. Crystalline quartz and some crystals such as CaF2 and MgF2 transmit well down to 150 nm or 160 nm wavelengths. Wood's glass is a deep violet-blue barium-sodium silicate glass with about 9% nickel oxide developed during World War I to block visible light for covert communications. It allows both infrared daylight and ultraviolet night-time communications by being transparent between 320 nm and 400 nm and also the longer infrared and just-barely-visible red wavelengths. Its maximum UV transmission is at 365 nm, one of the wavelengths of mercury lamps. Artificial sources "Black lights" A black light lamp emits long-wave UV‑A radiation and little visible light. Fluorescent black light lamps work similarly to other fluorescent lamps, but use a phosphor on the inner tube surface which emits UV‑A radiation instead of visible light. Some lamps use a deep-bluish-purple Wood's glass optical filter that blocks almost all visible light with wavelengths longer than 400 nanometers. The purple glow given off by these tubes is not the ultraviolet itself, but visible purple light from mercury’s 404 nm spectral line which escapes being filtered out by the coating. Other black lights use plain glass instead of the more expensive Wood's glass, so they appear light-blue to the eye when operating. Incandescent black lights are also produced, using a filter coating on the envelope of an incandescent bulb that absorbs visible light (see section below). These are cheaper but very inefficient, emitting only a small fraction of a percent of their power as UV. Mercury-vapor black lights in ratings up to 1 kW with UV-emitting phosphor and an envelope of Wood's glass are used for theatrical and concert displays. Black lights are used in applications in which extraneous visible light must be minimized; mainly to observe fluorescence, the colored glow that many substances give off when exposed to UV light. UV‑A / UV‑B emitting bulbs are also sold for other special purposes, such as tanning lamps and reptile-husbandry. Short-wave ultraviolet lamps Shortwave UV lamps are made using a fluorescent lamp tube with no phosphor coating, composed of fused quartz or vycor, since ordinary glass absorbs UV‑C. These lamps emit ultraviolet light with two peaks in the UV‑C band at 253.7 nm and 185 nm due to the mercury within the lamp, as well as some visible light. From 85% to 90% of the UV produced by these lamps is at 253.7 nm, whereas only 5–10% is at 185 nm. The fused quartz tube passes the 253.7 nm radiation but blocks the 185 nm wavelength. Such tubes have two or three times the UV‑C power of a regular fluorescent lamp tube. These low-pressure lamps have a typical efficiency of approximately 30–40%, meaning that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by the lamp, they will produce approximately 30–40 watts of total UV output. They also emit bluish-white visible light, due to mercury's other spectral lines. These "germicidal" lamps are used extensively for disinfection of surfaces in laboratories and food-processing industries, and for disinfecting water supplies. Incandescent lamps 'Black light' incandescent lamps are also made from an incandescent light bulb with a filter coating which absorbs most visible light. Halogen lamps with fused quartz envelopes are used as inexpensive UV light sources in the near UV range, from 400 to 300 nm, in some scientific instruments. Due to its black-body spectrum a filament light bulb is a very inefficient ultraviolet source, emitting only a fraction of a percent of its energy as UV. Gas-discharge lamps Specialized UV gas-discharge lamps containing different gases produce UV radiation at particular spectral lines for scientific purposes. Argon and deuterium arc lamps are often used as stable sources, either windowless or with various windows such as magnesium fluoride. These are often the emitting sources in UV spectroscopy equipment for chemical analysis. Other UV sources with more continuous emission spectra include xenon arc lamps (commonly used as sunlight simulators), deuterium arc lamps, mercury-xenon arc lamps, and metal-halide arc lamps. The excimer lamp, a UV source developed in the early 2000s, is seeing increasing use in scientific fields. It has the advantages of high-intensity, high efficiency, and operation at a variety of wavelength bands into the vacuum ultraviolet. Ultraviolet LEDs Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be manufactured to emit radiation in the ultraviolet range. In 2019, following significant advances over the preceding five years, UV‑A LEDs of 365 nm and longer wavelength were available, with efficiencies of 50% at 1.0 W output. Currently, the most common types of UV LEDs that can be found / purchased are in 395 nm and 365 nm wavelengths, both of which are in the UV‑A spectrum. When referring to the wavelength of the UV LEDs, the rated wavelength is the peak wavelength that the LEDs put out, and light at both higher and lower wavelength frequencies near the peak wavelength are present, which is important to consider when looking to apply them for certain purposes. The cheaper and more common 395 nm UV LEDs are much closer to the visible spectrum, and LEDs not only operate at their peak wavelength, but they also give off a purple color, and end up not emitting pure UV light, unlike other UV LEDs that are deeper into the spectrum. Such LEDs are increasingly used for applications such as UV curing applications, charging glow-in-the-dark objects such as paintings or toys, and they are becoming very popular in a process known as retro-brighting, which speeds up the process of refurbishing / bleaching old plastics and portable flashlights for detecting counterfeit money and bodily fluids, and are already successful in digital print applications and inert UV curing environments. Power densities approaching 3 W/cm2 (30 kW/m2) are now possible, and this, coupled with recent developments by photo-initiator and resin formulators, makes the expansion of LED cured UV materials likely. UV‑C LEDs are developing rapidly, but may require testing to verify effective disinfection. Citations for large-area disinfection are for non-LED UV sources known as germicidal lamps. Also, they are used as line sources to replace deuterium lamps in liquid chromatography instruments. Ultraviolet lasers Gas lasers, laser diodes, and solid-state lasers can be manufactured to emit ultraviolet rays, and lasers are available that cover the entire UV range. The nitrogen gas laser uses electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules to emit a beam that is mostly UV. The strongest ultraviolet lines are at 337.1 nm and 357.6 nm in wavelength. Another type of high-power gas lasers are excimer lasers. They are widely used lasers emitting in ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet wavelength ranges. Presently, UV argon-fluoride excimer lasers operating at 193 nm are routinely used in integrated circuit production by photolithography. The current wavelength limit of production of coherent UV is about 126 nm, characteristic of the Ar2* excimer laser. Direct UV-emitting laser diodes are available at 375 nm. UV diode-pumped solid state lasers have been demonstrated using cerium-doped lithium strontium aluminum fluoride crystals (Ce:LiSAF), a process developed in the 1990s at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Wavelengths shorter than 325 nm are commercially generated in diode-pumped solid-state lasers. Ultraviolet lasers can also be made by applying frequency conversion to lower-frequency lasers. Ultraviolet lasers have applications in industry (laser engraving), medicine (dermatology, and keratectomy), chemistry (MALDI), free-air secure communications, computing (optical storage), and manufacture of integrated circuits. Tunable vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) The vacuum ultraviolet (V‑UV) band (100–200 nm) can be generated by non-linear 4 wave mixing in gases by sum or difference frequency mixing of 2 or more longer wavelength lasers. The generation is generally done in gasses (e.g. krypton, hydrogen which are two-photon resonant near 193 nm) or metal vapors (e.g. magnesium). By making one of the lasers tunable, the V‑UV can be tuned. If one of the lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas or vapor then the V‑UV production is intensified. However, resonances also generate wavelength dispersion, and thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range of the 4 wave mixing. Difference frequency mixing (i.e., ) as an advantage over sum frequency mixing because the phase matching can provide greater tuning. In particular, difference frequency mixing two photons of an (193 nm) excimer laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in hydrogen or krypton provides resonantly enhanced tunable V‑UV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm. Practically, the lack of suitable gas / vapor cell window materials above the lithium fluoride cut-off wavelength limit the tuning range to longer than about 110 nm. Tunable V‑UV wavelengths down to 75 nm was achieved using window-free configurations. Plasma and synchrotron sources of extreme UV Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-coherent extreme UV (E‑UV) radiation at 13.5 nm for extreme ultraviolet lithography. The E‑UV is not emitted by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in an extremely hot tin or xenon plasma, which is excited by an excimer laser. This technique does not require a synchrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X‑ray spectrum. Synchrotron light sources can also produce all wavelengths of UV, including those at the boundary of the UV and X‑ray spectra at 10 nm. Human health-related effects The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health. Getting too much sun exposure can be harmful, but in moderation, sun exposure is beneficial. Beneficial effects UV light (specifically, UV‑B) causes the body to produce vitamin D, which is essential for life. Humans need some UV radiation to maintain adequate vitamin D levels. According to the World Health Organization There is no doubt that a little sunlight is good for you! But 5–15 minutes of casual sun exposure of hands, face and arms two to three times a week during the summer months is sufficient to keep your vitamin D levels high. Vitamin D can also be obtained from food and supplementation. Excess sun exposure produces harmful effects, however. Vitamin D promotes the creation of serotonin. The production of serotonin is in direct proportion to the degree of bright sunlight the body receives. Serotonin is thought to provide sensations of happiness, well-being and serenity to human beings. Skin conditions UV rays also treat certain skin conditions. Modern phototherapy has been used to successfully treat psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, and localized scleroderma. In addition, UV light, in particular UV‑B radiation, has been shown to induce cell cycle arrest in keratinocytes, the most common type of skin cell. As such, sunlight therapy can be a candidate for treatment of conditions such as psoriasis and exfoliative cheilitis, conditions in which skin cells divide more rapidly than usual or necessary. Harmful effects In humans, excessive exposure to UV radiation can result in acute and chronic harmful effects on the eye's dioptric system and retina. The risk is elevated at high altitudes and people living in high latitude areas where snow covers the ground right into early summer and sun positions even at zenith are low, are particularly at risk. Skin, the circadian system, and the immune system can also be affected. The differential effects of various wavelengths of light on the human cornea and skin are sometimes called the "erythemal action spectrum". The action spectrum shows that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather UV begins to cause photokeratitis and skin redness (with lighter skinned individuals being more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265–275 nm, which is in the lower UV‑C band. At still shorter wavelengths of UV, damage continues to happen, but the overt effects are not as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. The WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that cause sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure for action spectrum effects at a given time and location. This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to UV at wavelengths near the boundary of the UV‑A and UV‑B bands. Skin damage Overexposure to UV‑B radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UV‑A) do not predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet. All bands of UV radiation damage collagen fibers and accelerate aging of the skin. Both UV‑A and UV‑B destroy vitamin A in skin, which may cause further damage. UVB radiation can cause direct DNA damage. This cancer connection is one reason for concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole. The most deadly form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is mostly caused by DNA damage independent from UV‑A radiation. This can be seen from the absence of a direct UV signature mutation in 92% of all melanoma. Occasional overexposure and sunburn are probably greater risk factors for melanoma than long-term moderate exposure. UV‑C is the highest-energy, most-dangerous type of ultraviolet radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or carcinogenic. In the past, UV‑A was considered not harmful or less harmful than UV‑B, but today it is known to contribute to skin cancer via indirect DNA damage (free radicals such as reactive oxygen species). UV‑A can generate highly reactive chemical intermediates, such as hydroxyl and oxygen radicals, which in turn can damage DNA. The DNA damage caused indirectly to skin by UV‑A consists mostly of single-strand breaks in DNA, while the damage caused by UV‑B includes direct formation of thymine dimers or cytosine dimers and double-strand DNA breakage. UV‑A is immunosuppressive for the entire body (accounting for a large part of the immunosuppressive effects of sunlight exposure), and is mutagenic for basal cell keratinocytes in skin. UVB photons can cause direct DNA damage. UV‑B radiation excites DNA molecules in skin cells, causing aberrant covalent bonds to form between adjacent pyrimidine bases, producing a dimer. Most UV-induced pyrimidine dimers in DNA are removed by the process known as nucleotide excision repair that employs about 30 different proteins. Those pyrimidine dimers that escape this repair process can induce a form of programmed cell death (apoptosis) or can cause DNA replication errors leading to mutation. As a defense against UV radiation, the amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin increases when exposed to moderate (depending on skin type) levels of radiation; this is commonly known as a sun tan. The purpose of melanin is to absorb UV radiation and dissipate the energy as harmless heat, protecting the skin against both direct and indirect DNA damage from the UV. UV‑A gives a quick tan that lasts for days by oxidizing melanin that was already present and triggers the release of the melanin from melanocytes. UV‑B yields a tan that takes roughly 2 days to develop because it stimulates the body to produce more melanin. Sunscreen safety debate Medical organizations recommend that patients protect themselves from UV radiation by using sunscreen. Five sunscreen ingredients have been shown to protect mice against skin tumors. However, some sunscreen chemicals produce potentially harmful substances if they are illuminated while in contact with living cells. The amount of sunscreen that penetrates into the lower layers of the skin may be large enough to cause damage. Sunscreen reduces the direct DNA damage that causes sunburn, by blocking UV‑B, and the usual SPF rating indicates how effectively this radiation is blocked. SPF is, therefore, also called UVB-PF, for "UV‑B protection factor". This rating, however, offers no data about important protection against UVA, which does not primarily cause sunburn but is still harmful, since it causes indirect DNA damage and is also considered carcinogenic. Several studies suggest that the absence of UV‑A filters may be the cause of the higher incidence of melanoma found in sunscreen users compared to non-users. Some sunscreen lotions contain titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and avobenzone, which help protect against UV‑A rays. The photochemical properties of melanin make it an excellent photoprotectant. However, sunscreen chemicals cannot dissipate the energy of the excited state as efficiently as melanin and therefore, if sunscreen ingredients penetrate into the lower layers of the skin, the amount of reactive oxygen species may be increased. The amount of sunscreen that penetrates through the stratum corneum may or may not be large enough to cause damage. In an experiment by Hanson et al. that was published in 2006, the amount of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured in untreated and in sunscreen treated skin. In the first 20 minutes, the film of sunscreen had a protective effect and the number of ROS species was smaller. After 60 minutes, however, the amount of absorbed sunscreen was so high that the amount of ROS was higher in the sunscreen-treated skin than in the untreated skin. The study indicates that sunscreen must be reapplied within 2 hours in order to prevent UV light from penetrating to sunscreen-infused live skin cells. Aggravation of certain skin conditions Ultraviolet radiation can aggravate several skin conditions and diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren's syndrome, Sinear Usher syndrome, rosacea, dermatomyositis, Darier's disease, Kindler–Weary syndrome and Porokeratosis. Eye damage The eye is most sensitive to damage by UV in the lower UV‑C band at 265–275 nm. Radiation of this wavelength is almost absent from sunlight but is found in welder's arc lights and other artificial sources. Exposure to these can cause "welder's flash" or "arc eye" (photokeratitis) and can lead to cataracts, pterygium and pinguecula formation. To a lesser extent, UV‑B in sunlight from 310 to 280 nm also causes photokeratitis ("snow blindness"), and the cornea, the lens, and the retina can be damaged. Protective eyewear is beneficial to those exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Since light can reach the eyes from the sides, full-coverage eye protection is usually warranted if there is an increased risk of exposure, as in high-altitude mountaineering. Mountaineers are exposed to higher-than-ordinary levels of UV radiation, both because there is less atmospheric filtering and because of reflection from snow and ice. Ordinary, untreated eyeglasses give some protection. Most plastic lenses give more protection than glass lenses, because, as noted above, glass is transparent to UV‑A and the common acrylic plastic used for lenses is less so. Some plastic lens materials, such as polycarbonate, inherently block most UV. Degradation of polymers, pigments and dyes UV degradation is one form of polymer degradation that affects plastics exposed to sunlight. The problem appears as discoloration or fading, cracking, loss of strength or disintegration. The effects of attack increase with exposure time and sunlight intensity. The addition of UV absorbers inhibits the effect. Sensitive polymers include thermoplastics and speciality fibers like aramids. UV absorption leads to chain degradation and loss of strength at sensitive points in the chain structure. Aramid rope must be shielded with a sheath of thermoplastic if it is to retain its strength. Many pigments and dyes absorb UV and change colour, so paintings and textiles may need extra protection both from sunlight and fluorescent bulbs, two common sources of UV radiation. Window glass absorbs some harmful UV, but valuable artifacts need extra shielding. Many museums place black curtains over watercolour paintings and ancient textiles, for example. Since watercolours can have very low pigment levels, they need extra protection from UV. Various forms of picture framing glass, including acrylics (plexiglass), laminates, and coatings, offer different degrees of UV (and visible light) protection. Applications Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in materials, ultraviolet radiation has a number of applications. The following table gives some uses of specific wavelength bands in the UV spectrum 13.5 nm: Extreme ultraviolet lithography 30–200 nm: Photoionization, ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, standard integrated circuit manufacture by photolithography 230–365 nm: UV-ID, label tracking, barcodes 230–400 nm: Optical sensors, various instrumentation 240–280 nm: Disinfection, decontamination of surfaces and water (DNA absorption has a peak at 260 nm), germicidal lamps 200–400 nm: Forensic analysis, drug detection 270–360 nm: Protein analysis, DNA sequencing, drug discovery 280–400 nm: Medical imaging of cells 300–320 nm: Light therapy in medicine 300–365 nm: Curing of polymers and printer inks 350–370 nm: Bug zappers (flies are most attracted to light at 365 nm) Photography Photographic film responds to ultraviolet radiation but the glass lenses of cameras usually block radiation shorter than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV-blocking filters are often used for outdoor photography to prevent unwanted bluing and overexposure by UV rays. For photography in the near UV, special filters may be used. Photography with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special quartz lenses which do not absorb the radiation. Digital cameras sensors may have internal filters that block UV to improve color rendition accuracy. Sometimes these internal filters can be removed, or they may be absent, and an external visible-light filter prepares the camera for near-UV photography. A few cameras are designed for use in the UV. Photography by reflected ultraviolet radiation is useful for medical, scientific, and forensic investigations, in applications as widespread as detecting bruising of skin, alterations of documents, or restoration work on paintings. Photography of the fluorescence produced by ultraviolet illumination uses visible wavelengths of light. In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to discern the chemical composition of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of stars. Because the ozone layer blocks many UV frequencies from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most UV observations are made from space. Electrical and electronics industry Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected by its ultraviolet emissions. Corona causes degradation of electrical insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen oxide. EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) are erased by exposure to UV radiation. These modules have a transparent (quartz) window on the top of the chip that allows the UV radiation in. Fluorescent dye uses Colorless fluorescent dyes that emit blue light under UV are added as optical brighteners to paper and fabrics. The blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints that may be present and causes the colors and whites to appear whiter or more brightly colored. UV fluorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are used in paints, papers, and textiles either to enhance color under daylight illumination or to provide special effects when lit with UV lamps. Blacklight paints that contain dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and aesthetic applications. Amusement parks often use UV lighting to fluoresce ride artwork and backdrops. This often has the side effect of causing rider's white clothing to glow light-purple. To help prevent counterfeiting of currency, or forgery of important documents such as driver's licenses and passports, the paper may include a UV watermark or fluorescent multicolor fibers that are visible under ultraviolet light. Postage stamps are tagged with a phosphor that glows under UV rays to permit automatic detection of the stamp and facing of the letter. UV fluorescent dyes are used in many applications (for example, biochemistry and forensics). Some brands of pepper spray will leave an invisible chemical (UV dye) that is not easily washed off on a pepper-sprayed attacker, which would help police identify the attacker later. In some types of nondestructive testing UV stimulates fluorescent dyes to highlight defects in a broad range of materials. These dyes may be carried into surface-breaking defects by capillary action (liquid penetrant inspection) or they may be bound to ferrite particles caught in magnetic leakage fields in ferrous materials (magnetic particle inspection). Analytic uses Forensics UV is an investigative tool at the crime scene helpful in locating and identifying bodily fluids such as semen, blood, and saliva. For example, ejaculated fluids or saliva can be detected by high-power UV sources, irrespective of the structure or colour of the surface the fluid is deposited upon. UV–vis microspectroscopy is also used to analyze trace evidence, such as textile fibers and paint chips, as well as questioned documents. Other applications include the authentication of various collectibles and art, and detecting counterfeit currency. Even materials not specially marked with UV sensitive dyes may have distinctive fluorescence under UV exposure or may fluoresce differently under short-wave versus long-wave ultraviolet. Enhancing contrast of ink Using multi-spectral imaging it is possible to read illegible papyrus, such as the burned papyri of the Villa of the Papyri or of Oxyrhynchus, or the Archimedes palimpsest. The technique involves taking pictures of the illegible document using different filters in the infrared or ultraviolet range, finely tuned to capture certain wavelengths of light. Thus, the optimum spectral portion can be found for distinguishing ink from paper on the papyrus surface. Simple NUV sources can be used to highlight faded iron-based ink on vellum. Sanitary compliance Ultraviolet light helps detect organic material deposits that remain on surfaces where periodic cleaning and sanitizing may have failed. It is used in the hotel industry, manufacturing, and other industries where levels of cleanliness or contamination are inspected. Perennial news features for many television news organizations involve an investigative reporter using a similar device to reveal unsanitary conditions in hotels, public toilets, hand rails, and such. Chemistry UV/Vis spectroscopy is widely used as a technique in chemistry to analyze chemical structure, the most notable one being conjugated systems. UV radiation is often used to excite a given sample where the fluorescent emission is measured with a spectrofluorometer. In biological research, UV radiation is used for quantification of nucleic acids or proteins. In environmental chemistry, UV radiation could also be used to detect Contaminants of emerging concern in water samples. In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are used to detect emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, mercury, and ammonia, for example in the flue gas of fossil-fired power plants. Ultraviolet radiation can detect thin sheens of spilled oil on water, either by the high reflectivity of oil films at UV wavelengths, fluorescence of compounds in oil, or by absorbing of UV created by Raman scattering in water. Ultraviolet lamps are also used as part of the analysis of some minerals and gems. Material science uses Fire detection In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state device, such as one based on silicon carbide or aluminium nitride, or a gas-filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors that are sensitive to UV in any part of the spectrum respond to irradiation by sunlight and artificial light. A burning hydrogen flame, for instance, radiates strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only very weakly in the IR region, whereas a coal fire emits very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wavelengths; thus, a fire detector that operates using both UV and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV detector alone. Virtually all fires emit some radiation in the UVC band, whereas the Sun's radiation at this band is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. The result is that the UV detector is "solar blind", meaning it will not cause an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors. UV detectors are sensitive to most fires, including hydrocarbons, metals, sulfur, hydrogen, hydrazine, and ammonia. Arc welding, electrical arcs, lightning, X-rays used in nondestructive metal testing equipment (though this is highly unlikely), and radioactive materials can produce levels that will activate a UV detection system. The presence of UV-absorbing gases and vapors will attenuate the UV radiation from a fire, adversely affecting the ability of the detector to detect flames. Likewise, the presence of an oil mist in the air or an oil film on the detector window will have the same effect. Photolithography Ultraviolet radiation is used for very fine resolution photolithography, a procedure wherein a chemical called a photoresist is exposed to UV radiation that has passed through a mask. The exposure causes chemical reactions to occur in the photoresist. After removal of unwanted photoresist, a pattern determined by the mask remains on the sample. Steps may then be taken to "etch" away, deposit on or otherwise modify areas of the sample where no photoresist remains. Photolithography is used in the manufacture of semiconductors, integrated circuit components, and printed circuit boards. Photolithography processes used to fabricate electronic integrated circuits presently use 193 nm UV and are experimentally using 13.5 nm UV for extreme ultraviolet lithography. Polymers Electronic components that require clear transparency for light to exit or enter (photovoltaic panels and sensors) can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV energy. The advantages are low VOC emissions and rapid curing. Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light, polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include glass and plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of flooring, UV coating and paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and decorative fingernail "gels". UV sources for UV curing applications include UV lamps, UV LEDs, and excimer flash lamps. Fast processes such as flexo or offset printing require high-intensity light focused via reflectors onto a moving substrate and medium so high-pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe (iron, doped)-based bulbs are used, energized with electric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power fluorescent lamps and LEDs can be used for static applications. Small high-pressure lamps can have light focused and transmitted to the work area via liquid-filled or fiber-optic light guides. The impact of UV on polymers is used for modification of the (roughness and hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. For example, a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface can be smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet. UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy polymers for adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the polymer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has been raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger. Biology-related uses Air purification Using a catalytic chemical reaction from titanium dioxide and UVC exposure, oxidation of organic matter converts pathogens, pollens, and mold spores into harmless inert byproducts. However, the reaction of titanium dioxide and UVC is not a straight path. Several hundreds of reactions occur prior to the inert byproducts stage and can hinder the resulting reaction creating formaldehyde, aldehyde, and other VOC's en route to a final stage. Thus, the use of titanium dioxide and UVC requires very specific parameters for a successful outcome. The cleansing mechanism of UV is a photochemical process. Contaminants in the indoor environment are almost entirely organic carbon-based compounds, which break down when exposed to high-intensity UV at 240 to 280 nm. Short-wave ultraviolet radiation can destroy DNA in living microorganisms. UVC's effectiveness is directly related to intensity and exposure time. UV has also been shown to reduce gaseous contaminants such as carbon monoxide and VOCs. UV lamps radiating at 184 and 254 nm can remove low concentrations of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide if the air is recycled between the room and the lamp chamber. This arrangement prevents the introduction of ozone into the treated air. Likewise, air may be treated by passing by a single UV source operating at 184 nm and passed over iron pentaoxide to remove the ozone produced by the UV lamp. Sterilization and disinfection Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and tools used in biology laboratories and medical facilities. Commercially available low-pressure mercury-vapor lamps emit about 86% of their radiation at 254 nanometers (nm), with 265 nm being the peak germicidal effectiveness curve. UV at these germicidal wavelengths damage a microorganism's DNA/RNA so that it cannot reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the organism may not be killed). Since microorganisms can be shielded from ultraviolet rays in small cracks and other shaded areas, these lamps are used only as a supplement to other sterilization techniques. UV-C LEDs are relatively new to the commercial market and are gaining in popularity. Due to their monochromatic nature (±5 nm) these LEDs can target a specific wavelength needed for disinfection. This is especially important knowing that pathogens vary in their sensitivity to specific UV wavelengths. LEDs are mercury free, instant on/off, and have unlimited cycling throughout the day. Disinfection using UV radiation is commonly used in wastewater treatment applications and is finding an increased usage in municipal drinking water treatment. Many bottlers of spring water use UV disinfection equipment to sterilize their water. Solar water disinfection has been researched for cheaply treating contaminated water using natural sunlight. The UV-A irradiation and increased water temperature kill organisms in the water. Ultraviolet radiation is used in several food processes to kill unwanted microorganisms. UV can be used to pasteurize fruit juices by flowing the juice over a high-intensity ultraviolet source. The effectiveness of such a process depends on the UV absorbance of the juice. Pulsed light (PL) is a technique of killing microorganisms on surfaces using pulses of an intense broad spectrum, rich in UV-C between 200 and 280 nm. Pulsed light works with xenon flash lamps that can produce flashes several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed UV. Biological Some animals, including birds, reptiles, and insects such as bees, can see near-ultraviolet wavelengths. Many fruits, flowers, and seeds stand out more strongly from the background in ultraviolet wavelengths as compared to human color vision. Scorpions glow or take on a yellow to green color under UV illumination, thus assisting in the control of these arachnids. Many birds have patterns in their plumage that are invisible at usual wavelengths but observable in ultraviolet, and the urine and other secretions of some animals, including dogs, cats, and human beings, are much easier to spot with ultraviolet. Urine trails of rodents can be detected by pest control technicians for proper treatment of infested dwellings. Butterflies use ultraviolet as a communication system for sex recognition and mating behavior. For example, in the Colias eurytheme butterfly, males rely on visual cues to locate and identify females. Instead of using chemical stimuli to find mates, males are attracted to the ultraviolet-reflecting color of female hind wings. In Pieris napi butterflies it was shown that females in northern Finland with less UV-radiation present in the environment possessed stronger UV signals to attract their males than those occurring further south. This suggested that it was evolutionarily more difficult to increase the UV-sensitivity of the eyes of the males than to increase the UV-signals emitted by the females. Many insects use the ultraviolet wavelength emissions from celestial objects as references for flight navigation. A local ultraviolet emitter will normally disrupt the navigation process and will eventually attract the flying insect. The green fluorescent protein (GFP) is often used in genetics as a marker. Many substances, such as proteins, have significant light absorption bands in the ultraviolet that are of interest in biochemistry and related fields. UV-capable spectrophotometers are common in such laboratories. Ultraviolet traps called bug zappers are used to eliminate various small flying insects. They are attracted to the UV and are killed using an electric shock, or trapped once they come into contact with the device. Different designs of ultraviolet radiation traps are also used by entomologists for collecting nocturnal insects during faunistic survey studies. Therapy Ultraviolet radiation is helpful in the treatment of skin conditions such as psoriasis and vitiligo. Exposure to UVA, while the skin is hyper-photosensitive, by taking psoralens is an effective treatment for psoriasis. Due to the potential of psoralens to cause damage to the liver, PUVA therapy may be used only a limited number of times over a patient's lifetime. UVB phototherapy does not require additional medications or topical preparations for the therapeutic benefit; only the exposure is needed. However, phototherapy can be effective when used in conjunction with certain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and vitamin A and D derivatives, or systemic treatments such as methotrexate and Soriatane. Herpetology Reptiles need UVB for biosynthesis of vitamin D, and other metabolic processes. Specifically cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), which is needed for basic cellular / neural functioning as well as the utilization of calcium for bone and egg production. The UVA wavelength is also visible to many reptiles and might play a significant role in their ability survive in the wild as well as in visual communication between individuals. Therefore, in a typical reptile enclosure, a fluorescent UV a/b source (at the proper strength / spectrum for the species), must be available for many captive species to survive. Simple supplementation with cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3) will not be enough as there's a complete biosynthetic pathway that is "leapfrogged" (risks of possible overdoses), the intermediate molecules and metabolites also play important functions in the animals health. Natural sunlight in the right levels is always going to be superior to artificial sources, but this might not be possible for keepers in different parts of the world. It is a known problem that high levels of output of the UVa part of the spectrum can both cause cellular and DNA damage to sensitive parts of their bodies – especially the eyes where blindness is the result of an improper UVa/b source use and placement photokeratitis. For many keepers there must also be a provision for an adequate heat source this has resulted in the marketing of heat and light "combination" products. Keepers should be careful of these "combination" light/ heat and UVa/b generators, they typically emit high levels of UVa with lower levels of UVb that are set and difficult to control so that animals can have their needs met. A better strategy is to use individual sources of these elements and so they can be placed and controlled by the keepers for the max benefit of the animals. Evolutionary significance The evolution of early reproductive proteins and enzymes is attributed in modern models of evolutionary theory to ultraviolet radiation. UVB causes thymine base pairs next to each other in genetic sequences to bond together into thymine dimers, a disruption in the strand that reproductive enzymes cannot copy. This leads to frameshifting during genetic replication and protein synthesis, usually killing the cell. Before formation of the UV-blocking ozone layer, when early prokaryotes approached the surface of the ocean, they almost invariably died out. The few that survived had developed enzymes that monitored the genetic material and removed thymine dimers by nucleotide excision repair enzymes. Many enzymes and proteins involved in modern mitosis and meiosis are similar to repair enzymes, and are believed to be evolved modifications of the enzymes originally used to overcome DNA damages caused by UV. See also Ultraviolet astronomy High-energy visible light Ultraviolet catastrophe Ultraviolet index UV stabilizers in plastics Weather testing of polymers UV marker Infrared References Further reading External links Electromagnetic radiation Electromagnetic spectrum Ultraviolet radiation

Upper Iowa University (UIU) is a private university in Fayette, Iowa. It enrolls around 900 students and offers distance education programs that include 15 centers in the U.S., an online program, an independent study program, and centers in Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia. UIU has a total student enrollment of more than 6,000 students. Upper Iowa offers undergraduate and graduate degree programs in more than 40 majors, including art, business, conservation management, education, higher education administration, human services, information technology, liberal arts, math, nursing, psychology, science, and more. It operates on two eight-week terms per semester, allowing students to take two classes per term. It is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. UIU is the only NCAA Division II Athletics Program in the state of Iowa and a member of the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference (NSIC). History In 1854, Elizabeth Alexander, a pioneer living near what is now Fayette, Iowa, proposed the idea of a college to her husband, Robert, who donated $10,000 toward the cause. Their son-in-law, Samuel Robertson, donated $5,000 and of land. In 1856, the first Board of Trustees meeting was held; articles of Incorporation were adopted; and classes began January 7, 1857. The university was affiliated with the Methodist Church until 1928. In 1861, a company of male students and faculty members enlisted in the Army to fight in the American Civil War. Student-soldiers participated in 17 major battles, carrying a flag hand-sewn by UIU women students. In 1917, UIU male students joined the armed forces during World War I, while women students organized American Red Cross classes on campus; the UIU gym became a barracks, and the athletic field was the scene of military drills. By 1920, a systematic program of extension work throughout northeast Iowa had begun, with Upper Iowa referred to as "a pioneer in the field." Those students who joined the service to fight in World War II took advantage of the G.I. Bill to complete their education, which dramatically increased Upper Iowa enrollment between 1947 and 1950. Record enrollments were also seen after the Vietnam War (1952–1970). In 1972, Upper Iowa launched an external degree program that included Independent Study and Online Programs. In 1984 to present, UIU expanded to open locations across the U.S. Upper Iowa was approved by the Higher Learning Commission to offer graduate degrees in 1995, and in 1999 started its International Program by establishing centers in Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, and Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It was also during 1994 to 2003 that UIU underwent an aggressive landscaping and building renovation that brought changes to its Fayette campus. This included the construction of Lee Tower Residence Halls, the acquisition of a new physical plant building and the construction of a recreation center. In 2004, the new Andres Center for Business and Education was built, and Alan G. Walker was appointed the 20th president of the University. During summer 2009, the largest capital improvement project broke ground on the Fayette campus — $75 million — which will include a new student center, suite-style housing, and a Liberal Arts academic building. Campus Upper Iowa's traditional residential campus is in Fayette, Iowa. Fayette County is ranked at 26th in the Midwest list of “Best Places to Live.” Student-faculty ratio is 14:1; teaching is by tenured or full-time faculty of whom nearly 75 percent have doctorate degrees; advising is done by faculty; there are free on-campus tutor centers; and there are more than 40 registered fraternities, sororities, clubs and organizations on campus. The Fayette campus is primarily for undergraduate students, but a master's degree in education is also offered, along with two-week IXEL classes in the summer. Students can choose from 40 majors, with the most popular being Elementary Education and Teaching, Marketing/Marketing Management, General, and Natural Resources/Conservation. The Pleggenkuhle Prairie, donated by the Pleggenkuhle family to UIU, is of virgin prairie northwest of Hawkeye. It is used as a teaching tool for students to learn about the prairie ecosystem and to conduct prescribed burns and research projects at the site. The academic facilities on the Fayette campus are state-of-the-art due to an aggressive renovation of the old buildings over the past decade and new construction currently underway. The Fayette campus has free wireless Internet access. The recreational facilities include free student events, a free fitness center, and free golf at the local 18-hole course. The university has rock wall climbing and specially designed ropes course. Academics Upper Iowa University participates in the Higher Learning Commission Academic Quality Improvement Program (AQIP) alternative path for accreditation, has a UIU chapter of the Alpha Chi National College Honor Society, and 165 student athletes were honored in 2010 for academic excellence. Average ACT score is 22; average high school grade point average is 2.94; tuition for 2009-2010 is $22,350, with 100 percent of UIU students receiving need- and/or merit-based financial aid. Upper Iowa University awards more than $100,000 each year in merit-based scholarships to its current students. Distance education Upper Iowa Distance Education includes 15 center locations across the U.S. in Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana and Wisconsin, an Independent Study program, as well as an Online Program recognized by GetEducated.com Best Buy Rankings since 2007 and the Online Education Database (OEDb) Online College Rankings since 2007. UIU Center locations offer the flexibility of evening and weekend classes with a classroom experience. Independent Study and Online programs offer education "anywhere, anytime." Over 40 undergraduate courses and graduate degrees (MPA, MBA, MHEA) are offered, with the option of mixing classroom and online courses. International program Upper Iowa University has two international education centers located in the Pacific Rim. UIU offers undergraduate programs in business, communication and psychology to learners in Hong Kong and Malaysia. Through on-site faculty, faculty exchange, and visiting lecturers, UIU offers a program with a high level of academic rigor and quality. In addition, UIU also offers a full on-line Master of Business Administration program with global access for students, as well as study abroad opportunities. Rankings Upper Iowa University was ranked by U.S. News & World Report in the category for 2017 Best Online Bachelor's Programs - 128th Athletics In 2005, Upper Iowa University was accepted into full membership of the NCAA Division II athletics and became a member of the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference (NSIC). Peacock colors are blue and white. UIU was an NCAA Division III member of the Iowa Intercollegiate Athletic Conference until 2003. Sports teams Baseball (Men) Basketball (Men and Women) Bowling (Men and Women) Cross Country (Men and Women) eSports (Men and Women). Football (Men) Golf (Men and Women) Lacrosse (Women) Soccer (Men and Women) Softball (Women) Spirit Squad (Men and Women) Tennis (Women) Track & Field (Men and Women) Volleyball (Women) Wrestling (Men). Notable alumni William V. Allen, United States Senator from Nebraska, 1893 – 1901. William F. Albright, archaeologist who worked on the Dead Sea Scrolls William Andres, Former President of Dayton Hudson, now known as Target Minnie Bronson, anti-suffragist, 1881 Raymond F. Chandler, Former Sergeant Major of the Army Richard C. Clark, former United States Senator from Iowa, 1973–1979 Mike Eischeid, football player and punter in the National Football League for 9 seasons, 1963 Rick Heller, college baseball coach at Upper Iowa, Northern Iowa, Indiana State, and Iowa David B. Henderson, the first Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives from west of the Mississippi, 1861 Roger Halvorson, Iowa House of Representatives Mary Lundby, Iowa State Senate, 1971 Carl Magee, inventor of the modern parking meter, 1896 John Mott (attended), leader of the Y.M.C.A. movement and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946 for his work with prisoners of war Larry Nemmers, National Football League game official (side judge 1985-90; referee 1991-2007) B.S. Biology, 1965 Gerald C. Olesen, U.S. Air National Guard general, Assistant Adjutant General of Wisconsin George Safford Parker, founder of the Parker Pen Company, 1882 Roger C. Schultz, United States Army Lieutenant General and Director of the Army National Guard, B.S. Management, 1980 Rob Taylor, Iowa House of Representatives Claude Welch, President and Dean, Graduate Theological Union C.T. Wilson - Member, Maryland House of Delegates References External links Official athletics website Private universities and colleges in Iowa Educational institutions established in 1857 Education in Fayette County, Iowa Buildings and structures in Fayette County, Iowa 1857 establishments in Iowa Universities and colleges affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal Church

The Upper Peninsula of Michigan – also known as Upper Michigan or colloquially the U.P. – is the northern and more elevated of the two major landmasses that make up the U.S. state of Michigan; it is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac. It is bounded primarily by Lake Superior to the north, separated from the Canadian province of Ontario at the east end by the St. Marys River, and flanked by Lake Huron and Lake Michigan along much of its south. Although the peninsula extends as a geographic feature into the state of Wisconsin, the state boundary follows the Montreal and Menominee rivers and a line connecting them. First inhabited by Algonquian-speaking native American tribes, the area was explored by French colonists, then occupied by British forces, before being ceded to the newly established United States in the late 18th century. After being assigned to various territorial jurisdictions, it was granted to the newly formed state of Michigan as part of the settlement of a dispute with Ohio over the city of Toledo. The region's exploitable timber resources and the discovery of iron and copper deposits in the 19th century brought immigrants, especially French Canadian, Finnish, Swedish, Cornish, and Italian. (The peninsula includes the only counties in the United States where a plurality of residents claim Finnish ancestry.) With the exhaustion of readily available minerals, the area's economy declined in the 20th century, largely becoming dependent on logging and tourism. The Upper Peninsula contains 29% of the land area of Michigan but only 3% of its total population. Residents are called Yoopers (derived from "UP-ers") and have a strong regional identity, enhanced by the perception that the rest of the state neglects them. Proposals have been made to establish the UP as a separate state, but have failed to gain traction. Its largest cities are Marquette, Sault Ste. Marie, Escanaba, Menominee, Houghton, and Iron Mountain. Because of the surrounding waters and northern latitude, it receives more snow than most of the eastern U.S. The heavily forested land, soil types, short growing season, and logistical factors (e.g. long distance to market, lack of infrastructure) make the Upper Peninsula poorly suited for agriculture. The region is home to a variety of wildlife, including moose, wolves, coyotes, deer, foxes, bears, bobcats, eagles, hawks, owls, and smaller animals. History The first known inhabitants of the Upper Peninsula were tribes speaking Algonquian languages. They arrived roughly around 800 C.E. and subsisted chiefly from fishing. Early tribes included the Menominee, Nocquet, and the Mishinimaki. Étienne Brûlé of France was probably the first European to visit the peninsula, crossing the St. Marys River around 1620 in search of a route to the Far East. French colonists laid claim to the land in the 17th century, establishing missions and fur trading posts such as Sault Ste. Marie and St. Ignace. Following the end of the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War) in 1763, the territory was ceded to Great Britain. Sault Ste Marie is the oldest European settlement in Michigan and the site of Native American settlements for centuries. American Indian tribes formerly allied with the French were dissatisfied with the British occupation, which brought new territorial policies. Whereas the French cultivated alliances among the Indians, the British postwar approach was to treat the tribes as conquered peoples. In 1763, tribes united in Pontiac's Rebellion to try to drive the British from the area. American Indians captured Fort Michilimackinac, at present-day Mackinaw City, then the principal fort of the British in the Michilimackinac region, as well as others and killed hundreds of British. In 1764, they began negotiations with the British, resulting in temporary peace and changes in objectionable British policies. Although the Upper Peninsula nominally became United States territory with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the British did not give up control until 1797 under terms of the Jay Treaty. As an American territory, the Upper Peninsula was still dominated by the fur trade. John Jacob Astor founded the American Fur Company on Mackinac Island in 1808; however, the industry began to decline in the 1830s as beaver and other game were overhunted. When the Michigan Territory was first established in 1805, it included only the Lower Peninsula and the eastern portion of the Upper Peninsula. In 1819, the territory was expanded to include the remainder of the Upper Peninsula, all of what later became Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota (previously included in the Indiana and Illinois Territories). When Michigan applied for statehood in the 1830s, the proposal corresponded to the original territorial boundaries. However, there was an armed conflict known as the Toledo War with the state of Ohio over the location of their mutual border. Meanwhile, the people of Michigan approved a constitution in May 1835 and elected state officials in late autumn 1835. Although the state government was not yet recognized by the United States Congress, the territorial government effectively ceased to exist. President Andrew Jackson's government offered the remainder of the Upper Peninsula to Michigan if it would cede the Toledo Strip to Ohio. A constitutional convention of the state legislature refused, but a second convention, hastily convened by Governor Stevens Thomson Mason, consisting primarily of his supporters, agreed in December 1836 to the deal. In January 1837, the U.S. Congress admitted Michigan as a state of the Union. At the time, Michigan was considered the losing party in the compromise. The land in the Upper Peninsula was described in a federal report as a "sterile region on the shores of Lake Superior destined by soil and climate to remain forever a wilderness." This belief changed when rich mineral deposits (primarily copper and iron) were discovered in the 1840s. The Upper Peninsula's mines produced more mineral wealth than the California Gold Rush, especially after shipping was improved by the opening of the Soo Locks in 1855, and docks in Marquette in 1859. The Upper Peninsula supplied 90% of America's copper by the 1860s. It was the largest supplier of iron ore by the 1890s, and production continued to a peak in the 1920s, but sharply declined shortly afterward. The last copper mine closed in 1995, although the majority of mines had closed decades before. Some iron mining continues near Marquette. The Eagle Mine, a nickel-copper mine, opened in 2014. Thousands of Americans and immigrants moved to the area during the mining boom, prompting the federal government to create Fort Wilkins near Copper Harbor to maintain order. The first wave were the Cornish from Great Britain, with centuries of mining experience; followed by Irish, Germans, and French Canadians. During the 1890s, Finnish immigrants began settling there in large numbers, forming the population plurality in the northwestern half of the peninsula. In the early 20th century, 75% of the population was foreign-born. From 1861 to 1865, 90,000 Michigan men fought in the American Civil War, including 1,209 from the Upper Peninsula. Houghton County contributed 460 soldiers, while Marquette County, Michigan sent 265. There was a boundary dispute over the border with Wisconsin. The northwesternmost portion of the border follows a line from Lac Vieux Desert to the headwaters of the Montreal River. An 1847 survey established the east branch of the Montreal River as the border. However, the 1908 revision of the Constitution of Michigan specified that the west branch of the Montreal River was the proper border, which would have placed an additional 360 square miles of land on the Michigan side of the border. A 1926 Supreme Court decision awarded this tract of land to Wisconsin. Geography The Upper Peninsula contains , about 29 percent of the land area of the state (exclusive of territorial waters, which constitute about 40% of Michigan's total jurisdictional area). The maximum east–west distance in the Upper Peninsula is about , and the maximum north–south distance is about . It is bounded on the north by Lake Superior, on the east by St. Marys River, on the south by Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and on the west by Wisconsin and (counting the water border on Lake Superior) by Minnesota. It has about of continuous shoreline with the Great Lakes. There are about 4,300 inland lakes, the largest of which is Lake Gogebic, and of streams. Michigan's Upper Peninsula is bounded on land by Wisconsin to the southwest and west; and in territorial waters by Minnesota to the west, Ontario to the west, north and east, and the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin extends into Lake Michigan east of the western Upper Peninsula. Five Michigan Upper Peninsula counties include nearby major islands: Mackinac Island, Round Island and Bois Blanc Island in Lake Huron are in Mackinac County; Sugar Island and Neebish Island in the St. Marys River, and Drummond Island in Lake Huron are in Chippewa County; Grand Island is in Alger County; Summer Island is Delta County; and Isle Royale is part of Keweenaw County.The peninsula is divided between the flat, swampy areas in the east, part of the Great Lakes Plain, and the steeper, more rugged western half, called the Superior Upland, part of the Canadian Shield. The rock in the western portion is the result of volcanic eruptions and is estimated to be at least 3.5 billion years old (much older than the eastern portion) and contains the region's ore resources. Banded-iron formations were deposited 2 billion years ago; this is the Marquette Range Supergroup. A considerable amount of bedrock is visible. Mount Arvon, the highest point in Michigan, is found in the region, as well as the Porcupine and Huron mountains. All of the higher areas are the remnants of ancient peaks, worn down over millions of years by erosion and glaciers. The Keweenaw Peninsula is the northernmost part of the peninsula (not counting Isle Royale, which is politically part of the UP). It projects into Lake Superior and was the site of the first copper boom in the United States, part of a larger region of the peninsula called the Copper Country. Copper Island is its northernmost section. Its lowest elevation is along the shoreline of Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, averaging above sea level. Its highest elevation is Mount Arvon, at . About one-third of the peninsula is government-owned recreational forest land today, including the Ottawa National Forest and Hiawatha National Forest. Although heavily logged in the 19th century, the majority of the land was forested with mature trees by the 1970s. Wildlife The Upper Peninsula contains a large variety of wildlife. Some of the mammals found in the UP include shrews, moles, mice, white-tailed deer, moose, black bears, cougar, gray and red foxes, wolves, river otters, martens, fishers, muskrats, bobcats, coyotes, snowshoe hares, cotton-tail rabbits, porcupines, chipmunks, squirrels, raccoons, opossum and bats. There is a large variety of birds, including hawks, osprey, owls, gulls, hummingbirds, chickadees, robins (the state bird), woodpeckers, warblers, and bald eagles. In terms of reptiles and amphibians, the UP has common garter snakes, red bellied snakes, pine snakes, northern water snakes, brown snakes, eastern garter snakes, eastern fox snakes, eastern ribbon back snakes, green snakes, northern ringneck snakes, eastern milk snakes (Mackinac and Marquette counties) and eastern hognose snakes (Menominee County only), plus snapping turtles, wood turtles, and painted turtles (the state reptile), green frogs, bullfrogs, northern leopard frogs, and salamanders. Lakes and rivers contain many fish such as walleye, muskie, northern pike, trout, salmon, bullhead catfish, and bass. Invasive species like the alewife and sea lamprey can be found in the Great Lakes. The UP also contains many shellfish, such as clams, aquatic snails, and crayfish. The American Bird Conservancy and the National Audubon Society have designated several locations as internationally Important Bird Areas. After being nearly extirpated from the conterminous United States, gray wolves survived in the remote northeastern corner of Minnesota and Ontario. The repopulation of wolves in this region has occurred naturally as they have expanded their territory. There is significant discussion and studies over the presence of eastern cougars in the UP. Historically, the last of the species, or subspecies, was extirpated near Newberry in 1906, although there have been sightings of the creatures over the years since. These reports increased in number over the first decade of the 21st century. The Michigan Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DNRE) formed a four-person team to investigate sightings in the state. The biologists with the DNRE currently do not believe that there is a breeding population anywhere in the state, rather that the sighted animals are visitors to the state. As late as January 2007, the DNRE's official position was that no cougars lived in Michigan. Several residents in the state disagree with both current and previous positions on the part of the DNRE. Researchers at Central Michigan University and the Michigan Wildlife Conservancy in 2006 published the findings of a study using DNA analysis of fecal samples taken in the Upper and Lower peninsulas that showed the presence of cougars at the time. These results were disputed in a second journal article in 2007 by other researchers from Eastern Michigan University and the U.S. Forest Service. A citizen's group, the Michigan Citizens for Cougar Recognition (MCCR), independently tracked sightings and in 2009 listed Delta County as the location with the greatest number of reports in the state. The DNRE verified five sets of tracks and two trail camera photos in Delta, Chippewa, Marquette, and Menominee counties since 2008. DNRE officials acknowledge that there are cougars in the UP, but not elsewhere in the state. Critics of the DNRE's position on the species, including the founder of the MCCR, say that the department is attempting to "avoid paying for a cougar management program". There are also many invasive species that are primarily brought in the ballast water of foreign ships, usually from the ocean bordering Northeastern Asia. This water is dumped directly into the Great Lakes, depositing a variety of fresh and salt water fish and invertebrates, most notably the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha. There are also many plant species that have been transported to the Great Lakes, including purple loosestrife, Lythrum salicaria and Phragmites australis, both of which are considered to be a threat to native hydrophyte wetland plants. The emerald ash borer was first reported in the UP at Brimley State Park, and is considered to be a serious ecological threat to the habitat and economy. Climate The Upper Peninsula has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification system). The Great Lakes have a great effect on the larger part of the peninsula. Winters tend to be long, cold, and snowy for most of the peninsula, and because of its northern latitude, the daylight hours are short—around 8 hours between sunrise and sunset in the winter. Lake Superior has the greatest effect on the area, especially the northern and western parts. Lake-effect snow causes many areas to get in excess of of snow per year—especially in the Keweenaw Peninsula and Gogebic County, and to a lesser extent Baraga, Marquette and Alger counties, making the western UP a prominent part of the midwestern snow belt. Records of of snow or more have been set in many communities in this area. The Keweenaw Peninsula averages more snowfall than any other location east of the Mississippi River. Because of the howling storms across Lake Superior, which cause dramatic amounts of precipitation, it has been said that the lake-effect snow makes the Keweenaw Peninsula the snowiest place east of the Rockies. Herman averages of snow every year. Lake-effect snow can cause blinding whiteouts in just minutes, and some storms can last for days. Hancock is found frequently on lists of the snowiest cities in America. The banana belt along the Wisconsin border has a more continental climate since most of its weather does not arrive from the lakes. Summers tend to be warmer and winter nights much colder. Coastal communities have temperatures tempered by the Great Lakes. In summer, it might be cooler at lakeside than it is inland, and the opposite effect is seen in winter. The area of the Upper Peninsula north of Green Bay through Menominee and Escanaba (and extending west to Iron River) does not have the extreme weather and precipitation found to the north. The coldest temperature officially recorded in the Upper Peninsula was in Humboldt in January 1915. Time zones Like the entire Lower Peninsula, most of the Upper Peninsula observes Eastern Time. However, the four counties bordering Wisconsin are in the Central Time zone. In 1967, when the Uniform Time Act came into effect, the Upper Peninsula went under year-round CST, with no daylight saving time. In 1973, the majority of the peninsula switched to Eastern Time; only the four western border counties of Gogebic, Iron, Dickinson, and Menominee continue to observe Central Time. Daylight saving time is observed peninsula-wide. Government There are 15 counties in the Upper Peninsula. State prisons are located in Baraga, Marquette, Munising, Newberry, and Kincheloe. Politics Historically, the Upper Peninsula tended to vote for the Democratic Party due to its legacy of mining and historically high union membership. However, as union strength in the peninsula declined, in the 2010s the region has become more Republican (though split-ticket voting at the local level became a common practice). In the 2012 presidential election, Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney carried all but two counties. In the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections, Republican candidate Donald Trump won all counties except Marquette County. All counties in the UP are part of Michigan's 1st congressional district. Jack Bergman, a Republican, has been the U.S. Representative for this district since January 2017. In Michigan's 2010 gubernatorial election Republican Rick Snyder carried every UP county but one, Gogebic, on his way to victory over his Democratic opponent, Virg Bernero. Proposed statehood Due to the geographic separation and perceived cultural and political differences from the Lower Peninsula, at various times there have been proposals for the Upper Peninsula to secede from Michigan as a 51st state named Superior, sometimes including portions of northern Wisconsin and/or the northern Lower Peninsula. Several prominent legislators, including the region's long-serving state representative Dominic Jacobetti, attempted unsuccessfully to gain passage of such a bill in the 1970s. It would be the least populous state in the union, and as stronger connections to the rest of Michigan have developed since completion of the Mackinac Bridge in the 1950s, the proposal has remained largely dormant since the 1970s. Demographics The Upper Peninsula remains a predominantly rural region. As of the 2020 census, the region had a population of 301,608—scarcely more than 3% of Michigan's total population, and a decline of 3.2% from 2010. According to the 2010 census, 103,211 people live in the 12 towns of at least 4,000 people, covering . A total of 116,548 people live in the 18 towns and villages of at least 2,000 people, which cover —less than 1% of the peninsula's land area. Federal censuses indicate that the population of the Upper Peninsula grew throughout the 19th century as European settlers moved into the region, then boomed around the turn of the century, and experienced gradual decline overall during most of the 20th century. The decline was uneven, however: the population in the largest cities – Marquette, Sault Ste Marie, and Escanaba – grew somewhat, while smaller cities and non-urban areas have generally declined in population. The six westernmost counties experienced the largest decrease, from a 1920 population of 153,674 to a 2020 population of 79,392. Many ghost towns exist in the region. A "" indicates an increase in population from the previous census, and a "" indicates a decrease in population from the previous census. Economy Industries The Upper Peninsula is rich in mineral deposits, including iron, copper, nickel, and silver. Small amounts of gold have also been discovered and mined. In the 19th century, mining dominated the economy, and the UP became home to many isolated company towns. For many years, mines in the Keweenaw Peninsula were the world's largest producers of copper (see Copper mining in Michigan). The mines began declining as early as 1913, with most closing temporarily during the Great Depression. Mines reopened during World War II, but almost all quickly closed after the war ended. The last copper mine in the Copper Country was the White Pine mine, which closed in 1995. Marquette County sits along the Marquette Iron Range, which sent out a significant portion of the iron ore mined in the United States for many years. , Marquette County is home to one remaining iron ore mine and one nickel and copper mine. From approximately 1870 to 1915, about 32 quarries mined Jacobsville Sandstone in the Upper Peninsula, particularly near Marquette and the community of Jacobsville. The sandstone was used in many buildings, both locally and around the United States. Since logging of white pine began in the 1880s, timber has been an important industry. Stands of hemlock and hardwood in the western reaches of the forest experienced larger scale selection-cutting beginning in the mid-20th century. Because of the highly seasonal climate and the short growing season, agriculture is limited in the Upper Peninsula, though potatoes, strawberries and a few other small fruits are grown. Tourism has become the main industry in recent decades. In 2005, ShermanTravel, LLC listed the Upper Peninsula as #10 in its assessment of all travel destinations worldwide. The peninsula has extensive coastline on the Great Lakes, large tracts of state and national forests, cedar swamps, more than 150 waterfalls, and low population densities. Because of the skiing, camping, boating, fishing, snowmobiling, hunting, and hiking opportunities, many Lower Peninsula and Wisconsin families spend their vacations in the UP, and tourists visit from Detroit, Chicago, Grand Rapids, Milwaukee, and other metropolitan areas. The opening of the Mackinac Bridge in 1957 (see below) has made the Upper Peninsula easily accessible to tourists from the Lower Peninsula and southeast of Michigan, and has helped make the UP a year-round tourist destination. In 2004, microbreweries began opening across the Upper Peninsula; 14 opened by 2014, and 23 by 2019. In 2019, their annual economic impact totaled $346 million. , three of Michigan's fifty largest breweries were in the Upper Peninsula: Keweenaw Brewing Company, Blackrocks Brewery, and the Ore Dock Brewing Company. Notable attractions Au Train Falls Bond Falls Calumet Theatre Calumet Downtown Historic District Castle Rock Copper Harbor Copper Peak, Ironwood Township DeYoung Family Zoo Fayette Historic State Park Fort Mackinac Garlyn Zoo Grand Hotel (Mackinac Island) Grand Island National Recreation Area The Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum Iron County Historical Museum Complex – Caspian Iron Industry Museum – Negaunee Iron Mountain Iron Mine – Vulcan Isle Royale National Park The Keystone Bridge- Ramsay, Michigan Keweenaw National Historical Park Keweenaw Waterway and Portage Lake Lift Bridge Kitch-iti-kipi Lake Superior Lake Superior State University, Lakers Laughing Whitefish Falls Mackinac Bridge Mackinac Island Marquette Arts and Culture Center – Marquette The Marquette Lighthouse Marquette Mountain Ski Resort Michigan Technological University Mount Bohemia ski center (with the highest vertical drop, , in the Midwest) Munising Falls National Ski Hall of Fame Northern Michigan University Marquette Ore Dock Paulding Light Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore Pine Mountain ski jump in Iron Mountain is one of the largest artificial ski jumps in the world. Porcupine Mountains State Park Quincy Copper Mine offering guided tours Seney National Wildlife Refuge Ski Brule in Iron River The Soo Locks Suicide Hill Ski Jump, Ishpeming, Michigan Sylvania Wilderness Tahquamenon Falls State Park Upper Peninsula Children's Museum – Marquette Casinos American Indian casinos contribute to the tourist attractions and are popular in the UP. Originally the casinos were simple, one-room affairs. Some of the casinos are now quite elaborate and are being developed as part of resort and conference facilities, including features such as golf courses, pool and spa, dining, and rooms to accommodate guests. Bay Mills Resort & Casino – Brimley Island Resort & Casino – Harris Kewadin Casinos – Christmas; Hessel; Manistique; St. Ignace; Sault Ste. Marie Kings Club Casino – Brimley Lac Vieux Desert Casino – Watersmeet Ojibwa Casinos – Baraga; Marquette Transportation The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower by the Straits of Mackinac, five miles (8 km) across at the narrowest, and is connected to it by the Mackinac Bridge at St. Ignace, one of the longest suspension bridges in the world. Until the bridge was completed in 1957, travel between the two peninsulas was difficult and slow (and sometimes even impossible during winter). In 1881, the Mackinac Transportation Company was established by three railroads, the Michigan Central Railroad, the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad, and the Detroit, Mackinac and Marquette Railroad, to operate a railroad car ferry across the Straits. Beginning in 1923, the State of Michigan operated automobile ferries between the two peninsulas. At the busiest times of year the wait was several hours long, much longer at holidays. In winter, travel was possible over the ice only after the straits had solidly frozen. Highways crosses the eastern portion of the Upper Peninsula from the Straits of Mackinac on the south to Sault Ste. Marie and the border with Canada on the north. There it connects with the Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge across to Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. crosses into Michigan from Wisconsin at Ironwood and runs east to Crystal Falls, where it dips back into Wisconsin. The highway crosses back into Michigan for a second time at Iron Mountain and runs east to its terminus at St. Ignace. enters the state from Wisconsin at Dickinson County's Norway township, crossing the Menominee River and proceeding north into the city of Norway where it ends at US 2. enters at Menominee and goes north to Copper Harbor. crosses into Michigan south of Watersmeet and ends in Ontonagon. enters the state south of Quinnesec. US 141 runs concurrently with US 2 through the Iron Mountain area and crosses back into Wisconsin. US 141 separates from US 2 at Crystal Falls and runs north to US 41 at Covington in Baraga County. runs from Wakefield east across the UP to south of Sault Ste. Marie. At in length, it is the state's longest trunkline with an M- prefix. runs from Menominee north to Negaunee. runs from Rockland north to Copper Harbor. runs from St. Ignace north and then makes a southward U-turn before terminating at Newberry. The U.S. Forest Service and Federal Highway Administration have designated certain roads within the several National Forests in the UP as Federal Forest Highways. State-maintained highways closest to the Upper Peninsula's Great Lakes shorelines are marked by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) with signs indicating that they are part of the Great Lakes Circle Tour, a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. MDOT has also designated five UP highways as Pure Michigan Byways for their historic, recreational or scenic qualities. They are: US 2 in Iron County (Iron County Heritage Trail) and in Schoolcraft and Mackinac counties (Top of the Lake Scenic Byway), US 41 from Houghton to Copper Harbor (Copper County Trail, also a National Scenic Byway), M-35 (UP Hidden Coast Recreational Heritage Trail), M-123 (Tahquamenon Scenic Heritage Route) and M-134 (M-134 North Huron Byway) Airports There are 43 airports in the Upper Peninsula. Of these, six airports have commercial passenger service: Gogebic-Iron County Airport north of Ironwood, Houghton County Memorial Airport southwest of Calumet, Ford Airport west of Iron Mountain, Sawyer International Airport south of Marquette, Delta County Airport in Escanaba, and Chippewa County International Airport south of Sault Ste. Marie. There are 19 other public use airports with a hard surface runway. These are used for general aviation and charter. Notably, Mackinac Island, Beaver Island, and Drummond Island are all accessible by airports. There are five public access airports with turf runways and thirteen airports for the private use of their owners. There is only one control tower in the Upper Peninsula, at Sawyer. Ferries and bridges The Eastern Upper Peninsula Transportation Authority operates car ferries in its area. These include ferries for Sugar Island, Neebish Island, and Drummond Island. Two ferry companies run passenger ferries from St. Ignace to Mackinac Island. The three major bridges in the Upper Peninsula are: Mackinac Bridge, connecting the Lower Peninsula of Michigan with the Upper; Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge, which connects the city of Sault Ste. Marie to its twin city of Sault Ste. Marie in Canada; and Portage Lift Bridge, which crosses Portage Lake. The Portage Lift Bridge is the world's heaviest and widest double-decked vertical lift bridge. Its center span lifts to provide about of clearance for ships. Since rail traffic was discontinued in the Keweenaw, the lower deck is used to accommodate snowmobile traffic in the winter. As the only land-based link between the north and south sections of the Keweenaw Peninsula, the bridge is crucial to transportation. Railways Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad: Transports iron ore over a line from the Empire-Tilden Mine (operated by Cleveland-Cliffs Inc.), south of Ishpeming and Negaunee, to Marquette's port on Lake Superior. Two railroads originally crossed the Upper Peninsula east to west: the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railway, informally known as the Soo Line, running west from Sault Ste. Marie roughly along the Lake Michigan shore, and the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railroad running west from St. Ignace roughly along the Lake Superior shore. In 1960, both railroads were merged into the Soo Line Railroad, the U.S. arm of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The Soo Line trackage in the Upper Peninsula was purchased by the Wisconsin Central Railroad in 1987. In 1997, the Wisconsin Central also purchased from the Union Pacific Railroad the former Chicago and North Western Railway line running into the Upper Peninsula from Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Central was in turn purchased by the Canadian National Railway in 2001. The Canadian National now operates much of the remaining railroad trackage in the Upper Peninsula. Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad: Chartered in 1898, the E&LS is an industrial beltline railroad with of trackage connecting Escanaba, Ontonagon, Republic, and Green Bay, Wisconsin, with a common junction at Channing, and a spur to Nestoria from Sidnaw. Bus systems Despite its rural character, there are public buses in several counties of the Upper Peninsula. Education The Upper Peninsula of Michigan has three state universities (Lake Superior State University in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan Technological University in Houghton, and Northern Michigan University in Marquette), one private university (Finlandia University located in Hancock, Michigan, on the Keweenaw Peninsula), and five community colleges (Bay Mills Community College in Brimley, Bay de Noc Community College in Escanaba and Iron Mountain, Gogebic Community College in Ironwood, and Keweenaw Bay Ojibwa Community College in Baraga). Culture Early settlers included multiple waves of people from Nordic countries, and people of Finnish ancestry make up 16% of the peninsula's population; the UP is home to the highest concentration of Finns outside Europe and the only counties of the United States where a plurality of residents claim Finnish ancestry. The Finnish sauna and the concept of sisu have been adopted widely by residents of the Upper Peninsula. The television program Finland Calling was for a long period the only Finnish-language television broadcast in the United States; it aired on Marquette station WLUC-TV from March 25, 1962, until March 29, 2015. Finlandia University, America's only college with Finnish roots, is located in Hancock. Street signs in Hancock appear in English and Finnish to celebrate this heritage. Other sizable ethnic communities in the Upper Peninsula include French-Canadian, German, Cornish, Italian, and Ojibwe ancestry. Upper Peninsula natives speak a dialect influenced by Scandinavian and French-Canadian speech. A popular bumper sticker, a parody of the "Say YES to Michigan" slogan promoted by state tourism officials, shows an outline of the Upper Peninsula and the slogan, "Say ya to da UP, eh!" The dialect and culture are captured in many songs by Da Yoopers, a comedy music and skit troupe from Ishpeming, Michigan. Throughout the Upper Peninsula, there are newspapers, such as The Daily News in Iron Mountain, The Menominee County Journal in Stephenson, The Daily Mining Gazette in Houghton, The Daily Press in Escanaba, and the Sault Ste. Marie Evening News that serve the rest of the UP The Mining Journal, based in Marquette, is the only daily newspaper that publishes a Sunday edition, which is distributed, with the exception of Chippewa and eastern Mackinac counties, across the entire UP (the other six days are distributed in its local area only). The Keweenaw Peninsula is home to several ski areas. Mont Ripley, just outside Houghton, is popular among students of Michigan Technological University (the university actually owns the mountain). Further up the peninsula in the small town of Lac La Belle is Mt. Bohemia. A skiing purist's resort, Bohemia is a self-proclaimed "experts only" mountain, and it does not groom its heavily gladed slopes. Other ski areas are Pine Mountain located in Iron Mountain, Norway Mountain in the town of the same name, and the Porcupine Mountains located in Ontonagon. Houghton is where professional ice hockey was first started in 1904. Regional identity Today, the western Upper Peninsula is home to about 173,887 people, while the eastern Upper Peninsula is home to about 133,499 people, a total of 307,386—only about 3% of the state's population—living in almost one-third of the state's land area. Residents are known as Yoopers (from "UP-ers"), and many consider themselves Yoopers before they consider themselves Michiganders. (People living in the Lower Peninsula are commonly called "trolls" by Upper Peninsula residents, as they live "Under the Bridge".) This regionalism is not only a result of the physical separation of the two peninsulas, but also the history of the state. Residents of the western Upper Peninsula take on some of the cultural identities of both Wisconsin and Michigan. In terms of sports fandom, residents may support Detroit professional teams or those of Wisconsin—particularly the Green Bay Packers. This is a result of both proximity and the broadcast and print media of the area. The four counties that border Wisconsin are also in the Central Time Zone, unlike the rest of Michigan, which is on Eastern time. In some cases, commercial cartographers draw incorrect maps that inadvertently annex the Upper Peninsula into Wisconsin. Cuisine The Upper Peninsula has a distinctive local cuisine. The pasty (pronounced "pass-tee"), a kind of meat turnover originally brought to the region by Cornish miners, is popular among locals and tourists alike. Pasty varieties include chicken, venison, pork, hamburger, and pizza, all of which many restaurants serve. Many restaurants serve potato sausage and cudighi, a spicy Italian meat. Finnish immigrants contributed nisu, a cardamom-flavored sweet bread; limppu, an Eastern Finnish rye bread; pannukakku, a variant on the pancake with a custard flavor; viili (sometimes spelled "fellia"), a stretchy, fermented Finnish milk; and korppu, hard slices of toasted cinnamon bread, traditionally dipped in coffee. Some Finnish foods such as juusto (squeaky cheese, essentially a cheese curd, like Leipäjuusto) and saunamakkara (a ring-bologna sausage) have become so ubiquitous in Upper Peninsula cuisine that they are now commonly found in most grocery stores and supermarkets. Maple syrup is a highly prized local delicacy. Fresh Great Lakes fish, such as the lake trout, whitefish, and (in the spring) smelt are widely eaten. There is minimal concern about contamination of fish from Lake Superior waters. Smoked fish is also popular. Thimbleberry jam and chokecherry jelly are a treat. Notable people Robert J. Flaherty, the filmmaker who directed and produced the documentary Nanook of the North, in 1922, from Iron Mountain. George Gipp, the "Gipper"—immortalized in the film Knute Rockne, All American—was born in Laurium. He was the first All-American player of the Notre Dame football program. Crystal Hayes, 2005 Miss Michigan, from Rock. Tom Izzo, Michigan State basketball coach a native of Iron Mountain, attended Northern Michigan University. Clarence L. "Kelly" Johnson, aircraft engineer and aeronautical innovator, was born in Ishpeming. John Lautner, one of Frank Lloyd Wright's most successful Taliesin fellows, a native of Marquette and alumnus of NMU. Mitchell Leisen, film director, was born Menominee in 1898. Steve Mariucci, former San Francisco 49ers and Detroit Lions head coach; a native of Iron Mountain, attended Northern Michigan University. Terry O'Quinn, actor on Lost, was born in Sault Ste. Marie in 1952 and grew up in Newberry. Chase Osborn was the only Governor of Michigan from the Upper Peninsula (1911–1913). Pam Reed, ultrarunner, grew up in Palmer, and graduated from Michigan Technological University. Gene Ronzani was a professional football running back for the Chicago Bears and head coach of the Green Bay Packers from 1950 to 1953; born in Iron Mountain. Rob Rubick, Detroit Lions tight end and current Fox Sports Detroit analyst, from Newberry. Glenn T. Seaborg, a Nobel Prize-winning chemist and major contributor in the discovery of several of the transuranium elements, was born in Ishpeming. Howard Schultz, chairman of Starbucks Co., a Northern Michigan University alumnus. Mike Shaw, professional wrestler, was born in Skandia. Matthew Songer, founder of Pioneer Surgical Technology, lives in Marquette. Mary Chase Perry Stratton, founder of Pewabic Pottery, was born in Hancock. Lou Thesz, professional wrestler who held the NWA World Heavyweight Championship longer than anyone in history, was born in Banat, on April 24, 1916. James Tolkan, an actor who appeared in Back to the Future and Top Gun, born in Calumet. John D. Voelker, Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court, wrote the best-selling book Anatomy of a Murder under the pen name Robert Traver. Directed by Otto Preminger, the film was shot in Big Bay and Ishpeming with some courtroom scenes in Marquette. Bill Ivey, the former head of the National Endowment for the Arts under the Clinton Administration was born in Calumet. Nick Baumgartner, Olympic gold medalist in mixed snowboard cross at the 2022 Winter Olympics, is from Iron River. See also List of counties in Michigan Heikki Lunta, mythological character Stormy Kromer cap Notes References Further reading 113 pages. 376 pages. 270 pages. External links Upper Peninsula of Michigan Travel Western Upper Peninsula of Michigan Regions of Michigan

Ulfilas (–383), also known as Ulphilas and Orphila, all Latinized forms of the unattested Gothic form *𐍅𐌿𐌻𐍆𐌹𐌻𐌰 Wulfila, literally "Little Wolf", was a Goth of Cappadocian Greek descent who served as a bishop and missionary, is credited with the translation of the Bible into Gothic, and participated in the Arian controversy. He developed the Gothic alphabet – inventing a writing system based on the Greek alphabet – in order for the Bible to be translated into the Gothic language. Although traditionally the translation of the Bible into the Gothic language has been ascribed to Ulfilas, analysis of the text of the Gothic Bible indicates the involvement of a team of translators, possibly under his supervision. Biography Ulfilas's parents were of non-Gothic descent. Ulfila may have spoken some Greek in his own family circle, since they were of Greek origin, he is likely to have been able to draw on formal education in both Latin and Greek in creating Gothic as a literary language. Philostorgius, to whom we are indebted for much important information about Ulfilas, was a Cappadocian. He knew that the ancestors of Ulfilas had also come from Cappadocia, a region with which the Gothic community had always maintained close ties. Ulfilas's parents were captured by plundering Goths in the village of Sadagolthina in the city district of Parnassus (near modern-day Şereflikoçhisar) and were carried off to Transdanubia (the Gothic-held lands north of the Danube in and around modern Muntenia). This supposedly took place in 264. Raised as a Goth, he later became proficient in both Greek and Latin. Ulfilas converted many among the Goths and preached Arianism, which, when they reached the western Mediterranean, set them apart from their orthodox neighbours and subjects. Ulfilas was ordained a bishop by Eusebius of Nicomedia and returned to his people to work as a missionary. In 348, after seven years as missionary, Ulfila was expelled from the Gothic region in order to escape religious persecution by a Gothic chief, probably Athanaric. This incident can certainly have a political nuance, probably the Goth saw Ulfilas's activity as a form of Roman infiltration. Ulfilas obtained permission from Constantius II to migrate with his flock of converts from Northern Danube to Moesia and settle near Nicopolis ad Istrum in modern northern Bulgaria. There, Ulfilas devised the Gothic alphabet and presided over the translation of the Bible from Greek into the Gothic language, which was performed by a group of translators. Fragments of the Gothic Bible translation have survived, notably the Codex Argenteus held since 1648 in the University Library of Uppsala in Sweden. A parchment page of this Bible was found in 1971 in the Speyer Cathedral. Historical sources There are five primary sources for the study of Ulfilas's life. Two are by Arian authors, three by Imperial Roman Church (Nicene Christianity) authors. Arian sources Life of Ulphilas in the Letter of Auxentius Remaining fragments of Historia Ecclesiastica by Philostorgius Nicene Christianity sources Historia Ecclesiastica by Sozomen Historia Ecclesiastica by Socrates Scholasticus Historia Ecclesiastica by Theodoret There are significant differences between the stories presented by the two camps. The Arian sources depict Ulfilas as an Arian from childhood. He was then consecrated as a bishop around 340 and evangelized among the Goths for seven years during the 340s. He then moved to Moesia (within the Roman Empire) under the protection of the Arian Emperor Constantius II. He later attended several councils and engaged in continuing religious debate. His death is dated from 383. The accounts by the Imperial Church historians differ in several details, but the general picture is similar. According to them, Ulfilas was an orthodox Christian for most of his early life and converted to Arianism only around 360 because of political pressure from the pro-Arian ecclesiastical and governmental powers. The sources differ in how much they credit Ulfilas with the conversion of the Goths. Socrates Scholasticus gives Ulfilas a minor role and instead attributes the mass conversion to the Gothic chieftain Fritigern, who adopted Arianism out of gratitude for the military support of the Arian emperor. Sozomen attributes the mass conversion primarily to Ulfilas but also acknowledges the role of Fritigern. For several reasons, modern scholars depend more heavily on the Arian accounts than the Imperial Church accounts. Auxentius was clearly the closest to Ulfilas and so presumably had access to more reliable information. The Nicene accounts differ too widely among themselves to present a unified case. Debate continues as to the best reconstruction of Ulfilas's life. Creed of Ulfilas The Creed of Ulfilas concludes a letter praising him written by his foster son and pupil Auxentius of Durostorum. It distinguishes God the Father ("unbegotten") from God the Son ("only-begotten"), who was begotten before time and created the world, and the Holy Spirit, proceeding from the Father and the Son: I, Ulfila, bishop and confessor, have always so believed, and in this, the one true faith, I make the journey to my Lord; I believe in one God the Father, the only unbegotten and invisible, and in his only-begotten son, our Lord and God, the designer and maker of all creation, having none other like him (so that one alone among all beings is God the Father, who is also the God of our God); and in one Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, as Christ said after his resurrection to his apostles: "And behold, I send the promise of my Father upon you; but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be clothed with power from on high" (Luke 24:49) and again "But ye shall receive power, when the Holy Ghost is come upon you" (Acts 1:8); being neither God (the Father) nor our God (Christ), but the minister of Christ... subject and obedient in all things to the Son; and the Son, subject and obedient in all things to God who is his Father... (whom) he ordained in the Holy Spirit through his Christ. Maximinus, a 5th-century Arian theologian, copied Auxentius's letter, among other works, into the margins of one copy of Ambrose's De Fide; there are some gaps in the surviving text. Honours Wulfila Glacier on Greenwich Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Bishop Ulfilas. See also Mardonius Gothic Bible Gothic Christianity Germanic Christianity Notes and references Bibliography H. C. von Gabelentz, J. Loebe, Ulfilas: Veteris et Novi Testamenti Versionis Gothicae fragmenta quae supersunt, Leipzig, Libraria Schnuphasiana, 1843. Carla Falluomini, The Gothic Version of the Gospels and Pauline Epistles. Cultural Background, Transmission and Character, Berlino, Walter de Gruyter, 2015 (Capitolo 1: "Wulfila and his context", pp. 4–24.) Peter J. Heather, John Matthews, The Goths in the Fourth Century, Liverpool University Press, 1991 (with the translations of selected texts: Chapter 5. The Life and Work of Ulfila, 124; 6. The Gothic Bible 145; 7. Selections from the Gothic Bible 163-185). External links Jim Marchand's translation on Auxentius' letter on Ulfilas' career and beliefs, with Latin text Project Wulfila Gothic fonts after Ulfilas Ulfilas, the Apostle of the Goths by Charles A. Anderson Scott in BTM format Arian bishops 4th-century Gothic bishops 4th-century Christian theologians Bible translators Creators of writing systems 310 births 383 deaths Gothic Bible 4th-century translators

The Unidad de Valor Constante (UVC) was a currency created by the "Ley de Valores" of Ecuador in 1993, and abolished with dollarization in the presidency of Jamil Mahuad on January 9, 2000. It was meant to help deal with the high levels of inflation experienced under the sucre. The 1 UVC was specified at its introduction (May 28, 1993) to equal 10,000 sucres. Its value was adjusted daily by the "Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos" (INEC) in line with the rate of inflation. It had the ISO 4217 currency code ECV. Currencies of Ecuador Modern obsolete currencies

Ursula Southeil (; also variously spelt as Ursula Southill, Ursula Soothtell or Ursula Sontheil), popularly known as Mother Shipton, is said to have been an English soothsayer and prophetess. She has sometimes been described as a witch and is associated with folklore involving the origin of the Rollright Stones of Oxfordshire, reportedly a king and his men transformed to stone after failing her test. William Camden reported an account of this in a rhyming version in 1610. The first known edition of her prophecies was printed in 1641, eighty years after her reported death. This timing suggests that what was published was a legendary or mythical account. It contained numerous mainly regional predictions and only two prophetic verses. One of the most notable editions of her prophecies was published in 1684. It gave her birthplace as Knaresborough, Yorkshire, in a cave now known as Mother Shipton's Cave. The book reputed Shipton to be hideously ugly, and that she had married Toby Shipton, a local carpenter, near York in 1512, and told fortunes and made predictions throughout her life. Personal life Mother Shipton was born Ursula Sontheil, in 1488 to the 15 year-old Agatha Soothtale, in a cave in North Yorkshire outside of the town Knaresborough. The earliest sources of the legends of her birth and life were collected in 1667 by author and biographer Richard Head and later by J. Conyers in 1686. Both sources - 1667 and 1686 - state that Shipton was born during a violent thunderstorm, and was deformed and ugly, born with a hunchback and bulging eyes. The sources also state that Shipton cackled instead of crying after having been born, and as she did so, the previously raging storms ceased. The sources report Ursula's mother Agatha as a poor and desolate 15 year-old orphan, left with no means to support herself; having fallen under the influences of the Devil, Agatha engaged in an affair, resulting in the birth of Ursula. Variations of this legend claim Agatha herself was a witch and summoned the Devil to conceive a child. The true origin of Ursula's father is unknown, with Agatha refusing to reveal him; at one point, Agatha was forcibly brought before the local magistrate, but still refused to disclose his identity. The scandalous nature of Agatha's life and Ursula's birth meant the two were ostracized from society and forced to live alone, in the same cave Ursula was born, for the first two years of Ursula's life. Rumors that Agatha was a witch and Ursula the spawn of Satan were perpetuated, due to the cave's well-known skull shaped pool, which turned things to stone. The cave is known today as Mother Shipton's Cave; though the effects of the cave's pool are not those of true petrification, they closely resemble the process by which stalactites are formed, coating objects left in the cave with layers of minerals, and in essence hardening porous objects until they become hard and stone-like. According to 17th century sources, after two years living alone in the Forest of Knaresborough, the Abbot of Beverley intervened. The Abbot removed them from the cave and secured Agatha a place in the Convent of the order of St. Bridget in Nottinghamshire, and Ursula a foster family in Knaresborough. Agatha and Ursula would never see each other again. Developed from contemporary descriptions and depictions of her, it is likely Ursula had a large crooked nose and suffered from a hunchback and crooked legs. Physical differences acted as a visual reminder of the secretive events of her birth and the townspeople never forgot. She found acceptance with her foster family and a few friends, but Ursula was ultimately ostracized from the larger portion of people in town. She found sanctuary in the woods like her mother had and spent most of her childhood learning of plants and herbs and the medicinal properties of them. Legends of her childhood It was claimed that when Ursula was only two years old, her foster mother left the house to run errands and left Ursula home alone. The foster mother returned to find the front door wide open. Afraid of what might still be in the house, she called her neighbors to come help, and they heard loud wailing, like "a thousand cats in consort" throughout the house. Ursula's cradle was found empty. After a frantic search throughout the house, her foster mother looked up to see Ursula naked and cackling, perched on top of the iron bar where the pot hooks were fastened above the fireplace. The source dating to 1686 tells of an event where all the chief members of the Parish were gathered together having a meeting. At one point during the meeting Ursula walked past running an errand for her mother. The men stopped to mock her, calling out "hag face" and "The Devil's bastard". Ursula kept walking to continue her errands but as the men sat down to their meeting, the ruff on the neck of one of the principal yeomen transformed and a toilet seat clapped down around his neck. The man next to him began to laugh, and as he did the hat he was wearing was suddenly replaced with a chamber pot. The gathered members of the parish began to laugh loudly enough that the Master of the house came running to see what was happening; when he tried to run through the door, he found himself blocked by a large pair of horns that had grown suddenly from his head. The source reports that the strange occurrences were reverted to normal relatively quickly, and that the townspeople took them as a sign not to publicly mock Ursula. Adulthood As Ursula grew so did her knowledge of plants and herbs and she became an invaluable resource for the townspeople as a herbalist. The respect she earned from her work gave her the opportunity to expand her social circle and it was then she met the local carpenter Toby Shipton. When Ursula was 24 years old she and Toby Shipton were married. From this point on Ursula adopted her husband's surname and became Mother Shipton. The people in town were shocked at their union and whispered of how he must have been bewitched to marry her. About a month into her marriage a neighbour came to the door and asked for her help, saying she had left her door open and a thief had come in and stole a new smock and petticoat. Without hesitation Mother Shipton calmed her neighbor and said she knew exactly who stole the clothing and would retrieve it the next day. The next morning Mother Shipton and her neighbour went to the Market-cross. The woman who had stolen the clothing couldn't stop herself from putting the smock on over her clothes, the petticoat in her hand, and marching through town. When she arrived at the Market-cross she began dancing and danced straight for Mother Shipton and her neighbour all the while singing "I stole my Neighbours Smock and Coat, I am a Thief, and here I show't." When she reached Mother Shipton she took off the smock, handed it over, curtsied, and left. Two years later, in 1514, Toby Shipton died, and the town believed Ursula to have been responsible for his death. The grief of losing her husband and the harsh words of the town prompted Ursula Shipton to move into the woods, and the same cave she had been born in, for peace. Here she continued to create potions and herbal remedies for people. Mother Shipton's name slowly became more and more well known, and people would travel far distances to see her and receive potions and spells. As her popularity grew she grew bolder and revealed she could see the future. She started by making small prophecies involving her town and the people within, and as her prophecies came true she began telling prophecies of the monarchy and the future of the world. In 1537 King Henry VIII wrote a letter to the Duke of Norfolk where he mentions a "witch of York", believed by some to be a reference to Shipton. Prophecies "Water shall come over Ouse Bridge, and a windmill shall be set upon a Tower, and a Elm Tree shall lie at every man’s door".The River Ouse was the river next to York, and Ouse Bridge was the bridge over the river. This prophecy meant nothing to the people of York until the town got a piped water system. The system brought water across Ouse Bridge in pipes to a windmill that drew up the water into the pipes. The pipes they used were made out of Elm trees and the pipes came to every man's door delivering water throughout the town."Before Ouse Bridge and Trinity Church meet, what is built in the day shall fall in the night, till the highest stone in the church be the lowest stone of the bridge."Not long after Mother Shipton uttered this prophecy did a huge storm fall on York. During the storm the steeple on the top of Trinity Church fell and a portion of the Ouse Bridge was destroyed and swept away by the river. Later when making repairs to the bridge, pieces that had previously been the steeple of the church were used as the foundation of the new section of the bridge. Effectively making Trinity Church and the Ouse Bridge what was built in the day and fell in the night, and the steeple from Trinity church, the highest stone, be the foundation of the bridge, the lowest stone of the bridge. Prophecy of Henry the Eighth "When the cow doth ride the bull, then, priest, beware the skull. And when the lower shrubs do fall, the great trees quickly follow shall. The mitered peacock's lofty cry shall to his master be a guide. And one great court to pass shall bring what was never done by any king. The poor shall grieve to see that day and who did feast must fast and pray. Fate so decreed their overthrow, riches brought pride, and pride brought woe"."When the cow doth ride the bull, then, priest, beware the skull."Often when Mother Shipton would have visions of specific people she wouldn't see faces or names, but their family heraldry. The cow mentioned represents the heraldry of Henry VIII, and the bull similarly represents Anne Boleyn. Mother Shipton is marking the beginning of her prophecy to the marriage of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Once they are wed the priests need to beware. This is because their marriage marks the beginning of the Dissolution of Monasteries, where King Henry VIII demobilized all monasteries, priories, and convents in England. Many priests, both religious and secular, lost their lives for pressing against the laws made to limit the Catholic Church's power."The mitered peacock's lofty cry shall to his master be a guide."In late 15th century and early 16th century England, King Henry VIII was not the controlling force behind all policies and matters of state. The man who was the controlling figure in matters of state was the King's chief advisor Thomas Wolsey. Thomas Wolsey was the son of a butcher, who rose up and became Chancellor, and then a Cardinal of the Catholic Church. He was the King's chief advisor and a controlling figure in all matters of state, and Henry VIII's policies. Wolsey was even often depicted as an alter rex (other king) because his influence was so absolute in both political and religious spheres. In her prophecy Mother Shipton refers to him as a "mitered peacock". as he came from the lowly state of being the son of a butcher to controlling and guiding King Henry VII and all his policies for England."And one great court to pass shall bring what was never done by any king. "This portion of the prophecy refers to King Henry VIII seizing power from the Catholic Church and his creation of the Church of England, which had never been done by any king before."The poor shall grieve to see that day and who did feast must fast and pray. Fate so decreed their overthrow, riches brought pride, and pride brought woe".King Henry VIII wanted to take control of all the land and property owned by the Catholic Church. He believed the governing bodies, heads of monasteries, were corrupted. When he seized these resources the money going into these institutions stopped. The monks had so much wealth before the seizure, and then it was all taken away and they no longer had all the wealth and luxury as before. The poor were ultimately the ones that suffered though because the monasteries that were feeding and giving alms to the poor either no longer had the resources to do so, or they kept any resources they had for the monastery. Mother Shipton then says this fall of the church was inevitable; as the church became more wealthy they became more prideful. They had become a threat of power over the country and it was this that ultimately led to their downfall. Prophecy of the end of times The most famous claimed edition of Mother Shipton's prophecies foretells many modern events and phenomena. Widely quoted today as if it were the original, it contains over a hundred prophetic rhymed couplets. But the language is notably non-16th-century. This edition includes the now-famous lines:The world to an end shall come In eighteen hundred and eighty one. This version was not published until 1862. More than a decade later, its true author, Charles Hindley, admitted in print that he had created the manuscript. This fictional prophecy was published over the years with different dates and in (or about) several countries. The booklet The Life and Prophecies of Ursula Sontheil better known as Mother Shipton (1920s, and repeatedly reprinted) predicted the world would end in 1991. (In the late 1970s, many news articles were published about Mother Shipton and her prophecy that the world would end - these accounts said it would occur in 1981). Among other well-known lines from Hindley's fictional version (often quoted as if they were original) are: <blockquote> <poem> A Carriage without a horse shall go;Disaster fill the world with woe... In water iron then shall float,As easy as a wooden boat.</poem></blockquote> Historicity Based on contemporary references to her and countless resources detailing the events of her life, historians believe Mother Shipton was a real woman, born in 1488 to an orphan fifteen-year-old girl named Agatha Soothtale in a cave in North Yorkshire outside of the town Knaresborough. Based on how every contemporary record of her from the time references her appearance, she probably suffered from a hunchback and a large crooked nose, although much else regarding her appearance is conjecture. She made potions, herbal remedies, cast spells, and prophesied the future. In reference to her existence, in 1537 Yorkshire, while Catholic people were rebelling against the dissolution of Catholic monasteries, Henry VIII wrote a letter to the Duke of Norfolk where he refers to a "witch of York."  It is believed that this letter is the earliest reference to the real Mother Shipton who would have been prophesying about Henry VIII at this time. In 1666 Samuel Pepys recorded in his diaries that, whilst surveying the damage to London caused by the 1666 Great Fire in the company of the Royal Family, he heard them discuss Mother Shipton's prophecy of the event. The earliest account of Mother Shipton's prophecies was published in 1641, eighty years after her death. The story goes that the document of Mother Shipton's life was recorded by a woman named Joanne Walker who heard the story as a young girl and transcribed it as Mother Shipton spoke of her life. Mother Shipton never wrote anything down or published anything during her lifetime. The cave where she lived is known as England's oldest tourist attraction and for hundreds of years people have trekked to see the cave where she was born. This cave's water has a mineral content so high anything placed in the pool will slowly be covered in layers of stone. Tourists will place items in the pool to later return and see it turned to stone. It is assumed that many of her prophecies were never written down, and many legends and prophecies accredited to her were created after her death to enhance the folk legend she had become. Legacy The figure of Mother Shipton accumulated considerable folklore and legendary status. Her name became associated with many tragic events and strange goings-on recorded in the UK, North America and Australia throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Many fortune tellers used her effigy and statue, presumably for purposes of association marketing. Many English pubs were named after her. Only two survive, one near her purported birthplace in Knaresborough and the other in Portsmouth. The latter has a statue of her above the door. A caricature of Mother Shipton was used in early pantomime. Her appearance in pantomime was mentioned in a song from Yorkshire that was transcribed in the 18th century, and which reads (in part): “Of all the pretty pantomimes/ That have been seen or sung in rhimes,/Since famous Johnny Rich's times,/There's none like Mother Shipton.” The Mother Shipton moth (Callistege mi) is named after her. Each wing's pattern resembles a hag's head in profile. A fundraising campaign was started in 2013 to raise £35,000 to erect a statue of Shipton in Knaresborough. Completed in October 2017, the statue sits on a bench in the town's Market Square close to a statue of John Metcalf, an 18th-century road engineer known as Blind Jack. Mother Shipton is referred to in Daniel Defoe's Journal of the Plague Year'' (1722), referring to the year 1665, when the bubonic plague erupted in London: "These terrors and apprehensions of the people led them into a thousand weak, foolish, and wicked things, which they wanted not a sort of people really wicked to encourage them to: and this was running about to fortune-tellers, cunning-men, and astrologers to know their fortune, or, as it is vulgarly expressed, to have their fortunes told them, their nativities calculated, and the like... And this trade grew so open and so generally practised that it became common to have signs and inscriptions set up at doors: 'Here lives a fortune-teller', 'Here lives an astrologer', 'Here you may have your nativity calculated', and the like; and Friar Bacon's brazen-head, which was the usual sign of these people's dwellings, was to be seen almost in every street, or else the sign of Mother Shipton...." See also 2012 Doomsday prediction Notes References External links Mother Shipton's Cave and Dropping Well Mother Shipton, Her Life and Prophecies, Mysterious Britain & Ireland 1488 births 1561 deaths 15th-century English people 15th-century English women 16th-century English women Legendary English people English psychics People from Knaresborough Prophets Women mystics

In mathematics, a function f is uniformly continuous if, roughly speaking, it is possible to guarantee that f(x) and f(y) be as close to each other as we please by requiring only that x and y be sufficiently close to each other; unlike ordinary continuity, where the maximum distance between f(x) and f(y) may depend on x and y themselves. Continuous functions can fail to be uniformly continuous if they are unbounded on a bounded domain, such as on (0,1), or if their slopes become unbounded on an infinite domain, such as on the real line. However, any Lipschitz map between metric spaces is uniformly continuous, in particular any isometry (distance-preserving map). Although ordinary continuity can be defined for functions between general topological spaces, defining uniform continuity requires more structure. The concept relies on comparing the sizes of neighbourhoods of distinct points, so it requires a metric space, or more generally a uniform space. Definition for functions on metric spaces Given metric spaces and , a function is called uniformly continuous if for every real number there exists real such that for every with , we have that . If X and Y are subsets of the real line, d1 and d2 can be the standard one-dimensional Euclidean distance, yielding the definition: for all there exists a such that for all . The difference between uniform continuity, versus ordinary continuity at every point, is that in uniform continuity the value of depends only on and not on the point in the domain. Local continuity versus global uniform continuity Continuity itself is a local property of a function—that is, a function f is continuous, or not, at a particular point, and this can be determined by looking only at the values of the function in an (arbitrarily small) neighbourhood of that point. When we speak of a function being continuous on an interval, we mean only that it is continuous at each point of the interval. In contrast, uniform continuity is a global property of f, in the sense that the standard definition refers to pairs of points rather than individual points. On the other hand, it is possible to give a definition that is local in terms of the natural extension f* (the characteristics of which at nonstandard points are determined by the global properties of f), although it is not possible to give a local definition of uniform continuity for an arbitrary hyperreal-valued function, see below. The mathematical statements that a function is continuous on an interval I and the definition that a function is uniformly continuous on the same interval are structurally very similar. Continuity of a function for every point x of an interval can thus be expressed by a formula starting with the quantification whereas for uniform continuity, the order of the first, second, and third quantifiers are rotated: Thus for continuity at each point, one takes an arbitrary point x, and then there must exist a distance δ, while for uniform continuity a single δ must work uniformly for all points x (and y): Examples and counterexamples Every Lipschitz continuous map between two metric spaces is uniformly continuous. In particular, every function which is differentiable and has bounded derivative is uniformly continuous. More generally, every Hölder continuous function is uniformly continuous. Despite being nowhere differentiable, the Weierstrass function is uniformly continuous Every member of a uniformly equicontinuous set of functions is uniformly continuous. The tangent function is continuous on the interval (−π/2, π/2) but is not uniformly continuous on that interval. The exponential function x  ex is continuous everywhere on the real line but is not uniformly continuous on the line. Properties Every uniformly continuous function is continuous, but the converse does not hold. Consider for instance the function . Given an arbitrarily small positive real number , uniform continuity requires the existence of a positive number such that for all with , we have . But and for all sufficiently large x this quantity is greater than . Any absolutely continuous function is uniformly continuous. On the other hand, the Cantor function is uniformly continuous but not absolutely continuous. The image of a totally bounded subset under a uniformly continuous function is totally bounded. However, the image of a bounded subset of an arbitrary metric space under a uniformly continuous function need not be bounded: as a counterexample, consider the identity function from the integers endowed with the discrete metric to the integers endowed with the usual Euclidean metric. The Heine–Cantor theorem asserts that every continuous function on a compact set is uniformly continuous. In particular, if a function is continuous on a closed bounded interval of the real line, it is uniformly continuous on that interval. The Darboux integrability of continuous functions follows almost immediately from this theorem. If a real-valued function is continuous on and exists (and is finite), then is uniformly continuous. In particular, every element of , the space of continuous functions on that vanish at infinity, is uniformly continuous. This is a generalization of the Heine-Cantor theorem mentioned above, since . Visualization For a uniformly continuous function, there is for every given a such that two values and have a maximal distance whenever and do not differ for more than . Thus we can draw around each point of the graph a rectangle with height and width so that the graph lies completely inside the rectangle and not directly above or below. For functions that are not uniformly continuous, this isn't possible. The graph might lie inside the rectangle for certain midpoints on the graph but there are always midpoints of the rectangle on the graph where the function lies above or below the rectangle. History The first published definition of uniform continuity was by Heine in 1870, and in 1872 he published a proof that a continuous function on an open interval need not be uniformly continuous. The proofs are almost verbatim given by Dirichlet in his lectures on definite integrals in 1854. The definition of uniform continuity appears earlier in the work of Bolzano where he also proved that continuous functions on an open interval do not need to be uniformly continuous. In addition he also states that a continuous function on a closed interval is uniformly continuous, but he does not give a complete proof. Other characterisations Non-standard analysis In non-standard analysis, a real-valued function f of a real variable is microcontinuous at a point a precisely if the difference f*(a + δ) − f*(a) is infinitesimal whenever δ is infinitesimal. Thus f is continuous on a set A in R precisely if f* is microcontinuous at every real point a ∈ A. Uniform continuity can be expressed as the condition that (the natural extension of) f is microcontinuous not only at real points in A, but at all points in its non-standard counterpart (natural extension) *A in *R. Note that there exist hyperreal-valued functions which meet this criterion but are not uniformly continuous, as well as uniformly continuous hyperreal-valued functions which do not meet this criterion, however, such functions cannot be expressed in the form f* for any real-valued function f. (see non-standard calculus for more details and examples). Cauchy continuity For a function between metric spaces, uniform continuity implies Cauchy continuity . More specifically, let A be a subset of Rn. If a function f : A → Rm is uniformly continuous then for every pair of sequences xn and yn such that we have Relations with the extension problem Let X be a metric space, S a subset of X, R a complete metric space, and a continuous function. When can f be extended to a continuous function on all of X? If S is closed in X, the answer is given by the Tietze extension theorem: always. So it is necessary and sufficient to extend f to the closure of S in X: that is, we may assume without loss of generality that S is dense in X, and this has the further pleasant consequence that if the extension exists, it is unique. A sufficient condition for f to extend to a continuous function is that it is Cauchy-continuous, i.e., the image under f of a Cauchy sequence remains Cauchy. If X is complete (and thus the completion of S), then every continuous function from X to a metric space Y is Cauchy-continuous. Therefore when X is complete, f extends to a continuous function if and only if f is Cauchy-continuous. It is easy to see that every uniformly continuous function is Cauchy-continuous and thus extends to X. The converse does not hold, since the function is, as seen above, not uniformly continuous, but it is continuous and thus Cauchy continuous. In general, for functions defined on unbounded spaces like R, uniform continuity is a rather strong condition. It is desirable to have a weaker condition from which to deduce extendability. For example, suppose a > 1 is a real number. At the precalculus level, the function can be given a precise definition only for rational values of x (assuming the existence of qth roots of positive real numbers, an application of the Intermediate Value Theorem). One would like to extend f to a function defined on all of R. The identity shows that f is not uniformly continuous on the set Q of all rational numbers; however for any bounded interval I the restriction of f to is uniformly continuous, hence Cauchy-continuous, hence f extends to a continuous function on I. But since this holds for every I, there is then a unique extension of f to a continuous function on all of R. More generally, a continuous function whose restriction to every bounded subset of S is uniformly continuous is extendable to X, and the converse holds if X is locally compact. A typical application of the extendability of a uniformly continuous function is the proof of the inverse Fourier transformation formula. We first prove that the formula is true for test functions, there are densely many of them. We then extend the inverse map to the whole space using the fact that linear map is continuous; thus, uniformly continuous. Generalization to topological vector spaces In the special case of two topological vector spaces and , the notion of uniform continuity of a map becomes: for any neighborhood of zero in , there exists a neighborhood of zero in such that implies For linear transformations , uniform continuity is equivalent to continuity. This fact is frequently used implicitly in functional analysis to extend a linear map off a dense subspace of a Banach space. Generalization to uniform spaces Just as the most natural and general setting for continuity is topological spaces, the most natural and general setting for the study of uniform continuity are the uniform spaces. A function f : X → Y between uniform spaces is called uniformly continuous if for every entourage V in Y there exists an entourage U in X such that for every (x1, x2) in U we have (f(x1), f(x2)) in V. In this setting, it is also true that uniformly continuous maps transform Cauchy sequences into Cauchy sequences. Each compact Hausdorff space possesses exactly one uniform structure compatible with the topology. A consequence is a generalisation of the Heine-Cantor theorem: each continuous function from a compact Hausdorff space to a uniform space is uniformly continuous. See also References Further reading Chapter II is a comprehensive reference of uniform spaces. Continuous mappings Calculus Mathematical analysis General topology

Virgo is one of the constellations of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for maiden, and its old astronomical symbol is (♍︎). Lying between Leo to the west and Libra to the east, it is the second-largest constellation in the sky (after Hydra) and the largest constellation in the zodiac. The ecliptic intersects the celestial equator within this constellation and Pisces. Underlying these technical two definitions, the sun passes directly overhead of the equator, within this constellation, at the September equinox. Virgo can be easily found through its brightest star, Spica. Location Virgo is prominent in the spring sky in the northern hemisphere, visible all night in March and April. As the largest zodiac constellation, the Sun takes 44 days to pass through it, longer than any other. From 1990 and until 2062, this will take place from September 16 to October 30. It is located in the third quadrant of the southern hemisphere (SQ3) and can be seen at latitudes between +80° and -80°. The bright star Spica makes it easy to locate Virgo, as it can be found by following the curve of the Big Dipper/Plough to Arcturus in Boötes and continuing from there in the same curve ("follow the arc to Arcturus and speed on to Spica"). Due to the effects of precession, the First Point of Libra, (also known as the autumn equinox point) lies within the boundaries of Virgo very close to β Virginis. This is one of the two points in the sky where the celestial equator crosses the ecliptic (the other being the First Point of Aries, now in the constellation of Pisces). From the 18th century to the 4th century BC, the Sun was in Libra on the autumnal equinox, shifting into Virgo thereafter. This point will pass into the neighboring constellation of Leo around the year 2440. Features Stars Besides Spica, other bright stars in Virgo include β Virginis (Zavijava), γ Virginis (Porrima), δ Virginis (Auva) and ε Virginis (Vindemiatrix). Other fainter stars that were also given names are ζ Virginis (Heze), η Virginis (Zaniah), ι Virginis (Syrma), κ Virginis (Kang), λ Virginis (Khambalia) and φ Virginis (Elgafar). The star 70 Virginis has one of the first known extrasolar planetary systems with one confirmed planet 7.5 times the mass of Jupiter. The star Chi Virginis has one of the most massive planets ever detected, at a mass of 11.1 times that of Jupiter. The sun-like star 61 Virginis has three planets: one is a super-Earth and two are Neptune-mass planets. SS Virginis is a variable star with a noticeable red color. It varies in magnitude from a minimum of 9.6 to a maximum of 6.0 over a period of approximately one year. Exoplanets There are 35 verified exoplanets orbiting 29 stars in Virgo, including PSR B1257+12 (three planets), 70 Virginis (one planet), Chi Virginis (one planet), 61 Virginis (three planets), NY Virginis (two planets), and 59 Virginis (one planet). Deep-sky objects Because of the presence of a galaxy cluster (consequently called the Virgo Cluster) within its borders 5° to 12° west of ε Vir (Vindemiatrix), this constellation is especially rich in galaxies. Some examples are Messier 49 (elliptical), Messier 58 (spiral), Messier 59 (elliptical), Messier 60 (elliptical), Messier 61 (spiral), Messier 84 (lenticular), Messier 86 (lenticular), Messier 87 (elliptical and a famous radio source), Messier 89 (elliptical) and Messier 90 (spiral). A noted galaxy that is not part of the cluster is the Sombrero Galaxy (M104), an unusual spiral galaxy. It is located about 10° due west of Spica. NGC 4639 is a face-on barred spiral galaxy located from Earth (redshift 0.0034). Its outer arms have a high number of Cepheid variables, which are used as standard candles to determine astronomical distances. Because of this, astronomers used several Cepheid variables in NGC 4639 to calibrate type 1a supernovae as standard candles for more distant galaxies. Virgo possesses several galaxy clusters, one of which is HCG 62. A Hickson Compact Group, HCG 62 is at a distance of from Earth (redshift 0.0137) and possesses a large central elliptical galaxy. It has a heterogeneous halo of extremely hot gas, posited to be due to the active galactic nucleus at the core of the central elliptical galaxy. M87 is the largest galaxy in the Virgo cluster, and is at a distance of from Earth (redshift 0.0035). It is a major radio source, partially due to its jet of electrons being flung out of the galaxy by its central supermassive black hole. Because this jet is visible in several different wavelengths, it is of interest to astronomers who wish to observe black holes in a unique galaxy. On April 10, 2019, astronomers from the Event Horizon Telescope project released an image of its central black hole; the first direct image of one. With a mass of at least 7.2 billion times that of the Sun, it is the most massive black hole within the immediate vicinity of the Milky Way. M84 is another elliptical radio galaxy in the constellation of Virgo; it is at a distance of (redshift 0.0035) as well. Astronomers have surmised that the speed of the gas clouds orbiting the core (approximately ) indicates the presence of an object with a mass 300 million times that of the sun, which is most likely a black hole. The Sombrero Galaxy, M104, is an edge-on spiral galaxy located 28 million light-years from Earth (redshift 0.0034). It has a bulge at its center made up of older stars that are larger than normal. It is surrounded by large, bright globular clusters and has a very prominent dust lane made up of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. NGC 4438 is a peculiar galaxy with an active galactic nucleus, at a distance of from Earth (redshift 0.0035). Its supermassive black hole is ejecting jets of matter, creating bubbles with a diameter of up to . NGC 4261 also has a black hole from its center with a mass of 1.2 billion solar masses. It is located at a distance of from Earth (redshift 0.0075), and has an unusually dusty disk with a diameter of . Along with M84 and M87, NGC 4261 has strong emissions in the radio spectrum. Virgo is also home to the quasar 3C 273 which was the first quasar ever to be identified. With a magnitude of ~12.9, it is also the optically brightest quasar in the sky. Mythology In the Babylonian MUL.APIN (c. 10th century BC), part of this constellation was known as "The Furrow", representing the goddess Shala and her ear of grain. One star in this constellation, Spica, retains this tradition as it is Latin for "ear of grain", one of the major products of the Mesopotamian furrow. For this reason the constellation became associated with fertility. The constellation of Virgo in Hipparchus corresponds to two Babylonian constellations: the "Furrow" in the eastern sector of Virgo and the "Frond of Erua" in the western sector. The Frond of Erua was depicted as a goddess holding a palm-frond – a motif that still occasionally appears in much later depictions of Virgo. Early Greek astronomy associated the Babylonian constellation with their goddess of wheat and agriculture, Demeter. The Romans associated it with their goddess Ceres. Alternatively, the constellation was sometimes identified as the virgin goddess Iustitia or Astraea, holding the scales of justice in her hand (that now are separated as the constellation Libra). Another Greek myth from later, Classical times, identifies Virgo as Erigone, the daughter of Icarius of Athens. Icarius, who had been favored by Dionysus and was killed by his shepherds while they were intoxicated after which Erigone hanged herself in grief; in versions of this myth, Dionysus is said to have placed the father and daughter in the stars as Boötes and Virgo respectively. Another figure who is associated with the constellation Virgo was the spring goddess Persephone, the daughter of Zeus and Demeter who had married Hades and resided in the Underworld during summer. In the Poeticon Astronomicon by Hyginus (1st century BC), Parthenos () is the daughter of Apollo and Chrysothemis, who died a maiden and was placed among the stars as the constellation. Diodorus Siculus has an alternative account, according to which Parthenos was the daughter of Staphylus and Chrysothemis, sister of Rhoeo and Molpadia (Hemithea). After a suicide attempt she and Hemithea were carried by Apollo to Chersonesus, where she became a local goddess. Strabo also mentions a goddess named Parthenos worshipped throughout Chersonesus. During the Middle Ages, Virgo sometimes was associated with the Blessed Virgin Mary. In Greek mythology, the constellation is also associated with the daughter of Zeus, Dike the goddess of justice, who is represented holding the scales of justice. Gallery See also Virgo (Chinese astronomy) Citations References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2017). Stars and Planets Guide (5th ed.), William Collins, London. . Princeton University Press, Princeton. . External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Virgo The clickable Virgo Star Tales – Virgo Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Virgo) Constellations Equatorial constellations Constellations listed by Ptolemy

The politics of Vanuatu take place within the framework of a constitutional democracy. The constitution provides for a representative parliamentary system. The head of the Republic is an elected President. The Prime Minister of Vanuatu is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. These institutions, which date from the country's independence in 1980, exist alongside traditional systems of leadership and justice upheld by community chiefs. Vanuatu is a democracy its political culture is different from that in most Western democracies, with strong elements of clientelism, corruption, and political debate that focuses strongly on the distribution of resources among communities Governments typically comprise coalitions of numerous small parties which change regularly, with parties and MPs "crossing the floor" and Prime Ministers frequently being ousted in motions of no confidence. Major political issues in Vanuatu include: customary land rights, foreign investment and the sale of citizenship to foreigners, infrastructure development, recognition of West Papua, response to natural disasters and climate change, the tackling of instability and corruption, and the safeguarding of the country's cultural heritage. Executive branch |President |Tallis Obed Moses |Independent |6 July 2017 |- |Prime Minister |Bob Loughman |Vanua'aku Pati |20 April 2020 |} The constitution created a republican political system headed by a president who has primarily ceremonial powers and is elected by a two-thirds majority in an electoral college consisting of members of Parliament and the presidents of Regional Councils. The president serves a 5-year term. The president may be removed by the electoral college for gross misconduct or incapacity. The prime minister, who is the head of government, is elected by an absolute majority of the Parliament. The prime minister in turn appoints the Council of Ministers, whose number may not exceed a quarter of the number of parliamentary representatives. The prime minister and the Council of Ministers constitute the executive government. Attorney General of Vanuatu The post of Attorney General existed even before Vanuatu declared its independence in 1980. One of the last Attorneys General of New Hebrides (Vanuatu's former name), Paul Julian Treadwell (c. 1973-1977), even advocated for Vanuatu's independence. Upon the country's declaration of independence in 1980, it was established that the Attorney General of Vanuatu is the principal legal officer for the government of Vanuatu. The duties, functions, and powers of the Attorney General are outlined in the Republic of Vanuatu's State Law Office Act [242]. The Attorney General may participate in the meetings and deliberations of the Council of Ministers so as to offer legal advice, but does not have any voting rights nor is designated as a member. Solicitor General of Vanuatu The Solicitor General of Vanuatu supervises and conducts government litigation in court. S/he also provides legal representation in the absence of the Attorney General of Vanuatu. As with the Attorney General, the duties, functions, and powers of the Solicitor General are outlined in the Republic of Vanuatu's State Law Office Act [242]. Although former President of Vanuatu Kalkot Mataskelekele has been identified as the first Ni-Vanuatu male to serve as the Solicitor General of Vanuatu, his service years are uncertain. *He served as the Acting Attorney General until Samson Endehipa assumed office as the Attorney General of Vanuatu. Legislative branch Parliament or Parlement has 52 members, elected for a four-year term in multi-seat constituencies. The president is elected for a five-year term by the parliament. Parliament normally sits for a 4-year term unless dissolved by majority vote of a three-fourths quorum or a directive from the President on the advice of the prime minister. The national Council of Chiefs, called the Malvatu Mauri and elected by district councils of chiefs, advises the government on all matters concerning ni-Vanuatu culture and language. Political culture Vanuatu has a multi-party system of government. In the decades after independence, the English-oriented Vanua'aku Party and the French-oriented Union of Moderate Parties fragmented into numerous smaller parties, defined increasingly by personality politics rather than ideology. These have been joined by newly formed parties such as the Land and Justice Party with a strong indigenous identity. The political culture is based around clientelism, with MPs having 'allocations' of money to spend on their constituents, and voters judging candidates primarily on their ability to bring resources into their communities rather than on national policy positions. Though bribery is not common in everyday life in Vanuatu, its political system is widely perceived as extremely corrupt. However, as of 2018, Vanuatu enacted new legislation in order to improve access to information, opening up the government to better accountability and citizen participation. These changes have improved Vanuatu's ranking in the Corruption Perceptions Index. There are no female MPs in the 2012-2016 parliament, and in general no female chiefs (though in some traditional Vanuatu cultures there are systems under which women can be accorded high rank). Judicial branch The Supreme Court of Vanuatu is the superior court in Vanuatu; it consists of a chief justice and up to three other judges. Two or more members of this court may constitute a Court of Appeal. Magistrate courts handle most routine legal matters. The legal system is based on British and French law. The constitution also provides for the establishment of village or island courts presided over by chiefs to deal with questions of customary law. Political history Historically, government and society in Vanuatu tend to divide along linguistic - French and English - lines. However, this division has become blurred in recent years due to the fragmentation of political parties and the evolution of a post-independence national identity. Political alliances in Vanuatu today are unstable and driven mostly by electoral convenience rather than ideology. Originally, English-speaking politicians such as Walter Lini, Donald Kalpokas, and other leaders of the Vanua'aku Pati favored early independence, whereas French-speaking political leaders favored continuing association with the colonial administrators, particularly France. On the eve of independence in 1980, Jimmy Stevens' Nagriamel movement, in alliance with private French interests, declared the island of Espiritu Santo independent of the new government. Following independence, Vanuatu requested assistance from Papua New Guinea, whose forces restored order on Santo. From then until 1991, the Vanua'aku Pati and its predominantly English-speaking leadership controlled the Vanuatu Government. In December 1991, and following a split in the Vanua'aku Pati, Maxime Carlot Korman, leader of the Francophone Union of Moderate Parties (UMP), was elected Vanuatu's first Francophone prime minister. He formed a coalition government with Walter Lini's breakaway VP faction, now named the National United Party (NUP). Following parliamentary elections on November 30, 1995, Carlot Korman was succeeded by Serge Vohor, a dissident UMP leader. Over the next 2 years, government leadership changed several times due to unstable coalitions within the Parliament. In November 1997, the President dissolved Parliament. Following the subsequent election on March 6, 1998, Donald Kalpokas, the leader of the Vanua'aku Pati, was elected prime minister. A vote of no confidence in November 1999 brought Barak Sopé to the fore as Prime Minister. Yet another vote of no confidence resulted in the selection of Edward Natapei as Prime Minister in March 2001. Edward Natapei returned as Prime Minister in the May 2002 national parliamentary elections. In 2004, Natapei dissolved parliament, and following another national election in July of that year, Vohor became Prime Minister again when two members of the Vanu'aku Party defected to join a new coalition. Vohor was criticised over the establishment of diplomatic relations with China, and on December 11, Vohor was replaced as Prime Minister by Ham Lini in a Motion of No Confidence. In March 2004 the term of office of President John Bani expired, and Alfred Maseng Nalo was elected in his place. It was soon discovered that Nalo was a criminal and, at the time of his election, was serving a two-year suspended sentence for aiding and abetting, misappropriation, and receiving money dishonestly after money from the sale of cocoa went missing. Had his conviction been known at the time of the election, Nalo's candidature would automatically have been invalid. The electoral commission which supervises candidates and conducts background checks on candidates did not detect the conviction because the police-issued certificate of previous offences had allegedly been completed incorrectly (Port Vila Presse Online, 28 April 2004). Nalo refused to resign, but the Supreme Court ordered his removal from office in May 2004, and the decision was subsequently confirmed by the Court of Appeal. Following the 2008 parliamentary elections, the governing coalition was maintained, but Ham Lini was replaced as prime minister by Edward Natapei. See also Foreign relations of Vanuatu References Literature Andreas Holtz: Nation-Building und die Frage nach Souveränität im Südpazifik vor dem Hintergrund der politischen Geschichte der Republik Vanuatu. Münster/Hamburg/London 2003. .

A vacuum is a space devoid of matter. The word is derived from the Latin adjective vacuus for "vacant" or "void". An approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. Physicists often discuss ideal test results that would occur in a perfect vacuum, which they sometimes simply call "vacuum" or free space, and use the term partial vacuum to refer to an actual imperfect vacuum as one might have in a laboratory or in space. In engineering and applied physics on the other hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is considerably lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object that is surrounded by a vacuum. The quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum. For example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. But higher-quality vacuums are possible. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth (10−12) of atmospheric pressure (100 nPa), and can reach around 100 particles/cm3. Outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average in intergalactic space. Vacuum has been a frequent topic of philosophical debate since ancient Greek times, but was not studied empirically until the 17th century. Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure. A Torricellian vacuum is created by filling a tall glass container closed at one end with mercury, and then inverting it in a bowl to contain the mercury (see below). Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes, and a wide array of vacuum technologies has since become available. The development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human health, and on life forms in general. Etymology The word vacuum comes , noun use of neuter of vacuus, meaning "empty", related to vacare, meaning "to be empty". Vacuum is one of the few words in the English language that contains two consecutive letters u. Historical understanding Historically, there has been much dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist. Ancient Greek philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or void, in the context of atomism, which posited void and atom as the fundamental explanatory elements of physics. Following Plato, even the abstract concept of a featureless void faced considerable skepticism: it could not be apprehended by the senses, it could not, itself, provide additional explanatory power beyond the physical volume with which it was commensurate and, by definition, it was quite literally nothing at all, which cannot rightly be said to exist. Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser surrounding material continuum would immediately fill any incipient rarity that might give rise to a void. In his Physics, book IV, Aristotle offered numerous arguments against the void: for example, that motion through a medium which offered no impediment could continue ad infinitum, there being no reason that something would come to rest anywhere in particular. Although Lucretius argued for the existence of vacuum in the first century BC and Hero of Alexandria tried unsuccessfully to create an artificial vacuum in the first century AD. In the medieval Muslim world, the physicist and Islamic scholar Al-Farabi wrote a treatise rejecting the existence of the vacuum in the 10th century. He concluded that air's volume can expand to fill available space, and therefore the concept of a perfect vacuum was incoherent. According to Nader El-Bizri, the physicist Ibn al-Haytham and the Mu'tazili theologians disagreed with Aristotle and Al-Farabi, and they supported the existence of a void. Using geometry, Ibn al-Haytham mathematically demonstrated that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body. According to Ahmad Dallal, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī also states that "there is no observable evidence that rules out the possibility of vacuum". The suction pump was described by Arab engineer Al-Jazari in the 13th century, and later appeared in Europe from the 15th century. European scholars such as Roger Bacon, Blasius of Parma and Walter Burley in the 13th and 14th century focused considerable attention on issues concerning the concept of a vacuum. Eventually following Stoic physics in this instance, scholars from the 14th century onward increasingly departed from the Aristotelian perspective in favor of a supernatural void beyond the confines of the cosmos itself, a conclusion widely acknowledged by the 17th century, which helped to segregate natural and theological concerns. Almost two thousand years after Plato, René Descartes also proposed a geometrically based alternative theory of atomism, without the problematic nothing–everything dichotomy of void and atom. Although Descartes agreed with the contemporary position, that a vacuum does not occur in nature, the success of his namesake coordinate system and more implicitly, the spatial–corporeal component of his metaphysics would come to define the philosophically modern notion of empty space as a quantified extension of volume. By the ancient definition however, directional information and magnitude were conceptually distinct. Medieval thought experiments into the idea of a vacuum considered whether a vacuum was present, if only for an instant, between two flat plates when they were rapidly separated. There was much discussion of whether the air moved in quickly enough as the plates were separated, or, as Walter Burley postulated, whether a 'celestial agent' prevented the vacuum arising. The commonly held view that nature abhorred a vacuum was called horror vacui. There was even speculation that even God could not create a vacuum if he wanted and the 1277 Paris condemnations of Bishop Etienne Tempier, which required there to be no restrictions on the powers of God, led to the conclusion that God could create a vacuum if he so wished. Jean Buridan reported in the 14th century that teams of ten horses could not pull open bellows when the port was sealed. The 17th century saw the first attempts to quantify measurements of partial vacuum. Evangelista Torricelli's mercury barometer of 1643 and Blaise Pascal's experiments both demonstrated a partial vacuum. In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that, owing to atmospheric pressure outside the hemispheres, teams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been partially evacuated. Robert Boyle improved Guericke's design and with the help of Robert Hooke further developed vacuum pump technology. Thereafter, research into the partial vacuum lapsed until 1850 when August Toepler invented the Toepler Pump and in 1855 when Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump, achieving a partial vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr). A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, which renewed interest in further research. While outer space provides the most rarefied example of a naturally occurring partial vacuum, the heavens were originally thought to be seamlessly filled by a rigid indestructible material called aether. Borrowing somewhat from the pneuma of Stoic physics, aether came to be regarded as the rarefied air from which it took its name, (see Aether (mythology)). Early theories of light posited a ubiquitous terrestrial and celestial medium through which light propagated. Additionally, the concept informed Isaac Newton's explanations of both refraction and of radiant heat. 19th century experiments into this luminiferous aether attempted to detect a minute drag on the Earth's orbit. While the Earth does, in fact, move through a relatively dense medium in comparison to that of interstellar space, the drag is so minuscule that it could not be detected. In 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering commented: "While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there". Later, in 1930, Paul Dirac proposed a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles possessing negative energy, called the Dirac sea. This theory helped refine the predictions of his earlier formulated Dirac equation, and successfully predicted the existence of the positron, confirmed two years later. Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, formulated in 1927, predicted a fundamental limit within which instantaneous position and momentum, or energy and time can be measured. This has far reaching consequences on the "emptiness" of space between particles. In the late 20th century, so-called virtual particles that arise spontaneously from empty space were confirmed. Classical field theories The strictest criterion to define a vacuum is a region of space and time where all the components of the stress–energy tensor are zero. This means that this region is devoid of energy and momentum, and by consequence, it must be empty of particles and other physical fields (such as electromagnetism) that contain energy and momentum. Gravity In general relativity, a vanishing stress–energy tensor implies, through Einstein field equations, the vanishing of all the components of the Ricci tensor. Vacuum does not mean that the curvature of space-time is necessarily flat: the gravitational field can still produce curvature in a vacuum in the form of tidal forces and gravitational waves (technically, these phenomena are the components of the Weyl tensor). The black hole (with zero electric charge) is an elegant example of a region completely "filled" with vacuum, but still showing a strong curvature. Electromagnetism In classical electromagnetism, the vacuum of free space, or sometimes just free space or perfect vacuum, is a standard reference medium for electromagnetic effects. Some authors refer to this reference medium as classical vacuum, a terminology intended to separate this concept from QED vacuum or QCD vacuum, where vacuum fluctuations can produce transient virtual particle densities and a relative permittivity and relative permeability that are not identically unity. In the theory of classical electromagnetism, free space has the following properties: Electromagnetic radiation travels, when unobstructed, at the speed of light, the defined value 299,792,458 m/s in SI units. The superposition principle is always exactly true. For example, the electric potential generated by two charges is the simple addition of the potentials generated by each charge in isolation. The value of the electric field at any point around these two charges is found by calculating the vector sum of the two electric fields from each of the charges acting alone. The permittivity and permeability are exactly the electric constant ε0 and magnetic constant μ0, respectively (in SI units), or exactly 1 (in Gaussian units). The characteristic impedance (η) equals the impedance of free space Z0 ≈ 376.73 Ω. The vacuum of classical electromagnetism can be viewed as an idealized electromagnetic medium with the constitutive relations in SI units: relating the electric displacement field D to the electric field E and the magnetic field or H-field H to the magnetic induction or B-field B. Here r is a spatial location and t is time. Quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, the vacuum is defined as the state (that is, the solution to the equations of the theory) with the lowest possible energy (the ground state of the Hilbert space). In quantum electrodynamics this vacuum is referred to as 'QED vacuum' to distinguish it from the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics, denoted as QCD vacuum. QED vacuum is a state with no matter particles (hence the name), and no photons. As described above, this state is impossible to achieve experimentally. (Even if every matter particle could somehow be removed from a volume, it would be impossible to eliminate all the blackbody photons.) Nonetheless, it provides a good model for realizable vacuum, and agrees with a number of experimental observations as described next. QED vacuum has interesting and complex properties. In QED vacuum, the electric and magnetic fields have zero average values, but their variances are not zero. As a result, QED vacuum contains vacuum fluctuations (virtual particles that hop into and out of existence), and a finite energy called vacuum energy. Vacuum fluctuations are an essential and ubiquitous part of quantum field theory. Some experimentally verified effects of vacuum fluctuations include spontaneous emission and the Lamb shift. Coulomb's law and the electric potential in vacuum near an electric charge are modified. Theoretically, in QCD multiple vacuum states can coexist. The starting and ending of cosmological inflation is thought to have arisen from transitions between different vacuum states. For theories obtained by quantization of a classical theory, each stationary point of the energy in the configuration space gives rise to a single vacuum. String theory is believed to have a huge number of vacua – the so-called string theory landscape. Outer space Outer space has very low density and pressure, and is the closest physical approximation of a perfect vacuum. But no vacuum is truly perfect, not even in interstellar space, where there are still a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. Stars, planets, and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about at of altitude, the Kármán line, which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar winds, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather. Astrophysicists prefer to use number density to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre. But although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites. Most artificial satellites operate in this region called low Earth orbit and must fire their engines every couple of weeks or a few times a year (depending on solar activity). The drag here is low enough that it could theoretically be overcome by radiation pressure on solar sails, a proposed propulsion system for interplanetary travel. Planets are too massive for their trajectories to be significantly affected by these forces, although their atmospheres are eroded by the solar winds. All of the observable universe is filled with large numbers of photons, the so-called cosmic background radiation, and quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos. The current temperature of this radiation is about . Measurement The quality of a vacuum is indicated by the amount of matter remaining in the system, so that a high quality vacuum is one with very little matter left in it. Vacuum is primarily measured by its absolute pressure, but a complete characterization requires further parameters, such as temperature and chemical composition. One of the most important parameters is the mean free path (MFP) of residual gases, which indicates the average distance that molecules will travel between collisions with each other. As the gas density decreases, the MFP increases, and when the MFP is longer than the chamber, pump, spacecraft, or other objects present, the continuum assumptions of fluid mechanics do not apply. This vacuum state is called high vacuum, and the study of fluid flows in this regime is called particle gas dynamics. The MFP of air at atmospheric pressure is very short, 70 nm, but at 100 mPa (~) the MFP of room temperature air is roughly 100 mm, which is on the order of everyday objects such as vacuum tubes. The Crookes radiometer turns when the MFP is larger than the size of the vanes. Vacuum quality is subdivided into ranges according to the technology required to achieve it or measure it. These ranges do not have universally agreed definitions, but a typical distribution is shown in the following table. As we travel into orbit, outer space and ultimately intergalactic space, the pressure varies by several orders of magnitude. Atmospheric pressure is variable but standardized at 101.325 kPa (760 Torr). Low vacuum, also called rough vacuum or coarse vacuum, is vacuum that can be achieved or measured with rudimentary equipment such as a vacuum cleaner and a liquid column manometer. Medium vacuum is vacuum that can be achieved with a single pump, but the pressure is too low to measure with a liquid or mechanical manometer. It can be measured with a McLeod gauge, thermal gauge or a capacitive gauge. High vacuum is vacuum where the MFP of residual gases is longer than the size of the chamber or of the object under test. High vacuum usually requires multi-stage pumping and ion gauge measurement. Some texts differentiate between high vacuum and very high vacuum. Ultra high vacuum requires baking the chamber to remove trace gases, and other special procedures. British and German standards define ultra high vacuum as pressures below 10−6 Pa (10−8 Torr). Deep space is generally much more empty than any artificial vacuum. It may or may not meet the definition of high vacuum above, depending on what region of space and astronomical bodies are being considered. For example, the MFP of interplanetary space is smaller than the size of the Solar System, but larger than small planets and moons. As a result, solar winds exhibit continuum flow on the scale of the Solar System, but must be considered a bombardment of particles with respect to the Earth and Moon. Perfect vacuum is an ideal state of no particles at all. It cannot be achieved in a laboratory, although there may be small volumes which, for a brief moment, happen to have no particles of matter in them. Even if all particles of matter were removed, there would still be photons and gravitons, as well as dark energy, virtual particles, and other aspects of the quantum vacuum. Hard vacuum and soft vacuum are terms that are defined with a dividing line defined differently by different sources, such as 1 Torr, or 0.1 Torr, the common denominator being that a hard vacuum is a higher vacuum than a soft one. Relative versus absolute measurement Vacuum is measured in units of pressure, typically as a subtraction relative to ambient atmospheric pressure on Earth. But the amount of relative measurable vacuum varies with local conditions. On the surface of Venus, where ground-level atmospheric pressure is much higher than on Earth, much higher relative vacuum readings would be possible. On the surface of the moon with almost no atmosphere, it would be extremely difficult to create a measurable vacuum relative to the local environment. Similarly, much higher than normal relative vacuum readings are possible deep in the Earth's ocean. A submarine maintaining an internal pressure of 1 atmosphere submerged to a depth of 10 atmospheres (98 metres; a 9.8-metre column of seawater has the equivalent weight of 1 atm) is effectively a vacuum chamber keeping out the crushing exterior water pressures, though the 1 atm inside the submarine would not normally be considered a vacuum. Therefore, to properly understand the following discussions of vacuum measurement, it is important that the reader assumes the relative measurements are being done on Earth at sea level, at exactly 1 atmosphere of ambient atmospheric pressure. Measurements relative to 1 atm The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (symbol Pa), but vacuum is often measured in torrs, named for an Italian physicist Torricelli (1608–1647). A torr is equal to the displacement of a millimeter of mercury (mmHg) in a manometer with 1 torr equaling 133.3223684 pascals above absolute zero pressure. Vacuum is often also measured on the barometric scale or as a percentage of atmospheric pressure in bars or atmospheres. Low vacuum is often measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or pascals (Pa) below standard atmospheric pressure. "Below atmospheric" means that the absolute pressure is equal to the current atmospheric pressure. In other words, most low vacuum gauges that read, for example 50.79 Torr. Many inexpensive low vacuum gauges have a margin of error and may report a vacuum of 0 Torr but in practice this generally requires a two-stage rotary vane or other medium type of vacuum pump to go much beyond (lower than) 1 torr. Measuring instruments Many devices are used to measure the pressure in a vacuum, depending on what range of vacuum is needed. Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. The simplest design is a closed-end U-shaped tube, one side of which is connected to the region of interest. Any fluid can be used, but mercury is preferred for its high density and low vapour pressure. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from 1 torr (100 Pa) to above atmospheric. An important variation is the McLeod gauge which isolates a known volume of vacuum and compresses it to multiply the height variation of the liquid column. The McLeod gauge can measure vacuums as high as 10−6 torr (0.1 mPa), which is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated via a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge. The kenotometer is a particular type of hydrostatic gauge, typically used in power plants using steam turbines. The kenotometer measures the vacuum in the steam space of the condenser, that is, the exhaust of the last stage of the turbine. Mechanical or elastic gauges depend on a Bourdon tube, diaphragm, or capsule, usually made of metal, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question. A variation on this idea is the capacitance manometer, in which the diaphragm makes up a part of a capacitor. A change in pressure leads to the flexure of the diaphragm, which results in a change in capacitance. These gauges are effective from 103 torr to 10−4 torr, and beyond. Thermal conductivity gauges rely on the fact that the ability of a gas to conduct heat decreases with pressure. In this type of gauge, a wire filament is heated by running current through it. A thermocouple or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) can then be used to measure the temperature of the filament. This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament loses heat to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common variant is the Pirani gauge which uses a single platinum filament as both the heated element and RTD. These gauges are accurate from 10 torr to 10−3 torr, but they are sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases being measured. Ionization gauges are used in ultrahigh vacuum. They come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode. In the hot cathode version an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam. The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 10−3 torr to 10−10 torr. The principle behind cold cathode version is the same, except that electrons are produced in a discharge created by a high voltage electrical discharge. Cold cathode gauges are accurate from 10−2 torr to 10−9 torr. Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction geometry, chemical composition of gases being measured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibration can be invalidated by activation at atmospheric pressure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate measurement. Uses Vacuum is useful in a variety of processes and devices. Its first widespread use was in the incandescent light bulb to protect the filament from chemical degradation. The chemical inertness produced by a vacuum is also useful for electron beam welding, cold welding, vacuum packing and vacuum frying. Ultra-high vacuum is used in the study of atomically clean substrates, as only a very good vacuum preserves atomic-scale clean surfaces for a reasonably long time (on the order of minutes to days). High to ultra-high vacuum removes the obstruction of air, allowing particle beams to deposit or remove materials without contamination. This is the principle behind chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, and dry etching which are essential to the fabrication of semiconductors and optical coatings, and to surface science. The reduction of convection provides the thermal insulation of thermos bottles. Deep vacuum lowers the boiling point of liquids and promotes low temperature outgassing which is used in freeze drying, adhesive preparation, distillation, metallurgy, and process purging. The electrical properties of vacuum make electron microscopes and vacuum tubes possible, including cathode ray tubes. Vacuum interrupters are used in electrical switchgear. Vacuum arc processes are industrially important for production of certain grades of steel or high purity materials. The elimination of air friction is useful for flywheel energy storage and ultracentrifuges. Vacuum-driven machines Vacuums are commonly used to produce suction, which has an even wider variety of applications. The Newcomen steam engine used vacuum instead of pressure to drive a piston. In the 19th century, vacuum was used for traction on Isambard Kingdom Brunel's experimental atmospheric railway. Vacuum brakes were once widely used on trains in the UK but, except on heritage railways, they have been replaced by air brakes. Manifold vacuum can be used to drive accessories on automobiles. The best known application is the vacuum servo, used to provide power assistance for the brakes. Obsolete applications include vacuum-driven windscreen wipers and Autovac fuel pumps. Some aircraft instruments (Attitude Indicator (AI) and the Heading Indicator (HI)) are typically vacuum-powered, as protection against loss of all (electrically powered) instruments, since early aircraft often did not have electrical systems, and since there are two readily available sources of vacuum on a moving aircraft, the engine and an external venturi. Vacuum induction melting uses electromagnetic induction within a vacuum. Maintaining a vacuum in the condenser is an important aspect of the efficient operation of steam turbines. A steam jet ejector or liquid ring vacuum pump is used for this purpose. The typical vacuum maintained in the condenser steam space at the exhaust of the turbine (also called condenser backpressure) is in the range 5 to 15 kPa (absolute), depending on the type of condenser and the ambient conditions. Outgassing Evaporation and sublimation into a vacuum is called outgassing. All materials, solid or liquid, have a small vapour pressure, and their outgassing becomes important when the vacuum pressure falls below this vapour pressure. Outgassing has the same effect as a leak and will limit the achievable vacuum. Outgassing products may condense on nearby colder surfaces, which can be troublesome if they obscure optical instruments or react with other materials. This is of great concern to space missions, where an obscured telescope or solar cell can ruin an expensive mission. The most prevalent outgassing product in vacuum systems is water absorbed by chamber materials. It can be reduced by desiccating or baking the chamber, and removing absorbent materials. Outgassed water can condense in the oil of rotary vane pumps and reduce their net speed drastically if gas ballasting is not used. High vacuum systems must be clean and free of organic matter to minimize outgassing. Ultra-high vacuum systems are usually baked, preferably under vacuum, to temporarily raise the vapour pressure of all outgassing materials and boil them off. Once the bulk of the outgassing materials are boiled off and evacuated, the system may be cooled to lower vapour pressures and minimize residual outgassing during actual operation. Some systems are cooled well below room temperature by liquid nitrogen to shut down residual outgassing and simultaneously cryopump the system. Pumping and ambient air pressure Fluids cannot generally be pulled, so a vacuum cannot be created by suction. Suction can spread and dilute a vacuum by letting a higher pressure push fluids into it, but the vacuum has to be created first before suction can occur. The easiest way to create an artificial vacuum is to expand the volume of a container. For example, the diaphragm muscle expands the chest cavity, which causes the volume of the lungs to increase. This expansion reduces the pressure and creates a partial vacuum, which is soon filled by air pushed in by atmospheric pressure. To continue evacuating a chamber indefinitely without requiring infinite growth, a compartment of the vacuum can be repeatedly closed off, exhausted, and expanded again. This is the principle behind positive displacement pumps, like the manual water pump for example. Inside the pump, a mechanism expands a small sealed cavity to create a vacuum. Because of the pressure differential, some fluid from the chamber (or the well, in our example) is pushed into the pump's small cavity. The pump's cavity is then sealed from the chamber, opened to the atmosphere, and squeezed back to a minute size. The above explanation is merely a simple introduction to vacuum pumping, and is not representative of the entire range of pumps in use. Many variations of the positive displacement pump have been developed, and many other pump designs rely on fundamentally different principles. Momentum transfer pumps, which bear some similarities to dynamic pumps used at higher pressures, can achieve much higher quality vacuums than positive displacement pumps. Entrapment pumps can capture gases in a solid or absorbed state, often with no moving parts, no seals and no vibration. None of these pumps are universal; each type has important performance limitations. They all share a difficulty in pumping low molecular weight gases, especially hydrogen, helium, and neon. The lowest pressure that can be attained in a system is also dependent on many things other than the nature of the pumps. Multiple pumps may be connected in series, called stages, to achieve higher vacuums. The choice of seals, chamber geometry, materials, and pump-down procedures will all have an impact. Collectively, these are called vacuum technique. And sometimes, the final pressure is not the only relevant characteristic. Pumping systems differ in oil contamination, vibration, preferential pumping of certain gases, pump-down speeds, intermittent duty cycle, reliability, or tolerance to high leakage rates. In ultra high vacuum systems, some very "odd" leakage paths and outgassing sources must be considered. The water absorption of aluminium and palladium becomes an unacceptable source of outgassing, and even the adsorptivity of hard metals such as stainless steel or titanium must be considered. Some oils and greases will boil off in extreme vacuums. The permeability of the metallic chamber walls may have to be considered, and the grain direction of the metallic flanges should be parallel to the flange face. The lowest pressures currently achievable in laboratory are about . However, pressures as low as have been indirectly measured in a cryogenic vacuum system. This corresponds to ≈100 particles/cm3. Effects on humans and animals Humans and animals exposed to vacuum will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes, but the symptoms are not nearly as graphic as commonly depicted in media and popular culture. The reduction in pressure lowers the temperature at which blood and other body fluids boil, but the elastic pressure of blood vessels ensures that this boiling point remains above the internal body temperature of Although the blood will not boil, the formation of gas bubbles in bodily fluids at reduced pressures, known as ebullism, is still a concern. The gas may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Swelling and ebullism can be restrained by containment in a flight suit. Shuttle astronauts wore a fitted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa (15 Torr). Rapid boiling will cool the skin and create frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard. Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is normal for exposures shorter than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful. A study by NASA on eight chimpanzees found all of them survived two and a half minute exposures to vacuum. There is only a limited amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal data. Limbs may be exposed for much longer if breathing is not impaired. Robert Boyle was the first to show in 1660 that vacuum is lethal to small animals. An experiment indicates that plants are able to survive in a low pressure environment (1.5 kPa) for about 30 minutes. Cold or oxygen-rich atmospheres can sustain life at pressures much lower than atmospheric, as long as the density of oxygen is similar to that of standard sea-level atmosphere. The colder air temperatures found at altitudes of up to 3 km generally compensate for the lower pressures there. Above this altitude, oxygen enrichment is necessary to prevent altitude sickness in humans that did not undergo prior acclimatization, and spacesuits are necessary to prevent ebullism above 19 km. Most spacesuits use only 20 kPa (150 Torr) of pure oxygen. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but decompression sickness and gas embolisms can still occur if decompression rates are not managed. Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself. Even if the victim does not hold his or her breath, venting through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the fatal rupture of the delicate alveoli of the lungs. Eardrums and sinuses may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption leading to hypoxia. Injuries caused by rapid decompression are called barotrauma. A pressure drop of 13 kPa (100 Torr), which produces no symptoms if it is gradual, may be fatal if it occurs suddenly. Some extremophile microorganisms, such as tardigrades, can survive vacuum conditions for periods of days or weeks. Examples See also Decay of the vacuum (Pair production) Engine vacuum False vacuum Helium mass spectrometer – technical instrumentation to detect a vacuum leak Joining materials Pneumatic tube – transport system using vacuum or pressure to move containers in tubes Rarefaction – reduction of a medium's density Suction – creation of a partial vacuum Vacuum angle Vacuum cementing – natural process of solidifying homogeneous "dust" in vacuum Vacuum column – controlling loose magnetic tape in early computer data recording tape drives Vacuum deposition – process of depositing atoms and molecules in a sub-atmospheric pressure environment Vacuum engineering Vacuum flange – joining of vacuum systems References External links Leybold – Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology (PDF) VIDEO on the nature of vacuum by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology American Vacuum Society Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B FAQ on explosive decompression and vacuum exposure. Discussion of the effects on humans of exposure to hard vacuum. Vacuum, Production of Space "Much Ado About Nothing" by Professor John D. Barrow, Gresham College Free pdf copy of The Structured Vacuum – thinking about nothing by Johann Rafelski and Berndt Muller (1985) . Physical phenomena Industrial processes Gases Articles containing video clips Latin words and phrases

Varuna (; , , Malay: Baruna) is a Vedic deity associated initially with the sky, later also with the seas as well as Ṛta (justice) and Satya (truth). He is found in the oldest layer of Vedic literature of Hinduism, such as hymn 7.86 of the Rigveda. He is also mentioned in the Tamil grammar work Tolkāppiyam, as Kadalon the god of sea and rain. He is said to be the son of Kashyapa (one of the seven ancient sages). In the Hindu Puranas, Varuna is the god of oceans, his vehicle is a Makara (crocodile) and his weapon is a Pasha (noose, rope loop). He is the guardian deity of the western direction. In some texts, he is the father of the Vedic sage Vasishtha. Varuna is found in Japanese Buddhist mythology as Suiten. He is also found in Jainism. Etymology In Hindu tradition, the theonym Váruṇa (Devanagari: वरुण) is described as a derivation from the verbal root vṛ ("to surround, to cover" or "to restrain, bind") by means of a suffixal -uṇa-, for an interpretation of the name as "he who covers or binds", in reference to the cosmological ocean or river encircling the world, but also in reference to the "binding" by universal law or Ṛta. Georges Dumézil (1934) made a cautious case for the identity of Varuna and the Greek god Ouranos at the earliest Indo-European cultural level. The etymological identification of the name Ouranos with the Sanskrit Varuṇa is based in the derivation of both names from the PIE root *ŭer with a sense of "binding" – the Indic king-god Varuṇa binds the wicked, the Greek king-god Ouranos binds the Cyclopes. While the derivation of the name Varuṇa from this root is undisputed, this derivation of the Greek name is now widely rejected in favour of derivation from the root *wers- "to moisten, drip" (Sanskrit vṛṣ "to rain, pour"). Hindu texts Vedas In the earliest layer of the Rigveda, Varuna is the guardian of moral law, one who punishes those who sin without remorse, and who forgives those who err with remorse. He is mentioned in many Rigvedic hymns, such as 7.86–88, 1.25, 2.27–30, 8.8, 9.73 and others. His relationship with waters, rivers and oceans is mentioned in the Vedas. Rig veda 10.123 says Hiranyapaksha (golden winged bird) as the messenger of Varuna.The golden winged messenger bird of Varuna may not be a mythical one but most probably flamingos because they have colourful wings and the sukta further describes Vulture as the messenger of Yama, the beaks of both these birds have similar morphology and flamingos are seen nearby seashores and marshlands Varuna and Mitra are the gods of the societal affairs including the oath, and are often twinned Mitra-Varuna. Both Mitra and Varuna are classified as Asuras in the Rigveda (e.g. RV 5.63.3), although they are also addressed as Devas as well (e.g. RV 7.60.12). Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats Vrtra. According to Doris Srinivasan, a professor of Indology focusing on religion, Varuna-Mitra pair is an ambiguous deity just like Rudra-Shiva pair. Both have wrathful-gracious aspects in Indian mythology. Both Varuna and Rudra are synonymous with "all comprehensive sight, knowledge", both were the guardian deity of the north in the Vedic texts (Varuna later gets associated with west), both can be offered "injured, ill offerings", all of which suggest that Varuna may have been conceptually overlapping with Rudra. Further, the Rigvedic hymn 5.70 calls Mitra-Varuna pair as rudra, states Srinivasan. According to Samuel Macey and other scholars, Varuna had been the more ancient Indo-Aryan deity in 2nd millennium BCE, who gave way to Rudra in the Hindu pantheon, and Rudra-Shiva became both "timeless and the god of time". In Vajasaneyi Samhita 21.40 (Yajurveda), Varuna is called the patron deity of physicians, one who has "a hundred, a thousand remedies". His capacity and association with "all comprehensive knowledge" is also found in the Atharvaveda (~1000 BCE). Varuna also finds a mention in the early Upanishads, where his role evolves. In verse 3.9.26 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (~800 BCE), for example, he is stated to be the god of the western quarter, but one who is founded on "water" and dependent ultimately on "the heart" and the fire of soul. In the Katha Upanishad, Aditi is identified to be same as the goddess earth. She is stated in the Vedic texts to be the mother of Varuna and Mitra along with other Vedic gods, and in later Hindu mythology she as mother earth is stated to be mother of all gods. In Yajurveda it is said: "In fact Varuna is Vishnu and Vishnu is Varuna and hence the auspicious offering is to be made to these deities." || 8.59 || Upanishads Varuna, addressed as Varuni explained Brahman in Taittiriya Upanishad to sage Bhrigu. First six anuvakas of Bhrigu Valli are called Bhargavi Varuni Vidya, which means "the knowledge Bhrigu got from (his father) Varuni". It is in these anuvakas that sage Varuni advises Bhrigu with one of the oft-cited definition of Brahman, as "that from which beings originate, through which they live, and in which they re-enter after death, explore that because that is Brahman". This thematic, all encompassing, eternal nature of reality and existence develops as the basis for Bhrigu's emphasis on introspection, to help peel off the outer husks of knowledge, in order to reach and realize the innermost kernel of spiritual Self-knowledge. Ramayana Rama interacts with Varuna in the Hindu epic Ramayana. For example, faced with the dilemma of how to cross the ocean to Lanka, where his abducted wife Sita is held captive by the demon king Ravana, Rama (an Avatar of Vishnu) performs a pravpavesha (prayer, tapasya) to Varuna, the Lord of Oceans, for three days and three nights, states Ramesh Menon. Varuna does not respond, and Rama arises on the fourth morning, enraged. He states to his brother Lakshamana that "even lords of the elements listen only to violence, Varuna does not respect gentleness, and peaceful prayers go unheard". With his bow and arrow, Rama prepares to attack the oceans to dry up the waters and create a bed of sand for his army of monkeys to cross and thus confront Ravana. Lakshmana appeals to Rama, translates Menon, that he should return to "peaceful paths of our fathers, you can win this war without laying waste the sea". Rama shoots his weapon sending the ocean into flames. As Rama increases the ferocity of his weapons, Varuna arises out of the oceans. He bows to Rama, stating that he himself did not know how to help Rama because the sea is deep, vast and he cannot change the nature of sea. Varuna asked Rama to remember that he is "the soul of peace and love, wrath does not suit him". Varuna promised to Rama that he will not disturb him or his army as they build a bridge and cross over to Lanka. Although, most of the sources claim it was Samudra, the god of the oceans who met Rama not the water god Varuna In Tolkappiyam The Tolkāppiyam, a Tamil grammar work from 3rd century BCE divides the people of ancient Tamilakam into 5 Sangam landscape divisions: kurinji, mullai, paalai, marutham and neithal. Each landscape are designated with different gods. Neithal is described as a seashore landscape occupied by fishermen and seatraders, with the god of sea and rain, Varunan or Kadalōn. "Varuna" means water which denotes the ocean in the Tamil language. Festivals Jhulelal is considered an avatar of Varuna by Sindhi Hindus. The festivals of Cheti Chand and Chalio are dedicated to Jhulelal. Cheti Chand The Cheti Chand festival in the Hindu month of Chaitra marks the arrival of spring and harvest, but in Sindhi Hindu community, it also marks the mythical birth of Uderolal in the year 1007. Uderolal morphed into a warrior and old man who preached and reprimanded Mirkhshah that Muslims and Hindus deserve the same religious freedoms. He, as Jhulelal, became the saviour of the Sindhi Hindus, who according to this legend, celebrate the new year as Uderolal's birthday. Chaliya saheb Chalio or Chaliho, also called Chaliho Sahib, is a forty-day-long festival celebrated by Sindhi Hindus to express their gratitude to Jhulelal for saving them from their impending conversion to Islam. The festival is observed every year in the months of July to August; dates vary according to Hindu calendar. It is a thanksgiving celebration in honor of Varuna Deva for listening to their prayers. Narali Poornima Nārali Poornima is a ceremonial day observed by Hindu fishing communities in Maharashtra, India particularly around Mumbai and the Konkan coast. It is held on the full-moon day of the Hindu month of Shravan which falls around July or August. On this day offerings such as rice, flowers and coconuts as offered to Lord Varuna, the god of ocean and waters. Beyond Hinduism and India Sindhi Hindus Jhulelal is believed by Sindhi Hindus to be an incarnation of Varuna. They celebrate the festival of Cheti Chand in his honor. The festival marks the arrival of spring and harvest, but in Sindhi community it also marks the birth of Uderolal in year 1007, after they prayed to Hindu god Varuna to save them from the persecution by tyrannical Muslim ruler named Mirkhshah. Uderolal morphed into a warrior and old man who preached and reprimanded Mirkhshah that Muslims and Hindus deserve the same religious freedoms. He, as Jhulelal, became the champion of the people in Sindh, from both religions. Among his Sufi Muslim followers, Jhulelal is known as "Khwaja Khizir" or "Sheikh Tahit". The Hindu Sindhi, according to this legend, celebrate the new year as Uderolal's birthday. Buddhism Theravada The Pali Canon of the Theravada school recognizes Varuṇa (Sanskrit; Pali: Varuna) as a king of the devas and companion of Sakka, Pajāpati and Isāna. In the battle against the Asuras, the devas of Tāvatiṃsa were asked to look upon the banner of Varuna in order to have all their fears dispelled (S.i.219). The Tevijja Sutta mentions him among Indra, Soma, Isāna, Pajāpati, Yama and Mahiddhi as gods that are invoked by the brahmins. The Ātānātiya Sutta lists him among the Yakkha chiefs. Buddhaghosa states (SA.i.262) that Varuna is equal in age and glory (vanna) with Sakka and takes the third seat in the assembly of devas. Mahayana In East Asian Buddhism, Varuna is a dharmapāla and often classed as one of the Twelve Devas (Japanese: Jūniten, 十二天). He presides over the western direction. In Japan, he is called "Suiten" (水天 lit. "water deva"). He is included with the other eleven devas, which include Taishakuten (Śakra/Indra), Fūten(Vāyu), Emmaten (Yama), Rasetsuten (Nirṛti/Rākṣasa), Ishanaten (Īśāna), Bishamonten (Vaiśravaṇa/Kubera), Katen (Agni), Bonten (Brahmā), Jiten (Pṛthivī), Nitten (Sūrya/Āditya), and Gatten (Chandra). Shinto Varuna is also worshipped in Japan's Shinto religion. One of the Shinto shrines dedicated to him is the Suitengū ("Palace of Suiten") in Tokyo. After the Japanese emperor issued the Shinbutsu bunri, the separation of Shinto and Buddhist practices as part of the Meiji Restoration, Varuna/Suiten was identified with the Japanese supreme God, Amenominakanushi. See also Ādityas Apam Napat Asura Guardians of the directions Hindu deities Mitra (Vedic) Paravar Rigvedic deities Shukra The king and the god Veles (god) Notes References External links Asura Varuna, R. N. Dandekar (1939) Great Vayu and Greater Varuna, Mary Boyce (1993) Asura Adityas Hindu gods Lokapala Rigvedic deities Sea and river gods Sky and weather gods Underworld gods Justice gods Water and Hinduism

Vegetarian cuisine is based on food that meets vegetarian standards by not including meat and animal tissue products (such as gelatin or animal-derived rennet). Lacto-ovo vegetarianism (the most common type of vegetarianism in the Western world) includes eggs and dairy products (such as milk and cheese without rennet). Lacto vegetarianism includes dairy products but not eggs, and ovo vegetarianism encompasses eggs but not dairy products. The strictest form of vegetarianism is veganism, which excludes all animal products, including dairy, honey, and some refined sugars if filtered and whitened with bone char. There are also partial vegetarians, such as pescetarians who eat fish but avoid other types of meat. There are a wide range of possible vegetarian foods, including some developed to particularly suit a vegetarian/vegan diet, either by filling the culinary niche where recipes would otherwise have meat, or by ensuring healthy intake of protein, B12 vitamin, and other nutrients. Cereals, grains, fungi especially edible mushrooms, seaweed, fruits, vegetables, legumes and nuts. Soy products, including tofu and tempeh, which are common additional protein sources Textured vegetable protein (TVP), made from defatted soy flour, often included in chili and burger recipes in place of ground meat. Meat analogues, which mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of meat and are often used in recipes that traditionally contained meat. Eggs and dairy product analogues in vegan cuisine (such as aquafaba, plant cream or plant milk). Commonly used vegetarian foods Food regarded as suitable for all vegetarians (including vegans) typically includes: Cereals/grains: barley, buckwheat, corn, fonio, hempseed, maize, millet, oats, quinoa, rice, rye, sorghum, triticale, wheat; derived products such as flour (dough, bread, baked goods, cornflakes, dumplings, granola, Muesli, pasta etc.). Vegetables (fresh, canned, frozen, pureed, dried or pickled); derived products such as vegetable sauces like chili sauce and vegetable oils. Edible fungi (fresh, canned, dried or pickled). Edible fungi include some mushrooms and cultured microfungi which can be involved in fermentation of food (yeasts and moulds) such as Aspergillus oryzae and Fusarium venenatum Fruit (fresh, canned, frozen, pureed, candied or dried); derived products such as jam and marmalade. Legumes: beans (including soybeans and soy products such as miso, edamame, soy milk, soy yogurt, tempeh, tofu and TVP), chickpeas, lentils, peas, peanuts; derived products such as peanut butter. Tree nuts and seeds; derived products such as nut butter. Herbs, spices and wild greens such as dandelion, sorrel or nettle. Other foods such as seaweed-derived products such as agar, which has the same function as animal-bone-derived gelatin. Beverages such as beer, coffee, hot chocolate, lemonade, tea or wine—although some beers and wines may have elements of animal products as fining agents including fish bladders, egg whites, gelatine and skim milk. Foods not suitable for vegans, but acceptable for some other types of vegetarians: Dairy products (butter, cheese (except for cheese containing rennet of animal origin), milk, yogurt (excluding yogurt made with gelatin) etc.) – not eaten by vegans and pure ovo-vegetarians Eggs – not eaten by vegans and lacto-vegetarians (most Indian vegetarians) Honey – not eaten by most vegans Vegetarians by definition cannot consume meat or animal tissue products, with no other universally adopted change in their diet. However, in practice, compared to non-vegetarians, vegetarians on average have an increased consumption of: Fruits Vegetables Avocados Non-fried potatoes Whole grains Legumes Soy foods Nuts Seeds In comparison to non-vegetarians, practising vegetarians on average have a decreased consumption of: Dairy products Eggs Refined grains Added fats Sweets Snacks Non-water (often sweetened) beverages This difference is observed, but is not required to be vegetarian. Nevertheless, it is relevant when considering research into the health effects of adopting a vegetarian diet. A diet consisting only of sugar candies, for example, while technically also vegetarian, would be expected to have a much different outcome for health compared to what is called "a vegetarian diet" culturally and what is most commonly adopted by vegetarians. Traditional vegetarian cuisine These are some of the most common dishes that vegetarians eat without substitution of ingredients. Such dishes include, from breakfasts to dinnertime desserts: Traditionally, Brahmin cuisines in most part of India, except Jammu and Kashmir, Odisha and West Bengal, are strictly vegetarian. Gujarati cuisine from the state of Gujarat in western India is predominantly vegetarian. Many bean, pasta, potato, rice, and bulgur/couscous dishes, stews, soups and stir-fries. Cereals and oatmeals, granola bars, etc. Fresh fruit and most salads Potato salad, baba ganoush, pita-wraps or burrito -wraps, vegetable pilafs, baked potatoes or fried potato-skins with various toppings, corn on the cob, smoothies Many sandwiches, such as cheese on toast, and cold sandwiches including roasted eggplant, mushrooms, bell peppers, cheeses, avocado and other sandwich ingredients Numerous side dishes, such as mashed potatoes, scalloped potatoes, some bread stuffings, seasoned rice, and macaroni and cheese. Classical Buddhist cuisine in Asia served at temples and restaurants with a green sign indicating vegetarian food only near temples National cuisines Chinese (and other East Asian) dishes based on the main ingredients being mushroom, noodles, eggplant, string beans, broccoli, rice, tofu, most tong sui or mixed vegetables. Georgian cuisine such as ajapsandali, nigvzinai badrijani, badrijnis borani, badrijnis khizilala, badrijani mtsvanilit, ekala nigvzit, ghomi, gogris gupta, khinkali with mushrooms, lobiani, lobio, lobio nigvzit, mchadi, mkhlovani, pkhali, salati nigvzit, shechamandi, shilaplavi, which feature eggplants, walnuts, kidney beans, mushrooms, pomegranates, garlic, squash, onions, tomatoes, cucumbers, bell peppers, chili peppers, beets, fresh herbs (coriander, parsley, basil etc.), smilax, cabbage, spinach, and red/white wine vinegar. Indian cuisine in Asia is replete with vegetarian dishes, many of which can be traced to religious traditions (such as Jain and Hindu). Gujarati cuisine of India is predominantly vegetarian among other Indian cuisines: Gujarati thali is very famous among Indians. There are many vegetarian Indian foods such as pakora, samosa, khichris, Pulao, raitas, rasam, bengain bharta, chana masala, some kormas, sambar, jalfrezis, saag aloo, subjis (vegetable dishes) such as bindi subji, gobi subji, Punjabi chole, aloo matar and much South Indian food such as dosas, idlis and vadas. Chapati and other wheat/maida based breads like naan, roti parathas are often stuffed with vegetarian items to make it a satisfying meal. Many Indian dishes also qualify as vegan, though many others use honey or dairy. South Indian foods like sambar, rasam, koottu, karembadu, upma, palya or taalimpu, kozhambu or koora, aviyal, olan, Kadala curry, Theeyal, pulihora pr puliyogare, Chammandi, Chutney, Chitranna, Bisi Bele Bath, and breads like Appam, Puttu, pathiri, dosa, idli and vada. In Indonesia, vegetarianism is well served and represented, as there are plenty selection of vegetarian dishes and meat substitutes. Dishes such as gado-gado, karedok, ketoprak, pecel, urap, rujak and asinan are vegetarian. However, for dishes that use peanut sauce, such as gado-gado, karedok or ketoprak, might contains small amount of shrimp paste for flavor. Served solely, gudeg can be considered a vegetarian food, since it consists of unripe jackfruit and coconut milk. Fermented soy products, such as tempeh, tofu and oncom are prevalent as meat substitutes, as the source of protein. Most of Indonesians do not practice strict vegetarianism and only consume vegetables or vegetarian dishes for their taste, preference, economic and health reasons. Nevertheless, there are small numbers of Indonesian Buddhists who practice vegetarianism for religious reason. Japanese foods such as castella, dorayaki, edamame, name kojiru, mochi, taiyaki, tempura, vegetable sushi and wagashi. Miso soup is made from fermented white or red soy bean paste, garnished with scallions or seaweed. Although most traditional versions are made from fish stock (dashi), it can be made with vegetable stock as well. Korean cuisine has some dishes that are often vegetarian. One example is bibimbap, which is rice with mixed vegetables. Sometimes this dish contains beef or other non-vegetarian ingredients. Another Korean food which is sometimes vegetarian is jeon, in which ingredients (most commonly vegetables and/or seafood) are coated in a flour and egg batter and then pan-fried in oil. Cuisine of the Mediterranean such as tumbet and many polentas and tapas dishes. Mexican foods such as salsa and guacamole with chips, rice and bean burritos (without lard in the refried beans or chicken fat in the rice), huevos rancheros, veggie burrito, many quesadillas, bean tacos, some chilaquiles and bean-pies, chili sin carne, black beans with rice, some chiles rellenos, cheese enchiladas and vegetable fajitas. Italian foods such as most pastas, many pizzas, bruschetta, caponata, crostini, eggplant parmigiana, Polenta and many risottos. Continental cuisine such as braised leeks with olives and parsley, ratatouille, many quiches, sauteed Brussels sprouts with mushrooms, sauteed Swiss chard, squash and vegetable-stuffed mushrooms. In Germany, Frankfurt green sauce, Klöße with vegetarian sauces (e.g., Chanterelle), cheese or vegetable stuffed Maultaschen, combinations of quark, spinach, potatoes and herbs provide some traditional vegetarian summer dishes. Traditionally on Fridays, southern Germany broad variety of sweet dishes may be served as a main course, such as Germknödel and Dampfnudel. Potato soup and plum cake are traditional Friday dishes in the Palatinate. Brenntar in Swabia, it is made of roasted flour, usually spelt flour or oat flour. Many Greek and Balkan dishes, such as briam, dolmas (when made without minced meat), fasolada, gemista, vegetable based moussaka and spanakopita. Russian cuisine developed a significant vegetarian tradition in czarist time, based on the example of Leo Tolstoy. The orthodox tradition of separating meat and vegetables and as well between specific meals for fasting and other holidays contributed to a rich variety of vegetarian dishes in Russia and Slavic countries, such as soups (vegetable borscht, shchi, okroshka), pirogi, blini, vareniki, kasha, buckwheat, fermented and pickled vegetables, etc. Many Ethiopian dishes such as injeera or Ethiopian vegetable sauces or chillies. Mideastern food such as falafel, hummus (mashed chick peas), tahini (ground sesame seeds), minted-yogurts, and couscous. Egyptian cuisine in particular is rich in vegetarian foods. For reasons ranging from economics to the religious practices of the Coptic Orthodox Church, most Egyptian dishes rely on beans and vegetables: the national dishes, kushari and ful medames, are entirely vegetarian, as are usually the assorted vegetable casseroles that characterize the typical Egyptian meal. Many dishes in Thai cuisine can be made vegetarian if the main protein element is substituted by a vegetarian alternative such as tofu. This includes dishes such as phat khi mao and, if a vegetarian shrimp paste and fish sauce substitute is used, many Thai curries. Venues serving vegetarian Buddhist cuisine (ahan che; ) can be found all over Thailand. Creole and Southern foods such as hush puppies, okra patties, rice and beans, or sauteed kale or collards, if not cooked with the traditional pork fat or meat stock. Some Welsh recipes, including Glamorgan sausages, laverbread and Welsh rarebit. Desserts and sweets Most desserts, including pies, cobblers, cakes, brownies, cookies, truffles, Rice Krispie treats (from gelatin-free marshmallows or marshmallow fluff), peanut butter treats, pudding, rice pudding, ice cream, crème brulée, etc., are free of meat and fish and are suitable for ovo-lacto vegetarians. Eastern confectionery and desserts, such as halva and Turkish delight, are mostly vegan, while others such as baklava (which often contains butter) are lacto vegetarian. Indian desserts and sweets are mostly vegetarian like peda, barfi, gulab jamun, shrikhand, basundi, kaju katri, rasgulla, cham cham, rajbhog, etc. Indian sweets are mostly made from milk products and are thus lacto vegetarian; dry fruit-based sweets are vegan. Meat analogues Commercial products Commercial products, marketed especially towards vegetarians and labeled as such, are available in most countries worldwide, in varying amounts and quality. As example, in Australia, various vegetarian products are available in most of supermarket chains and a vegetarian shopping guide is provided by Vegetarian/Vegan Society of Queensland. However, the biggest market for commercially vegetarian-labeled foods is India, with official governmental laws regulating the "vegetarian" and "non vegetarian" labels. Health benefits Vegetarian diets are associated with a number of favorable health outcomes in epidemiological studies. In a study supported by a National Institutes of Health grant, dietary patterns were evaluated along with their relationship with metabolic risk factors and metabolic syndromes. A cross-sectional analysis of 773 subjects including 35% vegetarians, 16% semi-vegetarians, and 49% non-vegetarians found that a vegetarian dietary pattern is associated significantly with lower means for all metabolic risk factors except HDL, and a lower risk of metabolic syndromes when compared to non-vegetarian diets. Metabolic risk factors include HDL, triglycerides, glucose, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, waist circumference, and body mass index. Metabolic syndromes are a cluster of disorders associated with a heightened risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Adventist Study 2 (AHS-2) compared mean consumption of each food group for vegetarian patterns compared to non-vegetarian patterns. Health benefits can be explained by increase in certain foods, not just the lack of animal products. Vegetarian Cuisine is good for the heart as it comprises high-fiber whole grains, nuts, legumes, raw and fresh fruits and vegetables, and other low glycemic foods. Vegetarian Cuisine reduces the risk of cancer as it is a type of animal-free diet. Vegetarian Cuisine also prevents type-2 diabetes and related complications. It is also noticed that people who do not eat meat have chances of having lower blood pressure. This is because vegetables tend to have less fat percentage, low amount of sodium, which positively affects blood pressure. Fruits have a good amount of potassium which helps to keep the blood pressure on the lower side. As evident by the Adventist Study 2 (AHS-2), the vegetarian diet does not always cause health benefits. This is dependent on the specific foods in the vegetarian diet. The National Institute of Health recommends a 1600 calories a day lacto-ovo vegetarian cuisine for the diet. This recommended diet includes oranges, pancakes, milk, and coffee for breakfast, vegetable soup, bagels, American cheese, and spinach salad for lunch, and omelettes, mozzarella cheese, carrots, and whole wheat bread, and tea for dinner. See also Indian vegetarian cuisine Chinese Buddhist cuisine Korean vegetarian cuisine Veganism List of meat substitutes List of vegetable dishes List of vegetarian restaurants List of vegetarian and vegan companies South Asian Veggie Table – Vegetarian cooking television show Vegetarian Cooking for Everyone Vegetarian and vegan symbolism References External links Cuisine Cuisine

A V-twin engine, also called a V2 engine, is a two-cylinder piston engine where the cylinders share a common crankshaft and are arranged in a V configuration. Although widely associated with motorcycles (installed either transversely or longitudinally), V-twin engines have also been used for industrial engines and in several small cars. The V-twin design dates back to the late 1880s. Origins One of the first V-twin engines was built by Gottlieb Daimler in 1889. It was used as a stationary engine, for boats and in the Daimler Stahlradwagen ("steel-wheeled car"), Daimler's second car. The engine was also manufactured under licence in France by Panhard et Levassor. An early V-twin engined motorcycle was produced in November 1902 by the Princeps AutoCar Company in the United Kingdom. The following year, V-twin motorcycles were produced by Eclipse Motor & Cycle Co in the United Kingdom (the XL-ALL model), Glenn Curtiss in the United States, and NSU Motorenwerke in Germany. Peugeot, which had used Panhard-built Daimler V-twins in its first cars, began producing its own V-twin engines in the early 20th century. This Peugeot engine powered a Norton motorcycle that won the first Isle of Man TT race in 1907. Typical design Crankshaft configuration Most V-twin engines have a single crankpin, which is shared by both connecting rods. The connecting rods may sit side-by-side with offset cylinders, or have fork and blade connecting rods which avoids the twisting forces caused by having offset cylinders. Some notable exceptions include a 180° crank pin offset used by the 1935 Moto Guzzi 500cc, a dual-crankpin configuration used by the 1983 Honda Shadow 750, and the 75° crank pin offset (45° offset in the United States) used by the 1987 Suzuki VX 800. V angle Although any 'V angle' (the angle between the two banks of cylinders) between zero and 180 degrees is theoretically possible for a V-twin engine, in practice angles smaller than 40 degrees are rarely used. The most common V angle for a V-twin engine is 90 degrees, which can achieve a perfect primary balance (if the correct counterweight is used) like most Ducatis, most Moto Guzzis, the Honda RC51, Suzuki TL1000S and TL1000R. However, this arrangement results in an uneven firing order, with the second cylinder firing 270 degrees after the first cylinder, then a 450 degrees interval until the first cylinder fires again. 90 degree engines are sometimes called L-twin (like the "L" in TL1000R or TL1000S) rather than V-twin. The alternating longer and shorter gaps between firings produce a characteristic V-twin alternating engine noise "phutphut phutphut phutphut phutphut". When a V angle of less than 90 degrees is used, perfect primary balance can only be achieved if offset crankpins are used. If not, balance shafts are usually required to reduce the vibration. Vehicles which use engines with V angles of less than 90 degrees include: 20 degrees: 1889 Daimler Steel-wheel car 42 degrees: 1916-1923 Indian Powerplus, 1920-1949 Indian Scout, 1922-1953 Indian Chief 45 degrees: 1909–present Harley-Davidson V-twin, 1990-1997 Suzuki VX 800, 2001-present Suzuki Boulevard C50, 1985-2007 Honda VT1100 48 degrees: 2005-2012 Yamaha MT-01, 1999-present Yamaha XV1600A 50 degrees: 1919-1924 BSA Model E, 1924-1936 Brough Superior SS100, 1929-1940 Matchless Model X, 1936-1955 Vincent Rapide, all Victory Freedom engines 52 degrees: 1997–present Honda Shadow, 1987-present Honda Transalp, 1998-2013 Honda Deauville, 2002-2008 Honda VTX, 2004-2010 Kawasaki Vulcan 2000 series 54 degrees: 2008–present Suzuki Boulevard C109R, 2006-present Suzuki Boulevard M109R 55 degrees: 1985-2006 Kawasaki Vulcan 750, 2006-present Kawasaki Vulcan 900 Classic 60 degrees: 2001-2017 Harley-Davidson VRSC, 1998-2003 Aprilia RSV Mille, 1988-present Yamaha XV250, 2001–present Yamaha DragStar 250, 2015-present Indian Scout 70 degrees: 1988-1998 Suzuki RGV250, 1987-2004 Yamaha Virago 535, 1997-present Yamaha DragStar 650 72 degrees: 1974-1989 Moto Morini 350 & 500 V-twins Voxan 1997-2010 75 degrees: 2005–present Hyosung GT250, 2008-2015 KTM 1190 RC8, 1981-2007 Yamaha Virago, 1998-2008 Yamaha DragStar 1100 80 degrees: 1978-1983 Honda CX series, Rotax 810/660/490 engines Vehicles which use engines with V angles of greater than 90 degrees include the 1934 Moto Guzzi 500cc (120 degrees) and the 1940-1948 Zündapp KS 750 (170 degrees). Motorcycles As per other motor vehicles, the terms longitudinal engine and transverse engine are most often used to refer to the crankshaft orientation relative to the frame. However, some companies use the opposite terminology, stating that a "transverse" V-twin engine has the cylinders mounted on each side of the motorcycle (therefore with the crankshaft running in line with the frame) and that a "longitudinal" V-twin engine has the cylinders at the front and rear. The latter terminology is used by the Italian manufacturer Moto Guzzi. To avoid such ambiguity, some people use descriptions of "transverse crankshaft engine", "longitudinal crankshaft engine", or "transversely mounted cylinders". Transverse engine The most common arrangement is to mount the engine with the crankshaft oriented transversely to the frame. The advantage of this mounting is that the width of the motorcycle can be smaller than a longitudinally-mounted V-twin. A disadvantage of this configuration for air-cooled engines is that the two cylinders receive different air-flows and cooling of the rear cylinder tends to be restricted (although the uneven cooling isn't as pronounced as a parallel-twin engine, where the inner faces of the cylinders are not exposed to any airflow). Some transverse V-twins use a single carburettor in the middle of the V-angle to feed both cylinders. While this avoids the need for two carburettors, it creates further cooling problems for the rear cylinder by placing its hot exhaust port and pipe at the back of the cylinder, where it may be exposed to less cooling airflow. Transverse V-twin engines have been used by Harley-Davidson, Ducati and many recent Japanese motorcycles, such as the Suzuki SV650. Some Ducati V-twin engines have been marketed as "L-twin" engines, due to the front cylinder being vertical and the rear cylinder being horizontal, thus forming an "L" shape. Longitudinal engine A less common arrangement is to mount the engine longitudinally. An advantage of this arrangement is that both cylinder heads can protrude into the air stream, so they can each receive the same amount of cooling (for air-cooled engines). Also, the transmission being located behind the engine is easier to fit within a typical motorcycle frame and, for shaft-drive motorcycles, a 90° bevel gear is not needed at the start of the driveshaft. As per all longitudinal engines, a disadvantage is that the torque reaction will twist the motorcycle to one side (such as on sharp acceleration/deceleration or when opening the throttle in neutral) instead of shifting the weight balance between the front and rear wheels. However, many modern motorcycles reduce this effect by rotating flywheels or alternators in the opposite direction to that of the crankshaft. Longitudinal V-twin engines have been used by the Honda CX series and several Moto Guzzi motorcycles. Automobiles Most cars are powered by engines with three or more cylinders, however several small cars have been produced with V-twin engines particularly during the period from 1912 to c1920 when cyclecars were made by many companies (due to a favourable tax position). Almost all of these used proprietary engines, either adapting the larger motorcycle engines used for sidecar work (large singles or V-twins), or using engines specifically made for cyclecars such as those made by JA Prestwich Industries ('J.A.P.' engines) or F.E. Baker Ltd ('Precision' engines). In 1912 Humber produced a light car called the Humberette with a Humber-made V-twin side-valve engine of 998cc. The engine had directly attached clutch, 3-speed gearbox and prop shaft output to a rear differential. A water cooled version of this engine was made available in 1914, but WW1 ended Humberette production in 1915. From 1911-1939, various Morgan F-series three-wheeled cyclecar models were powered by V-twin engines. Production of three-wheeler models then resumed with the 2012–present Morgan 3-Wheeler. Also in the United Kingdom, Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) produced several cars powered by their V-twin motorcycle engines. These were produced from 1921-1926 (four-wheel models) and 1929-1936 (three-wheel and four-wheel models). Several manufacturers have produced models inspired by the original Morgan three-wheeled car, such as the 1978–present Triking Cyclecar (using a Moto Guzzi engine), the 2006–present Ace Cycle Car (using a Harley-Davidson engine) and the 1990–present JZR Trikes kit car (using engines from several manufacturers). Mazda's first car, the 1960-1966 Mazda R360 rear-engined kei car, was powered by the Mazda V-twin engine. The 1961-1962 Mazda B360 front-engined light commercial vehicle used a version of this engine. Industrial engines Various V-twin engines have been produced for industrial uses such as pressure washers, lawn and garden tractors, tillers, generators and water pumps. The engines are usually air-cooled with a 90° V angle. Depending on the application, the engine's orientation can be either have a horizontal or vertical crankshaft. Manufacturers of commercial V-twin engines include Briggs & Stratton with its Vanguard, Professional and Intek V-twin series, Honda with its V-twin series engines, Kawasaki with its FD, FH, FS, and FX series, Subaru with its EH series, Tecumseh with its OV691EA and TVT691 engines, and Kohler. See also Flat-twin engine List of motorcycles by type of engine Motorcycle engine Straight-twin engine References 2 de:V-Motor

A vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft is one that can hover, take off and land vertically without relying on a runway. This classification can include a variety of types of aircraft including helicopters as well as thrust-vectoring fixed-wing aircraft and other hybrid aircraft with powered rotors such as cyclogyros/cyclocopters and gyrodynes. Some VTOL aircraft can operate in other modes as well, such as CTOL (conventional take-off & landing), STOL (short take-off & landing), or STOVL (short take-off & vertical landing). Others, such as some helicopters, can only operate by VTOL, due to the aircraft lacking landing gear that can handle taxiing. VTOL is a subset of V/STOL (vertical or short take-off & landing). Some lighter-than-air aircraft also qualify as VTOL aircraft, as they can hover, takeoff and land with vertical approach/departure profiles. Electric and hybrid-electric vertical takeoff and landing aircraft, or eVTOLs, are being developed in the quest for fully autonomous personal air vehicles (PAVs). Besides the ubiquitous helicopters, there are currently two types of VTOL aircraft in military service: tiltrotor aircraft, such as the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, and thrust-vectoring airplanes, such as the Harrier family and new F-35B Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter (JSF). In the civilian sector currently only helicopters are in general use (some other types of commercial VTOL aircraft have been proposed and are under development ). Generally speaking, VTOL aircraft capable of STOVL use it wherever possible, since it typically significantly increases takeoff weight, range or payload compared to pure VTOL. History Props, proprotors and advanced rotorcraft The idea of vertical flight has been around for thousands of years, and sketches for a VTOL (helicopter) show up in Leonardo da Vinci's sketch book. Manned VTOL aircraft, in the form of primitive helicopters, first flew in 1907 but would take until after World War Two to perfect. In addition to helicopter development, many approaches have been tried to develop practical aircraft with vertical take-off and landing capabilities including Henry Berliner's 1922–1925 experimental horizontal rotor fixed wing aircraft, and Nikola Tesla's 1928 patent and George Lehberger's 1930 patent for relatively impractical VTOL fixed wing airplanes with a tilting engines. In the late 1930s British aircraft designer Leslie Everett Baynes was issued a patent for the Baynes Heliplane, another tilt rotor aircraft. In 1941 German designer Heinrich Focke's began work on the Focke-Achgelis Fa 269, which had two rotors that tilted downward for vertical takeoff, but wartime bombing halted development. In May 1951, both Lockheed and Convair were awarded contracts in the attempt to design, construct, and test two experimental VTOL fighters. Lockheed produced the XFV, and Convair producing the Convair XFY Pogo. Both experimental programs proceeded to flight status and completed test flights 1954–1955, when the contracts were cancelled. Similarly, the X-13 flew a series of test flights between 1955 and 1957, but also suffered the same fate. The use of vertical fans driven by engines was investigated in the 1950s. The US built an aircraft where the jet exhaust drove the fans, while British projects not built included fans driven by mechanical drives from the jet engines. NASA has flown other VTOL craft such as the Bell XV-15 research craft (1977), as have the Soviet Navy and Luftwaffe. Sikorsky tested an aircraft dubbed the X-Wing, which took off in the manner of a helicopter. The rotors would become stationary in mid-flight, and function as wings, providing lift in addition to the static wings. Boeing X-50 is a Canard Rotor/Wing prototype that utilizes a similar concept. A different British VTOL project was the gyrodyne, where a rotor is powered during take-off and landing but which then freewheels during flight, with separate propulsion engines providing forward thrust. Starting with the Fairey Gyrodyne, this type of aircraft later evolved into the much larger twin-engined Fairey Rotodyne, that used tipjets to power the rotor on take-off and landing but which then used two Napier Eland turboprops driving conventional propellers mounted on substantial wings to provide propulsion, the wings serving to unload the rotor during horizontal flight. The Rotodyne was developed to combine the efficiency of a fixed-wing aircraft at cruise with the VTOL capability of a helicopter to provide short haul airliner service from city centres to airports. The CL-84 was a Canadian V/STOL turbine tilt-wing monoplane designed and manufactured by Canadair between 1964 and 1972. The Canadian government ordered three updated CL-84s for military evaluation in 1968, designated the CL-84-1. From 1972 to 1974, this version was demonstrated and evaluated in the United States aboard the aircraft carriers USS Guam and USS Guadalcanal, and at various other centres. These trials involved military pilots from the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. During testing, two of the CL-84s crashed due to mechanical failures, but no loss of life occurred as a result of these accidents. No production contracts resulted. Although tiltrotors such as the Focke-Achgelis Fa 269 of the mid-1940s and the Centro Técnico Aeroespacial "Convertiplano" of the 1950s reached testing or mock-up stages, the V-22 Osprey is considered the world's first production tiltrotor aircraft. It has one three-bladed proprotor, turboprop engine, and transmission nacelle mounted on each wingtip. The Osprey is a multi-mission aircraft with both a vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) and short takeoff and landing capability (STOL). It is designed to perform missions like a conventional helicopter with the long-range, high-speed cruise performance of a turboprop aircraft. The FAA classifies the Osprey as a model of powered lift aircraft. Attempts were made in the 1960s to develop a commercial passenger aircraft with VTOL capability. The Hawker Siddeley Inter-City Vertical-Lift proposal had two rows of lifting fans on either side. However, none of these aircraft made it to production after they were dismissed as too heavy and expensive to operate. In 2018 Opener Aero demonstrated an electrically powered fixed-wing VTOL aircraft, the Blackfly, which the manufacturer claims is the world's first ultralight fixed-wing, all-electric, vertical take-off and landing aircraft. Modern drones In the 21st century, unmanned drones are becoming increasingly commonplace. Many of these have VTOL capability, especially the quadcopter type. Jet lift Tail-sitters In 1947, Ryan X-13 Vertijet, a tailsitter design, was ordered by the US Navy, who then further issued a proposal in 1948 for an aircraft capable of vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aboard platforms mounted on the afterdecks of conventional ships. Both Convair and Lockheed competed for the contract but in 1950, the requirement was revised, with a call for a research aircraft capable of eventually evolving into a VTOL ship-based convoy escort fighter. Conventional design Another more influential early functional contribution to VTOL was Rolls-Royce's Thrust Measuring Rig ("flying bedstead") of 1953. This led to the first VTOL engines as used in the first British VTOL aircraft, the Short SC.1 (1957), Short Brothers and Harland, Belfast which used four vertical lift engines with a horizontal one for forward thrust. The Short SC.1 was the first British fixed-wing VTOL aircraft. The SC.1 was designed to study the problems with VTOL flight and the transition to and from forward flight. The SC.1 was designed to meet a Ministry of Supply (MoS) request for tender (ER.143T) for a vertical take-off research aircraft issued in September 1953. The design was accepted by the ministry and a contract was placed for two aircraft (XG900 and XG905) to meet Specification ER.143D dated 15 October 1954. The SC.1 was also equipped with the first "fly-by-wire" control system for a VTOL aircraft. This permitted three modes of control of the aerodynamic surfaces or the nozzle controls. The Republic Aviation AP-100 was a prototype VTOL 6x General Electric J85 Turbojet engined nuclear capable strike fighter concept designed by Alexander Kartveli that had 3x ducted fans in the centre of its fuselage and tail as a possible contender for the TFX Program. Another design was the A400 AVS that used variable geometry wings but was found too complicated, however it led to the development of the AFVG which in turn helped the development of the Panavia Tornado. The Yakovlev Yak-38 was a Soviet Navy VTOL aircraft intended for use aboard their light carriers, cargoships, and capital ships. It was developed from the Yakovlev Yak-36 experimental aircraft in the 1970s. Before the Soviet Union broke up, a supersonic VTOL aircraft was developed as the Yak-38's successor, the Yak-141, which never went into production. In the 1960s and early 1970s, Germany planned three different VTOL aircraft. One used the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter as a basis for research for a V/STOL aircraft. Although two models (X1 and X2) were built, the project was canceled due to high costs and political problems as well as changed needs in the German Air Force and NATO. The EWR VJ 101C did perform free VTOL take-offs and landings, as well as test flights beyond mach 1 in the mid- and late 60s. One of the test-aircraft is preserved in the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany. The others were the VFW-Fokker VAK 191B light fighter and reconnaissance aircraft, and the Dornier Do 31E-3 (troop) transport. The LLRV was a spacecraft simulator for the Apollo lunar lander. It was designed to mimic the flight characteristics of the lunar module (LEM), which had to rely on a reaction engine to land on the Moon. The idea of using the same engine for vertical and horizontal flight by altering the path of the thrust was conceived by Michel Wibault. It led to the Bristol Siddeley Pegasus engine which used four rotating nozzles to direct thrust over a range of angles. This was developed side by side with an airframe, the Hawker P.1127, which became subsequently the Kestrel and then entered production as the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, though the supersonic Hawker Siddeley P.1154 was canceled in 1965. The French in competition with the P.1154 had developed a version of the Dassault Mirage III capable of attaining Mach 1. The Dassault Mirage IIIV achieved transition from vertical to horizontal flight in March 1966, reaching Mach 1.3 in level flight a short time later. V/STOL The Harrier is usually flown in STOVL mode, which enables it to carry a higher fuel or weapon load over a given distance. In V/STOL the VTOL aircraft moves horizontally along the runway before taking off using vertical thrust. This gives aerodynamic lift as well as thrust lift and permits taking off with heavier loads and is more efficient. When landing the aircraft is much lighter due to the loss of propellant weight and a controlled vertical landing is possible. An important aspect of Harrier STOL operations aboard naval carriers is the "ski jump" raised forward deck, which gives the craft additional vertical momentum at takeoff. The March 1981 cover of Popular Science showed three illustrations for its "Tilt-engine V/STOL - speeds like a plane, lands like a copter" front-page feature story.; a followup story was part of the April 2006 issue that mentioned "the fuel-consumption and stability problems that plagued earlier plane/copter." Retired from the British Royal Navy in 2006, the Indian Navy continued to operate Sea Harriers until 2016, mainly from its aircraft carrier . The latest version of the Harrier, the BAE Harrier II, was retired in December 2010 after being operated by the British Royal Air Force and Royal Navy. The United States Marine Corps and the Italian and Spanish navies all continue to use the AV-8B Harrier II, an American-designed equivalent version. Replacing the Harrier II/AV-8B in the air arms of the US and UK is the STOVL variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, the F-35B. Rockets SpaceX developed several prototypes of Falcon 9 to validate various low-altitude, low-velocity engineering aspects of its reusable launch system development program. The first prototype, Grasshopper, made eight successful test flights in 2012–2013. It made its eighth, and final, test flight on October 7, 2013, flying to an altitude of before making its eighth successful VTVL landing.<ref name=sx20131012fb>{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/SpaceX/posts/10153372146765131 |title= Grasshopper flies to its highest height to date |publisher=SpaceX |work=Social media information release |date=12 October 2013 |access-date=14 October 2013 |quote=WATCH: Grasshopper flies to its highest height to date – 744 m (2441 ft) into the Texas sky.}}</ref> This was the last scheduled test for the Grasshopper rig; next up will be low altitude tests of the Falcon 9 Reusable (F9R) development vehicle in Texas followed by high altitude testing in New Mexico. On November 23, 2015, Blue Origin's New Shepard booster rocket made the first successful vertical landing following an uncrewed suborbital test flight that reached space. On December 21, 2015, SpaceX Falcon 9 first stage made a successful landing after boosting 11 commercial satellites to low Earth orbit on Falcon 9 Flight 20. These demonstrations opened the way for substantial reductions in space flight costs. Rotorcraft Helicopter The helicopter's form of VTOL allows it to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forwards, backwards, and laterally. These attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft would usually not be able to take off or land. The capability to efficiently hover for extended periods of time is due to the helicopter's relatively long, and hence efficient rotor blades, and allows a helicopter to accomplish tasks that fixed-wing aircraft and other forms of vertical takeoff and landing aircraft could not perform at least as well until 2011. On the other hand, the long rotor blades restrict the maximum speed to about 250 miles per hour (400 km/h) of at least conventional helicopters, as retreating blade stall causes lateral instability. Autogyro Autogyros are also known as gyroplanes or gyrocopters. The rotor is unpowered and rotates freely in the airflow as the craft travels forward, so the craft needs a conventional powerplant to provide thrust. An autogyro is not intrinsically capable of VTOL: for VTO the rotor must be spun up to speed by an auxiliary drive, and vertical landing requires precise control of rotor momentum and pitch. Gyrodyne Gyrodynes are also known as compound helicopters or compound gyroplanes. A gyrodyne has the powered rotor of a helicopter with a separate forward thrust system of an autogyro. Apart from take-off and landing the rotor may be unpowered and autorotate. Designs may also include stub wings for added lift. Cyclogyro A cyclogyro or cyclocopter has a rotary wing whose axis and surfaces remain sideways across the airflow, as with a conventional wing. Powered lift Convertiplane A convertiplane takes off under rotor lift like a helicopter, then transitions to fixed-wing lift in forward flight. Tiltrotor A tiltrotor or proprotor tilts its propellers or rotors vertically for VTOL and then tilts them forwards for horizontal wing-borne flight, while the main wing remains fixed in place. Tilting ducted fan Similar to tiltrotor concept, but with ducted fans. As it can be seen in the Bell X-22. Tiltwing A tiltwing has its propellers or rotors fixed to a conventional wing and tilts the whole assembly to transition between vertical and horizontal flight. Tail-sitter A tail-sitter sits vertically on its tail for takeoff and landing, then tilts the whole aircraft forward for horizontal flight. Vectored thrust Thrust vectoring is a technique used for jet and rocket engines, where the direction of the engine exhaust is varied. In VTOL, the exhaust can be varied between vertical and horizontal thrust. Tiltjet Similar to tiltrotor concept, but with turbojet or turbofan engines instead of ones with propellers. Lift jets A lift jet is an auxiliary jet engine used to provide lift for VTOL operation, but may be shut down for normal wing-borne flight. Lift fans Lift fan is an aircraft configuration in which lifting fans are located in large holes in an otherwise conventional fixed wing or fuselage. It is used for V/STOL operation. The aircraft takes off using the fans to provide lift, then transitions to fixed-wing lift in forward flight. Several experimental craft have been flown, but only the F-35 Lightning II entered into production. Lift via Coandă effect Aircraft in which VTOL is achieved by exploiting the Coandă effect are capable of redirecting air much like thrust vectoring, but rather than routing airflow through a duct, the airflow is simply routed along an existing surface, which is usually the body of the craft allowing less material and weight. The Avro Canada VZ-9 Avrocar, or simply the VZ-9, was a Canadian VTOL aircraft developed by Avro Aircraft Ltd. which utilizes this phenomenon by blowing air into a central area, then it is directed down over the top surface, which is parabolic and resembles a bowed flying saucer. Due to the Coandă effect, the airflow is attracted to the nearest surface and continues to move along that surface despite the change in the surface's direction away from the airflow. The craft is designed to direct the airflow downward to provide lift. Jetoptera announced a proposed line of aircraft based on what it called fluidic propulsion that employs the Coandă effect. The company claims an Oswald efficiency number of 1.45 for its boxwing design. Other claims include increased efficiency, quieter operation and scalability. Gallery See also Circular wing List of Nikola Tesla patents List of VTOL aircraft McDonnell Douglas DC-X Mono tiltrotor Peter Bielkowicz Proprotor PTOL Quad (rocket) Reusable Vehicle Testing project of the Japanese Space Agency JAXA Rotor wing Thrust reversal Thrust vectoring Vertical Flight Society References Notes Bibliography Allen, Francis J. "Bolt upright: Convair's and Lockheed's VTOL fighters". Air Enthusiast (Key Publishing), Volume 127, January/February 2007. . Boniface, Patrick. "Tilt-wing Testing". Aeroplane, Vol. 28, no. 3, March 2000, pp. 72–78. Campbell, John P. Vertical Takeoff & Landing Aircraft. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1962. Harding, Stephen. "Flying Jeeps: The US Army's Search for the Ultimate 'Vehicle'". Air Enthusiast, No. 73, January/February 1998, pp. 10–12. Stamford, Lincs, UK: Key Publishing. . Jackson, Paul A. German Military Aviation 1956–1976. Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Midland Counties Publications, 1976. . Khurana, K. C. Aviation Management: Global Perspectives. Singapore: Global India Publications, 2009. . Markman, Steve and Bill Holder. Straight Up: A History of Vertical Flight. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2000. . Norton, Bill. Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, Tiltrotor Tactical Transport. Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. . Rogers, Mike. VTOL: Military Research Aircraft. New York: Orion Books, 1989. . Büchi, Roland. Fascination Quadrocopter. Norderstedt, BoD, English Version, 2011. External links V/STOL Wheel of Misfortune – Timeline of V/STOL aircraft, page 5 Types of take-off and landing Articles containing video clips

Virology is the scientific study of virusessubmicroscopic, parasitic organisms of genetic material contained in a protein coatand virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is a subfield of microbiology. The identification of the causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease (TMV) as a novel pathogen by Martinus Beijerinck (1898) is now acknowledged as being the official beginning of the field of virology as a discipline distinct from bacteriology. He realized the source was neither a bacterial nor a fungal infection, but something completely different. Beijerinck used the word ‘virus’ to describe the mysterious agent in his ‘contagium vivum fluidum’ (‘contagious living fluid’). Rosalind Franklin proposed the full structure of the tobacco mosaic virus in 1955. Virus structure and classification A major branch of virology is virus classification. Viruses can be classified according to the host cell they infect: animal viruses, plant viruses, fungal viruses, and bacteriophages (viruses infecting bacteria, which include the most complex viruses). Another classification uses the geometrical shape of their capsid (often a helix or an icosahedron) or the virus's structure (e.g. presence or absence of a lipid envelope). Viruses range in size from about 30 nm to about 450 nm, which means that most of them cannot be seen with light microscopes. The shape and structure of viruses has been studied by electron microscopy, NMR spectroscopy, and X-ray crystallography. The most useful and most widely used classification system distinguishes viruses according to the type of nucleic acid they use as genetic material and the viral replication method they employ to coax host cells into producing more viruses: DNA viruses (divided into double-stranded DNA viruses and single-stranded DNA viruses), RNA viruses (divided into positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses and the much less common double-stranded RNA viruses), reverse transcribing viruses (double-stranded reverse-transcribing DNA viruses and single-stranded reverse-transcribing RNA viruses including retroviruses). Virologists also study subviral particles, infectious entities notably smaller and simpler than viruses: viroids (naked circular RNA molecules infecting plants), satellites (nucleic acid molecules with or without a capsid that require a helper virus for infection and reproduction), and prions (proteins that can exist in a pathological conformation that induces other prion molecules to assume that same conformation). Taxa in virology are not necessarily monophyletic, as the evolutionary relationships of the various virus groups remain unclear. Three hypotheses regarding their origin exist: Viruses arose from non-living matter, separately from yet in parallel to cells, perhaps in the form of self-replicating RNA ribozymes similar to viroids. Viruses arose by genome reduction from earlier, more competent cellular life forms that became parasites to host cells and subsequently lost most of their functionality; examples of such tiny parasitic prokaryotes are Mycoplasma and Nanoarchaea. Viruses arose from mobile genetic elements of cells (such as transposons, retrotransposons or plasmids) that became encapsulated in protein capsids, acquired the ability to "break free" from the host cell and infect other cells. Of particular interest here is mimivirus, a giant virus that infects amoebae and encodes much of the molecular machinery traditionally associated with bacteria. Two possibilities are that it is a simplified version of a parasitic prokaryote or it originated as a simpler virus that acquired genes from its host. The evolution of viruses, which often occurs in concert with the evolution of their hosts, is studied in the field of viral evolution. While viruses reproduce and evolve, they do not engage in metabolism, do not move, and depend on a host cell for reproduction. The often-debated question of whether they are alive or not is a matter of definition that does not affect the biological reality of viruses. Viral diseases and host defenses One main motivation for the study of viruses is the fact that they cause many important infectious diseases, among them the common cold, influenza, rabies, measles, many forms of diarrhea, hepatitis, Dengue fever, yellow fever, polio, smallpox and AIDS. Herpes simplex causes cold sores and genital herpes and is under investigation as a possible factor in Alzheimer's. Some viruses, known as oncoviruses, contribute to the development of certain forms of cancer. The best-studied example is the association between Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer: almost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by certain strains of this sexually transmitted virus. Another example is the association of infection with hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses and liver cancer. Some subviral particles also cause disease: the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, which include Kuru, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease"), are caused by prions, hepatitis D is due to a satellite virus. The study of the manner in which viruses cause disease is viral pathogenesis. The degree to which a virus causes disease is its virulence. When the immune system of a vertebrate encounters a virus, it may produce specific antibodies which bind to the virus and neutralize its infectivity or mark it for destruction. Antibody presence in blood serum is often used to determine whether a person has been exposed to a given virus in the past, with tests such as ELISA. Vaccinations protect against viral diseases, in part, by eliciting the production of antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies, specific to the virus, are also used for detection, as in fluorescence microscopy. The second defense of vertebrates against viruses, cell-mediated immunity, involves immune cells known as T cells: the body's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell's surface, and if a T cell recognizes a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed and the virus-specific T-cells proliferate. This mechanism is jump-started by certain vaccinations. RNA interference, an important cellular mechanism found in plants, animals and many other eukaryotes, most likely evolved as a defense against viruses. An elaborate machinery of interacting enzymes detects double-stranded RNA molecules (which occur as part of the life cycle of many viruses) and then proceeds to destroy all single-stranded versions of those detected RNA molecules. Every lethal viral disease presents a paradox: killing its host is obviously of no benefit to the virus, so how and why did it evolve to do so? Today it is believed that most viruses are relatively benign in their natural hosts; some viral infection might even be beneficial to the host. The lethal viral diseases are believed to have resulted from an "accidental" jump of the virus from a species in which it is benign to a new one that is not accustomed to it (see zoonosis). For example, viruses that cause serious influenza in humans probably have pigs or birds as their natural host, and HIV is thought to derive from the benign non-human primate virus SIV. While it has been possible to prevent (certain) viral diseases by vaccination for a long time, the development of antiviral drugs to treat viral diseases is a comparatively recent development. The first such drug was interferon, a substance that is naturally produced when an infection is detected and stimulates other parts of the immune system. Molecular biology research and viral therapy Bacteriophages, the viruses which infect bacteria, can be relatively easily grown as viral plaques on bacterial cultures. Bacteriophages occasionally move genetic material from one bacterial cell to another in a process known as transduction, and this horizontal gene transfer is one reason why they served as a major research tool in the early development of molecular biology. The genetic code, the function of ribozymes, the first recombinant DNA and early genetic libraries were all arrived at using bacteriophages. Certain genetic elements derived from viruses, such as highly effective promoters, are commonly used in molecular biology research today. Growing animal viruses outside of the living host animal is more difficult. Classically, fertilized chicken eggs have often been used, but cell cultures are increasingly employed for this purpose today. Since some viruses that infect eukaryotes need to transport their genetic material into the host cell's nucleus, they are attractive tools for introducing new genes into the host (known as transformation or transfection). Modified retroviruses are often used for this purpose, as they integrate their genes into the host's chromosomes. This approach of using viruses as gene vectors is being pursued in the gene therapy of genetic diseases. An obvious problem to be overcome in viral gene therapy is the rejection of the transforming virus by the immune system. Phage therapy, the use of bacteriophages to combat bacterial diseases, was a popular research topic before the advent of antibiotics and has recently seen renewed interest. Oncolytic viruses are viruses that preferably infect cancer cells. While early efforts to employ these viruses in the therapy of cancer failed, there have been reports in 2005 and 2006 of encouraging preliminary results. Sequencing of viruses As most viruses are too small to be seen by a light microscope, sequencing is one of the main tools in virology to identify and study the virus. Traditional Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS) are used to sequence viruses in basic and clinical research, as well as for the diagnosis of emerging viral infections, molecular epidemiology of viral pathogens, and drug-resistance testing. There are more than 2.3 million unique viral sequences in GenBank. Recently, NGS has surpassed traditional Sanger as the most popular approach for generating viral genomes. Other uses of viruses A new application of genetically engineered viruses in nanotechnology was recently described; see the uses of viruses in material science and nanotechnology. For use in mapping neurons see the applications of pseudorabies in neuroscience. History The word virus appeared in 1599 and originally meant "venom". A very early form of vaccination known as variolation was developed several thousand years ago in China. It involved the application of materials from smallpox sufferers in order to immunize others. In 1717 Lady Mary Wortley Montagu observed the practice in Istanbul and attempted to popularize it in Britain, but encountered considerable resistance. In 1796 Edward Jenner developed a much safer method, using cowpox to successfully immunize a young boy against smallpox, and this practice was widely adopted. Vaccinations against other viral diseases followed, including the successful rabies vaccination by Louis Pasteur in 1886. The nature of viruses, however, was not clear to these researchers. In 1892, the Russian biologist Dmitry Ivanovsky used a Chamberland filter to try to isolate the bacteria that caused tobacco mosaic disease. His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remained infectious after filtration. Ivanovsky reported a minuscule infectious agent or toxin, capable of passing the filter, may be being produced by a bacterium. In 1898 Martinus Beijerinck repeated Ivanovski's work but went further and passed the "filterable agent" from plant to plant, found the action undiminished, and concluded it infectiousreplicating in the hostand thus not a mere toxin. He called it contagium vivum fluidum. The question of whether the agent was a "living fluid" or a particle was however still open. In 1903 it was suggested for the first time that transduction by viruses might cause cancer. In 1908 Bang and Ellerman showed that a filterable virus could transmit chicken leukemia, data largely ignored till the 1930s when leukemia became regarded as cancerous. In 1911 Peyton Rous reported the transmission of chicken sarcoma, a solid tumor, with a virus, and thus Rous became "father of tumor virology". The virus was later called Rous sarcoma virus 1 and understood to be a retrovirus. Several other cancer-causing retroviruses have since been described. The existence of viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages) was first recognized by Frederick Twort in 1911, and, independently, by Félix d'Herelle in 1917. As bacteria could be grown easily in culture, this led to an explosion of virology research. The cause of the devastating Spanish flu pandemic of 1918 was initially unclear. In late 1918, French scientists showed that a "filter-passing virus" could transmit the disease to people and animals, fulfilling Koch's postulates. In 1926 it was shown that scarlet fever is caused by a bacterium that is infected by a certain bacteriophage. While plant viruses and bacteriophages can be grown comparatively easily, animal viruses normally require a living host animal, which complicates their study immensely. In 1931 it was shown that influenza virus could be grown in fertilized chicken eggs, a method that is still used today to produce vaccines. In 1937, Max Theiler managed to grow the yellow fever virus in chicken eggs and produced a vaccine from an attenuated virus strain; this vaccine saved millions of lives and is still being used today. Max Delbrück, an important investigator in the area of bacteriophages, described the basic "life cycle" of a virus in 1937: rather than "growing", a virus particle is assembled from its constituent pieces in one step; eventually it leaves the host cell to infect other cells. The Hershey–Chase experiment in 1952 showed that only DNA and not protein enters a bacterial cell upon infection with bacteriophage T2. Transduction of bacteria by bacteriophages was first described in the same year. In 1949 John F. Enders, Thomas Weller and Frederick Robbins reported growth of poliovirus in cultured human embryonal cells, the first significant example of an animal virus grown outside of animals or chicken eggs. This work aided Jonas Salk in deriving a polio vaccine from deactivated polio viruses; this vaccine was shown to be effective in 1955. The first virus that could be crystalized and whose structure could, therefore, be elucidated in detail was tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), the virus that had been studied earlier by Ivanovski and Beijerink. In 1935, Wendell Stanley achieved its crystallization for electron microscopy and showed that it remains active even after crystallization. Clear X-ray diffraction pictures of the crystallized virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941. Rosalind Franklin proposed the full structure of the tobacco mosaic virus in 1955 after creating diffraction patterns of TMV "of unprecedented detail and clarity". Also in 1955, Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley Williams showed that purified TMV RNA and its capsid (coat) protein can self-assemble into functional virions, suggesting that this assembly mechanism is also used within the host cell, as Delbrück had proposed earlier. In 1963, the Hepatitis B virus was discovered by Baruch Blumberg who went on to develop a hepatitisB vaccine. In 1965, Howard Temin described the first retrovirus: a virus whose RNA genome was reverse transcribed into complementary DNA (cDNA), then integrated into the host's genome and expressed from that template. The viral enzyme reverse transcriptase, which along with integrase is a distinguishing trait of retroviruses, was first described in 1970, independently by Howard Temin and David Baltimore. The first retrovirus infecting humans was identified by Robert Gallo in 1974. Later it was found that reverse transcriptase is not specific to retroviruses; retrotransposons which code for reverse transcriptase are abundant in the genomes of all eukaryotes. Ten to forty percent of the human genome derives from such retrotransposons. In 1975 the functioning of oncoviruses was clarified considerably. Until that time, it was thought that these viruses carried certain genes called oncogenes which, when inserted into the host's genome, would cause cancer. Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus showed that the oncogene of Rous sarcoma virus is in fact not specific to the virus but is contained in the genome of healthy animals of many species. The oncovirus can switch this pre-existing benign proto-oncogene on, turning it into a true oncogene that causes cancer. 1976 saw the first recorded outbreak of Ebola virus disease, a highly lethal virally transmitted disease. In 1977, Frederick Sanger achieved the first complete sequencing of the genome of any organism, the bacteriophage Phi X 174. In the same year, Richard Roberts and Phillip Sharp independently showed that the genes of adenovirus contain introns and therefore require gene splicing. It was later realized that almost all genes of eukaryotes have introns as well. A worldwide vaccination campaign led by the UN World Health Organization resulted in the eradication of smallpox in 1979. In 1982, Stanley Prusiner discovered prions and showed that they cause scrapie. The first cases of AIDS were reported in 1981, and HIV, the retrovirus causing it, was identified in 1983 by Luc Montagnier, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Robert Gallo. Tests detecting HIV infection by detecting the presence of HIV antibody were developed. Subsequent tremendous research efforts turned HIV into the best studied virus. Human Herpes Virus 8, the cause of Kaposi's sarcoma which is often seen in AIDS patients, was identified in 1994. Several antiretroviral drugs were developed in the late 1990s, decreasing AIDS mortality dramatically in developed countries. Treatment that exists for HIV includes a multitude of different drugs collectively termed Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART). HAART attacks many different aspects of the HIV virus, effectively reducing its effects below the limit of detection. However, when the administration of HAART is discontinued, HIV will bounce back. This is because HAART does not attack latently infected HIV cells, which can reactivate. The Hepatitis C virus was identified using novel molecular cloning techniques in 1987, leading to screening tests that dramatically reduced the incidence of post-transfusion hepatitis. The first attempts at gene therapy involving viral vectors began in the early 1980s, when retroviruses were developed that could insert a foreign gene into the host's genome. They contained the foreign gene but did not contain the viral genome and therefore could not reproduce. Tests in mice were followed by tests in humans, beginning in 1989. The first human studies attempted to correct the genetic disease severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), but clinical success was limited. In the period from 1990 to 1995, gene therapy was tried on several other diseases and with different viral vectors, but it became clear that the initially high expectations were overstated. In 1999 a further setback occurred when 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger died in a gene therapy trial. He suffered a severe immune response after having received an adenovirus vector. Success in the gene therapy of two cases of X-linked SCID was reported in 2000. In 2002 it was reported that poliovirus had been synthetically assembled in the laboratory, representing the first synthetic organism. Assembling the 7741-base genome from scratch, starting with the virus's published RNA sequence, took about two years. In 2003 a faster method was shown to assemble the 5386-base genome of the bacteriophage Phi X 174 in two weeks. The giant mimivirus, in some sense an intermediate between tiny prokaryotes and ordinary viruses, was described in 2003 and sequenced in 2004. The strain of Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 that killed up to 50 million people during the Spanish flu pandemic in 1918 was reconstructed in 2005. Sequence information was pieced together from preserved tissue samples of flu victims; viable virus was then synthesized from this sequence. The 2009 flu pandemic involved another strain of Influenza A H1N1, commonly known as "swine flu". By 1985, Harald zur Hausen had shown that two strains of Human papillomavirus (HPV) cause most cases of cervical cancer. Two vaccines protecting against these strains were released in 2006. In 2006 and 2007 it was reported that introducing a small number of specific transcription factor genes into normal skin cells of mice or humans can turn these cells into pluripotent stem cells, known as induced pluripotent stem cells. The technique uses modified retroviruses to transform the cells; this is a potential problem for human therapy since these viruses integrate their genes at a random location in the host's genome, which can interrupt other genes and potentially causes cancer. In 2008, Sputnik virophage was described, the first known virophage: it uses the machinery of a helper virus to reproduce and inhibits reproduction of that helper virus. Sputnik reproduces in amoeba infected by mamavirus, a relative of the mimivirus mentioned above and the largest known virus to date. An endogenous retrovirus (ERV) is a viral element in the genome that was derived from a retrovirus whose genome has been incorporated into the germ-line genome of some organism and is therefore copied with each reproduction of that organism. It is estimated that about 9 percent of the human genome originates from ERVs. In 2015 it was shown that proteins from an ERV are actively expressed in 3-day-old human embryos and appear to play a role in embryonal development and protect embryos from infection by other viruses. Since the invention of Organ-on-a-chip in 2010s, the engineering approach has found application in the study of many diseases. The approach has also been introduced to virology and chip models are being developed. Examples include the invention of Influenza model by Donald E. Ingber group, the invention of Ebola virus disease model by Alireza Mashaghi group, and the invention of viral hepatitis model by Marcus Dorner group. The organ chip approach will likely replace animal models for human virology. See also Animal virology Astrovirology :Category:Viral diseases Glossary of virology Immune system Introduction to viruses List of viral diseases List of viruses Medical microbiology Vaccines Viral life cycle Viral pathogenesis Virus classification Wikipedia:WikiProject Viruses Endothelial Cell Tropism References Further reading (freely searchable online book) (freely searchable online book) External links ICTV: International Committee on Taxonomy of Virusessearchable virus taxonomy, updated versions in 2007 and 2008. Explanations of the virus species concept and viral taxonomy. David Sander: All the Virology on the WWWcollection of links, pictures, lecture notes. Many of the links on this site are broken and it does not appear to be being maintained. Online lectures in virology University of South Carolina Microbes.info is a microbiology information portal containing a vast collection of resources including articles, news, frequently asked questions, and links pertaining to the field of microbiology. MicrobiologyBytes: Origins of Virology MicrobiologyBytes: The Virology Time Machine Timeline of the history of virology, from the Washington University in St. Louis. Wong's Virology. Vaccine Research Center (VRC)Information concerning vaccine research studies This Week in Virology Podcast by Vincent Racaniello Virulogy, Ton E. van den Bogaard University Maastricht, the Netherlands, Viruses

Very large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining millions of MOS transistors onto a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when MOS integrated circuit (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) chips were widely adopted, enabling complex semiconductor and telecommunication technologies to be developed. The microprocessor and memory chips are VLSI devices. Before the introduction of VLSI technology, most ICs had a limited set of functions they could perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a CPU, ROM, RAM and other glue logic. VLSI enables IC designers to add all of these into one chip. History Background The history of the transistor dates to the 1920s when several inventors attempted devices that were intended to control current in solid-state diodes and convert them into triodes. Success came after World War II, when the use of silicon and germanium crystals as radar detectors led to improvements in fabrication and theory. Scientists who had worked on radar returned to solid-state device development. With the invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs in 1947, the field of electronics shifted from vacuum tubes to solid-state devices. With the small transistor at their hands, electrical engineers of the 1950s saw the possibilities of constructing far more advanced circuits. However, as the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose. One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer. The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal silicon wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s. VLSI General Microelectronics introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit in 1964. In the early 1970s, MOS integrated circuit technology allowed the integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single chip. This paved the way for VLSI in the 1970s and 1980s, with tens of thousands of MOS transistors on a single chip (later hundreds of thousands, then millions, and now billions). The first semiconductor chips held two transistors each. Subsequent advances added more transistors, and as a consequence, more individual functions or systems were integrated over time. The first integrated circuits held only a few devices, perhaps as many as ten diodes, transistors, resistors and capacitors, making it possible to fabricate one or more logic gates on a single device. Now known retrospectively as small-scale integration (SSI), improvements in technique led to devices with hundreds of logic gates, known as medium-scale integration (MSI). Further improvements led to large-scale integration (LSI), i.e. systems with at least a thousand logic gates. Current technology has moved far past this mark and today's microprocessors have many millions of gates and billions of individual transistors. At one time, there was an effort to name and calibrate various levels of large-scale integration above VLSI. Terms like ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) were used. But the huge number of gates and transistors available on common devices has rendered such fine distinctions moot. Terms suggesting greater than VLSI levels of integration are no longer in widespread use. In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available. This became more commonplace as semiconductor fabrication advanced from the then-current generation of 65 nm processes. Current designs, unlike the earliest devices, use extensive design automation and automated logic synthesis to lay out the transistors, enabling higher levels of complexity in the resulting logic functionality. Certain high-performance logic blocks like the SRAM (static random-access memory) cell, are still designed by hand to ensure the highest efficiency. Structured design Structured VLSI design is a modular methodology originated by Carver Mead and Lynn Conway for saving microchip area by minimizing the interconnect fabrics area. This is obtained by repetitive arrangement of rectangular macro blocks which can be interconnected using wiring by abutment. An example is partitioning the layout of an adder into a row of equal bit slices cells. In complex designs this structuring may be achieved by hierarchical nesting. Structured VLSI design had been popular in the early 1980s, but lost its popularity later because of the advent of placement and routing tools wasting a lot of area by routing, which is tolerated because of the progress of Moore's Law. When introducing the hardware description language KARL in the mid' 1970s, Reiner Hartenstein coined the term "structured VLSI design" (originally as "structured LSI design"), echoing Edsger Dijkstra's structured programming approach by procedure nesting to avoid chaotic spaghetti-structured programs. Difficulties As microprocessors become more complex due to technology scaling, microprocessor designers have encountered several challenges which force them to think beyond the design plane, and look ahead to post-silicon: Process variation – As photolithography techniques get closer to the fundamental laws of optics, achieving high accuracy in doping concentrations and etched wires is becoming more difficult and prone to errors due to variation. Designers now must simulate across multiple fabrication process corners before a chip is certified ready for production, or use system-level techniques for dealing with effects of variation. Stricter design rules – Due to lithography and etch issues with scaling, design rule checking for layout has become increasingly stringent. Designers must keep in mind an ever increasing list of rules when laying out custom circuits. The overhead for custom design is now reaching a tipping point, with many design houses opting to switch to electronic design automation (EDA) tools to automate their design process. Timing/design closure – As clock frequencies tend to scale up, designers are finding it more difficult to distribute and maintain low clock skew between these high frequency clocks across the entire chip. This has led to a rising interest in multicore and multiprocessor architectures, since an overall speedup can be obtained even with lower clock frequency by using the computational power of all the cores. First-pass success – As die sizes shrink (due to scaling), and wafer sizes go up (due to lower manufacturing costs), the number of dies per wafer increases, and the complexity of making suitable photomasks goes up rapidly. A mask set for a modern technology can cost several million dollars. This non-recurring expense deters the old iterative philosophy involving several "spin-cycles" to find errors in silicon, and encourages first-pass silicon success. Several design philosophies have been developed to aid this new design flow, including design for manufacturing (DFM), design for test (DFT), and Design for X. Electromigration See also Application-specific integrated circuit Caltech Cosmic Cube Interface Logic Model List of semiconductor fabrication plants Mead and Conway revolution Neuromorphic engineering Polysilicon System on a chip (SoC) References Further reading http://CMOSedu.com/ http://CMOSVLSI.com/ External links Lectures on Design and Implementation of VLSI Systems at Brown University Design of VLSI Systems Telecommunications engineering Integrated circuits MOSFETs

Whist is a classic English trick-taking card game which was widely played in the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the rules are simple, there is scope for strategic play. History Whist is a descendant of the 16th-century game of trump or ruff. Whist replaced the popular variant of trump known as ruff and honours. The game takes its name from the 17th-century whist (or wist) meaning quiet, silent, attentive, which is the root of the modern wistful. According to Daines Barrington, whist was first played on scientific principles by a party of gentlemen who frequented the Crown Coffee House in Bedford Row, London, around 1728. Edmond Hoyle, suspected to be a member of this group, began to tutor wealthy young gentlemen in the game and published A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist in 1742. It became the standard text and rules for the game for the next hundred years. In 1862, Henry Jones, writing under the pseudonym "Cavendish", published The Principles of Whist Stated and Explained, and Its Practice Illustrated on an Original System, by Means of Hands Played Completely Through, which became the standard text. In his book, Jones outlined a comprehensive history of Whist, and suggested that its ancestors could include a game called Trionf, mentioned by a sixteenth century Italian poet named Berni, and a game called Trump (or Triumph), mentioned in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. Many subsequent editions and enlargements of Jones's book were published using the simpler title Cavendish On Whist. By this time, whist was governed by elaborate and rigid rules covering the laws of the game, etiquette and play which took time to study and master. In the 1890s, a variant known as bridge whist became popular which eventually evolved into contract bridge. The traditional game of whist survives at social events called whist drives. There are many modern variants of whist played for fun. Rules A standard 52-card pack is used. The cards in each suit rank from highest to lowest: A K Q J 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2. Whist is played by four players, who play in two partnerships with the partners sitting opposite each other. Players draw cards to determine dealer and partners, with the two highest playing against the lowest two, who have seating rights. To comment on the cards in any way is strictly against the rules. One may not comment upon the hand one was dealt nor about one's good fortune or bad fortune. One may not signal to one's partner. Shuffling and dealing The cards can be shuffled by any player, though usually the player to dealer's left. The dealer has the right to shuffle last if they wish. To speed up dealing, a second pack can be shuffled by the dealer's partner during the deal and then placed to the right ready for the next hand. The cards are cut by the player on dealer's right before dealing. The dealer deals out the cards, one at a time, face down, so that each player has thirteen cards. The final card, which belongs to the dealer, is turned face up to indicate which suit is trumps. The turned-up trump card remains face up on the table until it is the dealer's turn to play to the first trick, at which point the dealer may pick up the card and place it in his/her hand. The deal advances clockwise. Play The player to the dealer's left leads to the first trick with any card in the hand. The other players, in clockwise order, each play a card to the trick and must follow suit by playing a card of the suit led if held. A player with no card of the suit led may play any card, either discarding or trumping. The trick is won by the highest card of the suit led, unless a trump is played, in which case the highest trump wins. The winner of the trick leads the next trick. Play continues until all thirteen tricks are played, at which point the score is recorded. If no team has enough points to win the game, another hand is played. Part of the skill involved in the game is one's ability to remember what cards have been played and reason out what cards remain. Therefore, once each trick is played, its cards are turned face down and kept in a stack of four near the player who won the trick. Before the next trick starts, a player may ask to review the cards from the last trick only. Once the lead card is played, however, no previously played cards can be reviewed by anyone. Scoring After all tricks have been played, the side that won more tricks scores one point for each trick won in excess of six. When all four players are experienced, it is unusual for the score for a single hand to be higher than two. A game is over when one team reaches a score of five. There are so-called "Hotel Rules" variations in which the teams agree to play to a higher score, such as "American" and "Long" (seven and nine, respectively). Longer variations of the game, in which the winning score is set higher than five, can be played with "honours" rules in effect. Honours have no effect on the play of a hand, but serve as bonus points that speed up the games as an element of luck. If the partners on a single team are dealt the top four cards (Ace, King, Queen, Jack) in the trump suit, they collect four additional points at the end of the hand; if they are dealt three of these cards, they score two points. Tricks are scored before honours, and the latter cannot be used to score the winning point. For example, a game is being played to nine points and the score is tied 6-6. A hand is played, and the winning team takes seven tricks and claims honours for three of the four highest trump cards. They score one point for their tricks, but only one point for their honours since the second point would take them up to nine and win the game. The score after the hand is thus 8-6. Methods of keeping score include whist marker devices, or a set of four metal counters which can be arranged in different formations for the score values 1 through 9. Basic tactics For the opening lead, it is best to lead your strongest suit, which is usually the longest. A singleton may also be a good lead, aiming at trumping in that suit, as one's partner should normally return the suit led. 1st hand: It is usual to lead the king from a sequence of honours that includes it, including AK (the lead of an ace therefore denies the king). 2nd hand usually plays low, especially with a single honour. However, it is often correct to split honours (play the lower of two touching honours) and to cover a J or 10 when holding Qx and cover a Q when holding the ace. 3rd hand usually plays high, though play the lowest of touching honours. The finesse can be a useful technique, especially in trumps where honours cannot be trumped if they are not cashed. Discards are usually low cards of an unwanted suit. However, when the opponents are drawing trumps a suit preference signal is given by throwing a low card of one's strongest suit. Terminology Deal One card at a time is given to each player by the dealer starting with the player on the dealer's left and proceeding clockwise until the deck is fully distributed. Dealer The player who deals the cards for a hand. Deck The pack of cards used for playing comprising, in the case of whist, 52 cards in four suits. Dummy In some variations of whist, a hand is turned face up and is played from by the player seated opposite. This allows for whist to be played by three players. Finesse The play of a lower honour even though holding a higher one, hoping that the intermediate honour is held by a player who has already played to the trick. To give an example: you hold the ace and queen of hearts. Your right-hand antagonist leads a heart, from which you infer that he holds the king of the same suit and wishes to draw the ace, in order to make his king. You however play the queen, and win the trick; still retaining your ace, ready to win again when he plays his king. Game Reaching a total score agreed beforehand to be the score played up to. Grand Slam The winning, by one team, of all thirteen tricks in a hand. Hand Thirteen tricks. (52 cards in the deck divided by four players equals thirteen cards per player.) Honours In some variations of whist, extra points are assigned after a game to a team if they were dealt the ace, king, queen, and jack (knave) of the trump suit. Lead The first card played in a trick. Lurch Rare or obsolete. To prevent one's adversary from scoring a treble [OED] or in the phrase 'save one's lurch' to just escape losing the game [Hoyle, Britannica 1911]. Pack See Deck. Rubber Three games. Small slam The winning, by one team, of twelve tricks in a hand. Tenace A suit holding containing the highest and third-highest of the suit or (the "minor tenace") second- and fourth-highest. Trick Four cards played one each by the players. Trump The suit chosen by the last-dealt card that will beat all other suits regardless of rank. If two or more trump cards are played in a single trick, the highest-ranking trump wins it. Variants The name "whist" has become attached to a wide variety of games, most based on Classic Whist. McLeod classifies Whist games into a number of sub-groups: the Auction Whist, Boston, Classic Whist and Exact Bidding groups, and games played by numbers of players other than four. The following is a selection within each sub-group. Auction whist group Bid Whist – a partnership game with bidding, popular among African Americans in the United States. Dutch Whist, similar to Diminishing Contract Whist, where up to seven players compete to win the most points by betting at the start of each round how many tricks they will win. In Dutch Whist, players start with one card in round one and go up to seven cards, then play a mid section of rounds with No Trumps (5 points per tick won), Misery (lose 5 points per trick 'won'), Blind (betting on number of tricks before cards are seen). Following the mid-section, seven further rounds are played, starting with seven cards and reducing to one. Trumps each round are pre-designated, following the pattern hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades. Scoring is based on 10 points for a correct bet, 1 point for every trick won (whether wanted or not). Siberian Vint – a predecessor and more primitive form of Vint, Skruuvi – a Finnish variant of Vint, which became common in Finland while it was a part of Russia Spades – a contract-type game similar to bid whist; the game's name comes from the fact that spades is always the trump suit. Tarneeb (played in the Arab world, a game in which the person who wins the bid picks the trump) Vint is a Russian card-game also known as Russian whist, with an ascending auction similar to bridge and more complex scoring than whist. Boston group Belgian Whist or Colour Whist (whist à la couleur or kleurwiezen) – a Belgian game similar to Solo Whist, but more elaborate) Boston – played in 19th-century Europe, played by Count Rostov in Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace. Diminishing Contract Whist – British variant, combining elements of Solo Whist, Bid Whist and knock-out whist, players compete individually, not in pairs, and after each hand has been dealt must name the number of tricks to take, scoring one point per trick and a bonus 10 for matching their contract. All 52 cards are dealt for the first hand, 48 for the second, 44 the next and so until a 13th round with just one trick. Trumps are pre-defined for each hand in sequence as: hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades, no trumps, lose all with no trumps — where you lose 10 points per trick taken and some players invariably end up in negative points — hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades, hearts, clubs, diamonds. The total number of tricks bid each round cannot match the number of tricks available, so the dealer each hand must bid with this constraint in mind — sometimes this constraint is waived for the final round if players agree in advance. The winner is the player who has accumulated the most points at the end of the final round. Solo Whist – played in Britain; a game where individuals can bid to win five, nine or thirteen tricks or to lose every trick. Classic whist group Double Sar (also played in south Asia, a variation of Court Piece in which tricks are only captured when the same player wins two tricks in succession. The player then captures all the unclaimed tricks up to that point.) Hokm, also known as Court piece or Rang, and alike troefcall (an originally Persian game) Minnesota whist – in which there are no trumps, and hands can be played to win tricks or to lose tricks; see also the very similar game of Norwegian whist. Swedish Whist – four-hand Swedish game with two contracts: red (positive) and black (negative). Exact bidding group Blob – British variant of Oh Hell in which players try to predict the exact number of tricks they will take and will be 'blobbed in' if wrong. Can be played with four or five players. Six cards each, total number of tricks bid for in each hand cannot add up to six. Person to left of dealer nominates trumps or no trumps and then becomes dealer for next hand.) Oh, Hell, Oh Pshaw or Nomination Whist – game for three to seven players in which the number of cards dealt is usually increased or decreased by one in each successive deal. Israeli Whist – game related to Oh, Hell, in which one tries to bid the exact number of tricks one will take. Rikiki – version of Oh, Hell played in Hungary. Romanian Whist – game in which players try to predict the exact number of tricks they will take; similar to Oh, Hell. Serbian whist – game in which players try to predict the exact number of tricks they will take, and each round players are dealt one card less. Whists for other numbers of players Dummy Whist – a three-player variant of bid whist. German Whist – British two-player adaptation of whist without bidding. Knock-out Whist, Trumps (UK) or Diminishing Whist – game in which a player who wins no trick is eliminated. Three-handed "widow" whist – in which an extra hand is dealt just to the left of the dealer. Unrelated games called 'whist' Catch the Ten (also known as Scotch whist) – two to eight players, 36 cards related to the Ace-Ten family. Whist drive A whist drive is a social event at which progressive games of whist are played across a number of tables which are numbered or ordered into a sequence. In it, the winning (or sometimes losing, dependent on the local custom) pair of a hand "progress" around the room, i.e. one person moves up the table sequence and one person moves down. On arriving at the new table, the next hand is played. By convention the pair who sits has shuffled and deals after the arriving pair has cut the pack. A progressive whist drive is normally 24 hands, with each hand being a different trump. Trumps normally follow the sequence: hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades. Sometimes a break for refreshments is taken after 12 hands. Literary references Three of Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes detective stories feature whist. In "The Adventure of the Empty House," Ronald Adair plays whist at one of his clubs shortly before he is murdered. In "The Adventure of the Devil's Foot," Brenda Tregennis plays whist with her brothers George, Mortimer and Owen shortly before she is murdered. In "The Red-Headed League," the banker Mr. Merryweather complains that he is missing his regular rubber of whist in order to help Holmes catch a bank robber. Barbey d'Aurevilly, in a story from Les diaboliques, The Underside of the Cards of a Game of Whist, traces the secret affair between a lady and an expert whist player, leading to an horrific act. Edgar Allan Poe briefly mentioned whist in his tale "The Murders in the Rue Morgue," alluding to the analytical mind needed to play: "[...] Whist has long been noted for its influence upon what is termed the calculating power; and men of the highest order of intellect have been known to take an apparently unaccountable delight in it, [...]" Jules Verne uses whist playing to describe Phileas Fogg in Around the World in Eighty Days: "[...] His only pastime was reading the papers and playing whist. He frequently won at this quiet game, so very appropriate to his nature;[...]" Whist also figures extensively in C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower series. Hornblower is featured as living off his winnings from playing whist while a half-pay Lieutenant, and famously playing whist with subordinate officers before a battle. The same is true in the Richard Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell and was used mainly to portray gambling much the same way poker is today. Whist is often enjoyed by Jack Aubrey and Stephen Maturin while at sea in the Aubrey–Maturin series of novels by Patrick O'Brian. In Scarlett, the sequel to Gone with the Wind, Alexandra Ripley mentions several times that Scarlett O'Hara is an extremely skillful whist player. Miss Elizabeth Bennett and Mr. Wickham discuss Mr. Darcy during a whist party in chapter 16 of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. The game is also mentioned in her books Mansfield Park, Emma, and Sense and Sensibility. In Nikolai Gogol's play The Inspector General, a character Hlestakov lies about playing whist with a group of influential ambassadors to look important. It is also prominent in Gogol's poema, "Dead Souls", and mentioned in the short story The overcoat. In the opening chapter of Leo Tolstoy's novella The Death of Ivan Ilyich the characters contrast the solemnity of the funeral ceremony with the desire to escape and play whist. Whist is played by many characters in Ivan Turgenev’s novel Fathers and Sons. In Middlemarch by George Eliot, the game is referenced numerous times as an aristocratic pursuit played frequently at the Vincy residence. In particular, the clergyman Mr. Farebrother supplements his income by playing for money, a pursuit looked down upon by many of his parishioners. In his autobiography, Groucho and Me, Groucho Marx talks about playing whist with an ex-girlfriend during a chapter on her husband's insomnia. In The Fiery Cross, Diana Gabaldon describes a high-stakes whist game between Jamie Fraser, "who was indeed an excellent card player. He also knew most of the possible ways of cheating at cards. However, whist was difficult, if not impossible to cheat at,” and Phylip Wylie, who had angered Fraser by making advances to his wife. In Life of Henry Clay, Carl Schurz notes that "his fondness for card-playing, which, although in his early years he had given up games of chance, still led him to squander but too much time upon whist." In DC Comics' Starman series it is revealed that The Shade is a whist player, and enjoyed playing with Brian Savage (it was also noted that The Shade would regularly win at whist, while Savage would regularly win at poker). In The Leopard, by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, members of the Falconeri family and the priest play the game, much to the joy of a Piedmontese guest, reassured of their civilized ways. In his autobiography, Harold Bauer: His Book, pianist Harold Bauer laments his inability to play well under pressure. "I suffered similarly whenever I played chess or whist, which excited me so terribly that I always had nightmares from the thought of how I might have played." The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad mentions the game: In Mary Boykin Chesnut's Civil War Diary, whist was the most frequently played card game in her social circle while she lived in Richmond, Virginia. In Colson Whitehead's The Underground Railroad, the game is mentioned as a way Ajarry was sold to another slaveowner. In R.L. Stine's Ghost Beach in the Goosebumps book series, the game is played by the protagonists. In The Pickwick Papers, Mr. Pickwick plays whist: The rubber was conducted with all that gravity of deportment and sedateness of demeanour which befit the pursuit entitled “whist”—a solemn observance, to which, as it appears to us, the title of “game” has been very irreverently and ignominiously applied In Great Expectations, Pip plays whist at Miss Havisham's house. In Lalka (The Doll), by Bolesław Prus, whist is mentioned in several scenes; Stanisław Wokulski and Tomasz Łęcki play for money. August Wilson's Seven Guitars Movie references In All American Chump (1936) math whiz Elmer (Stuart Erwin) mentions he plays whist, and is so good that nobody in his hometown will play with him because he always wins. In The Young Victoria when Lord Melbourne tries to provide advice to Prince Albert, the Prince tells him, "Lord Melbourne, forgive me but you seem to have confused me with a member of your club. I am not your drinking companion nor your whist partner. I am the husband of your sovereign. And as such, I will make my own decisions, and I neither seek nor invite your advice. Good evening." In 2018's The Favourite, Abigail Hill is mentioned to have become impoverished after her father lost their fortune at whist, along with various other references throughout. See also Euchre Bridge Napoleon Skat Solo whist Tarneeb Vint References External links Rules of Card Games: Whist Whist Counters, Whist Markers Whist on the Internet Archive (includes a number of 19th century manuals) A short treatise on the game of whist by Edmond Hoyle (1743) The Laws and Principles of Whist by Cavendish (1889) 18th-century card games English card games French deck card games Four-player card games

World music is an English phrase for styles of music from non-Western countries, including quasi-traditional, intercultural, and traditional music. World music's inclusive nature and elasticity as a musical category pose obstacles to a universal definition, but its ethic of interest in the culturally exotic is encapsulated in Roots magazine's description of the genre as "local music from out there". This music that does not follow "North American or British pop and folk traditions" was given the term "world music" by music industries in Europe and North America. The term was popularized in the 1980s as a marketing category for non-Western traditional music. It has grown to include subgenres such as ethnic fusion (Clannad, Ry Cooder, Enya, etc.) and worldbeat. Lexicology The term "world music" has been credited to ethnomusicologist Robert E. Brown, who coined it in the early 1960s at Wesleyan University in Connecticut, where he developed undergraduate through doctoral programs in the discipline. To enhance the learning process (John Hill), he invited more than a dozen visiting performers from Africa and Asia and began a world music concert series. The term became current in the 1980s as a marketing/classificatory device in the media and the music industry. There are several conflicting definitions for world music. One is that it consists of "all the music in the world", though such a broad definition renders the term virtually meaningless. Forms Examples of popular forms of world music include the various forms of non-European classical music (e.g. Chinese guzheng music, Indian raga music, Tibetan chants), Eastern European folk music (e.g. the village music of the Balkans, The Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices), Nordic folk music, Latin music, Indonesian music, and the many forms of folk and tribal music of the Middle East, Africa, Asia, Oceania, Central and South America. The broad category of world music includes isolated forms of ethnic music from diverse geographical regions. These dissimilar strains of ethnic music are commonly categorized together by virtue of their indigenous roots. Over the 20th century, the invention of sound recording, low-cost international air travel, and common access to global communication among artists and the general public have given rise to a related phenomenon called "crossover" music. Musicians from diverse cultures and locations could readily access recorded music from around the world, see and hear visiting musicians from other cultures and visit other countries to play their own music, creating a melting pot of stylistic influences. While communication technology allows greater access to obscure forms of music, the pressures of commercialization also present the risk of increasing musical homogeneity, the blurring of regional identities, and the gradual extinction of traditional local music-making practices. Hybrid examples Since the music industry established this term, the fuller scope of what an average music consumer defines as "world" music in today's market has grown to include various blends of ethnic music tradition, style and interpretation, and derivative world music genres have been coined to represent these hybrids, such as ethnic fusion and worldbeat. Good examples of hybrid, world fusion are the Irish-West African meld of Afro Celt Sound System, the pan-cultural sound of AO Music and the jazz / Finnish folk music of Värttinä, each of which bear tinges of contemporary, Western influence—an increasingly noticeable element in the expansion genres of world music. Worldbeat and ethnic fusion can also blend specific indigenous sounds with more blatant elements of Western pop. Good examples are Paul Simon's album Graceland, on which South African mbaqanga music is heard; Peter Gabriel's work with Pakistani Sufi singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan; the Deep Forest project, in which vocal loops from West Africa are blended with Western, contemporary rhythmic textures and harmony structure; and the work of Mango, who combined pop and rock music with world elements. Depending on style and context, world music can sometimes share the new-age music genre, a category that often includes ambient music and textural expressions from indigenous roots sources. Good examples are Tibetan bowls, Tuvan throat singing, Gregorian chant or Native American flute music. World music blended with new-age music is a sound loosely classified as the hybrid genre 'ethnic fusion'. Examples of ethnic fusion are Nicholas Gunn's "Face-to-Face" from Beyond Grand Canyon, featuring authentic Native American flute combined with synthesizers, and "Four Worlds" from The Music of the Grand Canyon, featuring spoken word from Razor Saltboy of the Navajo Indian Nation. World fusion The subgenre world fusion is often mistakenly assumed to refer exclusively to a blending of Western jazz fusion elements with world music. Although such a hybrid expression falls easily into the world fusion category, the suffix "fusion" in the term world fusion should not be assumed to mean jazz fusion. Western jazz combined with strong elements of world music is more accurately termed world fusion jazz, ethnic jazz or non-Western jazz. World fusion and global fusion are nearly synonymous with the genre term worldbeat, and though these are considered subgenres of popular music, they may also imply universal expressions of the more general term world music. In the 1970s and 80s, fusion in the jazz music genre implied a blending of jazz and rock music, which is where the misleading assumption is rooted. Precursors Millie Small released "My Boy Lollipop" in 1964. Small's version was a hit, reaching number 2 both in the UK Singles Chart and in the US Billboard Hot 100. In the 1960s, Miriam Makeba and Hugh Masekela had popular hits in the USA. In 1969 Indian musician Ravi Shankar played sitar at the Woodstock festival. In the 1970s, Manu Dibango's funky track "Soul Makossa" (1972) became a hit, and Osibisa released "Sunshine Day" (1976). Fela Kuti created Afrobeat and Femi Kuti, Seun Kuti and Tony Allen followed Fela Kuti's funky music. Salsa musicians such as José Alberto "El Canario", Ray Sepúlveda, Johnny Pacheco, Fania All-Stars, Ray Barretto, Rubén Blades, Gilberto Santa Rosa, Roberto Roena, Bobby Valentín, Eddie Palmieri, Héctor Lavoe and Willie Colón developed Latin music. The Breton musician Alan Stivell pioneered the connection between traditional folk music, modern rock music and world music with his 1972 album Renaissance of the Celtic Harp. Around the same time, Stivell's contemporary, Welsh singer-songwriter Meic Stevens popularised Welsh folk music. Neo-traditional Welsh language music featuring a fusion of modern instruments and traditional instruments such as the pibgorn and the Welsh harp has been further developed by Bob Delyn a'r Ebillion. Lebanese musical pioneer Lydia Canaan fused Middle-Eastern quarter notes and microtones with anglophone folk, and is listed in the catalog of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum's Library and Archives as the first rock star of the Middle East. Popular genres Although it primarily describes traditional music, the world music category also includes popular music from non-Western urban communities (e.g. South African "township" music) and non-European music forms that have been influenced by other so-called third-world musics (e.g. Afro-Cuban music). The inspiration of Zimbabwe's Thomas Mapfumo in blending the Mbira (finger Piano) style onto the electric guitar, saw a host of other Zimbabwean musicians refining the genre, none more successfully than The Bhundu Boys. The Bhundu Jit music hit Europe with some force in 1986, taking Andy Kershaw and John Peel fully under its spell. For many years, Paris has attracted numerous musicians from former colonies in West and North Africa. This scene is aided by the fact that there are many concerts and institutions that help to promote the music. Algerian and Moroccan music have an important presence in the French capital. Hundreds of thousands of Algerian and Moroccan immigrants have settled in Paris, bringing the sounds of Amazigh (Berber), raï, and Gnawa music. The West African music community is also very large, integrated by people from Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, and Guinea. Unlike musical styles from other regions of the globe, the American music industry tends to categorize Latin music as its own genre and defines it as any music sung in Spanish from the Spanish-speaking world. Western The most common name for this form of music is also "folk music", but is often called "contemporary folk music" or "folk revival music" to make the distinction. The transition was somewhat centered in the US and is also called the American folk music revival. Fusion genres such as folk rock and others also evolved within this phenomenon. 1987 industry meeting On 29 June 1987, a meeting of interested parties gathered to capitalize on the marketing of non-Western folk music. Paul Simon had released the world music-influenced album Graceland in 1986. The concept behind the album had been to express his own sensibilities using the sounds he had fallen in love with while listening to artists from Southern Africa, including Ladysmith Black Mambazo and Savuka. This project and the work of Peter Gabriel and Johnny Clegg among others had, to some degree, introduced non-Western music to a wider audience. They saw this as an opportunity. In an unprecedented move, all of the world music labels coordinated together and developed a compilation cassette for the cover of the music magazine NME. The overall running time was 90 minutes, each package containing a mini-catalog showing the other releases on offer. By the time of a second meeting it became clear that a successful campaign required its own dedicated press officer. The press officer would be able to juggle various deadlines and sell the music as a concept—not just to national stations, but also regional DJs keen to expand their musical variety. DJs were a key resource as it was important to make "world music" important to people outside London—most regions after all had a similarly heritage to tap into. A cost-effective way of achieving all this would be a leafleting campaign. The next step was to develop a world music chart, gathering together selling information from around fifty shops, so that it would finally be possible to see which were big sellers in the genre—so new listeners could see what was particularly popular. It was agreed that the NME could again be involved in printing the chart and also Music Week and the London listings magazine City Limits. It was also suggested that Andy Kershaw might be persuaded to do a run down of this chart on his show regularly. Relationship to immigration and multiculturalism In most wealthy industrialized countries, large amounts of immigration from other regions has been ongoing for many decades. This has introduced non-Western music to Western audiences not only as "exotic" imports, but also as local music played by fellow citizens. But the process is ongoing and continues to produce new forms. In the 2010s several musicians from immigrant communities in the West rose to global popularity, such as Haitian-American Wyclef Jean, Somali-Canadian K'naan, Tamil-Briton M.I.A., or Colombian Shakira, often blending the music of their heritage with hip-hop or pop. Cuban-born singer-songwriter Addys Mercedes started her international career from Germany mixing traditional elements of Son with pop. Once, an established Western artist might collaborate with an established African artist to produce an album or two. Now, new bands and new genres are built from the ground up by young performers. For example, the Punjabi-Irish fusion band Delhi 2 Dublin is from neither India nor Ireland, but Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Country for Syria, an Istanbul based music collective, blends American Country music with the music of Syrian refugees and local Turkish music. Musicians and composers also work collectively to create original compositions for various combinations of western and non western instruments. The introduction of non-western music into western culture created a fusion that influenced both parties. (Feld 31) With the quick demand for new music came the technicalities of ownership. As Feld states in page 31: “This complex traffic in sounds money and media is rooted in the nature of revitalization through appropriation.” There are collaborations between African and American popular music artists that raise questions on who is benefiting from said collaborations.(Feld 31) Feld mentions the example of “That was your mother”. Alton Rubin and his band the Twisters collaborated with Paul Simon on the song that possessed a zydeco feel, signature of Dopsie's band. Even though Paul Simon wrote and sang the lyrics with them, the whole copyright is attributed to Paul and not to the band as well. (Feld 34) Because of crossovers like this one, where there was a disproportional gain when covering non-western music. Feld states that “…international music scene, where worldwide media contact, amalgamation of the music industry towards world record sales domination by three enormous companies, and extensive copyright controls by a few Western countries are having a riveting effect on the commodification of musical skill and styles, and on the power of musical ownership.” (Feld 32) Immigration also heavily influences world music, providing a variety of options for the wider public. In the 1970s Punjabi music was greatly popular in the UK because of its growing Punjabi diaspora. (Schreffler 347) Bhangra music was also greatly covered by its diaspora in cities like New York and Chicago. (Schreffler 351) For a more mainstream integration, the Punjabi music scene integrated collaborations with rappers and started gaining more recognition. One of these successful attempts was a remix of the song “Mundiān ton Bach ke” called “Beware of the Boys” by Panjabi MC featuring Jay Z. (Schreffler 354) Collaborations between outsider artists provided an integration of their music, even with foreign instrumentation, into the popular music scene. Immigration, being a great part of music exportation, plays a big role in cultural identity. Immigrant communities use music to feel as if they are home and future generations it plays the role of educating or giving insight into what their culture is about. In Punjabi culture, music became the carrier of culture around the world. (Schreffler 355) Radio programs World music radio programs today often play African hip hop or reggae artists, crossover Bhangra and Latin American jazz groups, etc. Common media for world music include public radio, webcasting, the BBC, NPR, and the (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). By default, non-region-specific or multi-cultural world music projects are often listed under the generic category of world music. Examples of radio shows that feature world music include The Culture Cafe on WWUH West Hartford, World of Music on Voice of America, Transpacific Sound Paradise on WFMU, The Planet on Australia's ABC Radio National, DJ Edu presenting D.N.A: DestiNation Africa on BBC Radio 1Xtra, Adil Ray on the BBC Asian Network, Andy Kershaw's show on BBC Radio 3 and Charlie Gillett's show on the BBC World Service. Awards The BBC Radio 3 Awards for World Music was an award given to world music artists between 2002 and 2008, sponsored by BBC Radio 3. The award was thought up by fRoots magazine's editor Ian Anderson, inspired by the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards. Award categories included: Africa, Asia/Pacific, Americas, Europe, Mid East and North Africa, Newcomer, Culture Crossing, Club Global, Album of the Year, and Audience Award. Initial lists of nominees in each category were selected annually by a panel of several thousand industry experts. Shortlisted nominees were voted on by a twelve-member jury, which selected the winners in every category except for the Audience Award category. These jury members were appointed and presided over by the BBC. The annual awards ceremony was held at the BBC Proms and winners were given an award called a "Planet". In March 2009, the BBC made a decision to axe the BBC Radio 3 Awards for World Music. In response to the BBC's decision to end its awards program, the British world music magazine Songlines launched the Songlines Music Awards in 2009 "to recognise outstanding talent in world music". The WOMEX Awards were introduced in 1999 to honor the high points of world music on an international level and to acknowledge musical excellence, social importance, commercial success, political impact and lifetime achievement. Every October at the WOMEX event, the award figurine—an ancient mother goddess statue dating back about 6000 years to the Neolithic age—is presented in an award ceremony to a worthy member of the world music community. Festivals Many festivals are identified as being "world music"; here's a small representative selection: The WOMAD Foundation organizes festivals in countries around the world. Australia The Globe to Globe World Music Festival takes place in the City of Kingston, Melbourne, for 2 days each year in January. Bangladesh The Dhaka World Music Festival takes place in Dhaka. Belgium Sfinks Festival in Boechout, Belgium is a 4-day world music festival. Canada Sunfest is an annual 4-day world music festival that happens in London, Ontario, primarily in Victoria Park; it typically runs the weekend after Canada Day in early July. Croatia Ethnoambient is a two- or three-day world music festival held every summer since 1998 in Solin, Dalmatia, in southern Croatia. France The Festival de l'Inde takes place in Evian, Haute-Savoie. ("World Music Day") was initiated in 1982 in France. World Music Day has been celebrated on 21 June every year since then. Germany The TFF Rudolstadt takes place annually on the first full July weekend in Rudolstadt, Thuringia, Germany. The German World Music Festival der Klangfreunde takes place every first weekend of August, at Schlosspark Loshausen. Klangfreunde e. V. is a non-profit organization. Wilde Töne, Festival für Folk- und Weltmusik in Braunschweig Germany Ghana SUNSET MUSIC FESTIVAL (Free Electronic Dance Music Festival) was established in (2020) at Busua Beach in the Western Region, by Djsky S K Y M U S I C. Hungary WOMUFE (World Music Festival) in Budapest, Hungary (1992) The WOMEX when in Budapest (2015) Iceland Fest Afrika Reykjavík takes place every September. India Udaipur World Music Festival The Lakshminarayana Global Music Festival (LGMF) takes place annually during December–January, often across several major cities in India. The LGMF has also traveled to 22 countries. Indonesia Matasora World Music Festival is held in Bandung, Java. Iran The Fajr International Music Festival is Iran's most prestigious music festival, founded in 1986. The festival is affiliated with UNESCO and includes national and international competition sections. Since its establishment, many musicians from several countries like Austria, Germany, France have participated in the event. The festival has enjoyed a strong presence of Asian countries as well. Italy The Ariano Folkfestival is a five-day world music festival held every summer in Ariano Irpino, a small town in southern Italy. The World Music Festival Lo Sguardo di Ulisse was first held in 1997 in Campania, Italy. North Macedonia OFFest is a five-day world music festival held every summer since 2002 in Skopje. Malaysia The Rainforest World Music Festival is an annual three-day music festival held in Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. Mali The Festival au Désert took place every year from 2001 until 2012 in Mali, West Africa, and achieved international status in spite of the difficulties of reaching its location. Morocco Mawazine is a festival of world music that takes place annually in Rabat, Morocco, featuring Arab and international music icons. New Zealand A world music festival is held in New Plymouth, New Zealand, in early March each year, namely the New Zealand location of WOMAD. Nigeria World Music day is usually celebrated for one week in Lagos, Nigeria at different location around the state. Poland Poland's Cross-Culture Warsaw Festival is held in September each year. Brave Festival, Wrocław, Poland. July each year. Ethno Port, Poznań, Poland. June each year. Ethno Jazz Festival in Wrocław, Poland. Several events throughout the whole year. Different Sounds (Inne brzmienia), Lublin, Poland. July each year. Francophonic Festival in Warsaw, Poland. March each year. Nowa Tradycja (New Tradition), Warsaw, Poland. May each year. Siesta Festival, Gdańsk, Poland. First edition in April/May 2011. Portugal Festival Músicas do Mundo, Sines, Setúbal District is a world music festival first held in 1998. Romania Méra World Music Festival takes place annually at the end of July or the beginning of August (including the first weekend of August) in the rural farms of Méra village (Kalotaszeg Region/ Țara Călatei, Cluj County, Romania). It was held for the first time in 2016 and it is the only world music festival in Transylvania. Besides the diverse international musical program, "Méra World Music" offers a unique insight into the local traditional folk culture. "Plai Festival" in Timișoara Serbia The Serbia World Music Festival is a three-day world music festival held every summer in Takovo, a small village in central Serbia. Spain Spain's most important world music festivals are: Etnosur, in Alcalá la Real, Jaén (Andalucía region) Pirineos Sur, in Aragón region Festival Internacional de Música Popular Tradicional in Vilanova i la Geltrú / Vilanova International World Music Festival (Catalonia) La Mar de Músicas, in Cartagena (Murcia region) Fira Mediterrània, in Manresa (Catalonia) The WOMEX when in Seville (2003, 2006, 2007, 2008) Territorios, in Seville Sweden The "Yoga Mela" Yoga & Sacred Music Festival is held annually in Skåne County. Tanzania Sauti za Busara is an all-African music festival, held every year in February in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Turkey Konya Mystic Music Festival is held annually in Konya since 2004, in recent years in commemoration of Rumi's birthday. The festival features traditional music from around the world with a mystical theme, religious function or sacred content. The Fethiye World Music Festival presents musicians from different countries of the world. Uganda The Milege World Music Festival has become a big festival in Uganda inviting musicians and fans from all over Africa and the rest of the world to enjoy live music, games, sports and so on. The festival runs for three consecutive days every November at the Botanical Gardens, Entebbe, Uganda. Ukraine Svirzh World Music Festival (Lviv region) United Kingdom Glastonbury Festival is an annual five-day festival of contemporary performing arts held in Pilton, Somerset, near Glastonbury. Musicport World Music Festival is held annually at The Spa Pavilion, Whitby, North Yorkshire. The Music Village Festival is held every two years in London and has been running since 1987. It is organised by the Cultural Co-operation. Drum Camp, established in 1996, is a unique world music festival, combining singing, dancing, and drumming workshops during the day with live concerts at night. World Music Month, started in October 1987, is a music festival held at the O2 Forum Kentish Town in London; it was the start of the winter season for both WOMAD and Arts Worldwide. WOMAD Charlton Park has been running annually since 1986 and is held at Charlton Park in Wiltshire. United States The Sierra Nevada World Music Festival is an annual music festival held every June on the weekend of or the weekend following the summer solstice. It is currently held at the Mendocino County Fairgrounds in Boonville, California. The Lotus World Music & Arts Festival is a four-day event held each September in Bloomington, Indiana. The California World Music Festival is held each July at the Nevada County Fairgrounds. The World Sacred Music Festival is held annually in Olympia, Washington, sponsored by Interfaith Works. FloydFest in Floyd, Virginia, United States, has featured artists from a wide diversity of styles. The Finger Lakes GrassRoots Festival of Music and Dance in Trumansburg, New York, has featured artists from a variety of world and ethnic music genres. Stern Grove Festival is a San Francisco celebration of musical and cultural diversity, including symphony orchestras and operatic stars. The Starwood Festival is a seven-day neopagan, new age, multicultural and world music festival that has been held in July every year since 1981 at various locations in the United States. The World Music and Dance Festival is held annually each spring at the California Institute of the Arts. See also References Citations General sources Nidel, Richard (2004). World Music: The Basics. . access-date 2010-04-24 Bernard, Yvan, and Nathalie Fredette (2003). Guide des musiques du monde: une selection de 100 CD. Rév., Sophie Sainte-Marie. Montréal: Éditions de la Courte échelle. N.B.: Annotated discography. Manuel, Peter (1988). Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: An Introductory Survey. New York: Oxford University Press. . N'Dour, Youssou. "Foreword" to Nickson, Chris (2004). The NPR Curious Listener's Guide to World Music. . Sorce Keller, Marcello (1996). "Of Minority Musics, Preservation, and Multiculturalism: Some Considerations". In Echo der Vielfalt: traditionelle Musik von Minderheiten/ethnischen Gruppen = Echoes of Diversity: Traditional Music of Ethnic Groups/Minorities, Schriften zur Volksmusik 16, edited by Ursula Hemetek and Emil H. Lubej, 41–47. Vienna, Cologne, and Weimar: Böhlau Verlag. . Reprinted in Sonus 18, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 33–41. Wergin, Carsten (2007). World Music: A Medium for Unity and Difference? EASA Media Anthropology Network: http://www.media-anthropology.net/wergin_worldmusic.pdf. World Music Network—Guides to World Music: http://www.worldmusic.net/guide/ An Introduction to Music Studies, Chapter 6: Henry Stobart, ‘World Musics’. External links Music Listings—Top-ranking free world music podcasts List of World Music Festivals Sounds and Colours—magazine about South American music and culture World Music at SKY.FM—A free world music radio channel World Music Central—World Music news, reviews, articles and resources Rhythm Passport—World music/global beats event listings website for the UK Wilde Töne – Festival for Folk- and Weltmusic in Braunschweig, Germany Traditional music Indigenous music

Western Sahara ( ; ; ) is a disputed territory on the northwest coast and in the Maghreb region of North and West Africa. About 20% of the territory is controlled by the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, while the remaining 80% of the territory is occupied and administered by neighboring Morocco. Its surface area amounts to . It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly consisting of desert flatlands. The population is estimated at just over 500,000, of which nearly 40% live in Laayoune, the largest city in Western Sahara. Occupied by Spain until 1975, Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories since 1963 after a Moroccan demand. It is the most populous territory on that list, and by far the largest in area. In 1965, the United Nations General Assembly adopted its first resolution on Western Sahara, asking Spain to decolonize the territory. One year later, a new resolution was passed by the General Assembly requesting that a referendum be held by Spain on self-determination. In 1975, Spain relinquished the administrative control of the territory to a joint administration by Morocco (which had formally claimed the territory since 1957) and Mauritania. A war erupted between those countries and a Sahrawi nationalist movement, the Polisario Front, which proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) with a government in exile in Tindouf, Algeria. Mauritania withdrew its claims in 1979, and Morocco eventually secured de facto control of most of the territory, including all major cities and most natural resources. The United Nations considers the Polisario Front to be the legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people, and maintains that the Sahrawis have a right to self-determination. Since a United Nations-sponsored ceasefire agreement in 1991, two-thirds of the territory (including most of the Atlantic coastline—the only part of the coast outside the Moroccan Western Sahara Wall is the extreme south, including the Ras Nouadhibou peninsula) has been administered by the Moroccan government, with tacit support from France and the United States, and the remainder by the SADR, backed by Algeria. Internationally, countries such as Russia have taken a generally ambiguous and neutral position on each side's claims, and have pressed both parties to agree on a peaceful resolution. Both Morocco and Polisario have sought to boost their claims by accumulating formal recognition, especially from African, Asian, and Latin American states in the developing world. The Polisario Front has won formal recognition for SADR from 46 states, and was extended membership in the African Union. Morocco has won support for its position from several African governments and from most of the Muslim world and Arab League. In both instances, recognitions have, over the past two decades, been extended and withdrawn back and forth, depending on the development of relations with Morocco. , no other member state of the United Nations had ever officially recognized Moroccan sovereignty over parts of Western Sahara. In 2020, the United States recognized Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara in exchange for Moroccan normalization of relations with Israel. In 1984, the African Union's predecessor, the Organization of African Unity, recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as one of its full members, with the same status as Morocco, and Morocco protested by suspending its membership to the OAU. Morocco was readmitted in the African Union on 30 January 2017 by ensuring that the conflicting claims between Morocco and the SADR would be solved peacefully and stopping the extension of its exclusive military control by building additional walls. Until their conflict is resolved, the African Union has not issued any formal statement about the border separating the sovereign territories of Morocco and the SADR in Western Sahara. Instead, the African Union participates with the United Nations mission, in order to maintain a ceasefire and reach a peace agreement between its two members. The African Union provides peacekeeping contingent to the UN mission which is deployed to control a buffer zone near the ''de facto'' border of walls built by Morocco within Western Sahara. Geography Western Sahara is located on the northwest coast in West Africa and on the cusp of North Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean to the northwest, Morocco proper to the north-northeast, Algeria to the east-northeast, and Mauritania to the east and south. Among the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, the land along the coast is low flat desert and rises, especially in the north, to small mountains reaching up to on the eastern side. While the area can experience flash flooding in the spring, there are no permanent streams. At times, a cool off-shore current can produce fog and heavy dew. The interior experiences extreme summer heat, with average highs reaching in July and in August; during winter, days are still hot to very hot, with average highs from ; however, in the northern part of the territory, the thermometer may drop below at night and it can be freezing in December and in January, although this is rare. Western Sahara contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Saharan halophytics, Mediterranean acacia-argania dry woodlands and succulent thickets, Atlantic coastal desert, and North Saharan steppe and woodlands. History Early history The earliest known inhabitants of Western Sahara were the Gaetuli. Depending on the century, Roman-era sources describe the area as inhabited by Gaetulian Autololes or the Gaetulian Daradae tribes. Berber heritage is still evident from regional and place-name toponymy, as well as from tribal names. Other early inhabitants of Western Sahara may be the Bafour and later the Serer. The Bafour were later replaced or absorbed by Berber-speaking populations, which eventually merged in turn with the migrating Beni Ḥassān Arab tribes. The arrival of Islam in the 8th century played a major role in the development of the Maghreb region. Trade developed further, and the territory may have been one of the routes for caravans, especially between Marrakesh and Tombouctou in Mali. In the 11th century, the Maqil Arabs (fewer than 200 individuals) settled in Morocco (mainly in the Draa River valley, between the Moulouya River, Tafilalt and Taourirt). Towards the end of the Almohad Caliphate, the Beni Hassan, a sub-tribe of the Maqil, were called by the local ruler of the Sous to quell a rebellion; they settled in the Sous Ksours and controlled such cities as Taroudant. During Marinid dynasty rule, the Beni Hassan rebelled but were defeated by the Sultan and escaped beyond the Saguia el-Hamra dry river. The Beni Hassan then were at constant war with the Lamtuna nomadic Berbers of the Sahara. Over roughly five centuries, through a complex process of acculturation and mixing seen elsewhere in the Maghreb and North Africa, some of the indigenous Berber tribes mixed with the Maqil Arab tribes and formed a culture unique to Morocco and Mauritania. Spanish province While initial Spanish interest in the Sahara was focused on using it as a port for the slave trade, by the 1700s Spain had transitioned economic activity on the Saharan coast towards commercial fishing. After an agreement among the European colonial powers at the Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheres of influence in Africa, Spain seized control of Western Sahara and established it as a Spanish colony. After 1939 and the outbreak of World War II, this area was administered by Spanish Morocco. As a consequence, Ahmed Belbachir Haskouri, the Chief of Cabinet, General Secretary of the Government of Spanish Morocco, cooperated with the Spanish to select governors in that area. The Saharan lords who were already in prominent positions, such as the members of Maa El Ainain family, provided a recommended list of candidates for new governors. Together with the Spanish High Commissioner, Belbachir selected from this list. During the annual celebration of Muhammad's birthday, these lords paid their respects to the caliph to show loyalty to the Moroccan monarchy.As time went by, Spanish colonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonization after World War II; former North African and sub-Saharan African possessions and protectorates gained independence from European powers. Spanish decolonization proceeded more slowly, but internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up towards the end of Francisco Franco's rule. There was a global trend towards complete decolonization. Spain began rapidly to divest itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. By 1974–75 the government issued promises of a referendum on independence in Western Sahara. At the same time, Morocco and Mauritania, which had historical and competing claims of sovereignty over the territory, argued that it had been artificially separated from their territories by the European colonial powers. Algeria, which also bordered the territory, viewed their demands with suspicion, as Morocco also claimed the Algerian provinces of Tindouf and Béchar. After arguing for a process of decolonization to be guided by the United Nations, the Algerian government under Houari Boumédiènne in 1975 committed to assisting the Polisario Front, which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independence of Western Sahara. The UN attempted to settle these disputes through a visiting mission in late 1975, as well as a verdict from the International Court of Justice (ICJ). It acknowledged that Western Sahara had historical links with Morocco and Mauritania, but not sufficient to prove the sovereignty of either State over the territory at the time of the Spanish colonization. The population of the territory thus possessed the right of self-determination. On 6 November 1975 Morocco initiated the Green March into Western Sahara; 350,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya in southern Morocco and waited for a signal from King Hassan II of Morocco to cross the border in a peaceful march. A few days before, on 31 October, Moroccan troops invaded Western Sahara from the north. Demands for independence In the waning days of General Franco's rule, and after the Green March, the Spanish government signed a tripartite agreement with Morocco and Mauritania as it moved to transfer the territory on 14 November 1975. The accords were based on a bipartite administration, and Morocco and Mauritania each moved to annex the territories, with Morocco taking control of the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces, and Mauritania taking control of the southern third as Tiris al-Gharbiyya. Spain terminated its presence in Spanish Sahara within three months, repatriating Spanish remains from its cemeteries. The Moroccan and Mauritanian annexations were resisted by the Polisario Front, which had gained backing from Algeria. It initiated guerrilla warfare and, in 1979, Mauritania withdrew due to pressure from Polisario, including a bombardment of its capital and other economic targets. Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory. It gradually contained the guerrillas by setting up the extensive sand-berm in the desert (known as the Border Wall or Moroccan Wall) to exclude guerrilla fighters. Hostilities ceased in a 1991 cease-fire, overseen by the peacekeeping mission MINURSO, under the terms of a UN Settlement Plan. Stalling of the referendum and Settlement Plan The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, foresaw giving the local population the option between independence or affirming integration with Morocco, but it quickly stalled. In 1997, the Houston Agreement attempted to revive the proposal for a referendum but likewise has hitherto not had success. , negotiations over terms have not resulted in any substantive action. At the heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies to be registered to participate in the referendum, and, since about the year 2000, Morocco considers that since there is no agreement on persons entitled to vote, a referendum is not possible. Meanwhile, Polisario still insisted on a referendum with independence as a clear option, without offering a solution to the problem of who is qualified to be registered to participate in it. Both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum. The Polisario has insisted on only allowing those found on the 1974 Spanish Census lists (see below) to vote, while Morocco has insisted that the census was flawed by evasion and sought the inclusion of members of Sahrawi tribes that escaped from Spanish invasion to the north of Morocco by the 19th century. Efforts by the UN special envoys to find a common ground for both parties did not succeed. By 1999 the UN had identified about 85,000 voters, with nearly half of them in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara or Southern Morocco, and the others scattered between the Tindouf refugee camps, Mauritania and other places of exile. Polisario accepted this voter list, as it had done with the previous list presented by the UN (both of them originally based on the Spanish census of 1974), but Morocco refused and, as rejected voter candidates began a mass-appeals procedure, insisted that each application be scrutinized individually. This again brought the process to a halt. According to a NATO delegation, MINURSO election observers stated in 1999, as the deadlock continued, that "if the number of voters does not rise significantly the odds were slightly on the SADR side". By 2001, the process had effectively stalemated and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore other, third-way solutions. Indeed, shortly after the Houston Agreement (1997), Morocco officially declared that it was "no longer necessary" to include an option of independence on the ballot, offering instead autonomy. Erik Jensen, who played an administrative role in MINURSO, wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which they were destined to lose (see Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate). Baker Plan As personal envoy of the Secretary-General, James Baker visited all sides and produced the document known as the "Baker Plan". This was discussed by the United Nations Security Council in 2000, and envisioned an autonomous Western Sahara Authority (WSA), which would be followed after five years by the referendum. Every person present in the territory would be allowed to vote, regardless of birthplace and with no regard to the Spanish census. It was rejected by both sides, although it was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft, tens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers but by Morocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum, and the ballot would be split three ways by the inclusion of an unspecified "autonomy", further undermining the independence camp. Morocco was also allowed to keep its army in the area and retain control over all security issues during both the autonomy years and the election. In 2002, the Moroccan king stated that the referendum idea was "out of date" since it "cannot be implemented"; Polisario retorted that that was only because of the King's refusal to allow it to take place. In 2003, a new version of the plan was made official, with some additions spelling out the powers of the WSA, making it less reliant on Moroccan devolution. It also provided further detail on the referendum process in order to make it harder to stall or subvert. This second draft, commonly known as Baker II, was accepted by the Polisario as a "basis of negotiations" to the surprise of many. This appeared to abandon Polisario's previous position of only negotiating based on the standards of voter identification from 1991 (i.e. the Spanish census). After that, the draft quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the UN Security Council's unanimous endorsement of the plan in the summer of 2003. End of the 2000s Baker resigned his post at the United Nations in 2004; his term did not see the crisis resolved. His resignation followed several months of failed attempts to get Morocco to enter into formal negotiations on the plan, but he was met with rejection. The new king, Mohammed VI of Morocco, opposes any referendum on independence, and has said Morocco will never agree to one: "We shall not give up one inch of our beloved Sahara, not a grain of its sand." Instead, he proposes, through an appointed advisory body Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), a self-governing Western Sahara as an autonomous community within Morocco. His father, Hassan II of Morocco, initially supported the referendum idea in principle in 1982, and signed contracts with Polisario and the UN in 1991 and 1997. No major powers have expressed interest in forcing the issue, however, and Morocco has shown little interest in a real referendum. The UN has put forth no replacement strategy after the breakdown of Baker II, and renewed fighting has been raised as a possibility. In 2005, former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan reported increased military activity on both sides of the front and breaches of several cease-fire provisions against strengthening military fortifications. Morocco has repeatedly tried to engage Algeria in bilateral negotiations, based on its view of Polisario as the cat's paw of the Algerian military. It has received vocal support from France and occasionally (and currently) from the United States. These negotiations would define the exact limits of a Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule but only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of the Polisario Front. Demonstrations and riots by supporters of independence or a referendum broke out in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara in May 2005 and in parts of southern Morocco (notably the town of Assa). They were met by police. Several international human rights organizations expressed concern at what they termed abuse by Moroccan security forces, and a number of Sahrawi activists have been jailed. Pro-independence Sahrawi sources, including the Polisario, have given these demonstrations the name "Independence Intifada", while most sources have tended to see the events as being of limited importance. International press and other media coverage have been sparse, and reporting is complicated by the Moroccan government's policy of strictly controlling independent media coverage within the territory. Demonstrations and protests still occur, even after Morocco declared in February 2006 that it was contemplating a plan for devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory but still explicitly refused any referendum on independence. As of January 2007, the plan had not been made public, though the Moroccan government claimed that it was more or less complete. Polisario has intermittently threatened to resume fighting, referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as a breach of the cease-fire terms, but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely without the green light from Algeria, which houses the Sahrawis' refugee camps and has been the main military sponsor of the movement. In April 2007, the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity, through the Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for Western Sahara. The project was presented to the UN Security Council in mid-April 2007. The stalemating of the Moroccan proposal options has led the UN in the recent "Report of the UN Secretary-General" to ask the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution. The 2010s In October 2010 Gadaym Izik camp was set up near Laayoune as a protest by displaced Sahrawi people about their living conditions. It was home to more than 12,000 people. In November 2010 Moroccan security forces entered Gadaym Izik camp in the early hours of the morning, using helicopters and water cannon to force people to leave. The Polisario Front said Moroccan security forces had killed a 26-year-old protester at the camp, a claim denied by Morocco. Protesters in Laayoune threw stones at police and set fire to tires and vehicles. Several buildings, including a TV station, were also set on fire. Moroccan officials said five security personnel had been killed in the unrest. On 15 November 2010, the Moroccan government accused the Algerian secret services of orchestrating and financing the Gadaym Izik camp with the intent to destabilize the region. The Spanish press was accused of mounting a campaign of disinformation to support the Sahrawi initiative, and all foreign reporters were either prevented from traveling or else expelled from the area. The protest coincided with a fresh round of negotiations at the UN. In 2016, the European Union (EU) declared that "Western Sahara is not part of Moroccan territory." In March 2016, Morocco "expelled more than 70 U.N. civilian staffers with MINURSO" due to strained relations after Ban Ki-moon called Morocco's annexation of Western Sahara an "occupation". The 2020s In November 2020, the ceasefire between the Polisario Front and Morocco broke down, leading to armed clashes between both sides. On 10 December 2020, the United States announced that it would recognize full Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara in exchange for Morocco establishing relations with Israel. Politics Sovereignty over Western Sahara is contested between Morocco and the Polisario Front and its legal status remains unresolved. The United Nations considers it to be a "non-self-governing territory". Formally, Morocco is administered by a bicameral parliament under a constitutional monarchy. The last elections to the parliament's lower house were deemed reasonably free and fair by international observers. Certain powers, such as the capacity to appoint the government and to dissolve parliament, remain in the hands of the monarch. The Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces that are treated as integral parts of the kingdom. The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes the Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fuel and related subsidies, to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants from Sahrawis and other communities in Morocco proper. The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-party parliamentary and presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into a multi-party system at the achievement of independence. It is presently based at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which it controls. It also controls the part of Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan Wall, known as the liberated territories. This area has a very small population, estimated to be approximately 30,000 nomads. The Moroccan government views it as a no-man's land patrolled by UN troops. The SADR government whose troops also patrol the area have proclaimed a village in the area, Bir Lehlou and Tifariti, as SADR's former and actual temporary factual capitals. On 18 December 2019, the Comoros became the first nation to open a consulate in Laayoune in support of Moroccan claims to Western Sahara. In January 2020, The Gambia and Guinea opened consulates in Dakhla; meanwhile, Gabon opened a consulate general in Laayoune. As part of the Moroccan-Israeli normalisation deal, the United States established a temporary consulate post in Dakhla in January 2021 as a transition to establishing a permanent consulate within the near future. Human rights The Western Sahara conflict has resulted in severe human-rights abuses, constantly reported by external reporters and HR activists, most notably the displacement of tens of thousands of Sahrawi civilians from the country, the expulsion of tens of thousands of Moroccan civilians by the Algerian government from Algeria, and numerous casualties of war and repression. During the war years (1975–1991), both sides accused each other of targeting civilians. Moroccan claims of Polisario terrorism has generally little to no support abroad, with the US, EU, AU and UN all refusing to include the group on their lists of terrorist organizations. Polisario leaders maintain that they are ideologically opposed to terrorism, and insist that collective punishment and forced disappearances among Sahrawi civilians should be considered state terrorism on the part of Morocco. Both Morocco and the Polisario additionally accuse each other of violating the human rights of the populations under their control, in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara and the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, respectively. Morocco and organizations such as France Libertés consider Algeria to be directly responsible for any crimes committed on its territory, and accuse the country of having been directly involved in such violations. Morocco has been repeatedly criticized for its actions in Western Sahara by international human rights organizations including: Amnesty International Human Rights Watch World Organization Against Torture Freedom House Reporters Without Borders International Committee of the Red Cross UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Derechos Human Rights Defend International Front Line International Federation for Human Rights Society for Threatened Peoples Norwegian Refugee Council The POLISARIO has received criticism from the French organisation France Libertes on its treatment of Moroccan prisoners of war, and on its general behaviour in the Tindouf refugee camps in reports by the Belgian commercial counseling society ESISC. Social anthropologist of the Sahara Desert, Konstantina Isidoros, said that in both 2005 and 2008, ESISC issued two near-identical reports proclaiming distorted truths that Polisario is evolving to new fears terrorism, radical Islamism or international crime. According Isidoros "lies appear to play some peculiar importance in this report". Jacob Mundi considers this report as a part of the Moroccan propaganda designed to discredit the Polisario Front. A number of former Polisario officials who have defected to Morocco accuse the organization of abuse of human rights and sequestration of the population in Tindouf. Administrative divisions Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Wilayah Daerah (See Districts of Western Sahara) Moroccan regions and provinces Three Moroccan regions are within or partly within Western Sahara: Guelmim-Oued Noun Region Assa-Zag Province Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra Region Boujdour Province Es Semara Province Laâyoune Province Tarfaya Province Dakhla-Oued Ed-Dahab Region Aousserd Province Oued Eddahab Province Morocco controls territory to the west of the berm (border wall) while the Sahrawi Republic controls territory to the east (see map on right). Dispute Western Sahara was partitioned between Morocco and Mauritania in April 1976, with Morocco acquiring the northern two-thirds of the territory. When Mauritania, under pressure from Polisario guerrillas, abandoned all claims to its portion in August 1979, Morocco moved to occupy that sector shortly thereafter and has since asserted administrative control over the whole territory. The official Moroccan government name for Western Sahara is the "Southern Provinces", consisting of the Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra regions. The portion not under the control of the Moroccan government is the area that lies between the border wall and the actual border with Algeria (for map see Minurso map). The Polisario Front claims to run this as the Free Zone on behalf of the SADR. The area is patrolled by Polisario forces, and access is restricted, even among Sahrawis, due to the harsh climate of the Sahara, the military conflict and the abundance of land mines. Landmine Action UK undertook preliminary survey work by visiting the Polisario-controlled area of Western Sahara in October 2005 and February–March 2006. A field assessment in the vicinity of Bir Lahlou, Tifariti and the berms revealed that the densest concentrations of mines are in front of the berms. Mines were laid in zigzags up to one meter apart, and in some parts of the berms, there are three rows of mines. There are also berms in the Moroccan-controlled zone, around Dakhla and stretching from Boujdour, including Smara on the Moroccan border. Mine-laying was not restricted to the vicinity of the berms though, as occupied settlements throughout the Polisario-controlled areas, such as Bir Lahlou and Tifariti, are ringed by mines laid by Moroccan forces. Despite this, the area is traveled and inhabited by many Sahrawi nomads from the Tindouf refugee camps of Algeria and the Sahrawi communities in Mauritania. United Nations MINURSO forces are also present in the area. The UN forces oversee the cease-fire between Polisario and Morocco agreed upon in the 1991 Settlement Plan. The Polisario forces (of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army (SPLA)) in the area are divided into seven "military regions", each controlled by a top commander reporting to the President of the Polisario proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. The total size of the Polisario's guerrilla army present in this area is unknown, but it is believed to number a few thousand men, despite many combatants being demobilized due to the cease-fire. These forces are dug into permanent positions, such as gun emplacements, defensive trenches and underground military bases, as well as conducting mobile patrols of the territory. Major Sahrawi political events, such as Polisario congresses and sessions of the Sahrawi National Council (the SADR parliament in exile) are held in the Free Zone (especially in Tifariti and Bir Lehlou), since it is politically and symbolically important to conduct political affairs on Sahrawi territory. In 2005, MINURSO lodged a complaint to the Security Council of the United Nations for "military maneuvers with real fire which extends to restricted areas" by Morocco. A concentration of forces for the commemoration of the Saharawi Republic's 30th anniversary were subject to condemnation by the United Nations, as it was considered an example of a cease-fire violation to bring such a large force concentration into the area. In late 2009, Moroccan troops performed military maneuvers near Umm Dreiga, in the exclusion zone, violating the cease-fire. Both parties have been accused of such violations by the UN, but to date there has been no serious hostile action from either side since 1991. Annual demonstrations against the Moroccan Wall are staged in the region by Sahrawis and international activists from Spain, Italy, and other mainly European countries. These actions are closely monitored by the UN. UN sponsored peace talks, the first in six years between Morocco and Polisario, were held in Geneva on 5 December 2018, with both sides agreeing to meet again in a few months for further talks. During the joint Moroccan–Mauritanian control of the area, the Mauritanian-controlled part, roughly corresponding to Saquia el-Hamra, was known as Tiris al-Gharbiyya. Economy Aside from its rich fishing waters and phosphate reserves, Western Sahara has few natural resources and lacks sufficient rainfall and freshwater resources for most agricultural activities. Western Sahara's much-touted phosphate reserves are relatively unimportant, representing less than two percent of proven phosphate reserves in Morocco. There is speculation that there may be off-shore oil and natural gas fields, but the debate persists as to whether these resources can be profitably exploited, and if this would be legally permitted due to the Non-Self-Governing status of Western Sahara (see below). Western Sahara's economy is based almost entirely on fishing, which employs two-thirds of its workforce, with mining, agriculture and tourism providing modest additional income. Most food for the urban population comes from Morocco. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan government (as its de facto southern province). The government has encouraged citizens to relocate to the territory by giving subsidies and price controls on basic goods. These heavy subsidies have created a state-dominated economy in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara. In 2011, leaked United States diplomatic cables revealed that the territory is somewhat of an economic burden for Morocco; the Moroccan US$800 million subsidy program to Western Sahara was said to be one of the larger per-capita aid programs in history. Supporting life in a territory with scarce freshwater resources is extremely costly. For example, all drinking water for the city of Laayoune comes from desalinization facilities and costs 3 US dollars per cubic meter but is sold at the national price of 0.0275 US dollars; the difference is paid for by the government of Morocco. Fuel is sold at half the price, and basic goods are heavily subsidized; businesses operating in the territory do not pay taxes. All of this is done to keep the balance of Western Sahara's finances. The territory is otherwise thought to be economically unviable and unable to support its population without the Moroccan subsidies. The cable concluded that the territory is unlikely ever to be of any economic benefit for Morocco, even if offshore oil fields were to be discovered and exploited. Due to the disputed nature of Moroccan sovereignty over the territory, the application of international accords to Western Sahara is highly ambiguous. Political leadership of trade agreement signatories such as the United States (US-Morocco Free Trade Agreement) and Norway (European Free Trade Association trade accord) have made statements as to these agreements' non-applicability – although practical policy application is ambiguous. Exploitation of natural resources After reasonably exploitable oil fields were located in Mauritania, speculation intensified on the possibility of major oil resources being located off the coast of Western Sahara. Despite the fact that findings remain inconclusive, both Morocco and the Polisario have signed deals with oil and gas exploration companies. US and French companies (notably Total and Kerr-McGee) began prospecting on behalf of the Moroccan Office National de Recherches et d'Exploitations Petrolières (ONAREP). In 2002, Hans Corell, Under-Secretary General of the United Nations and head of its Office of Legal Affairs, issued a legal opinion on the matter. The opinion was rendered following an analysis of relevant provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, the United Nations General Assembly resolutions, the case law of the International Court of Justice and the practice of sovereign states. It concluded that while the existing exploration contracts for the area were not illegal, "if further exploration and exploitation activities were to proceed in disregard of the interests and wishes of the people of Western Sahara, they would be in violation of the principles of international law." After pressures from corporate ethics-groups, Total S.A. pulled out in late 2004. In May 2006, the remaining company, Kerr-McGee, also left, following sales of numerous share holders like the National Norwegian Oil Fund, due to continued pressure from NGOs and corporate groups. In December 2014, it became known that Seabird Exploration operated controversial seismic surveys offshore Western Sahara, in violation of the 2002 Hans Corell legal opinion. The European Union fishing agreements with Morocco include Western Sahara. In a previously confidential legal opinion (published in February 2010, although it was forwarded in July 2009), the European Parliament's Legal Service opined that fishing by European vessels under a current EU – Morocco fishing agreement covering Western Sahara's waters is in violation of international law. Similarly, the exploitation of phosphate mines in Bou Craa has led to charges of international law violations and divestment from several European states. Demographics The indigenous population of Western Sahara is usually known in Western media as Sahrawis, but they are also referred to in Morocco as "Southerners" or "Southern Berbers". They are Hassaniya-speaking or Berber-speaking tribes of Berber origin (97% of Y-DNA). Many of them have mixed Berber-Arab heritage, effectively continuations of the tribal groupings of Hassaniya-speaking and Zenaga-Berber speaking Moorish tribes extending south into Mauritania and north into Morocco as well as east into Algeria. The Sahrawis are traditionally nomadic Bedouins with a lifestyle very similar to that of the Tuareg Berbers from whom Sahrawis most likely have descended, and they can be found in all surrounding countries. War and conflict has led to major population displacement. As of July 2004, an estimated 267,405 people (excluding about 160,000 Moroccan military personnel) lived in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara. Many people from parts of Morocco have come to live in the territory, and these latest arrivals are today thought to outnumber the indigenous Western Sahara Sahrawis. The precise size and composition of the population is subject to political controversy. The Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara are barren. This area has a sparse population, estimated to be approximately 30,000 in 2008. The population is primarily made up of nomads who engage in herding camels back and forth between the Tindouf area and Mauritania. The presence of land mines scattered throughout the territory by the Moroccan army makes this a dangerous way of life. Spanish census and MINURSO A 1974 Spanish census claimed there were some 74,000 Sahrawis in the area at the time (in addition to approximately 20,000 Spanish residents), but this number is likely to be on the low side, due to the difficulty in counting a nomad people, even if Sahrawis were by the mid-1970s mostly urbanized. Despite these possible inaccuracies, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on using the Spanish census as the basis for voter registration when striking a cease-fire agreement in the late 1980s, contingent on the holding of a referendum on independence or integration into Morocco. In December 1999, the United Nations' MINURSO mission announced that it had identified 86,425 eligible voters for the referendum that was supposed to be held under the 1991 Settlement plan and the 1997 Houston accords. By "eligible voter" the UN referred to any Sahrawi over 18 years of age that was part of the Spanish census or could prove their descent from someone who was. These 86,425 Sahrawis were dispersed between Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara and the refugee camps in Algeria, with smaller numbers in Mauritania and other places of exile. These numbers cover only Sahrawis 'indigenous' to Western Sahara during the Spanish colonial period, not the total number of "ethnic" Sahrawis (i.e., members of Sahrawi tribal groupings), who also extend into Mauritania, Morocco and Algeria. The number was highly politically significant due to the expected organization of a referendum on self-determination. The Polisario has its home base in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, and declares the number of Sahrawi population in the camps to be approximately 155,000. Morocco disputes this number, saying it is exaggerated for political reasons and for attracting more foreign aid. The UN uses a number of 90,000 "most vulnerable" refugees as basis for its food aid program. Culture The major ethnic group of Western Sahara are the Sahrawis, a nomadic or Bedouin ethnic group speaking the Hassānīya dialect of Arabic, also spoken in much of Mauritania. They are of mixed Arab-Berber descent, but claim descent from the Beni Hassan, an Arab tribe that migrated across the desert in the 11th century. Physically indistinguishable from the Hassaniya speaking Moors of Mauritania, the Sahrawi people differ from their neighbours partly because of different tribal affiliations (as tribal confederations cut across present modern boundaries) and partly as a consequence of their exposure to Spanish colonial domination. Surrounding territories were generally under French colonial rule. Like other Saharan Bedouin and Hassaniya groups, the Sahrawis are mostly Muslims of the Sunni branch and the Maliki fiqh. Local religious custom (Urf) is, like other Saharan groups, heavily influenced by pre-Islamic Berber and African practices, and differs substantially from urban practices. For example, Sahrawi Islam has traditionally functioned without mosques, in an adaptation to nomadic life. The original clan-/tribe-based society underwent a massive social upheaval in 1975 when the war forced part of the population to settle in the refugee camps of Tindouf, Algeria, where they remain. Families were broken up by the dispute. The Museum of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army is located in this refugee camp. This museum is dedicated to the struggle for the independence of Western Saharan people. It presents weapons, vehicles and uniforms, as well as abundant documentation history. Cross-cultural influence The contemporary history of the territory has experienced long-term international presence and occupation that has deeply influenced the cultural practices of the people, such as languages spoken throughout the territory and its institutions. Spanish colonization lasted roughly from 1884 to 1976, following the creation of the Madrid Accords where Spain absolved all responsibility over the territory and left it to Morocco and Mauritania. Throughout the nine decades of Spanish colonial presence, one of the primary spoken languages in Western Sahara came to be Spanish. The reasons for its widespread usage was due to the necessity of communicating with Spanish leadership and administrators throughout the territory, who ultimately established institutions modeled after those of Spain. The importance and prevalence of Spanish has persisted to the present day, even after Spanish withdrawal from Western Sahara in 1976, due to various education exchanges and host programs for Sahrawi children to Spain and Cuba. One such exchange program to Spain is Vacaciones en Paz (Vacations in Peace), which is an annual holiday program that was created in 1988 and is organized by the Union of Sahrawi Youth (UJSARIO) in collaboration with 300 other associations throughout Spain. The program itself allows 7,000 to 10,000 Sahrawi children between the ages of 8 and 12 the opportunity to live in Spain for the summer outside of the refugee camps. Sometimes children return to the same Spanish household year after year while they are still eligible, and forge strong relationships with their host families. These types of exchange programs that successfully create cross-border and cross-cultural relationships reinforce the usage of the Spanish language throughout subsequent generations of Sahrawi children. Gender relations Much Spanish literature and recent refugee studies scholarship has been dedicated to the exploration of the major role women play in Sahrawi society, and the degree of freedom they experience within the occupied territory and the refugee camps. There is a consensus among Sahrawi women that they have always enjoyed a large degree of freedom and influence within the Sahrawi community. Traditionally, women have played pivotal roles in Sahrawi culture, as well as in efforts to resist colonialism and foreign interference in their territory. Similar to other nomadic traditions on the African continent, Sahrawi women traditionally exercised significant power and roles both in the camp and in their tents. Sahrawi women could inherit property, and subsist independently from their fathers, brothers, husbands, and other male relatives. Women were key for establishing alliances through marriage, being that the Sahrawi culture values monogamy, with their tribe and to others. Furthermore, Sahrawi women were endowed with major responsibility for the camp during long periods of absence by the men of the camp due to war or trade. Among the responsibilities women had were setting up, repairing, and moving the tents of the camp, and participating in major tribal decisions. In the contemporary history of Western Sahara, women have occupied central roles and been highly represented in the political sphere. During Spanish colonial rule, Sahrawi women actively provided financial and physical support to the resistance movements during the 1930s, 1950s, and the late 1960s. In more official ways, women were consistently part of the Polisario Front, which in 1994 created the National Union of Sahrawi Women (NUSW). The NUSW was structured at the local, regional, and national levels and concentrated on four areas: the occupied territories and emigration, information and culture, political and professional development, and foreign affairs. Art and cultural expression FiSahara International Film Festival is an annual film festival that takes place in one of the southwestern refugee camps in Algeria. At this event, actors, directors, and film industry insiders from around the world join the Sahrawi people for a week-long festival of screenings, parallel activities, and concerts. The festival provides entertainment and educational opportunities for Sahrawi refugees alongside cultural celebrations for visitors and spectators. It aims to raise awareness of the humanitarian crises in the refugee camps, and expose the Sahrawi people to this medium of art and expression. Highly renowned Spanish filmmakers and actors, such as Javier Bardem, Penélope Cruz, and Pedro Almodóvar have supported and attended the festival. In 2013, the festival screened over 15 films from around the world including comedies, short films, animations, and documentaries. Some of the films were made by the refugees themselves. Art as embodied in film has been a strong and popular medium that Sahrawi youth have used to express themselves, and share their stories of conflict and exile. ARTifariti, the International Art and Human Rights Meeting in Western Sahara, is an annual art workshop set up in the Liberated Zone and refugee camps, specifically in Tifariti, that brings artists from all over the world. This event led to the introduction of graffiti art to the camps, and popular graffiti artists have come to the workshop to work with refugees. One such artist was Spanish street artist MESA, who travelled to the Sahrawi refugee camps in 2011 and displayed his own graffiti throughout the landscape. His canvases of choice were destroyed walls, which he brought back to life through his art. MESA inspired other Sahrawis to express themselves and embody their national struggle through art and graffiti. One such artist is Mohamed Sayad, a Sahrawi artist that has been transforming the refugee camp landscape by creating works of art amongst the devastation in camps that have existed for four decades. His canvases, much like MESA, are walls that have been ruined by massive floods in the Sahrawi refugee camps in southwestern Algeria. Sayad's work tells a consistent story, one that draws on his experience of protracted conflict and a life under Moroccan occupation. Sayad's graffiti depicts aspects of Sahrawi culture and includes actual Sahrawi people as his subjects. Poetry is a popular artform in Sahrawi culture, and is composed by both men and women. Notable poets include: Al Khadra Mabrook, Hadjatu Aliat Swelm, Beyibouh El Haj. Traditionally, Sahrawi poetry was performed and passed on orally: younger poets would undergo 'apprenticeships to more experienced ones, today the internet is a key way in which Sahrawi poetry is transmitted between and within generations. However Sahrawi poets find it difficult to be published, especially by Arabic publishers, due to the political nature of much of their output. See also Bibliography of Western Sahara List of cities in Western Sahara Music of Western Sahara Outline of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Telecommunications in Western Sahara Transport in Western Sahara United Nations Security Council Resolution 1979 List of states with limited recognition List of national border changes since World War I References Bibliography Sources and further reading Irene Fernández-Molina and Matthew Porges. 2019. "Western Sahara." in Routledge Handbook of State Recognition. External links General information Country Profile from BBC News. Western Sahara. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. United Nations The United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) MINURSO Deployment map as of February 2009. Reports of the UN Secretary General Human rights Human rights in Morocco and Western-Sahara , Amnesty International. Human rights in Morocco and Western-Sahara, Human Rights Watch. The Sahrawi Association of Victims of Grave Human Rights Violations Committed by the Moroccan State (ASVDH) Association for the Families of Sahrawi Prisoners and the Disappeared (AFAPREDESA) Other links News headline links from AllAfrica.com. Western Sahara, Landmine Monitor Report 2008 (Baker Plan debate). Western Sahara Online (pro-Morocco) Sahara Press Service (pro-Polisario) Fanack.com independent website that provides non-partisan facts and analysis of the MENA region Maghrebi countries Saharan countries Arabic-speaking countries and territories Disputed territories in Africa Territorial disputes of Morocco Former Spanish colonies Countries in Africa Spanish-speaking countries and territories

A wire-frame model, also wireframe model, is a visual representation of a three-dimensional (3D) physical object used in 3D computer graphics. It is created by specifying each edge of the physical object where two mathematically continuous smooth surfaces meet, or by connecting an object's constituent vertices using (straight) lines or curves. The object is projected into screen space and rendered by drawing lines at the location of each edge. The term "wire frame" comes from designers using metal wire to represent the three-dimensional shape of solid objects. 3D wire frame computer models allow for the construction and manipulation of solids and solid surfaces. 3D solid modeling efficiently draws higher quality representations of solids than conventional line drawing. Using a wire-frame model allows for the visualization of the underlying design structure of a 3D model. Traditional two-dimensional views and drawings/renderings can be created by the appropriate rotation of the object, and the selection of hidden line removal via cutting planes. Since wire-frame renderings are relatively simple and fast to calculate, they are often used in cases where a relatively high screen frame rate is needed (for instance, when working with a particularly complex 3D model, or in real-time systems that model exterior phenomena). When greater graphical detail is desired, surface textures can be added automatically after the completion of the initial rendering of the wire frame. This allows a designer to quickly review solids, or rotate objects to different views without the long delays associated with more realistic rendering, or even the processing of faces and simple flat shading. The wire frame format is also well-suited and widely used in programming tool paths for direct numerical control (DNC) machine tools. Hand-drawn wire-frame-like illustrations date back as far as the Italian Renaissance. Wire-frame models were also used extensively in video games to represent 3D objects during the 1980s and early 1990s, when "properly" filled 3D objects would have been too complex to calculate and draw with the computers of the time. Wire-frame models are also used as the input for computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). There are three main types of 3D computer-aided design (CAD) models; wire frame is the most abstract and least realistic. The other types are surface and solid. The wire-frame method of modelling consists of only lines and curves that connect the points or vertices and thereby define the edges of an object. Simple example of wireframe model An object is specified by two tables: (1) Vertex Table, and, (2) Edge Table. The vertex table consists of three-dimensional coordinate values for each vertex with reference to the origin. Edge table specifies the start and end vertices for each edge. A naive interpretation could create a wire-frame representation by simply drawing straight lines between the screen coordinates of the appropriate vertices using the edge list. Unlike representations designed for more detailed rendering, face information is not specified (it must be calculated if required for solid rendering). Appropriate calculations have to be performed to transform the 3D coordinates of the vertices into 2D screen coordinates. See also Animation 3D computer graphics Computer animation Computer-generated imagery (CGI) Mockup Polygon mesh Vector graphics Virtual cinematography References Principles of Engineering Graphics by Maxwell Macmillan International Editions ASME Engineer's Data Book by Clifford Matthews Engineering Drawing by N.D. Bhatt Texturing and Modeling by Davis S. Ebert 3D Computer Graphics by Alan Watt Computer graphics data structures 3D imaging Virtual reality

Walking (also known as ambulation) is one of the main gaits of terrestrial locomotion among legged animals. Walking is typically slower than running and other gaits. Walking is defined by an 'inverted pendulum' gait in which the body vaults over the stiff limb or limbs with each step. This applies regardless of the usable number of limbs—even arthropods, with six, eight, or more limbs, walk. Difference from running The word walk is descended from the Old English wealcan "to roll". In humans and other bipeds, walking is generally distinguished from running in that only one foot at a time leaves contact with the ground and there is a period of double-support. In contrast, running begins when both feet are off the ground with each step. This distinction has the status of a formal requirement in competitive walking events. For quadrupedal species, there are numerous gaits which may be termed walking or running, and distinctions based upon the presence or absence of a suspended phase or the number of feet in contact any time do not yield mechanically correct classification. The most effective method to distinguish walking from running is to measure the height of a person's centre of mass using motion capture or a force plate at midstance. During walking, the centre of mass reaches a maximum height at midstance, while running, it is then at a minimum. This distinction, however, only holds true for locomotion over level or approximately level ground. For walking up grades above 10%, this distinction no longer holds for some individuals. Definitions based on the percentage of the stride during which a foot is in contact with the ground (averaged across all feet) of greater than 50% contact corresponds well with identification of 'inverted pendulum' mechanics and are indicative of walking for animals with any number of limbs, although this definition is incomplete. Running humans and animals may have contact periods greater than 50% of a gait cycle when rounding corners, running uphill or carrying loads. Speed is another factor that distinguishes walking from running. Although walking speeds can vary greatly depending on many factors such as height, weight, age, terrain, surface, load, culture, effort, and fitness, the average human walking speed at crosswalks is about 5.0 kilometres per hour (km/h), or about 1.4 meters per second (m/s), or about 3.1 miles per hour (mph). Specific studies have found pedestrian walking speeds at crosswalks ranging from for older individuals and from for younger individuals; a brisk walking speed can be around . In Japan, the standard measure for walking speed is 80 m/min (4.8 km/h). Champion racewalkers can average more than over a distance of . An average human child achieves independent walking ability at around 11 months old. Health benefits Regular, brisk exercise of any kind can improve confidence, stamina, energy, weight control and life expectancy and reduces stress. It can also decrease the risk of coronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood pressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Scientific studies have also shown that walking, besides its physical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind, improving memory skills, learning ability, concentration, mood, and abstract reasoning. Sustained walking sessions for a minimum period of thirty to sixty minutes a day, five days a week, with the correct walking posture, reduce health risks and have various overall health benefits, such as reducing the chances of cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, anxiety disorder and depression. Life expectancy is also increased even for individuals suffering from obesity or high blood pressure. Walking also improves bone health, especially strengthening the hip bone, and lowering the harmful low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and raising the useful high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Studies have found that walking may also help prevent dementia and Alzheimer's. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's fact sheet on the "Relationship of Walking to Mortality Among U.S. Adults with Diabetes" states that those with diabetes who walked for 2 or more hours a week lowered their mortality rate from all causes by 39 percent. Women who took 4,500 steps to 7,500 steps a day seemed to have fewer premature deaths compared to those who only took 2,700 steps a day. "Walking lengthened the life of people with diabetes regardless of age, sex, race, body mass index, length of time since diagnosis and presence of complications or functional limitations." It has been suggested that there is a relationship between the speed of walking and health, and that the best results are obtained with a speed of more than 2.5 mph (4 km/h). Governments now recognize the benefits of walking for mental and physical health and are actively encouraging it. This growing emphasis on walking has arisen because people walk less nowadays than previously. In the UK, a Department of Transport report found that between 1995/97 and 2005 the average number of walk trips per person fell by 16%, from 292 to 245 per year. Many professionals in local authorities and the National Health Service are employed to halt this decline by ensuring that the built environment allows people to walk and that there are walking opportunities available to them. Professionals working to encourage walking come mainly from six sectors: health, transport, environment, schools, sport and recreation, and urban design. One program to encourage walking is "The Walking the Way to Health Initiative", organized by the British walkers association The Ramblers, which is the largest volunteer led walking scheme in the United Kingdom. Volunteers are trained to lead free Health Walks from community venues such as libraries and doctors' surgeries. The scheme has trained over 35,000 volunteers and has over 500 schemes operating across the UK, with thousands of people walking every week. A new organization called "Walk England" launched a web site in June 2008 to provide these professionals with evidence, advice, and examples of success stories of how to encourage communities to walk more. The site has a social networking aspect to allow professionals and the public to ask questions, post news and events, and communicate with others in their area about walking, as well as a "walk now" option to find out what walks are available in each region. Similar organizations exist in other countries and recently a "Walking Summit" was held in the United States. This "assembl[ed] thought-leaders and influencers from business, urban planning and real estate, [along with] physicians and public health officials", and others, to discuss how to make American cities and communities places where "people can and want to walk". Walking is more prevalent in European cities that have dense residential areas mixed with commercial areas and good public transportation. Origins It is theorized that "walking" among tetrapods originated underwater with air-breathing fish that could "walk" underwater, giving rise (potentially with vertebrates like Tiktaalik) to the plethora of land-dwelling life that walk on four or two limbs. While terrestrial tetrapods are theorised to have a single origin, arthropods and their relatives are thought to have independently evolved walking several times, specifically in insects, myriapods, chelicerates, tardigrades, onychophorans, and crustaceans. Little skates, members of the demersal fish community, can propel themselves by pushing off the ocean floor with their pelvic fins, using neural mechanisms which evolved as early as 420 million years ago, before vertebrates set foot on land. Judging from footprints discovered on a former shore in Kenya, it is thought possible that ancestors of modern humans were walking in ways very similar to the present activity as many as 3 million years ago. Variants Scrambling is a method of ascending a hill or mountain that involves using both hands, because of the steepness of the terrain. Of necessity, it will be a slow and careful form of walking and with possibly of occasional brief, easy rock climbing. Some scrambling takes place on narrow exposed ridges where more attention to balance will be required than in normal walking. Snow shoeing – A snowshoe is a footwear for walking over the snow. Snowshoes work by distributing the weight of the person over a larger area so that the person's foot does not sink completely into the snow, a quality called "flotation". It is often said by snowshoers that if you can walk, you can snowshoe. This is true in optimal conditions, but snowshoeing properly requires some slight adjustments to walking. The method of walking is to lift the shoes slightly and slide the inner edges over each other, thus avoiding the unnatural and fatiguing "straddle-gait" that would otherwise be necessary. A snowshoer must be willing to roll his or her feet slightly as well. An exaggerated stride works best when starting out, particularly with larger or traditional shoes. Cross-country skiing – originally conceived like snow shoes as a means of travel in deep snow. Trails hiked in the summer are often skied in the winter and the Norwegian Trekking Association maintains over 400 huts stretching across thousands of kilometres of trails which hikers can use in the summer and skiers in the winter. Beach walking is a sport that is based on a walk on the sand of the beach. Beach walking can be developed on compact sand or non-compact sand. There are beach walking competitions on non-compact sand, and there are world records of beach walking on non-compact sand in Multiday distances. Beach walking has a specific technique of walk. Nordic walking is a physical activity and a sport, which is performed with specially designed walking poles similar to ski poles. Compared to regular walking, Nordic walking (also called pole walking) involves applying force to the poles with each stride. Nordic walkers use more of their entire body (with greater intensity) and receive fitness building stimulation not present in normal walking for the chest, lats, triceps, biceps, shoulder, abdominals, spinal and other core muscles that may result in significant increases in heart rate at a given pace. Nordic walking has been estimated as producing up to a 46% increase in energy consumption, compared to walking without poles. Pedestrianism is a sport that developed during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and was a popular spectator sport in the British Isles. By the end of the 18th century, and especially with the growth of the popular press, feats of foot travel over great distances (similar to a modern ultramarathon) gained attention, and were labeled "pedestrianism". Interest in the sport, and the wagering which accompanied it, spread to the United States, Canada, and Australia in the 19th century. By the end of the 19th century, Pedestrianism was largely displaced by the rise in modern spectator sports and by controversy involving rules, which limited its appeal as a source of wagering and led to its inclusion in the amateur athletics movement. Pedestrianism was first codified in the last half of the 19th century, evolving into what would become racewalking, By the mid 19th century, competitors were often expected to extend their legs straight at least once in their stride, and obey what was called the "fair heel and toe" rule. This rule, the source of modern racewalking, was a vague commandment that the toe of one foot could not leave the ground before the heel of the next foot touched down. This said, rules were customary and changed with the competition. Racers were usually allowed to jog in order to fend off cramps, and it was distance, not code, which determined gait for longer races. Newspaper reports suggest that "trotting" was common in events. Speed walking is the general term for fast walking. Within the Speed Walking category are a variety of fast walking techniques: Power Walking, Fit Walking, etc. Power walking is the act of walking with a speed at the upper end of the natural range for walking gait, typically 7 to 9 km/h (4.5 to 5.5 mph). To qualify as power walking as opposed to jogging or running, at least one foot must be in contact with the ground at all times. Racewalking is a long-distance athletic event. Although it is a foot race, it is different from running in that one foot must appear to be in contact with the ground at all times. Stride length is reduced, so to achieve competitive speeds, racewalkers must attain cadence rates comparable to those achieved by Olympic 800-meter runners, and they must do so for hours at a time since the Olympic events are the 20 km (12.4 mi) race walk (men and women) and 50 km (31 mi) race walk (men only), and 50-mile (80.5 km) events are also held. See also pedestrianism above. Afghan walking: The Afghan Walk is a rhythmic breathing technique synchronized with walking. It was born in the 1980s on the basis of the observations made by the Frenchman Édouard G. Stiegler, during his contacts with Afghan caravaners, capable of making walks of more than 60 km per day for dozens of days. Biomechanics Human walking is accomplished with a strategy called the double pendulum. During forward motion, the leg that leaves the ground swings forward from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. The process of walking recovers approximately sixty per cent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamics and ground reaction force. Walking differs from a running gait in a number of ways. The most obvious is that during walking one leg always stays on the ground while the other is swinging. In running there is typically a ballistic phase where the runner is airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals). Another difference concerns the movement of the centre of mass of the body. In walking the body "vaults" over the leg on the ground, raising the centre of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running where the centre of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy. There is an absolute limit on an individual's speed of walking (without special techniques such as those employed in speed walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the centre of mass during a stride – if it is greater than the acceleration due to gravity the person will become airborne as they vault over the leg on the ground. Typically, however, animals switch to a run at a lower speed than this due to energy efficiencies. Based on the 2D inverted pendulum model of walking, there are at least five physical constraints that place fundamental limits on walking like an inverted pendulum. These constraints are: take-off constraint, sliding constraint, fall-back constraint, steady-state constraint, high step-frequency constraint. Leisure activity Many people enjoy walking as a recreation in the mainly urban modern world, and it is one of the best forms of exercise. For some, walking is a way to enjoy nature and the outdoors; and for others the physical, sporting and endurance aspect is more important. There are a variety of different kinds of walking, including bushwalking, racewalking, beach walking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking, trekking, dog walking and hiking. Some people prefer to walk indoors on a treadmill, or in a gym, and fitness walkers and others may use a pedometer to count their steps. Hiking is the usual word used in Canada, the United States and South Africa for long vigorous walks; similar walks are called tramps in New Zealand, or hill walking or just walking in Australia, the UK and the Irish Republic. In the UK, rambling is also used. Australians also bushwalk. In English-speaking parts of North America, the term walking is used for short walks, especially in towns and cities. Snow shoeing is walking in snow; a slightly different gait is required compared with regular walking. Tourism In terms of tourism, the possibilities range from guided walking tours in cities, to organized trekking holidays in the Himalayas. In the UK the term walking tour also refers to a multi-day walk or hike undertaken by a group or individual. Well-organized systems of trails exist in many other European counties, as well as Canada, United States, New Zealand, and Nepal. Systems of lengthy waymarked walking trails now stretch across Europe from Norway to Turkey, Portugal to Cyprus. Many also walk the traditional pilgrim routes, of which the most famous is El Camino de Santiago, The Way of St. James. Numerous walking festivals and other walking events take place each year in many countries. The world's largest multi-day walking event is the International Four Days Marches Nijmegen in the Netherlands. The "Vierdaagse" (Dutch for "Four day Event") is an annual walk that has taken place since 1909; it has been based at Nijmegen since 1916. Depending on age group and category, walkers have to walk 30, 40 or 50 kilometers each day for four days. Originally a military event with a few civilians, it now is a mainly civilian event. Numbers have risen in recent years, with over 40,000 now taking part, including about 5,000 military personnel. Due to crowds on the route, since 2004 the organizers have limited the number of participants. In the U.S., there is the annual Labor Day walk on Mackinac Bridge, Michigan, which draws over 60,000 participants; it is the largest single-day walking event; while the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Walk in Maryland draws over 50,000 participants each year. There are also various walks organised as charity events, with walkers sponsored for a specific cause. These walks range in length from two miles (3 km) or five km to 50 miles (80 km). The MS Challenge Walk is an 80 km or 50-mile walk which raises money to fight multiple sclerosis, while walkers in the Oxfam Trailwalker cover 100 km or 60 miles. Rambling In Britain, The Ramblers, a registered charity, is the largest organisation that looks after the interests of walkers, with some 100,000 members. Its "Get Walking Keep Walking" project provides free route guides, led walks, as well as information for people new to walking. The Long Distance Walkers Association in the UK is for the more energetic walker, and organizes lengthy challenge hikes of 20 or even 50 miles (30 to 80 km) or more in a day. The LDWA's annual "Hundred" event, entailing walking 100 miles or 160 km in 48 hours, takes place each British Spring Bank Holiday weekend. Walkability There has been a recent focus among urban planners in some communities to create pedestrian-friendly areas and roads, allowing commuting, shopping and recreation to be done on foot. The concept of walkability has arisen as a measure of the degree to which an area is friendly to walking. Some communities are at least partially car-free, making them particularly supportive of walking and other modes of transportation. In the United States, the active living network is an example of a concerted effort to develop communities more friendly to walking and other physical activities. An example of such efforts to make urban development more pedestrian friendly is the pedestrian village. This is a compact, pedestrian-oriented neighborhood or town, with a mixed-use village center, that follows the tenets of New Pedestrianism. Shared-use lanes for pedestrians and those using bicycles, Segways, wheelchairs, and other small rolling conveyances that do not use internal combustion engines. Generally, these lanes are in front of the houses and businesses, and streets for motor vehicles are always at the rear. Some pedestrian villages might be nearly car-free with cars either hidden below the buildings or on the periphery of the village. Venice, Italy is essentially a pedestrian village with canals. The canal district in Venice, California, on the other hand, combines the front lane/rear street approach with canals and walkways, or just walkways. Walking is also considered to be a clear example of a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and/or relatively shorter distances. Non-motorized transport modes such as walking, but also cycling, small-wheeled transport (skates, skateboards, push scooters and hand carts) or wheelchair travel are often key elements of successfully encouraging clean urban transport. A large variety of case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate walking as a means of transportation in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport. The development of specific rights of way with appropriate infrastructure can promote increased participation and enjoyment of walking. Examples of types of investment include pedestrian malls, and foreshoreways such as oceanways and also river walks. The first purpose-built pedestrian street in Europe is the Lijnbaan in Rotterdam, opened in 1953. The first pedestrianised shopping centre in the United Kingdom was in Stevenage in 1959. A large number of European towns and cities have made part of their centres car-free since the early 1960s. These are often accompanied by car parks on the edge of the pedestrianised zone, and, in the larger cases, park and ride schemes. Central Copenhagen is one of the largest and oldest: It was converted from car traffic into pedestrian zone in 1962. In robotics Generally, the first successful walking robots had six legs. As microprocessor technology advanced, the number of legs could be reduced and there are now robots that can walk on two legs. One, for example, is ASIMO. Although there has been significant advances, robots still do not walk nearly as well as human beings as they often need to keep their knees bent permanently in order to improve stability. In 2009, Japanese roboticist Tomotaka Takahashi developed a robot that can jump three inches off the ground. The robot, named Ropid, is capable of getting up, walking, running, and jumping. Animals Horses The walk is a four-beat gait that averages about . When walking, a horse's legs follow this sequence: left hind leg, left front leg, right hind leg, right front leg, in a regular 1-2-3-4 beat. At the walk, the horse will always have one foot raised and the other three feet on the ground, save for a brief moment when weight is being transferred from one foot to another. A horse moves its head and neck in a slight up and down motion that helps maintain balance. Ideally, the advancing rear hoof oversteps the spot where the previously advancing front hoof touched the ground. The more the rear hoof oversteps, the smoother and more comfortable the walk becomes. Individual horses and different breeds vary in the smoothness of their walk. However, a rider will almost always feel some degree of gentle side-to-side motion in the horse's hips as each hind leg reaches forward. The fastest "walks" with a four-beat footfall pattern are actually the lateral forms of ambling gaits such as the running walk, singlefoot, and similar rapid but smooth intermediate speed gaits. If a horse begins to speed up and lose a regular four-beat cadence to its gait, the horse is no longer walking but is beginning to either trot or pace. Elephants Elephants can move both forwards and backwards, but cannot trot, jump, or gallop. They use only two gaits when moving on land, the walk and a faster gait similar to running. In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders rising and falling while the foot is planted on the ground. With no "aerial phase", the fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, with the hips and shoulders falling and then rising while the feet are on the ground. Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of . At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length. Walking fish Walking fish (or ambulatory fish) are fish that are able to travel over land for extended periods of time. The term may also be used for some other cases of nonstandard fish locomotion, e.g., when describing fish "walking" along the sea floor, as the handfish or frogfish. Insects Insects must carefully coordinate their six legs during walking to produce gaits that allow for efficient navigation of their environment. Interleg coordination patterns have been studied in a variety of insects, including locusts (Schistocerca gregaria), cockroaches (Periplaneta americana), stick insects (Carausius morosus), and fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster). Different walking gaits have been observed to exist on a speed dependent continuum of phase relationships. Even though their walking gaits are not discrete, they can often be broadly categorized as either a metachronal wave gait, tetrapod gait, or tripod gait. In a metachronal wave gait, only one leg leaves contact with the ground at a time. This gait starts at one of the hind legs, then propagates forward to the mid and front legs on the same side before starting at the hind leg of the contralateral side . The wave gait is often used at slow walking speeds and is the most stable, since five legs are always in contact with the ground at a time. In a tetrapod gait, two legs swing at a time while the other four legs remain in contact with the ground. There are multiple configurations for tetrapod gaits, but the legs that swing together must be on contralateral sides of the body . Tetrapod gaits are typically used at medium speeds and are also very stable. A walking gait is considered tripod if three of the legs enter the swing phase simultaneously, while the other three legs make contact with the ground. The middle leg of one side swings with the hind and front legs on the contralateral side. Tripod gaits are most commonly used at high speeds, though it can be used at lower speeds. The tripod gait is less stable than wave-like and tetrapod gaits, but it is theorized to be the most robust. This means that it is easier for an insect to recover from an offset in step timing when walking in a tripod gait. The ability to respond robustly is important for insects when traversing uneven terrain. See also Arm swing in human locomotion Duckwalk Footpath Gait training Hand walking International charter for walking Kinhin Obesity and walking Preferred walking speed Student transport Tobler's hiking function Walkathon Walking audit Walking bus Walking tour References External links European Local Transport Information Service (Eltis) provides case studies concerning walking as a local transport concept. Hiking Private transport Articles containing video clips

Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets (also called supercenters), discount department stores, and grocery stores from the United States, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in nearby Rogers, Arkansas in 1962 and incorporated under Delaware General Corporation Law on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 10,593 stores and clubs in 24 countries, operating under 48 different names. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, and as Flipkart Wholesale in India. It has wholly owned operations in Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart holds only a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, which was renamed Grupo Big in August 2019, with 20 percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80 percent ownership of the company. Walmart is the world's largest company by revenue, with US$548.743 billion, according to the Fortune Global 500 list in 2020. It is also the largest private employer in the world with 2.2 million employees. It is a publicly traded family-owned business, as the company is controlled by the Walton family. Sam Walton's heirs own over 50 percent of Walmart through both their holding company Walton Enterprises and their individual holdings. Walmart was the largest United States grocery retailer in 2019, and 65 percent of Walmart's sales came from U.S. operations. Walmart was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1972. By 1988, it was the most profitable retailer in the U.S., and it had become the largest in terms of revenue by October 1989. The company was originally geographically limited to the South and lower Midwest, but it had stores from coast to coast by the early 1990s. Sam's Club opened in New Jersey in November 1989, and the first California outlet opened in Lancaster, in July 1990. A Walmart in York, Pennsylvania, opened in October 1990, the first main store in the Northeast. Walmart's investments outside the U.S. have seen mixed results. Its operations and subsidiaries in Canada, the United Kingdom, Central America, South America, and China are successful, but its ventures failed in Germany, Japan, and South Korea. History 1945–1969: Early history In 1945, businessman and former J. C. Penney employee Sam Walton bought a branch of the Ben Franklin stores from the Butler Brothers. His primary focus was selling products at low prices to get higher-volume sales at a lower profit margin, portraying it as a crusade for the consumer. He experienced setbacks because the lease price and branch purchase were unusually high, but he was able to find lower-cost suppliers than those used by other stores and was consequently able to undercut his competitors on pricing. Sales increased 45 percent in his first year of ownership to in revenue, which increased to $140,000 the next year and $175,000 the year after that. Within the fifth year, the store was generating $250,000 in revenue. The lease then expired for the location and Walton was unable to reach an agreement for renewal, so he opened up a new store at 105 N. Main Street in Bentonville, naming it "Walton's Five and Dime". That store is now the Walmart Museum. On July 2, 1962, Walton opened the first Wal-Mart Discount City store at 719 W. Walnut Street in Rogers, Arkansas. Its design was inspired by Ann & Hope, which Walton visited in 1961, as did Kmart founder Harry B. Cunningham. The name came from FedMart, a chain of discount department stores founded by Sol Price in 1954, whom Walton was also inspired by. Walton stated that he liked the idea of calling his discount chain "Wal-Mart" because he "really liked Sol's FedMart name". The building is now occupied by a hardware store and an antiques mall, while the company's "Store #1" has since expanded to a Supercenter several blocks west at 2110 W. Walnut Street. Within its first five years, the company expanded to 18 stores in Arkansas and reached $9 million in sales. In 1968, it opened its first stores outside Arkansas in Sikeston, Missouri and Claremore, Oklahoma. 1969–1990: Incorporation and growth as a regional power The company was incorporated as Wal-Mart, Inc. on October 31, 1969, and changed its name to Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. in 1970. The same year, the company opened a home office and first distribution center in Bentonville, Arkansas. It had 38 stores operating with 1,500 employees and sales of $44.2 million. It began trading stock as a publicly held company on October 1, 1970, and was soon listed on the New York Stock Exchange. The first stock split occurred in May 1971 at a price of $47 per share. By this time, Walmart was operating in five states: Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Oklahoma; it entered Tennessee in 1973 and Kentucky and Mississippi in 1974. As the company moved into Texas in 1975, there were 125 stores with 7,500 employees and total sales of $340.3  million. In the 1980s, Walmart continued to grow rapidly, and by the company's 25th anniversary in 1987, there were 1,198 stores with sales of $15.9  billion and 200,000 associates. This year also marked the completion of the company's satellite network, a $24 million investment linking all stores with two-way voice and data transmissions and one-way video communications with the Bentonville office. At the time, the company was the largest private satellite network, allowing the corporate office to track inventory and sales and to instantly communicate to stores. By 1984, Sam Walton had begun to source between 6% and 40% of his company's products from China. In 1988, Walton stepped down as CEO and was replaced by David Glass. Walton remained as chairman of the board. During this year, the first Walmart Supercenter opened in Washington, MO. With the contribution of its superstores, the company surpassed Toys "R" Us in toy sales in 1998. 1990–2005: Retail rise to multinational status While it was the third-largest retailer in the United States, Walmart was more profitable than rivals Kmart and Sears by the late 1980s. By 1990, it became the largest U.S. retailer by revenue. Prior to the summer of 1990, Walmart had no presence on the West Coast or in the Northeast (except for a single Sam's Club in New Jersey which opened in November 1989), but in July and October that year, it opened its first stores in California and Pennsylvania, respectively. By the mid-1990s, it was the most powerful retailer in the U.S. and expanded into Mexico in 1991 and Canada in 1994. Walmart stores opened throughout the rest of the U.S., with Vermont being the last state to get a store in 1995. The company also opened stores outside North America, entering South America in 1995 with stores in Argentina and Brazil; and Europe in July 1999, buying Asda in the United Kingdom for . In 1997, Walmart was added to the Dow Jones Industrial Average. In 1998, Walmart introduced the Neighborhood Market concept with three stores in Arkansas. By 2005, estimates indicate that the company controlled about 20 percent of the retail grocery and consumables business. In 2000, H. Lee Scott became Walmart's president and CEO as the company's sales increased to $165 billion. In 2002, it was listed for the first time as America's largest corporation on the Fortune 500 list, with revenues of $219.8 billion and profits of $6.7 billion. It has remained there every year except 2006, 2009, and 2012. In 2005, Walmart reported in sales, more than 6,200 facilities around the world—including 3,800 stores in the United States and 2,800 elsewhere, employing more than 1.6 million associates. Its U.S. presence grew so rapidly that only small pockets of the country remained more than from the nearest store. As Walmart expanded rapidly into the world's largest corporation, many critics worried about its effect on local communities, particularly small towns with many "mom and pop" stores. There have been several studies on the economic impact of Walmart on small towns and local businesses, jobs, and taxpayers. In one, Kenneth Stone, a professor of economics at Iowa State University, found that some small towns can lose almost half of their retail trade within ten years of a Walmart store opening. However, in another study, he compared the changes to what small-town shops had faced in the past—including the development of the railroads, the advent of the Sears Roebuck catalog, and the arrival of shopping malls—and concluded that shop owners who adapt to changes in the retail market can thrive after Walmart arrives. A later study in collaboration with Mississippi State University showed that there are "both positive and negative impacts on existing stores in the area where the new supercenter locates." In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in September 2005, Walmart used its logistics network to organize a rapid response to the disaster, donating $20 million, 1,500 truckloads of merchandise, food for 100,000 meals, and the promise of a job for every one of its displaced workers. An independent study by Steven Horwitz of St. Lawrence University found that Walmart, The Home Depot, and Lowe's made use of their local knowledge about supply chains, infrastructure, decision makers and other resources to provide emergency supplies and reopen stores well before the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) began its response. While the company was overall lauded for its quick response amidst criticism of FEMA, several critics were quick to point out that there still remained issues with the company's labor relations. 2005–2010: Initiatives Environmental initiatives In November 2005, Walmart announced several environmental measures to increase energy efficiency and improve its overall environmental record, which had previously been lacking. The company's primary goals included spending $500 million a year to increase fuel efficiency in Walmart's truck fleet by 25 percent over three years and double it within ten; reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent in seven years; reduce energy use at stores by 30 percent; and cut solid waste from U.S. stores and Sam's Clubs by 25 percent in three years. CEO Lee Scott said that Walmart's goal was to be a "good steward of the environment" and ultimately use only renewable energy sources and produce zero waste. The company also designed three new experimental stores with wind turbines, photovoltaic solar panels, biofuel-capable boilers, water-cooled refrigerators, and xeriscape gardens. In this time, Walmart also became the biggest seller of organic milk and the biggest buyer of organic cotton in the world, while reducing packaging and energy costs. In 2007, the company worked with outside consultants to discover its total environmental impact and find areas for improvement. Walmart created its own electric company in Texas, Texas Retail Energy, planned to supply its stores with cheap power purchased at wholesale prices. Through this new venture, the company expected to save $15 million annually and also to lay the groundwork and infrastructure to sell electricity to Texas consumers in the future. Branding and store design changes In 2006, Walmart announced that it would remodel its U.S. stores to help it appeal to a wider variety of demographics, including more affluent shoppers. As part of the initiative, the company launched a new store in Plano, Texas, that included high-end electronics, jewelry, expensive wines and a sushi bar. On September 12, 2007, Walmart introduced new advertising with the slogan, "Save money. Live better.", replacing "Always Low Prices, Always", which it had used since 1988. Global Insight, which conducted the research that supported the ads, found that Walmart's price level reduction resulted in savings for consumers of $287 billion in 2006, which equated to $957 per person or $2,500 per household (up 7.3 percent from the 2004 savings estimate of $2,329). On June 30, 2008, Walmart removed the hyphen from its logo and replaced the star with a Spark symbol that resembles a sunburst, flower, or star. The new logo received mixed reviews from design critics who questioned whether the new logo was as bold as those of competitors, such as the Target bullseye, or as instantly recognizable as the previous company logo, which was used for 18 years. The new logo made its debut on the company's website on July 1, 2008, and its U.S. locations updated store logos in the fall of 2008. Walmart Canada started to adopt the logo for its stores in early 2009. Acquisitions and employee benefits On March 20, 2009, Walmart announced that it was paying a combined in bonuses to every full and part-time hourly worker. This was in addition to $788.8 million in profit sharing, 401(k) pension contributions, hundreds of millions of dollars in merchandise discounts, and contributions to the employees' stock purchase plan. While the economy at large was in an ongoing recession, Walmart reported solid financial figures for the fiscal year ending January 31, 2009, with $401.2 billion in net sales, a gain of 7.2 percent from the prior year. Income from continuing operations increased 3 percent to $13.3 billion, and earnings per share rose 6 percent to $3.35. On February 22, 2010, the company confirmed it was acquiring video streaming company Vudu, Inc. for an estimated $100 million. In May 2021, Walmart acquired the Israeli startup Zeekit startup for $200 million. Zeekit uses artificial intelligence to allow customers to try on clothing via a dynamic virtual platform. 2011–2019 Walmart's truck fleet logs millions of miles each year, and the company planned to double the fleet's efficiency between 2005 and 2015. The truck pictured is one of 15 based at Walmart's Buckeye, Arizona, distribution center that was converted to run on biofuel from reclaimed cooking grease made during food preparation at Walmart stores. In January 2011, Walmart announced a program to improve the nutritional value of its store brands over five years, gradually reducing the amount of salt and sugar and eliminating trans fat. Walmart also promised to negotiate with suppliers with respect to nutritional issues, reduce prices for whole foods and vegetables, and open stores in low-income areas, so-called "food deserts", where there are no supermarkets. On April 23, 2011, the company announced that it was testing its new "Walmart To Go" home delivery system where customers will be able to order specific items offered on their website. The initial test was in San Jose, California, and the company has not yet said whether the delivery system will be rolled out nationwide. On November 14, 2012, Walmart launched its first mail subscription service called Goodies. Customers pay a $7 monthly subscription for five to eight delivered food samples each month, so they can try new foods. The service shut down in late 2013. In August 2013, the firm announced it was in talks to acquire a majority stake in the Kenya-based supermarket chain, Naivas. In June 2014, some Walmart employees went on strike in major U.S. cities demanding higher wages. In July 2014, American actor and comedian Tracy Morgan launched a lawsuit against Walmart seeking punitive damages over a multi-car pile-up which the suit alleges was caused by the driver of one of the firm's tractor-trailers who had not slept for 24 hours. Morgan's limousine was apparently hit by the trailer, injuring him and two fellow passengers and killing a fourth, fellow comedian James McNair. Walmart settled with the McNair family for $10 million, while admitting no liability. Morgan and Walmart reached a settlement in 2015 for an undisclosed amount, though Walmart later accused its insurers of "bad faith" in refusing to pay the settlement. In 2015, the company closed five stores on short notice for plumbing repairs. However, employees and the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union (UFCW) alleged some stores were closed in retaliation for strikes aimed at increasing wages and improving working conditions. The UFCW filed a complaint with the National Labor Relations Board. All five stores have since reopened. In 2015, Walmart was the biggest US commercial producer of solar power with 142 MW capacity, and had 17 energy storage projects. This solar was primarily on rooftops, whereas there is an additional 20,000 m2 for solar canopies over parking lots. On January 15, 2016, Walmart announced it would close 269 stores in 2016, affecting 16,000 workers. One hundred and fifty-four of these stores earmarked for closure were in the U.S. (150 Walmart U.S. stores, 115 Walmart International stores, and 4 Sam's Clubs). Ninety-five percent of these U.S. stores were located, on average, 10 miles from another Walmart store. The 269 stores represented less than 1 percent of global square footage and revenue for the company. All 102 locations of Walmart Express, which had been in a pilot program since 2011, were included in the closures. Walmart planned to focus on "strengthening Supercenters, optimizing Neighborhood Markets, growing the e-commerce business and expanding pickup services for customers". In fiscal 2017, the company plans to open between 50 and 60 Supercenters, 85 to 95 Neighborhood Markets, 7 to 10 Sam's Clubs, and 200 to 240 international locations. At the end of fiscal 2017, Walmart opened 38 Supercenters and relocated, expanded or converted 21 discount stores into Supercenters, for a total of 59 Supercenters, and opened 69 Neighborhood Markets, 8 Sam's Clubs, and 173 international locations, and relocated, expanded or converted 4 locations for a total of 177 international locations. On August 8, 2016, Walmart announced a deal to acquire e-commerce website Jet.com for US$3.3 billion. Jet.com co-founder and CEO Marc Lore stayed on to run Jet.com in addition to Walmart's existing U.S. e-commerce operation. The acquisition was structured as a payout of $3 billion in cash, and an additional $300 million in Walmart stock vested over time as part of an incentive bonus plan for Jet.com executives. On October 19, 2016, Walmart announced it would partner with IBM and Tsinghua University to track the pork supply chain in China using blockchain. On February 15, 2017, Walmart announced the acquisition of Moosejaw, a leading online active outdoor retailer, for approximately $51 million. The acquisition closed on February 13, 2017. On June 16, 2017, Walmart agreed to acquire the men's apparel company Bonobos for $310 million in an effort to expand its fashion holdings. On September 29, 2017, Walmart acquired Parcel, a technology-based, same-day and last-mile delivery company in Brooklyn. In 2018, Walmart started crowdsourcing delivery services to customers using drivers' private vehicles, under the brand "Spark". On December 6, 2017, Walmart announced that it will change its corporate name to Walmart Inc. from Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. effective February 1, 2018. On January 11, 2018, Walmart announced that 63 Sam's Club locations in cities including Memphis, Houston, Seattle, and others would be closing. Some of the stores had already liquidated, without notifying employees; some employees learned by a company-wide email delivered January 11. All of the 63 stores were gone from the Sam's Club website as of the morning of January 11. Walmart said that ten of the stores will become e-commerce distribution centers and employees can reapply to work at those locations. Business Insider magazine calculated that over 11,000 workers will be affected. On the same day, Walmart announced that as a result of the new tax law, it would be raising Walmart starting wages, distributing bonuses, expanding its leave policies and contributing toward the cost of employees' adoptions. Doug McMillon, Walmart's CEO, said, "We are early in the stages of assessing the opportunities tax reform creates for us to invest in our customers and associates and to further strengthen our business, all of which should benefit our shareholders." In March 2018, Walmart announced that it is producing its own brand of meal kits in all of its stores that is priced under Blue Apron designed to serve two people. It was reported that Walmart is now looking at entering the subscription-video space, hoping to compete with Netflix and Amazon. They have enlisted the help of former Epix CEO, Mark Greenberg, to help develop a low-cost subscription video-streaming service. In September 2018, Walmart partnered with comedian and talk show host Ellen DeGeneres to launch a new brand of women's apparel and accessories called EV1. On February 26, 2019, Walmart announced that it had acquired Tel Aviv-based product review start-up Aspectiva for an undisclosed sum. In May 2019, Walmart announced the launch of free one-day shipping on more than 220,000 items with minimum purchase amount of $35. The initiative first launched in Las Vegas and the Phoenix area. In September 2019, Walmart made the announcement that it would cease the sale of all e-cigarettes due to "regulatory complexity and uncertainty" over the products. Earlier in 2019, Walmart stopped selling fruit-flavored e-cigarette and had raised the minimum age to 21 for the purchase of products containing tobacco. That same month, Walmart opened its first Health Center, a "medical mall" where customers can purchase primary care services, such as vision tests, dental exams and root canals, lab work, X-rays and EKGs, counseling, and fitness and diet classes. Prices without insurance were listed, for instance, at $30 for an annual physical and $45 for a counseling session. Continuing with its health care initiative, they opened a health and wellness clinic prototype in Springdale, Arkansas just to expand services. As of October 2019, Walmart stopped selling all live fish and aquatic plants. 2020s: Continuing growth and development This decade, as with many other companies, started off very unorthodox and unusual, due to the large part of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, including store closures, limited store occupancy, and employment, along with social distancing protocols. In March 2020, due to the pandemic, Walmart changed some of its employee benefits. Employees can now decide to stay home and take unpaid leave if they feel unable to work or uncomfortable coming to work. Additionally, Walmart employees who contract the virus will receive "up to two weeks of pay". After two weeks, hourly associates who are unable to return to work are eligible for up to 26 weeks in pay. During this pandemic, people who work temporary receive $150 but for those who work full-time get a bonus of $300 issuing all of the employees more than $390M starting on June 5. Previously during the pandemic on April 2, the bonus cash totaling was more than $365. In July 2020, Walmart announced that all customers would be required to wear masks in all stores nationwide, including Sam's Club. In the third quarter of 2020, ending October 31, Walmart reported revenue of $134.7 billion, representing a year-on-year increase of 5.2 percent. In December 2020, Walmart launched a new service, Carrier Pickup, that allows the customers to schedule a return for a product bought online, in-store, or from a third-party vendor. These services can be initiated on the Walmart App or on the website. In January 2021, Walmart announced that the company is launching a fintech startup, with venture partner Ribbit Capital, to provide financial products for consumers and employees. In February 2021, Walmart acquired technology from Thunder Industries, which uses automation to create digital ads, to expand its online marketing capabilities. In August 2021, Walmart announced it would open its Spark crowdsource delivery to other businesses as a white-label service, competing with Postmates and online food ordering delivery companies. In December 2021, Walmart announced it will participate in the Stephens Investment Conference Wednesday, and the Morgan Stanley Virtual Global Consumer & Retail Conference. Operating divisions Walmart's operations are organized into four divisions: Walmart U.S., Walmart International, Sam's Club and Global eCommerce. The company offers various retail formats throughout these divisions, including supercenters, supermarkets, hypermarkets, warehouse clubs, cash-and-carry stores, home improvement, specialty electronics, restaurants, apparel stores, drugstores, convenience stores, and digital retail. Walmart U.S. Walmart U.S. is the company's largest division, accounting for , or 65 percent of total sales, for fiscal 2019. It consists of three retail formats that have become commonplace in the United States: Supercenters, Discount Stores, Neighborhood Markets, and other small formats. The discount stores sell a variety of mostly non-grocery products, though emphasis has now shifted towards supercenters, which include more groceries. there are a total of 4,742 Walmart U.S. stores. In the United States, 90 percent of the population resides within 10 miles of a Walmart store. The total number of Walmart U.S. stores and Sam's Clubs combined is 5,342. The president and CEO of Walmart U.S. is John Furner. Walmart Supercenter Walmart Supercenters, branded simply as "Walmart", are hypermarkets with sizes varying from , but averaging about . These stock general merchandise and a full-service supermarket, including meat and poultry, baked goods, delicatessen, frozen foods, dairy products, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Many Walmart Supercenters also have a garden center, pet shop, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical center, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops, such as cellular phone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, local bank branches (such as Woodforest National Bank branches in newer locations), and fast food outlets. Many Walmart Supercenters have featured McDonald's restaurants, but in 2007, Walmart announced it would stop opening McDonald's restaurants at most of their newer stores. Most locations that opened up after the announcement had Subway as their restaurants, and some McDonald's inside the stores were replaced with Subways. In some Canadian locations, Tim Hortons were opened. Recently, in several Supercenters, like the Tallahassee, Florida and the Palm Desert, California locations, Walmart added Burger King to their locations, and the location in Glen Burnie, Maryland, due to its past as a hypermarket called Leedmark, which operated from May 1991 to January 1994, boasts an Auntie Anne's and an Italian restaurant. Some locations also have fuel stations which sell gasoline distributed by Murphy USA (which spun off from Murphy Oil in 2013), Sunoco, Inc. ("Optima"), the Tesoro Corporation ("Mirastar"), USA Gasoline, and even now Walmart-branded gas stations. The first Supercenter opened in Washington, Missouri, in 1988. A similar concept, Hypermart USA, had opened a year earlier in Garland, Texas. All Hypermart USA stores were later closed or converted into Supercenters. there were 3,573 Walmart Supercenters in 49 of the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Hawaii is the only state to not have a Supercenter location. The largest Supercenter in the world, covering on two floors, is located in Crossgates Commons in Albany, New York. A typical supercenter sells approximately 120,000 items, compared to the 35 million products sold in Walmart's online store. The "Supercenter" name has since been phased out, with these stores now simply referred to as "Walmart", since the company introduced the new Walmart logo in 2008. However, the branding is still used in Walmart's Canadian stores (spelled as "Supercentre" in Canadian English). Walmart Discount Store Walmart Discount Stores, also branded as simply "Walmart", are discount department stores with sizes varying from , with the average store covering . They carry general merchandise and limited groceries. Some newer and remodeled discount stores have an expanded grocery department, similar to Target's PFresh department. Many of these stores also feature a garden center, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical center, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, a bank branch, a cell phone store, and a fast food outlet. Some also have gasoline stations. Discount Stores were Walmart's original concept, though they have since been surpassed by Supercenters. In 1990, Walmart opened its first Bud's Discount City location in Bentonville. Bud's operated as a closeout store, much like Big Lots. Many locations were opened to fulfill leases in shopping centers as Walmart stores left and moved into newly built Supercenters. All of the Bud's Discount City stores had closed or converted into Walmart Discount Stores by 1997. At its peak in 1996, there were 1,995 Walmart Discount Stores, but as of January 31, 2022, that number was dropped to 370. Walmart Neighborhood Market Walmart Neighborhood Market, sometimes branded as "Neighborhood Market by Walmart" or informally known as "Neighborhood Walmart", is Walmart's chain of smaller grocery stores ranging from and averaging about , about a fifth of the size of a Walmart Supercenter. The first Walmart Neighborhood Market opened ten years after the first Supercenter opened, yet Walmart renewed its focus on the smaller grocery store format in the 2010s. The stores focus on three of Walmart's major sales categories: groceries, which account for about 55 percent of the company's revenue, pharmacy, and, at some stores, fuel. For groceries and consumables, the stores sell fresh produce, deli and bakery items, prepared foods, meat, dairy, organic, general grocery and frozen foods, in addition to cleaning products and pet supplies. Some stores offer wine and beer sales and drive-through pharmacies. Some stores, such as one at Midtown Center in Bentonville, Arkansas, offer made-to-order pizza with a seating area for eating. Customers can also use Walmart's site-to-store operation and pick up online orders at Walmart Neighborhood Market stores just like the Supercenters Products at Walmart Neighborhood Market stores carry the same prices as those at Walmart's larger supercenters. A Moody's analyst said the wider company's pricing structure gives the chain of grocery stores a "competitive advantage" over competitors Whole Foods, Kroger and Trader Joe's. Neighborhood Market stores expanded slowly at first as a way to fill gaps between Walmart Supercenters and Discount Stores in existing markets. In its first 12 years, the company opened about 180 Walmart Neighborhood Markets. By 2010, Walmart said it was ready to accelerate its expansion plans for the grocery stores. there were 683 Walmart Neighborhood Markets, each employing between 90 and 95 full-time and part-time workers. There are also currently 12 Amigo supermarkets in Puerto Rico. The total number of Neighborhood Markets and Amigo combined is 695, while the total number of the former two and other small formats combined is 799. Neighborhood Market, depending on the area, has some competition with Hy-Vee Fast & Fresh, launched in 2019 that is similar to Neighborhood Market. Former stores and concepts Walmart opened Supermercado de Walmart locations to appeal to Hispanic communities in the United States. The first one, a store in the Spring Branch area of Houston, opened on April 29, 2009. The store was a conversion of an existing Walmart Neighborhood Market. In 2009, another Supermercado de Walmart opened in Phoenix, Arizona. Both locations closed in 2014. In 2009, Walmart opened "Mas Club", a warehouse retail operation patterned after Sam's Club. Its lone store also closed in 2014. Walmart Express was a chain of smaller discount stores with a range of services from groceries to check cashing and gasoline service. The concept was focused on small towns deemed unable to support a larger store and large cities where space was at a premium. Walmart planned to build 15 to 20 Walmart Express stores, focusing on Arkansas, North Carolina, and Chicago, by the end of its fiscal year in January 2012. Walmart re-branded all 22 of its Express format stores to Neighborhood Markets in an effort to streamline its retail offer. It continued to open new Express stores under the Neighborhood Market name. there were 104 small-format stores in the United States. These include 93 other small formats, 8 convenience stores and 3 pickup locations. On January 15, 2016, Walmart announced that it would be closing 269 stores globally, including the 102 Neighborhood Markets that were formerly or originally planned to be Express stores. Initiatives In September 2006, Walmart announced a pilot program to sell generic drugs at $4 per prescription. The program was launched at stores in the Tampa, Florida, area, and by January 2007 had been expanded to all stores in Florida. While the average price of generics is $29 per prescription, compared to $102 for name-brand drugs, Walmart maintains that it is not selling at a loss, or providing them as an act of charity—instead, they are using the same mechanisms of mass distribution that it uses to bring lower prices to other products. Many of Walmart's low cost generics are imported from India, where they are made by drug makers that include Ranbaxy and Cipla. On February 6, 2007, the company launched a "beta" version of a movie download service, which sold about 3,000 films and television episodes from all major studios and television networks. The service was discontinued on December 21, 2007, due to low sales. In 2008, Walmart started a pilot program in the small grocery store concept called Marketside in the metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, area. The four stores closed in 2011. In 2015, Walmart began testing a free grocery pickup service, allowing customers to select products online and choose their pickup time. At the store, a Walmart employee loads the groceries into the customer's car. the service is available in 39 U.S. states. In May 2016, Walmart announced a change to ShippingPass, its three-day shipping service, and that it will move from a three-day delivery to two-day delivery to remain competitive with Amazon. Walmart priced it at 49 dollars per year, compared to Amazon Prime's 99-dollar-per-year price. In June 2016, Walmart and Sam's Club announced that they would begin testing a last-mile grocery delivery that used services including Uber, Lyft, and Deliv, to bring customers' orders to their homes. Walmart customers would be able to shop using the company's online grocery service at grocery.walmart.com, then request delivery at checkout for a small fee. The first tests were planned to go live in Denver and Phoenix. Walmart announced on March 14, 2018, that it would expand online delivery to 100 metropolitan regions in the United States, the equivalent of 40 percent of households, by the end of the year of 2018. Walmart's Winemakers Selection private label wine was introduced in June 2018 in about 1,100 stores. The wine, from domestic and international sources, was described by Washington Post food and wine columnist Dave McIntyre as notably good for the inexpensive ($11 to $16 per bottle) price level. In October 2019, Walmart announced that customers in 2,000 locations in 29 states can use the grocery pickup service for their adult beverage purchases. Walmart will also deliver adult beverages from nearly 200 stores across California and Florida. In February 2020, Walmart announced a new membership program called, "Walmart +". The news came shortly after Walmart announced the discontinuation of its personal shopping service, Jetblack. Numbers of stores by state Locations as of October 31, 2021 Walmart International Walmart's international operations comprised 5,251 stores and 800,000 workers in 23 countries outside the United States. There are wholly owned operations in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, and the UK. With 2.2 million employees worldwide, the company is the largest private employer in the U.S. and Mexico, and one of the largest in Canada. In fiscal 2019 Walmart's international division sales were , or 23.7 percent of total sales. International retail units range from , while wholesale units range from . Judith McKenna is the president and CEO. Central America Walmart also owns 51 percent of the Central American Retail Holding Company (CARHCO), which, consists of 864 stores, including 263 stores in Guatemala (under the Paiz [27 locations], Walmart Supercenter [10 locations], Despensa Familiar [181 locations], and Maxi Dispensa [45 locations] banners), 102 stores in El Salvador (under the Despensa Familiar [63 locations], La Despensa de Don Juan [17 locations], Walmart Supercenter [6 locations], and Maxi Despensa [16 locations] banners), 111 stores in Honduras (including the Paiz [8 locations], Walmart Supercenter [4 locations], Dispensa Familiar [71 locations], and Maxi Despensa [28 locations] banners), 102 stores in Nicaragua (including the Pali [71 locations], La Unión [9 locations], Maxi Pali [20 locations], and Walmart Supercenter [2 locations] banners), and 286 stores in Costa Rica (including the Maxi Pali [48 locations], Mas X Menos [38 locations], Walmart Supercenter [14 locations], and Pali [186 locations] banners). Chile In January 2009, the company acquired a controlling interest in the largest grocer in Chile, Distribución y Servicio D&S SA. In 2010, the company was renamed Walmart Chile. Walmart Chile operates 384 stores under the banners Lider Hiper (97 locations), Lider Express (153 locations), Superbodega Acuenta (121 locations), Ekono (2 locations), and Central Mayorista (11 locations). Mexico Walmart's Mexico division, the largest outside the U.S., consisted of 2,755 stores. Walmart in Mexico operates Walmart Supercenter (294 locations), Sam's Club (166 locations), Bodega Aurrera (564 locations), Mi Bodega Aurrera (430 locations), Bodega Aurrera Express (1,202 locations), and Superama (99 locations). Canada Walmart has operated in Canada since it acquired 122 stores comprising the Woolco division of Woolworth Canada, Inc on January 14, 1994. it operates 408 locations (including 343 supercentres and 65 discount stores) and, it employs 89,358 people, with a local home office in Mississauga, Ontario. Walmart Canada's first three Supercentres (spelled in Canadian English) opened in November 2006 in Ancaster, London, and Stouffville, Ontario. The 100th Canadian Supercentre opened in July 2010, in Victoria, British Columbia. In 2010, approximately one year after its incorporation of Schedule 2 (foreign-owned, deposit-taking) of Canada's Bank Act, Walmart Canada Bank was introduced with the launch of the Walmart (Canada) Rewards MasterCard. Less than ten years later, however, on May 17, 2018, Wal-Mart Canada announced it had reached a definitive agreement to sell Wal-Mart Canada Bank to First National co-founder Stephen Smith and private equity firm Centerbridge Partners, L.P., on undisclosed financial terms, though it added that it would still be issuer of the Walmart (Canada) Rewards MasterCard. On April 1, 2019, Centerbridge Partners, L.P. and Stephen Smith jointly announced the closing of the previously announced acquisition of Wal-Mart Canada Bank and that it was to be renamed Duo Bank of Canada, to be styled simply as Duo Bank. Though exact ownership percentages were never revealed in either company announcement, it has also since been revealed that Duo Bank was reclassified as a Schedule 1 (domestic, deposit-taking) federally chartered bank of the Bank Act in Canada from the Schedule 2 (foreign-owned or -controlled, deposit-taking) that it had been, which indicates that Stephen Smith, as a noted Canadian businessman, is in a controlling position. Africa On September 28, 2010, Walmart announced it would buy Massmart Holdings Ltd. of Johannesburg, South Africa in a deal worth over giving the company its first footprint in Africa. it has 414 stores, including 364 stores in South Africa (under the banners Game Foodco [79 locations], CBW [41 locations], Game [39 locations], Builders Express [50 locations], Builders Warehouse [35 locations], Cambridge [42 locations], Rhino [15 locations], Makro [23 locations], Builders Trade Depot [9 locations], Jumbo [13 locations], and Builders Superstore [18 locations]), 11 stores in Botswana (under the banners CBW [7 locations], Game Foodco [2 locations], and Builders Warehouse [2 locations]), 4 stores in Ghana (under the Game Foodco banner), 4 stores in Kenya (under the banners Game Foodco [3 locations] and Builders Warehouse [1 location]), 3 stores in Lesotho (under the banners CBW [2 locations] and Game Foodco [1 location]), 2 stores in Malawi (under the Game banner), 6 stores in Mozambique (under the banners Builders Warehouse [2 locations], Game Foodco [2 locations], CBW [1 location], and Builders Express [1 location]), 5 stores in Namibia (under the banners Game Foodco [4 locations] and Game [1 location]), 5 stores in Nigeria (under the banners Game [3 locations] and Game Foodco [2 location]), 1 store in Swaziland (under the CBW banner), 1 store in Tanzania (under the Game Foodco banner), 1 store in Uganda (under the Game banner), and 7 stores in Zambia (under the banners CBW [1 location], Game Foodco [3 locations], Builders Warehouse [2 locations], and Builders Express [1 location]). China Walmart has joint ventures in China and several majority-owned subsidiaries. Walmart China (沃尔玛 Wò'ērmǎ) operates 397 stores under the Walmart Supercenter (361 locations) and Sam's Club (36 locations) banners. In February 2012, Walmart announced that the company raised its stake to 51 percent in Chinese online supermarket Yihaodian to tap rising consumer wealth and help the company offer more products. Walmart took full ownership in July 2015. In December 2021, the Chinese Communist Party's Central Commission for Discipline Inspection warned Walmart about not stocking products made from inputs from Xinjiang in response to the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act. India In November 2006, the company announced a joint venture with Bharti Enterprises to operate in India. As foreign corporations were not allowed to enter the retail sector directly, Walmart operated through franchises and handled the wholesale end of the business. The partnership involved two joint ventures—Bharti manages the front end, involving opening of retail outlets while Walmart takes care of the back end, such as cold chains and logistics. Walmart operates stores in India under the name Best Price Modern Wholesale. The first store opened in Amritsar on May 30, 2009. On September 14, 2012, the Government of India approved 51 percent FDI in multi-brand retails, subject to approval by individual states, effective September 20, 2012. Scott Price, Walmart's president and CEO for Asia, told The Wall Street Journal that the company would be able to start opening Walmart stores in India within two years. Expansion into India faced some significant problems. In November 2012, Walmart admitted to spending lobbying the Indian National Congress; lobbying is conventionally considered bribery in India. Walmart is conducting an internal investigation into potential violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. Bharti Walmart suspended a number of employees, rumored to include its CFO and legal team, to ensure "a complete and thorough investigation". In October 2013, Bharti and Walmart separated to pursue business independently. On May 9, 2018, Walmart announced its intent to acquire a 77% majority stake in the Indian e-commerce company Flipkart for $16 billion, in a deal that was completed on August 18, 2018. The Best Price stores were renamed Flipkart Wholesale. there are 29 Flipkart Wholesale locations. Setbacks In the 1990s, Walmart tried with a large financial investment to get a foothold in both German and Indonesian retail markets. Walmart entered Indonesia with the opening of stores in Lippo Supermall (now known as Supermal Karawaci) and Megamall Pluit (now known as Pluit Village) respectively, under a joint-venture agreement with local conglomerate Lippo Group. Both stores closed down due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In 1997, Walmart took over the supermarket chain Wertkauf with its 21 stores for DM 750 million and the following year Walmart acquired 74 Interspar stores for DM 1.3 billion. The German market at this point was an oligopoly with high competition among companies which used a similar low price strategy as Walmart. As a result, Walmart's low price strategy yielded no competitive advantage. Walmart's corporate culture was not viewed positively among employees and customers, particularly Walmart's "statement of ethics", which attempted to restrict relationships between employees, a possible violation of German labor law, and led to a public discussion in the media, resulting in a bad reputation among customers. In July 2006, Walmart announced its withdrawal from Germany due to sustained losses. The stores were sold to the German company Metro during Walmart's fiscal third quarter. Walmart did not disclose its losses from its German investment, but they were estimated to be around 3 billion. In 2004, Walmart bought the 118  stores in the Bompreço supermarket chain in northeastern Brazil. In late 2005, it took control of the Brazilian operations of Sonae Distribution Group through its new subsidiary, WMS Supermercados do Brasil, thus acquiring control of the Nacional and Mercadorama supermarket chains, the leaders in the Rio Grande do Sul and Paraná states, respectively. None of these stores were rebranded. Walmart operated 61 Bompreço supermarkets, 39 Hiper Bompreço stores. It also ran 57  Walmart Supercenters, 27  Sam's Clubs, and 174 Todo Dia stores. With the acquisition of Bompreço and Sonae, by 2010, Walmart was the third-largest supermarket chain in Brazil, behind Carrefour and Pão de Açúcar. Walmart Brasil, the operating company, has its head office in Barueri, São Paulo State, and regional offices in Curitiba, Paraná; Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul; Recife, Pernambuco; and Salvador, Bahia. Walmart Brasil operates under the banners Todo Dia, Nacional, Bompreço, Walmart Supercenter, Maxxi Atacado, Hipermercado Big, Hiper Bompreço, Sam's Club, Mercadorama, Walmart Posto (Gas Station), Supermercado Todo Dia, and Hiper Todo Dia. Recently, the company started the conversion process of all Hiper Bompreço and Big stores into Walmart Supercenters and Bompreço, Nacional and Mercadorama stores into the Walmart Supermercado brand. Since August 2018, Walmart Inc. only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, which was renamed Grupo Big on August 12, 2019, with 20% of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80% ownership of the company. On March 24, 2021, it was announced that Carrefour would be acquiring Grupo Big. Walmart Argentina was founded in 1995 and operates stores under the banners Walmart Supercenter, Changomas, Mi Changomas, and Punto Mayorista. On November 6, 2020, it was announced that Walmart has sold its Argentine operations to Grupo de Narváez. Walmart's UK subsidiary Asda (which retained its name after being acquired by Walmart) is based in Leeds and accounted for 42.7  percent of 2006 sales of Walmart's international division. In contrast to the U.S. operations, Asda was originally and still remains primarily a grocery chain, but with a stronger focus on non-food items than most UK supermarket chains other than Tesco. In 2010 Asda acquired stores from Netto UK. In addition to small suburban Asda Supermarkets, larger stores are branded Supercentres. Other banners include Asda Superstores, Asda Living, and Asda Petrol Fueling Station. In July 2015, Asda updated its logo featuring the Walmart Asterisks behind the first 'A' in the Logo. In May 2018, Walmart announced plans to sell Asda to rival Sainsbury's for $10.1 billion. Under the terms of the deal, Walmart would have received a 42% stake in the combined company and about £3 billion in cash. However, in April 2019, the United Kingdom's Competition and Markets Authority blocked the proposed sale of Asda to Sainsburys. On October 2, 2020, it was announced that Walmart will sell a majority stake of Asda to a consortium of Zuber and Mohsin Issa (the owners of EG Group) and private equity firm TDR Capital for £6.8bn, pending approval from the Competition and Markets Authority. In Japan, Walmart owned 100 percent of Seiyu (西友 Seiyū) It operates under the Seiyu (Hypermarket), Seiyu (Supermarket), Seiyu (General Merchandise), Livin, and Sunny banners. On November 16, 2020, Walmart announced they would be selling 65% of their shares in the company to the private-equity firm KKR in a deal valuing 329 stores and 34,600 employees at $1.6 billion. Walmart is supposed to retain 15% and a seat on the board, while a joint-venture between KKR and Japanese company Rakuten Inc. will receive 20%. Corruption charges An April 2012 investigation by The New York Times reported the allegations of a former executive of Walmart de Mexico that, in September 2005, the company had paid bribes via local fixers to officials throughout Mexico in exchange for construction permits, information, and other favors, which gave Walmart a substantial advantage over competitors. Walmart investigators found credible evidence that Mexican and American laws had been broken. Concerns were also raised that Walmart executives in the United States had "hushed up" the allegations. A follow-up investigation by The New York Times, published December 17, 2012, revealed evidence that regulatory permission for siting, construction, and operation of nineteen stores had been obtained through bribery. There was evidence that a bribe of was paid to change a zoning map, which enabled the opening of a Walmart store a mile from a historical site in San Juan Teotihuacán in 2004. After the initial article was released, Walmart released a statement denying the allegations and describing its anti-corruption policy. While an official Walmart report states that it had found no evidence of corruption, the article alleges that previous internal reports had indeed turned up such evidence before the story became public. Forbes magazine contributor Adam Hartung also commented that the bribery scandal was a reflection of Walmart's "serious management and strategy troubles", stating, "[s]candals are now commonplace ... [e]ach scandal points out that Walmart's strategy is harder to navigate and is running into big problems". In 2012, there was an incident with CJ's Seafood, a crawfish processing firm in Louisiana that was partnered with Walmart, that eventually gained media attention for the mistreatment of its 40 H-2B visa workers from Mexico. These workers experienced harsh living conditions in tightly packed trailers outside of the work facility, physical threats, verbal abuse, and were forced to work day-long shifts. Many of the workers were afraid to take action about the abuse due to the fact that the manager threatened the lives of their family members in the U.S. and Mexico if the abuse were to be reported. Eight of the workers confronted management at CJ's Seafood about the mistreatment; however, the management denied the abuse allegations and the workers went on strike. The workers then took their stories to Walmart due to their partnership with CJ's. While Walmart was investigating the situation, the workers collected 150,000 signatures of supporters who agreed that Walmart should stand by the workers and take action. In June 2012, the visa workers held a protest and day-long hunger strike outside of the apartment building where a Walmart board member resided. Following this protest, Walmart announced its final decision to no longer work with CJ's Seafood. Less than a month later, the Department of Labor fined CJ's Seafood "approximately $460,000 in back-pay, safety violations, wage and hour violations, civil damages, and fines for abuses to the H-2B program. The company has since shut down." internal investigations were ongoing into possible violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. Walmart has invested on internal investigations, which expanded beyond Mexico to implicate operations in China, Brazil, and India. The case has added fuel to the debate as to whether foreign investment will result in increased prosperity, or if it merely allows local retail trade and economic policy to be taken over by "foreign financial and corporate interests". Sam's Club Sam's Club is a chain of warehouse clubs that sell groceries and general merchandise, often in bulk. Locations generally range in size from , with an average club size of approximately . The first Sam's Club was opened by Walmart, Inc. in 1983 in Midwest City, Oklahoma under the name "Sam's Wholesale Club". The chain was named after its founder Sam Walton. As of January 31, 2022, Sam's Club operated 600 membership warehouse clubs and accounted for 11.3% of Walmart's revenue at $57.839 billion in fiscal year 2019. Kathryn McLay is the president and CEO. Global eCommerce Based in San Bruno, California, Walmart's Global eCommerce division provides online retailing for Walmart, Sam's Club, Asda, and all other international brands. There are several locations in the United States in California and Oregon: San Bruno, Sunnyvale, Brisbane, and Portland. Locations outside of the United States include Shanghai (China), Leeds (United Kingdom), and Bangalore (India). Subsidiaries Private label brands About 40 percent of products sold in Walmart are private labels, which are produced for the company through contracts with manufacturers. Walmart began offering private label brands in 1991, with the launch of Sam's Choice, a line of drinks produced by Cott Beverages for Walmart. Sam's Choice quickly became popular and by 1993, was the third-most-popular beverage brand in the United States. Other Walmart brands include Great Value and Equate in the U.S. and Canada and Smart Price in Britain. A 2006 study talked of "the magnitude of mind-share Walmart appears to hold in the shoppers' minds when it comes to the awareness of private label brands and retailers." Entertainment In 2010, the company teamed with Procter & Gamble to produce Secrets of the Mountain and The Jensen Project, two-hour family movies which featured the characters using Walmart and Procter & Gamble-branded products. The Jensen Project also featured a preview of a product to be released in several months in Walmart stores. A third movie, A Walk in My Shoes, also aired in 2010 and a fourth is in production. Walmart's director of brand marketing also serves as co-chair of the Association of National Advertisers's Alliance for Family Entertainment. Online commerce acquisitions and plans In September 2016, Walmart purchased e-commerce company Jet.com, founded in 2014 by Marc Lore, to start competing with Amazon.com. Jet.com has acquired its own share of online retailers such as Hayneedle in March 2016, Shoebuy.com in December 2016, and ModCloth in March 2017. Walmart also acquired Parcel, a delivery service in New York, on September 29, 2017. On February 15, 2017, Walmart acquired Moosejaw, an online active outdoor retailer, for approximately $51 million. Moosejaw brought with it partnerships with more than 400 brands, including Patagonia, The North Face, Marmot, and Arc'teryx. Marc Lore, Walmart's U.S. e-commerce CEO, said that Walmart's existing physical infrastructure of almost 5,000 stores around the U.S. will enhance their digital expansion by doubling as warehouses for e-commerce without increasing overhead. Walmart offers in-store pickup for online orders at 1,000 stores with plans to eventually expand the service to all of its stores. On May 9, 2018, Walmart announced its intent to acquire a 77% controlling stake in the Indian e-commerce website Flipkart for $16 billion (beating bids by Amazon.com), subject to regulatory approval. Following its completion, the website's management will report to Marc Lore. Completion of the deal was announced on August 18, 2018. The company's partnership with subscription service Kidbox was announced on April 16, 2019. Corporate affairs Walmart is headquartered in the Walmart Home Office complex in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company's business model is based on selling a wide variety of general merchandise at low prices. Doug McMillon became Walmart's CEO on February 1, 2014. He has also worked as the head of Sam's Club and Walmart International. The company refers to its employees as "associates". All Walmart stores in the U.S. and Canada also have designated "greeters" at the entrance, a practice pioneered by Sam Walton and later imitated by other retailers. Greeters are trained to help shoppers find what they want and answer their questions. For many years, associates were identified in the store by their signature blue vest, but this practice was discontinued in June 2007 and replaced with khaki pants and polo shirts. The wardrobe change was part of a larger corporate overhaul to increase sales and rejuvenate the company's stock price. In September 2014, the uniform was again updated to bring back a vest (paid for by the company) for store employees over the same polos and khaki or black pants paid for by the employee. The vest is navy blue for Walmart employees at Supercenters and discounts stores, lime green for Walmart Neighborhood Market employees, and yellow for self-check-out associates; door greeters, and customer service managers. All three state "Proud Walmart Associate" on the left breast and the "Spark" logo covering the back. Reportedly one of the main reasons the vest was reintroduced was that some customers had trouble identifying employees. In 2016, self-checkout associates, door greeters and customer service managers began wearing a yellow vest to be better seen by customers. By requiring employees to wear uniforms that are made up of standard "streetwear", Walmart is not required to purchase the uniforms or reimburse employees which are required in some states, as long as that clothing can be worn elsewhere. Businesses are only legally required to pay for branded shirts and pants or clothes that would be difficult to wear outside of work. Unlike many other retailers, Walmart does not charge slotting fees to suppliers for their products to appear in the store. Instead, it focuses on selling more-popular products and provides incentives for store managers to drop unpopular products. From 2006 to 2010, the company eliminated its layaway program. In 2011, the company revived its layaway program. Walmart introduced its Site-To-Store program in 2007, after testing the program since 2004 on a limited basis. The program allows walmart.com customers to buy goods online with a free shipping option, and have goods shipped to the nearest store for pickup. On September 15, 2017, Walmart announced that it would build a new headquarters in Bentonville to replace its current 1971 building and consolidate operations that have spread out to 20 different buildings throughout Bentonville. According to watchdog group Documented, in 2020 Walmart contributed $140,000 to the Rule of Law Defense Fund, a fund-raising arm of the Republican Attorneys General Association. Finance and governance For the fiscal year ending January 31, 2019, Walmart reported net income of on $514.405 billion of revenue. The company's international operations accounted for $120.824 billion, or 23.7 percent, of its $510.329 billion of sales. Walmart is the world's 29th-largest public corporation, according to the Forbes Global 2000 list, and the largest public corporation when ranked by revenue. Walmart is governed by a twelve-member board of directors elected annually by shareholders. Gregory B. Penner, son-in-law of S. Robson Walton and the grandson-in-law of Sam Walton, serves as chairman of the board. Doug McMillon serves as president and chief executive officer. Current members of the board are: Gregory B. Penner, chairman of the board of directors of Walmart Inc. and general partner of Madrone Capital Partners Cesar Conde, chairman of NBCUniversal International Group and NBCUniversal Telemundo Enterprises Timothy P. Flynn, retired CEO of KPMG International Sarah Friar, CEO of Nextdoor Carla A. Harris, Vice-chairman of Wealth Management, head of multicultural client strategy, managing director, and senior client advisor at Morgan Stanley Tom Horton, senior advisor at Warburg Pincus, LLC, and retired chairman and CEO of American Airlines Marissa A. Mayer, co-founder of Lumi Labs, Inc., and former president and CEO of Yahoo!, Inc. Doug McMillon, president and CEO of Walmart Steven S. Reinemund, retired dean of business at Wake Forest University and retired chairman and CEO of PepsiCo, Inc. Randall Stephenson, retired chairman and CEO of AT&T Inc. S. Robson "Rob" Walton, retired chairman of the board of directors of Walmart Inc. Steuart Walton, founder of RZC Investments, LLC. Notable former members of the board include Hillary Clinton (1985–1992) and Tom Coughlin (2003–2004), the latter having served as vice chairman. Clinton left the board before the 1992 U.S. presidential election, and Coughlin left in December 2005 after pleading guilty to wire fraud and tax evasion for stealing hundreds of thousands of dollars from Walmart. After Sam Walton's death in 1992, Don Soderquist, Chief Operating Officer and Senior Vice Chairman, became known as the "Keeper of the Culture". Ownership Walmart Inc. is a Delaware-domiciled joint-stock company registered with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, with its registered office located in Wolters Kluwer's Corporation Trust Center in Wilmington. it has 3,292,377,090 outstanding shares. These are held mainly by the Walton family, a number of institutions and funds. 43.00% (1,415,891,131): Walton Enterprises LLC 5.30% (174,563,205): Walton family Holdings Trust 3.32% (102,036,399): The Vanguard Group, Inc 2.37% (72,714,226): State Street Corporation 1.37% (42,171,892): BlackRock Institutional Trust Company 0.94% (28,831,721): Vanguard Total Stock Market Index Fund 0.77% (23,614,578): BlackRock Fund Advisors 0.71% (21,769,126): Dodge & Cox Inc 0.68% (20,978,727): Vanguard 500 Index Fund 0.65% (20,125,838): Bank of America Corporation 0.57% (17,571,058): Bank of New York Mellon Corporation 0.57% (17,556,128): Northern Trust Corporation 0.55% (16,818,165): Vanguard Institutional Index Fund-Institutional Index Fund 0.55% (16,800,850): State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co 0.52% (15,989,827): SPDR S&P 500 ETF Trust Competition In North America, Walmart's primary competitors include grocery stores and department stores like Aldi, Lidl, Kmart, Kroger, Ingles, Publix, Target, Harris Teeter, Meijer, and Winn Dixie in the United States; Hudson's Bay, Loblaw retail stores, Sobeys, Metro, and Giant Tiger in Canada; and Comercial Mexicana and Soriana in Mexico. Competitors of Walmart's Sam's Club division are Costco and the smaller BJ's Wholesale Club chain. Walmart's move into the grocery business in the late 1990s set it against major supermarket chains in both the United States and Canada. Several smaller retailers, primarily dollar stores, such as Family Dollar and Dollar General, have been able to find a small niche market and compete successfully against Walmart. In 2004, Walmart responded by testing its own dollar store concept, a subsection of some stores called "Pennies-n-Cents." Walmart also had to face fierce competition in some foreign markets. For example, in Germany it had captured just 2 percent of the German food market following its entry into the market in 1997 and remained "a secondary player" behind Aldi with 19 percent. Walmart continues to do well in the UK, where its Asda subsidiary is the second-largest retailer. In May 2006, after entering the South Korean market in 1998, Walmart sold all 16 of its South Korean outlets to Shinsegae, a local retailer, for . Shinsegae re-branded the Walmarts as E-mart stores. Walmart struggled to export its brand elsewhere as it rigidly tried to reproduce its model overseas. In China, Walmart hopes to succeed by adapting and doing things preferable to Chinese citizens. For example, it found that Chinese consumers preferred to select their own live fish and seafood; stores began displaying the meat uncovered and installed fish tanks, leading to higher sales. Customer base Walmart customers cite low prices as the most important reason for shopping there. The average U.S. Walmart customer's income is below the national average. A 2006 Walmart report also indicated that Walmart customers are sensitive to higher utility costs and gas prices. A poll indicated that after the 2004 US presidential election, 76 percent of voters who shopped at Walmart once a week voted for George W. Bush while only 23 percent supported senator John Kerry. When measured against similar retailers in the U.S., frequent Walmart shoppers were rated the most politically conservative. Thus, the "majority (54 percent) [of] Americans who prefer shopping at Walmart report that they oppose same-sex marriage, while 40 percent are in favor of it." Due to its prominence in the Bible Belt, Walmart is known for its "tradition of tailoring its service to churchgoing customers". Walmart only carries clean versions of hip-hop audio CDs and in cooperation with The Timothy Plan, places "plastic sheathes over suggestive women's periodicals and banned 'lad mags' such as Maxim" magazine. In addition, Walmart also caters to its Christian customer base by selling Christian books and media, "such as VeggieTales videos and The Purpose-Driven Life", which earns the company over annually. In 2006, Walmart took steps to expand its U.S. customer base, announcing a modification in its U.S. stores from a "one-size-fits-all" merchandising strategy to one designed to "reflect each of six demographic groups—African-Americans, the affluent, empty-nesters, Hispanics, suburbanites, and rural residents." Around six months later, it unveiled a new slogan: "Saving people money so they can live better lives". This reflects the three main groups into which Walmart categorizes its 200 million customers: "brand aspirationals" (people with low incomes who are obsessed with big name brands), "price-sensitive affluents" (wealthier shoppers who love deals), and "value-price shoppers" (people who like low prices and cannot afford much more). Walmart has also made steps to appeal to more liberal customers, for example, by rejecting the American Family Association's recommendations and carrying the DVD Brokeback Mountain, a love story between two gay cowboys in Wyoming. Sales of guns and ammunition Walmart stopped selling handguns in all U.S. states, except for Alaska, in 1993. In 2018, Walmart stopped selling guns and ammunition to persons younger than 21, following a similar move by Dick's Sporting Goods on the same day. In the same year, Walmart stopped selling military-style rifles that were commonly used in mass shootings. As of 2019, Walmart was a major retailer of firearms and ammunition. In 2019, after 23 people were killed in a mass shooting at a Walmart store in El Paso, Texas, Walmart announced that it would stop selling all handgun ammunition and certain short-barreled rifle ammunition. The company also announced that it would stop selling handguns in Alaska, the only state where the company still sold handguns. The move was expected to reduce Walmart's U.S. market share in ammunition from around 20% to around 6–9%. Walmart also stated that it was "respectfully requesting" that customers not openly carry weapons in Walmart stores, except for authorized law enforcement officers. Following the fatal police shooting of Walter Wallace Jr. in October 2020, Walmart temporarily removed gun and ammunition displays in thousands of stores across the U.S. from sales floors, grounding their reason in concerns of civil unrest. Company spokesman Kory Lundberg said in a statement that "We have seen some isolated civil unrest and as we have done on several occasions over the last few years, we have moved our firearms and ammunition off the sales floor as a precaution for the safety of our associates and customers." Firearms and ammunition will still be available for purchase on request, but the duration of the removal of both from the sales floor remains undetermined. Technology Open source software Many Walmart technology projects are coded in the open and available through the Walmart Labs GitHub repository as open-source software under the OSI approved Apache V2.0 license. 141 public GitHub projects are listed. During a migration of the walmart.com retail platform to Facebook React and Node.js, the Electrode project was created to power the e-commerce platform which serves 80 million visitors per month and 15 million items. The electrode provides various developer enhancements and tools for the developer including Node.js configuration and feature management. Alex Grigoryan of Walmart Labs released a statement on Medium.com on October 3, 2016, explaining the details of the applications and the scale that they operate at Walmart. Big data analytics As the largest retailer in the U.S., Walmart collects and analyzes a large amount of consumer data. The big data sets are mined for use in predictive analytics, which allow the company to optimize operations by predicting customer's habits. Walmart's datacenter is unofficially referred to as Area 71. In April 2011, Walmart acquired Kosmix to develop software for analyzing real-time data streams. In August 2012, Walmart announced its Polaris search engine. The amount of data gathered by Walmart has raised privacy concerns. Cash handling in 2016, Walmart began a drive to automate much of the cash handling process. Walmart began replacing employees who count currency by hand with machines that count 8 bills per second and 3,000 coins a minute. The processing machines, located in the back of stores, allow cashiers to process the money for electronic depositing. Charity Sam Walton believed that the company's contribution to society was the fact that it operated efficiently, thereby lowering the cost of living for customers, and, therefore, in that sense was a "powerful force for good", despite his refusal to contribute cash to philanthropic causes. Having begun to feel that his wealth attracted people who wanted nothing more than a "handout", he explained that while he believed his family had been fortunate and wished to use his wealth to aid worthy causes like education, they could not be expected to "solve every personal problem that comes to [their] attention". He explained later in his autobiography, "We feel very strongly that Wal-Mart really is not, and should not be, in the charity business," stating "any debit has to be passed along to somebody—either shareholders or our customers." Since Sam Walton's death in 1992, however, Walmart and the Walmart Foundation dramatically increased charitable giving. For example, in 2005, Walmart donated in cash and merchandise for Hurricane Katrina relief and in 2020 they committed $25 million to organizations on the frontlines of the COVID-19 pandemic response. Today, Walmart's charitable donations approach each year. COVID-19 (coronavirus) As of January 2021, healthcare workers could get vaccines through Walmart in New Mexico and Arkansas. Walmart planned to offer vaccines in Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, New Jersey, South Carolina, Texas, Chicago and Puerto Rico with the target of delivering between 10 million and 13 million doses per month at full capacity. In May 2021, Walmart said that starting from May 18 all its fully vaccinated employees can stop wearing masks at work following the guidance from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Economic impact Kenneth Stone, Professor of Economics at Iowa State University, in a paper published in Farm Foundation in 1997, found that some small towns can lose almost half of their retail trade within ten years of a Walmart store opening. He compared the changes to previous competitors small town shops have faced in the past—from the development of the railroads and the Sears Roebuck catalog to shopping malls. He concludes that small towns are more affected by "discount mass merchandiser stores" than larger towns and that shop owners who adapt to the ever-changing retail market can "co-exist and even thrive in this type of environment." One study found Walmart's entry into a new market has a profound impact on its competition. When a Walmart opens in a new market, median sales drop 40 percent at similar high-volume stores, 17 percent at supermarkets and 6 percent at drugstores, according to a June 2009 study by researchers at several universities and led by the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College. A Loyola University Chicago study suggested that the impact a Walmart store has on a local business is correlated to its distance from that store. The leader of that study admits that this factor is stronger in smaller towns and doesn't apply to more urban areas saying "It'd be so tough to nail down what's up with Wal-Mart". These findings are underscored by another study conducted in 2009 by the National Bureau of Economics that showed "large, negative effects" for competing businesses within of the newly opening big-box retailer. This same study also found that the local retailers experience virtually no benefit. Walmart's negative effects on local retailers may be partially explained by studies that find that local firms re-invest nearly 63 percent more of profits in other local businesses compared to chain retailers, as found by the Maine Center of Economic Policy in 2011. David Merriman, Joseph Persky, Julie Davis and Ron Baiman did a study in Economic Development Quarterly outlining the impacts of Walmart in Chicago. The study draws from three annual surveys of enterprises within a four-mile radius of a new Chicago Walmart and it "shows that the probability of going out of business was significantly higher for establishments close to that store". The study illustrated how approximately 300 jobs were lost due to the opening of the store, which is about equivalent to Walmart's employment in the area. The overall findings of this study reinforce the "contention that large-city Walmarts, like those in small towns, absorb retail sales from nearby stores without significantly expanding the market" as this is one of the first studies of Walmarts economic impacts on local economies. A 2001 McKinsey Global Institute study of U.S. labor productivity growth between 1995 and 2000 concluded that "Wal-Mart directly and indirectly caused the bulk of the productivity acceleration" in the retail sector. Robert Solow, a Nobel laureate in economics and an adviser to the study, stated that "[b]y far the most important factor in that [growth] is Wal-Mart." The Economic Policy Institute estimates that between 2001 and 2006, Wal-Mart's trade deficit with China alone eliminated nearly 200,000 U.S. jobs. Another study at the University of Missouri found that a new store increases net retail employment in the county by 100 jobs in the short term, half of which disappear over five years as other retail establishments close. A 2004 paper by two professors at Pennsylvania State University found that U.S. counties with Walmart stores suffered increased poverty compared with counties without Wal-Marts. They hypothesized that this could be due to the displacement of workers from higher-paid jobs in the retailers customers no longer choose to patronize, Wal-Mart providing less local charity than the replaced businesses, or a shrinking pool of local leadership and reduced social capital due to a reduced number of local independent businesses. Dr Raj Patel, author of "Stuffed and Starved: Markets, Power and the Hidden Battle for the World Food System", said in a lecture at the University of Melbourne on September 18, 2007, that a study in Nebraska looked at two different Wal-Marts, the first of which had just arrived and "was in the process of driving everyone else out of business but, to do that, they cut their prices to the bone, very, very low prices". In the other Wal-Mart, "they had successfully destroyed the local economy, there was a sort of economic crater with Wal-Mart in the middle; and, in that community, the prices were 17 percent higher". A 2005 story in The Washington Post reported that "Wal-Mart's discounting on food alone boosts the welfare of American shoppers by at least per year." A study in 2005 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) measured the effect on consumer welfare and found that the poorest segment of the population benefits the most from the existence of discount retailers. A 2008 economic analysis published in the journal Economic Inquiry suggested that "the process of creative destruction unleashed by Wal‐Mart has had no statistically significant long‐run impact on the overall size and profitability of the small business sector in the United States." In 2006, American newspaper columnist George Will named Wal-Mart "the most prodigious job-creator in the history of the private sector in this galaxy" and that "[b]y lowering consumer prices, Wal-Mart costs about 50 retail jobs among competitors for every 100 jobs Wal-Mart creates". In terms of economic effects, Will states that "Wal-Mart and its effects save shoppers more than a year, dwarfing such government programs as food stamps () and the earned income tax credit ()". A 2014 story in The Guardian reported that the Wal-Mart Foundation was boosting its efforts to work with U.S. manufacturers. In February 2014, the Walmart Foundation pledged to support domestic manufacturers and announced plans to buy worth of American-made products in the next decade. Labor relations With over 2.3 million employees worldwide, Walmart has faced a torrent of lawsuits and issues with regards to its workforce. These issues involve low wages, poor working conditions, inadequate health care, and issues involving the company's strong anti-union policies. In November 2013, the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) announced that it had found that in 13 U.S. states, Wal-Mart had pressured employees not to engage in strikes on Black Friday, and had illegally disciplined workers who had engaged in strikes. Critics point to Walmart's high turnover rate as evidence of an unhappy workforce, although other factors may be involved. Approximately 70 percent of its employees leave within the first year. Despite this turnover rate, the company is still able to affect unemployment rates. This was found in a study by Oklahoma State University which states, "Walmart is found to have substantially lowered the relative unemployment rates of blacks in those counties where it is present, but to have had only a limited impact on relative incomes after the influences of other socio-economic variables were taken into account." Walmart is the largest private employer in the United States, employing almost five times as many people as IBM, the second-largest employer. Walmart employs more African Americans than any other private employer in the United States. Walmart rebranded their Associate Education Benefits to Live Better U in March 2019. Live Better U supports associate education at every level and includes $1 a day college program, cost-free high school education, and discounts on higher education programs through partnership with Guild Education. In April 2019, Walmart Inc. announced plans to extend the use of robots in stores in order to improve and monitor inventory, clean floors and unload trucks, part of the company's effort to lower its labor costs. In June 2019, Walmart Inc. announced the expansion of education benefits to recruit high school students. The incentives include flexible work schedules, free SAT and ACT preparation courses, up to seven hours of free college credit, and a debt-free college degree in three fields from six nonprofit universities. Gender In 2007, a gender discrimination lawsuit, Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., was filed against Walmart, alleging that female employees were discriminated against in matters regarding pay and promotions. A class action suit was sought, which would have been the nation's largest in history, covering 1.5 million past and current employees. On June 20, 2011, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Wal-Mart's favor, stating that the plaintiffs did not have enough in common to constitute a class. The court ruled unanimously that because of the variability of the plaintiffs' circumstances, the class action could not proceed as presented, and furthermore, in a 5–4 decision that it could not proceed as any kind of class action suit. Several plaintiffs, including the lead plaintiff, Betty Dukes, expressed their intent to file individual discrimination lawsuits separately. According to a consultant hired by plaintiffs in a sex discrimination lawsuit, in 2001, Wal-Mart's Equal Employment Opportunity Commission filings showed that female employees made up 65 percent of Wal-Mart's hourly paid workforce, but only 33 percent of its management. Just 35 percent of its store managers were women, compared to 57 percent at similar retailers. Wal-Mart says comparisons with other retailers are unfair, because it classifies employees differently; if department managers were included in the totals, women would make up 60 percent of the managerial ranks. Others have criticized the lawsuit as without basis in the law and as an abuse of the class action mechanism. In 2007, Wal-Mart was named by the National Association for Female Executives as one of the top 35 companies for executive women. Sexual orientation and gender identity In the Human Rights Campaign's (HRC) 2002 Corporate Equality Index, a measure of how companies treat LGBT employees and customers, gave Wal-Mart Stores Inc. a score of 14%. By 2017, however, HRC's 2017 Corporate Equality Index gave Wal-Mart Stores Inc. a score of a 100%. In 2003, Walmart added sexual orientation to their anti-discrimination policy. In 2005, Walmart's definition of family began including same-sex partners. In 2006, Walmart announced that "diversity efforts include new groups of minority, female and gay employees that meet at Walmart headquarters in Bentonville to advise the company on marketing and internal promotion. There are seven business resource groups: women, African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans, gays and lesbians, and a disabled group." From 2006 to 2008, Walmart was a member of the National Gay & Lesbian Chamber of Commerce. In 2011, Walmart added gender identity to their anti-discrimination policy. Walmart's anti-discrimination policies allow associates to use restroom facilities that corresponds with their gender identity and gender expression. In 2013, Walmart began offering health insurance benefits to domestic partners. In 2015, Doug McMillon, CEO of Walmart, issued a statement opposing House Bill 1228 and asked Governor Asa Hutchinson to veto the bill. In 2016, Walmart added full healthcare benefits to its transgender employees. Criticism and controversies Walmart has been subject to criticism from various groups and individuals, including labor unions, community groups, grassroots organizations, religious organizations, environmental groups, firearm groups, and the company's own customers and employees. They have protested against the company's policies and business practices, including charges of racial and gender discrimination. Other areas of criticism include the company's foreign product sourcing, treatment of suppliers, employee compensation and working conditions, environmental practices, the use of public subsidies, the company's security policies, and slavery. Walmart denies doing anything wrong and maintains that low prices are the result of efficiency. In April 2016, Walmart announced that it plans to eliminate eggs from battery cages from its supply chain by 2025. The decision was particularly important because of Walmart's large market share and influence on the rest of the industry. The move was praised by major animal welfare groups but a poultry trade group representative expressed skepticism about the decision's impact. Walmart's cage-free eggs will not come from free range producers, but rather industrial-scale farms where the birds will be allotted between 1 and 1.5 square feet each, a stressful arrangement which can cause cannibalism. Unlike battery cages, the systems of Walmart's suppliers allow the hens to move around, but relative to battery cages they have higher hen mortality rates and present distinct environmental and worker health problems. In March 2018, Walmart was sued by former Director of Business Development Tri Huynh for claims of reporting misleading e-commerce performance results in favor of the company. Huynh stated the company's move was an attempt to regain lost ground to competitor Amazon. In September 2018, Walmart was sued by Equal Employment Opportunity Commission alleging that Walmart denied requests from pregnant employees to limit heavy lifting. In May 2019, the Center for Inquiry filed a lawsuit in the District of Columbia alleging consumer fraud and the endangering of its customers' health due to Walmart's practice of "selling homeopathic [products] alongside real medicine, in the same sections in its stores, under the same signs," according to Nicholas Little, CFI's vice president and general counsel. On May 20, 2020, District of Columbia Superior Court Judge Florence Pan dismissed CFI's lawsuit, claiming that CFI had no standing as a consumer protection organization and failed to identify the specific actions on the part of Walmart that lead to harm to consumers. CFI has challenged both of those arguments and is planning an appeal. In July 2019, the Walmart subreddit was flooded with pro-union memes in a protest to the firing of an employee who posted confidential material to the subreddit. Many of these posts were angry with Walmart surveying its staff on the Internet. The posting of the union content is in response to the aforementioned alleged anti-union position Walmart has taken in the past. In November 2021, a federal jury found that Walmart, along with Walgreens and CVS, "had substantially contributed to" the opioid crisis. 2010s crime problem According to an August 2016 report by Bloomberg Businessweek, aggressive cost-cutting decisions that began in 2000 when Lee Scott took over as CEO of the company led to a significant increase in crime in stores across the United States. These included the removal of the store's famed greeters, who are in part seen as a theft deterrent at exits, the replacement of many cashiers with self-checkout stations, and the addition of stores at a rate that exceeded the hiring of new employees, which led to a 19% increase in space per employee from a decade previous. While these decisions succeeded in increasing profits 23% in the decade that followed, they also led to an increase in both theft and violent crime. In 2015, under CEO Doug McMillon, Walmart began a company-wide campaign to reduce crime that included spot-checking receipts at exits, stationing employees at self-checkout areas, eye-level security cameras in high-theft areas, use of data analytics to detect credit fraud, hiring off-duty police and private security officers, and reducing calls to police with a program by which first-time offenders caught stealing merchandise below a certain value can avoid arrest if they agree to go through a theft-prevention program. Law enforcement agencies across the United States have noted a burden on resources created by a disproportionate number of calls from Walmart. Experts have criticized the retailer for shifting its security burden onto the taxpayers. Across three Florida counties, approximately 9,000 police calls were logged to 53 Walmart stores but resulted in only a few hundred arrests. In Granite Falls, North Carolina, 92% of larceny calls to local police were from the Walmart store there. The trend is similar in rural, suburban, and urban areas. Police are called to Walmart stores 3 to 4 times as much as similar retailers such as Target. Experts say the chain and its razor-thin profit margins rely heavily on police to protect its bottom line. Walmart Supercenters top the list of those most visited by police. The police captain in Port Richey, Florida, said that Target stores more often have uniformed security, as well as more visible staff in any case. Another comparison might be shopping malls which often have security patrols and off-duty police officers. J.R. Roberts, a former director for risk management at Valor Security Services (which provides mall security) says: "Shopping centers all have security; they know it's an expense, but one they know pays dividends because people feel safer going to their stores." In addition to hundreds of thousands of petty crimes, more than 200 violent crimes, including attempted kidnappings, stabbings, shootings, and murders occurred at the 4,500 Walmarts in the U.S. in 2016. In 2019, 23 people were killed in a mass shooting at a Walmart store in El Paso, Texas. On June 27, 2020, a shooting occurred at a Walmart distribution center in Red Bluff, California, United States. One employee was killed, four other employees were wounded, and the shooter was killed by officers. In popular culture "Something Wall-Mart This Way Comes" – a 2004 episode of Comedy Central's South Park A Walmart Supercenter appeared in the 2021 film Ghostbusters: Afterlife, at a fictional Oklahoma town Summerville. It was filmed at a Walmart store on location in Deerfoot City shopping center at Calgary, Canada. See also Lukas Walton Big-box store Walmart greeter Wal-Mart camel – a bone fossil of a prehistoric camel found at a future Wal-Mart store in Mesa, Arizona Wal-Mart First Tee Open at Pebble Beach – former name of a golf tournament Wal-Mart: The High Cost of Low Price – a 2005 documentary film by director Robert Greenwald Walmarting – a neologism Why Wal-Mart Works; and Why That Drives Some People C-R-A-Z-Y – a 2005 rebuttal to the Greenwald documentary References Further reading External links Walmart Inc. Corporate Site 1962 establishments in Arkansas American companies established in 1962 Retail companies established in 1962 Bentonville, Arkansas Companies based in Arkansas Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Discount stores of the United States Hypermarkets of the United States Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Online retailers of the United States Toy retailers of the United States Supermarkets of China Supermarkets of the United States Superstores in the United States 1970s initial public offerings Garden centres

In mathematics, weak topology is an alternative term for certain initial topologies, often on topological vector spaces or spaces of linear operators, for instance on a Hilbert space. The term is most commonly used for the initial topology of a topological vector space (such as a normed vector space) with respect to its continuous dual. The remainder of this article will deal with this case, which is one of the concepts of functional analysis. One may call subsets of a topological vector space weakly closed (respectively, weakly compact, etc.) if they are closed (respectively, compact, etc.) with respect to the weak topology. Likewise, functions are sometimes called weakly continuous (respectively, weakly differentiable, weakly analytic, etc.) if they are continuous (respectively, differentiable, analytic, etc.) with respect to the weak topology. History Starting in the early 1900s, David Hilbert and Marcel Riesz made extensive use of weak convergence. The early pioneers of functional analysis did not elevate norm convergence above weak convergence and oftentimes viewed weak convergence as preferable. In 1929, Banach introduced weak convergence for normed spaces and also introduced the analogous weak-* convergence. The weak topology is also called topologie faible and schwache Topologie. The weak and strong topologies Let be a topological field, namely a field with a topology such that addition, multiplication, and division are continuous. In most applications will be either the field of complex numbers or the field of real numbers with the familiar topologies. Weak topology with respect to a pairing Both the weak topology and the weak* topology are special cases of a more general construction for pairings, which we now describe. The benefit of this more general construction is that any definition or result proved for it applies to both the weak topology and the weak* topology, thereby making redundant the need for many definitions, theorem statements, and proofs. This is also the reason why the weak* topology is also frequently referred to as the "weak topology"; because it is just an instance of the weak topology in the setting of this more general construction. Suppose is a pairing of vector spaces over a topological field (i.e. and are vector spaces over and is a bilinear map). Notation. For all , let denote the linear functional on defined by . Similarly, for all , let be defined by . Definition. The weak topology on induced by (and ) is the weakest topology on , denoted by or simply , making all maps continuous, as ranges over . The weak topology on is now automatically defined as described in the article Dual system. However, for clarity, we now repeat it. Definition. The weak topology on induced by (and ) is the weakest topology on , denoted by or simply , making all maps continuous, as ranges over . If the field has an absolute value , then the weak topology on is induced by the family of seminorms, , defined by for all and . This shows that weak topologies are locally convex. Assumption. We will henceforth assume that is either the real numbers or the complex numbers . Canonical duality We now consider the special case where is a vector subspace of the algebraic dual space of (i.e. a vector space of linear functionals on ). There is a pairing, denoted by or , called the canonical pairing whose bilinear map is the canonical evaluation map, defined by for all and . Note in particular that is just another way of denoting i.e. . Assumption. If is a vector subspace of the algebraic dual space of then we will assume that they are associated with the canonical pairing . In this case, the weak topology on (resp. the weak topology on ), denoted by (resp. by ) is the weak topology on (resp. on ) with respect to the canonical pairing . The topology is the initial topology of with respect to . If is a vector space of linear functionals on , then the continuous dual of with respect to the topology is precisely equal to . The weak and weak* topologies Let be a topological vector space (TVS) over , that is, is a vector space equipped with a topology so that vector addition and scalar multiplication are continuous. We call the topology that starts with the original, starting, or given topology (the reader is cautioned against using the terms "initial topology" and "strong topology" to refer to the original topology since these already have well-known meanings, so using them may cause confusion). We may define a possibly different topology on using the topological or continuous dual space , which consists of all linear functionals from into the base field that are continuous with respect to the given topology. Recall that is the canonical evaluation map defined by for all and , where in particular, . Definition. The weak topology on is the weak topology on with respect to the canonical pairing . That is, it is the weakest topology on making all maps continuous, as ranges over . Definition: The weak topology on is the weak topology on with respect to the canonical pairing . That is, it is the weakest topology on making all maps continuous, as ranges over . This topology is also called the weak* topology. We give alternative definitions below. Weak topology induced by the continuous dual space Alternatively, the weak topology on a TVS is the initial topology with respect to the family . In other words, it is the coarsest topology on X such that each element of remains a continuous function. A subbase for the weak topology is the collection of sets of the form where and is an open subset of the base field . In other words, a subset of is open in the weak topology if and only if it can be written as a union of (possibly infinitely many) sets, each of which is an intersection of finitely many sets of the form . From this point of view, the weak topology is the coarsest polar topology; see weak topology (polar topology) for details. Weak convergence The weak topology is characterized by the following condition: a net in converges in the weak topology to the element of if and only if converges to in or for all . In particular, if is a sequence in , then converges weakly to if as for all . In this case, it is customary to write or, sometimes, Other properties If is equipped with the weak topology, then addition and scalar multiplication remain continuous operations, and is a locally convex topological vector space. If is a normed space, then the dual space is itself a normed vector space by using the norm This norm gives rise to a topology, called the strong topology, on . This is the topology of uniform convergence. The uniform and strong topologies are generally different for other spaces of linear maps; see below. Weak-* topology The weak* topology is an important example of a polar topology. A space can be embedded into its double dual X** by Thus is an injective linear mapping, though not necessarily surjective (spaces for which this canonical embedding is surjective are called reflexive). The weak-* topology on is the weak topology induced by the image of . In other words, it is the coarsest topology such that the maps Tx, defined by from to the base field or remain continuous. Weak-* convergence A net in is convergent to in the weak-* topology if it converges pointwise: for all . In particular, a sequence of converges to provided that for all . In this case, one writes as . Weak-* convergence is sometimes called the simple convergence or the pointwise convergence. Indeed, it coincides with the pointwise convergence of linear functionals. Properties If is a separable (i.e. has a countable dense subset) locally convex space and H is a norm-bounded subset of its continuous dual space, then H endowed with the weak* (subspace) topology is a metrizable topological space. If is a separable metrizable locally convex space then the weak* topology on the continuous dual space of is separable. Properties on normed spaces By definition, the weak* topology is weaker than the weak topology on . An important fact about the weak* topology is the Banach–Alaoglu theorem: if is normed, then the closed unit ball in is weak*-compact (more generally, the polar in of a neighborhood of 0 in is weak*-compact). Moreover, the closed unit ball in a normed space is compact in the weak topology if and only if is reflexive. In more generality, let be locally compact valued field (e.g., the reals, the complex numbers, or any of the p-adic number systems). Let be a normed topological vector space over , compatible with the absolute value in . Then in , the topological dual space of continuous -valued linear functionals on , all norm-closed balls are compact in the weak-* topology. If is a normed space, then a subset of the continuous dual is weak* compact if and only if it is weak* closed and norm-bounded. This implies, in particular, the when is an infinite-dimensional normed space then the closed unit ball at the origin in the dual space of does not contain any weak* neighborhood of 0. If is a normed space, then is separable if and only if the weak-* topology on the closed unit ball of is metrizable, in which case the weak* topology is metrizable on norm-bounded subsets of . If a normed space has a dual space that is separable (with respect to the dual-norm topology) then is necessarily separable. If is a Banach space, the weak-* topology is not metrizable on all of unless is finite-dimensional. Examples Hilbert spaces Consider, for example, the difference between strong and weak convergence of functions in the Hilbert space . Strong convergence of a sequence to an element means that as . Here the notion of convergence corresponds to the norm on . In contrast weak convergence only demands that for all functions (or, more typically, all f in a dense subset of such as a space of test functions, if the sequence {ψk} is bounded). For given test functions, the relevant notion of convergence only corresponds to the topology used in . For example, in the Hilbert space , the sequence of functions form an orthonormal basis. In particular, the (strong) limit of as does not exist. On the other hand, by the Riemann–Lebesgue lemma, the weak limit exists and is zero. Distributions One normally obtains spaces of distributions by forming the strong dual of a space of test functions (such as the compactly supported smooth functions on ). In an alternative construction of such spaces, one can take the weak dual of a space of test functions inside a Hilbert space such as . Thus one is led to consider the idea of a rigged Hilbert space. Weak topology induced by the algebraic dual Suppose that is a vector space and X# is the algebraic dual space of (i.e. the vector space of all linear functionals on ). If is endowed with the weak topology induced by X# then the continuous dual space of is , every bounded subset of is contained in a finite-dimensional vector subspace of , every vector subspace of is closed and has a topological complement. Operator topologies If and are topological vector spaces, the space of continuous linear operators may carry a variety of different possible topologies. The naming of such topologies depends on the kind of topology one is using on the target space to define operator convergence . There are, in general, a vast array of possible operator topologies on , whose naming is not entirely intuitive. For example, the strong operator topology on is the topology of pointwise convergence. For instance, if is a normed space, then this topology is defined by the seminorms indexed by : More generally, if a family of seminorms Q defines the topology on , then the seminorms on defining the strong topology are given by indexed by and . In particular, see the weak operator topology and weak* operator topology. See also Eberlein compactum, a compact set in the weak topology Weak convergence (Hilbert space) Weak-star operator topology Weak convergence of measures Topologies on spaces of linear maps Topologies on the set of operators on a Hilbert space Vague topology References Bibliography Topology of function spaces Topology General topology

WordPerfect (WP) is a word processing application, now owned by Corel, with a long history on multiple personal computer platforms. At the height of its popularity in the 1980s and early 1990s, it was the dominant player in the word processor market, displacing the prior market leader WordStar. It was originally developed under contract at Brigham Young University for use on a Data General minicomputer in the late 1970s. The authors retained the rights to the program, forming the Utah-based Satellite Software International (SSI) in 1979 to sell it; the program first came to market under the name SSI*WP in March 1980. It then moved to the MS-DOS operating system in 1982, by which time the name WordPerfect was in use, and several greatly updated versions quickly followed. The application's feature list was considerably more advanced than its main competition WordStar, an established program based on the operating system CP/M that failed to transition successfully onto MS-DOS, which replaced CP/M. Satellite Software International changed its name to WordPerfect Corporation in 1985. WordPerfect gained praise for its "look of sparseness" and clean display. It rapidly displaced most other systems, especially after the 4.2 release in 1986, and it became the standard in the DOS market by version 5.1 in 1989. Its early popularity was based partly on its availability for a wide variety of computers and operating systems, and also partly because of extensive, no-cost support, with "hold jockeys" entertaining users while waiting on the phone. Its dominant position ended after a failed release for Microsoft Windows, followed by a long delay before introducing an improved version, as Microsoft Word was introduced at the same time. Word rapidly took over the market, helped by aggressive bundling deals that ultimately produced Microsoft Office, and WordPerfect was no longer a popular standard by the mid-1990s. WordPerfect Corporation was sold to Novell in 1994, which then sold the product to Corel in 1996. Corel has made regular releases to the product since then, often in the form of office suites under the WordPerfect name that include the Quattro Pro spreadsheet, the Presentations slides formatter, and other applications. The common filename extension of WordPerfect document files is .wpd. Older versions of WordPerfect also used file extensions .wp, .wp7, .wp6, .wp5, .wp4, and originally, no extension at all. WordPerfect for DOS In 1979, Brigham Young University graduate student Bruce Bastian and computer science professor Alan Ashton created word processing software for a Data General minicomputer system owned by the city of Orem, Utah. Bastian and Ashton retained ownership of the software that they created. They then founded Satellite Software International, Inc., to market the program to other Data General users. WordPerfect 1.0 represented a significant departure from the previous Wang standard for word processing. The first version of WordPerfect for the IBM PC was released the day after Thanksgiving in 1982. It was sold as WordPerfect 2.20, continuing the version numbering from the Data General program. Over the next several months, three more minor releases arrived, mainly to correct bugs. The developers had hoped to program WordPerfect in C, but at this early stage, there were no C compilers available for the IBM PC, and they had to program it in x86 assembly language. All versions of WordPerfect up to 5.0 were written in x86, and C was only adopted with WP 5.1, when it became necessary to convert it to non-IBM compatible computers. The use of straight assembly language and a high amount of direct screen access gave WordPerfect a significant performance advantage over WordStar, which used strictly DOS API functions for all screen and keyboard access, and was often very slow. In addition, WordStar, created for the CP/M operating system, in which subdirectories are not supported, was extremely slow in switching to support sub-directories in MS-DOS. In 1983, WordPerfect 3.0 was released for DOS. This was updated to support DOS 2.x, sub-directories, and hard disks. It also expanded printer support, where WordPerfect 2.x only supported Epson and Diablo printers that were hard-coded into the main program. Adding support for additional printers this way was impractical, so the company introduced printer drivers, a file containing a list of control codes for each model of printer. Version 3.0 had support for fifty different printers, and this was expanded to one hundred within a year. WordPerfect also supplied an editor utility that allowed users to make their own printer drivers, or to modify the included ones. Antic magazine observed, that "WordPerfect is almost unusable without its manual of over 600 pages!" A version of WordPerfect 3.0 became the Editor program of WordPerfect Office. WordPerfect 4.0 was released in 1984. WordPerfect 4.2, released in 1986, introduced automatic paragraph numbering, which was important to law offices, and automatic numbering and placement of footnotes and endnotes that were important both to law offices and academics. It became the first program to overtake the original market leader WordStar in a major application category on the DOS platform. By 1987, Compute! magazine described WordPerfect as "a standard in the MS-DOS world" and "a powerhouse program that includes almost everything". In November 1989, WordPerfect Corporation released the program's most successful version, WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS, which was the first version to include pull-down menus to supplement the traditional function key combinations, support for tables, a spreadsheet-like feature, and full support for typesetting options, such as italic, redline, and strike-through. This version also included "print preview", a graphical representation of the final printed output that became the foundation for WordPerfect 6.0's graphic screen editing. WordPerfect 5.1+ for DOS was introduced to allow older DOS-based PCs to utilize the new WordPerfect 6 file format. This version could read and write WordPerfect 6 files, included several third-party screen and printing applications (previously sold separately), and provided several minor improvements. WordPerfect 6.0 for DOS, released in 1993, could switch between its traditional text-based display mode and a graphical display mode that showed the document as it would print out known as WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get). The previous text-based versions used different colors, or text color inversions to indicate various markups, and a graphic mode only for an uneditable print preview that used generic fonts rather than the actual fonts that appeared on the printed page. By the time WordPerfect 6.0 was released, the company had grown "to command more than 60 percent of the word processing software market." Key characteristics WordPerfect's distinguishing features include: extensive use of key combinations, especially on the MS-DOS platform, enabling quick access to features, once the meaning of the key combinations (like Ctrl–Shift–F6) had been memorized; its "streaming code" file format; its Reveal Codes feature; and its numbering of lines as the legal profession requires its macro/scripting capability, now provided through PerfectScript. The ease of use of tools, like Mail Merge (combine form documents with data from any data source), "Print as booklet", and tables (with spreadsheet capabilities and the possibility to generate graphs) are also notable. The WordPerfect document format allows continuous extending of functionality without jeopardizing backward and forward compatibility. Despite the fact that the newer version is extremely rich in functionality, WordPerfect X5 documents are fully compatible with WordPerfect 6.0a documents in both directions. The older program simply ignores the "unknown" codes, while rendering the known features of the document. WordPerfect users were never forced to upgrade for compatibility reasons for more than two decades. Streaming code architecture A key to WordPerfect's design is its streaming code architecture that parallels the formatting features of HTML and Cascading Style Sheets. Documents are created much the same way that raw HTML pages are written, with text interspersed by tags (called "codes") that trigger treatment of data until a corresponding closing tag is encountered, at which point the settings active to the point of the opening tag resume control. As with HTML, tags can be nested. Some data structures are treated as objects within the stream as with HTML's treatment of graphic images, e.g., footnotes and styles, but the bulk of a WordPerfect document's data and formatting codes appear as a single continuous stream. A difference between HTML tags and WordPerfect codes is that HTML codes can all be expressed as a string of plain text characters delimited by greater-than and less-than characters, e.g. <strong>text</strong>, whereas WordPerfect formatting codes consist of hexadecimal values. Styles and style libraries The addition of styles and style libraries in WP 5.0 provided greatly increased power and flexibility in formatting documents, while maintaining the streaming-code architecture of earlier versions. Styles are a preset arrangement of settings having to do with things like fonts, spacings, tab stops, margins and other items having to do with text layout. Styles can be created by the user to shortcut the setup time when starting a new document, and they can be saved in the program's style library. Prior to that, WordPerfect's only use of styles was the Opening Style, which contained the default settings for a document. After the purchase of the desktop publishing program Ventura, Corel enhanced the WordPerfect styles editor and styles behavior with the majority of Ventura's capabilities. This improved the usability and performance of graphic elements like text boxes, document styles, footer and header styles. Since WordPerfect has been enriched with properties from the CorelDraw Graphics suite, graphic styles are editable. The Graphics Styles editor enables customizing the appearance of boxes, borders, lines and fills and store the customized design for reuse. The possibilities include patterns and color gradients for fills; corner, endpoint, pen-type and thickness for lines. Box styles can be used as container style, including a border, lines, fill, text and caption; each with its separate style. A text box style shows that WordPerfect cascades its styles. Around the same time, Corel included WordPerfect, with its full functionality, in CorelDraw Graphics Suite as the text editor. Reveal codes Present since the earliest versions of WordPerfect, the Reveal Codes feature distinguishes it from other word processors; Microsoft Word's equivalent is much less powerful. It displays and allows editing the codes, reduces retyping, and enables easy formatting changes. It is a second editing screen that can be toggled open and closed, and sized as desired. The codes for formatting and locating text are displayed, interspersed with tags and the occasional objects, with the tags and objects represented by named tokens. This provides a more detailed view to troubleshoot problems than with styles-based word processors, and object tokens can be clicked with a pointing device to directly open the configuration editor for the particular object type, e.g. clicking on a style token brings up the style editor with the particular style type displayed. WordPerfect had this feature already in its DOS incarnations. Macro languages WordPerfect for DOS stood out for its macros, in which sequences of keystrokes, including function codes, were recorded as the user typed them. These macros could then be assigned to any key desired. This enabled any sequence of keystrokes to be recorded, saved, and recalled. Macros could examine system data, make decisions, be chained together, and operate recursively until a defined "stop" condition occurred. This capability provided a powerful way to rearrange data and formatting codes within a document where the same sequence of actions needed to be performed repetitively, e.g., for tabular data. But since keystrokes were recorded, changes in the function of certain keys as the program evolved would mean that macros from one DOS version of WordPerfect would not necessarily run correctly on another version. Editing of macros was difficult until the introduction of a macro editor in Shell, in which a separate file for each WordPerfect product with macros enabled the screen display of the function codes used in the macros for that product. WordPerfect DOS macros, which assumed a text-based screen, with fixed locations on the screen, could not, or could not easily, be implemented with the Windows WYSIWYG screen and mouse. For example, "go down four lines" has a clear meaning on a DOS screen, but no definite meaning with a Windows screen. WordPerfect lacked a way to meaningfully record mouse movements. A new and even more powerful interpreted token-based macro recording and scripting language came with both DOS and Windows 6.0 versions, and that became the basis of the language named PerfectScript in later versions. PerfectScript has remained the mainstay scripting language for WordPerfect users ever since. It dealt with functions rather than with keystrokes. There was no way to import DOS macros, and users who had created extensive macro libraries were forced to continue using WordPerfect 5.1, or to rewrite all the macros from scratch using the new programming language. An important property of WordPerfect macros is that they are not embedded in a document. As a result, WordPerfect is not prone to macro viruses or malware, unlike MS Word. Despite the term "macro", the language has hundreds of commands and functions and in fact creates full-fledged programs resident on and executed on the user's computer. In WPDOS 6 the source code is generated using the same interface used to edit documents. A WordPerfect macro can create or modify a document or perform tasks like displaying results of a calculation such as taking a date input, adding a specific number of days and displaying the new date in a dialog box. Documents created or edited by a WordPerfect macro are no different from those produced by manual input; the macros simply improve efficiency or automate repetitive tasks and also enabled creating content-rich document types, which would hardly be feasible manually. The PerfectScript macro language shows especial versatility in its ability to deploy every function that exists in the entire office suite, no matter whether that function was designed for WordPerfect, Quattro Pro or Presentations. The macro development wizard presents and explains all of these functions. The number of functions available through PerfectScript is unparalleled in the office market. On top of the functions available in the main components of the office suite, PerfectScript also provides the user with tools to build dialogs and forms. Widgets like buttons, input fields, drop-down lists and labels are easily combined to build user-friendly interfaces for custom office applications. An example: a Dutch housing company (VZOS, Den Haag, several thousands of apartments) had its mutation administration build with WordPerfect. Beginning with WordPerfect Office 10, the suite also included the Microsoft Office Visual Basic macro language as an alternative, meant to improve compatibility of the suite with Microsoft Office documents. Macros may be used to create data entry programs which enter information directly into WordPerfect documents, saving the time and effort required to retype it. Language formatting conventions The Language Resource File (WP.LRS) specified language formatting conventions. Function keys Like its 1970s predecessor Emacs and mid-1980s competitor, MultiMate, WordPerfect used almost every possible combination of function keys with Ctrl, Alt, and Shift modifiers, and the CtrlAlt, ShiftAlt, and ShiftCtrl double modifiers, unlike early versions of WordStar, which used only Ctrl. WordPerfect used F3 instead of F1 for Help, F1 instead of Esc for Cancel, and Esc for Repeat (though a configuration option in later versions allowed these functions to be rotated to locations that later became more standard). The extensive number of key combinations are now one of WordPerfect's most popular features among its regular "power users" such as legal secretaries, paralegals and attorneys. Printer drivers WordPerfect for DOS shipped with an impressive array of printer drivers—a feature that played an important role in its adoption—and also shipped with a printer driver editor called PTR, which features a flexible macro language and allows technically inclined users to customize and create printer drivers. An interesting feature of the DOS 5.0 version was its Type-Through feature. It allowed a user with certain compatible printers to use WordPerfect as a conventional typewriter. This functionality was removed in the DOS 5.1 version. WordPerfect Library/Office utilities WordPerfect Corporation produced a variety of ancillary and spin-off products. WordPerfect Library, introduced in 1986 and later renamed WordPerfect Office (not to be confused with Corel's Windows office suite of the same name), was a package of DOS network and stand-alone utility software for use with WordPerfect. The package included a DOS menu shell and file manager which could edit binary files as well as WordPerfect or Shell macros, calendar, and a general-purpose flat file database program that could be used as the data file for a merge in WordPerfect and as a contact manager. After Novell acquired WordPerfect Corporation, it incorporated many of these utilities into Novell GroupWise. LetterPerfect In 1990 WordPerfect Corporation also offered LetterPerfect, which was a reduced-functionality version of WP-DOS 5.1 intended for use on less-capable hardware such as the laptops of the day, and as an entry-level product for students and home users; the name (but not the code) was purchased from a small Missouri company that had produced a basic word processor for early Atari computers. LP did not support tables, labels, sorting, equation editing or styles. It sold for about US$100 but did not catch on and was soon discontinued. DataPerfect Another program distributed through WordPerfect Corporation (and later through Novell) was DataPerfect for DOS, a fast and capable relational database management system (RDBMS) requiring as little as 300 KB of free DOS memory to run. It was written by Lew Bastian. In December 1995, Novell released DataPerfect as copyrighted freeware and allowed the original author to continue to update the program. Updates were developed until at least 2008. DataPerfect supports up to 99 data files ("panels") with each holding up to 16 million records of up to 125 fields and an unlimited number of variable-length memo fields which can store up to 64,000 characters each. Networked, DataPerfect supports up to simultaneous users. PlanPerfect Another program distributed through WordPerfect Corporation was PlanPerfect, a spreadsheet application. The first version with that name was reviewed in InfoWorld magazine September 1987. WordPerfect for Windows History WordPerfect was late in coming to market with a Windows version. WordPerfect 5.1 for Windows, introduced in 1991, had to be installed from DOS and was largely unpopular due to serious stability issues. The first mature version, WordPerfect 5.2 for Windows was released in November 1992 and WordPerfect 6.0 for Windows was released in 1993. By the time WordPerfect 5.2 for Windows was introduced, Microsoft Word for Windows version 2 had been on the market for over a year and had received its third interim release, v2.0c. WordPerfect's function-key-centered user interface did not adapt well to the new paradigm of mouse and pull-down menus, especially with many of WordPerfect's standard key combinations pre-empted by incompatible keyboard shortcuts that Windows itself used; for example, Alt-F4 became Exit Program, as opposed to WordPerfect's Block Text. The DOS version's impressive arsenal of finely tuned printer drivers was also rendered obsolete by Windows' use of its own printer device drivers. WordPerfect Office Suite WordPerfect became part of an office suite when the company entered into a co-licensing agreement with Borland Software Corporation in 1993. The offerings were marketed as Borland Office, containing Windows versions of WordPerfect, Quattro Pro, Borland Paradox, and a LAN-based groupware package called WordPerfect Office. Originally based on the WordPerfect Library for DOS, the Novell / WordPerfect Office suite was integrated by "middleware". The most important middleware-suite, still active in current versions of WordPerfect Office, is called PerfectFit (developed by WordPerfect). The other "middleware" (developed by Novell) was called AppWare. Novell buys WordPerfect Company The WordPerfect product line was sold twice, first to Novell in June 1994, who then sold it (at a big loss) to Corel in January 1996. However, Novell kept the WordPerfect Office technology, incorporating it into its GroupWise messaging and collaboration product. Microsoft vs Novell Compounding WordPerfect's troubles were issues associated with the release of the first 32-bit version, WordPerfect 7, intended for use on Windows 95. In the lawsuit 'Novell v. Microsoft', Novell argued that these problems were due to anti-competitive acts by Microsoft. While WordPerfect 7 contained notable improvements over the 16-bit WordPerfect for Windows 3.1, it was released in May 1996, nine months after the introduction of Windows 95 and Microsoft Office 95 (including Word 95). The initial release suffered from notable stability problems. WordPerfect 7 also did not have a Microsoft "Designed for Windows 95" logo. This was important to some Windows 95 software purchasers as Microsoft set standards for application design, behavior, and interaction with the operating system. To make matters worse, the original release of WordPerfect 7 was incompatible with Windows NT, hindering its adoption in many professional environments. The "NT Enabled" version of WordPerfect 7, which Corel considered to be Service Pack 2, was not available until Q1-1997, over six months after the introduction of Windows NT 4.0, a year and a half after the introduction of Office 95 (which supported Windows NT out of the box), and shortly after the introduction of Office 97. Market share While WordPerfect dominated the DOS market, Microsoft shifted its attention toward a Windows version of Word; after Windows 3.0 was introduced, Word's market share began to grow at an extraordinary rate. A Windows version of WordPerfect was not introduced until nearly two years after Windows 3.0, and was met with poor reviews. Word also benefited from being included in an integrated office suite package much sooner than WordPerfect. While WordPerfect had more than 50% of the worldwide word-processing market in 1995, by 2000 Word had up to 95%; it was so dominant that WordPerfect executives admitted that their software needed to be compatible with Word documents to survive. Application integration and middleware While Microsoft offered something that looked like a fully integrated office suite in Microsoft Office, a common complaint about early Windows versions of WordPerfect Office was that it looked like a collection of separate applications from different vendors cobbled together, with inconsistent user interfaces from one application to another. In fact, enabling applications from various software developers to work together on every platform was part of the Novell strategy. Novell had acquired WordPerfect for Windows from WordPerfect Corporation, Paradox from Borland, and various peripheral utilities from other companies and had started to evangelize the Novell "middleware" – Appware – as a means for others to run their programs on every operating system. This "middleware" strategy would make software vendors and customers independent from operating system vendors, like Microsoft, thus posing a real threat. Contrary to Microsoft with its MS Office however, starting with WordPerfect Office 9, Corel successfully integrated the components of WordPerfect Office almost seamlessly. PerfectScript and the middleware PerfectFit played the major role here. Elements of applications like CorelDraw and Ventura desktop publishing were also integrated and enriched the document format. Faithful customers Among the remaining avid users of WordPerfect are many law firms and government offices, which favor WordPerfect features such as macros, reveal codes, and the ability to access a large range of formatting options such as left-right block indent directly with key combinations rather than having to click through several layers of submenus as Microsoft Word often requires. Fast typists appreciate the ability to keep their hands on the keyboard, rather than reaching for the mouse as often as would be required if they were using Microsoft Word. WordPerfect users may also define any key or key combination to do what they want, such as typing phrases they often use or executing macros. The user interface has stayed almost identical from WPWin 6 through WP X5 (2010) and file formats have not changed, as incompatible new formats would require keeping both obsolete software versions and obsolete hardware around just to access a few old documents. Corel has catered to these markets, with, for example, a major sale to the United States Department of Justice in 2005. A related factor is that WordPerfect Corporation was particularly responsive to feature requests from the legal profession, incorporating many features particularly useful to that niche market; those features have been continued in subsequent versions, usually directly accessible with key combinations. Novell v. Microsoft antitrust lawsuit In November 2004, Novell filed an antitrust lawsuit against Microsoft for alleged anti-competitive behavior (such as tying Word to sales of Windows) that Novell claims led to loss of WordPerfect market share. That lawsuit, after several delays, was dismissed in July 2012. Novell filed an appeal against the judgment in November 2012. The documents filed in this lawsuit display abundant information on the essence, importance, history and development of WordPerfect. Windows shell namespaces were a big part of the case. Corel WordPerfect Since its acquisition by Corel, WordPerfect for Windows has officially been known as Corel WordPerfect. On January 17, 2006, Corel announced WordPerfect X3. Corel is an original member of the OASIS Technical Committee on the OpenDocument Format, and Paul Langille, a senior Corel developer, is one of the original four authors of the OpenDocument specification. In January 2006, subscribers to Corel's electronic newsletter were informed that WordPerfect 13 was scheduled for release later in 2006. The subsequent release of X3 (identified as "13" internally and in registry entries) has been met with generally positive reviews, due to new features including a unique PDF import capability, metadata removal tools, integrated search and online resources and other features. Version X3 was described by CNET in January, 2006 as a "winner", "a feature-packed productivity suite that's just as easy to use — and in many ways more innovative than — industry-goliath Microsoft Office 2003." CNET went on to describe X3 as "a solid upgrade for long-time users", but that "Die-hard Microsoft fans may want to wait to see what Redmond has up its sleeve with the radical changes expected within the upcoming Microsoft Office 12." While the notable if incremental enhancements of WordPerfect Office X3 have been well received by reviewers, a number of online forums have voiced concern about the future direction of WordPerfect, with long-time users complaining about certain usability and functionality issues that users have been asking to have fixed for the last few release versions. Although the released version of X3 at the time did not support the OOXML or OpenDocument formats, a beta was released that supported both. Reports surfaced late in January 2006 that Apple's iWork had leapfrogged WordPerfect Office as the leading alternative to Microsoft Office. This claim was soon debunked after industry analyst Joe Wilcox described JupiterResearch usage surveys that showed WordPerfect as the No. 2 office suite behind Microsoft Office in the consumer, small and medium businesses, and enterprise markets with a roughly 15 percent share in each market. In April 2008, Corel released its WordPerfect Office X4 office suite containing the new X4 version of WordPerfect which includes support for PDF editing, OpenDocument and Office Open XML. However, X4 does not include support for editing PDF's containing images in JPEG2000 format, a format used by Adobe Acrobat 9. In March 2010, Corel released its WordPerfect Office X5 office suite, which contains the new X5 version of WordPerfect. This version includes improved support for PDF, Microsoft Office 2007, OpenDocument, and Office Open XML. The new release includes integration with Microsoft SharePoint and other web services geared towards government and business users. In April 2012, Corel released its WordPerfect Office X6 office suite, which contains the new X6 version of WordPerfect. The new release adds multi-document/monitor support, new macros, Windows 8 preview support, and an eBook publisher. WordPerfect Suite and WordPerfect Office WordPerfect Suite and WordPerfect Office is an office suite developed by Corel Corporation. It originates from Borland Software Corporation's Borland Office, released in 1993 to compete against Microsoft Office and AppleWorks. Borland's suite bundled three key applications: WordPerfect, Quattro Pro and Paradox. Borland then sold the suite to Novell in 1994, which led to the addition of Novell Presentations and the now-defunct InfoCentral. It was then sold to Corel in 1996. Corel WordPerfect Suite 7 and Office 7 Professional Corel WordPerfect Suite 7 featured version 7 of its core applications: WordPerfect, Quattro Pro and Presentations while Office 7 Professional included Paradox as well. Both versions of the suite also bundled CorelFLOW 3, Sidekick, Dashboard and Envoy 7. The suite for Windows was released in 1996 to retail. Corel WordPerfect Office 2000 Corel WordPerfect Office 2000 featured version 9 of its core applications: WordPerfect, Quattro Pro, Presentations, Paradox and CorelCentral. All versions of the suite also bundle Trellix 2 and Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications. The suite for Windows was released on November 16, 1998, as a preview and on May 25, 1999, to retail. The Home and Student edition, as well as the Family Pack, omit the Presentations and Paradox software. Small Business edition was released on January 31, 2000, and omits Paradox. Several variants of this suite exist. One of these is the Family Pack, sold in versions 2 and 3 at a reduced price. This version cannot be used in a commercial setting. Three variants of the suite were created to integrate voice recognition. The first, the Voice Powered Edition, includes Dragon Naturally Speaking 3 and was released in North America. The second, available at some international locations, included Philips newest generation of FreeSpeech. The third is WordPerfect Law Office 2000, released on December 20, 1999. It features NaturallySpeaking Standard 4 and bundles several programs designed for lawyers. Another notable variant is WordPerfect Office 2000 for Linux, released on March 10, 2000. Although it supports various Linux distributions, it was designed with Corel Linux in mind as a way to upgrade such systems, which bundled a free version of the WordPerfect word processor. Latest version The latest version is WordPerfect Office 2021, released May 2021. Quattro Pro Quattro Pro is a spreadsheet program that originally competed against the dominant Lotus 1-2-3 and now competes against LibreOffice Calc, Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets and Apple's Numbers. Corel's application is available only for the Windows platform. Presentations Presentations is a presentation program by Corel. Its main competitors include LibreOffice Impress, Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides, and Apple's Keynote. WordPerfect Lightning WordPerfect Lightning is a note-taking application. Its main competitors are Evernote, Microsoft OneNote, Google Keep and Apple's Notes. Other desktop applications Paradox is a relational database manager for Windows. Its main competitors are LibreOffice Base and Microsoft Access. "Classic Mode" Corel added "Classic Mode" in WordPerfect 11. Although this displays the "classic" cyan Courier text on medium blue background, it is not a true emulation of the DOS version. It does select the WPDOS 5.1 Keyboard. (The 6.1 Keyboard is available too.) The WPWin macro system, which remains unchanged, is quite different from that of WPDOS, and conversion is not easy. Unsurprisingly, the menu remains the WPWin menu, and the available Toolbars are WPWin toolbars. Version history Summary WordPerfect 9 and newer is bundled with the WordPerfect Office Suite and cannot be purchased separately. In addition, versions of WordPerfect have also been available for Apricot, Tandy 2000, TI Professional, Victor 9000, and Zenith Z-100 systems. Known versions for IBM System/370 include 4.2, released 1988. Known versions for the DEC Rainbow 100 include version (?), released November 1983. Unix Known versions for Sun include WordPerfect 6.0, requiring SunOS or Solaris 2, year of release unknown. At one time or another, WordPerfect was available on around 30 flavors of Unix, including AT&T, NCR, SCO Xenix, Microport Unix, DEC Ultrix, Pyramid Tech Unix, Tru64, IBM AIX, Motorola 8000, and HP9000, SGI IRIX and Sun-3. Macintosh Development of WordPerfect for Macintosh did not run parallel to versions for other operating systems, and used version numbers unconnected to contemporary releases for DOS and Windows. Version 2 was a total rewrite, adhering more closely to Apple's UI guidelines. Version 3 took this further, making extensive use of the technologies Apple introduced in Systems 7.0–7.5, while remaining fast and capable of running well on older machines. Corel released version 3.5 in 1996, followed by the improved version 3.5e (for enhanced) in 1997. It was never updated beyond that, and the product was eventually discontinued. , Corel has reiterated that the company has no plans to further develop WordPerfect for Macintosh (such as creating a native Mac OS X version). For several years, Corel allowed Mac users to download version 3.5e from their website free of charge, and some Mac users still use this version. The download is still available at the Mac IO group (successor to the Yahoo group) along with the necessary OS 8/9/Classic Updater that slows scroll speed and restores functionality to the Style and Window menus. Like other Mac OS applications of its age, it requires the Classic environment on PowerPC Macs. While Intel Macs do not support Classic, emulators such as SheepShaver, Basilisk II and vMac allow users to run WordPerfect on any Macintosh computer (or indeed any Linux computer). Users wishing to use a current release of WordPerfect can run the Windows version through Boot Camp or virtualization software, and through Darwine or CrossOver Mac with mixed results. Atari ST Like the Macintosh version, development of WordPerfect for the Atari ST did not run parallel to the DOS versions. However the Atari ST version number aligned with contemporary DOS releases. In 1987, WordPerfect Corp. released version 4.1. This was the only Atari version ever released, but numerous patches and updates ensured that the Atari version of WordPerfect ran on all Atari ST, Atari STe, TT, and Falcon computers. WordPerfect ST differs from the DOS version most notably in speed and number of windows a user can open. On the Atari ST version, a user can open up to four windows (compared to DOS' two) and the application runs three to five times faster than the DOS version (depending on which update or patch is installed). This was possible because WordPerfect for the Atari ST was designed from the ground up and was optimized for the Motorola 68000 processor as well as Atari's GEM (Graphics Environment Manager) operating system. WordPerfect for the Atari ST retailed at US$395 with a student version for US$99. The price of WordPerfect was significantly higher than most of the other Atari word processors available at the time. Atari Corporation published a version of Microsoft Write (the Atari version of Microsoft Word 1.05 for the Macintosh) for US$129.95 (almost 75% off the suggested retail price of WordPerfect), which did not help WordPerfect's campaign to establish itself as the standard word processor on the Atari platform. Like other versions, WordPerfect for the ST was not copy-protected. In 1988 WordPerfect threatened to abandon the Atari market after copies of the word processor were found on several pirate bulletin board systems. However, support from the Atari community convinced WordPerfect to reconsider and support for the Atari ST continued, but only a single developer was assigned to the project to fix bugs. A WordPerfect 5.1 version for the Atari ST was planned and in development but was later cancelled. Amiga In 1987, WordPerfect was ported to the Amiga 1000 and was upgraded through version 4.1 on the Amiga platform despite rumors of its discontinuation. The company's efforts were not well supported by Amiga users and it did not sell well. Though it could be started from the Workbench or CLI, WordPerfect remained a fundamentally text-oriented program and retained its DOS command structure. Satellite Software received criticism for releasing a non-graphical word processor on a graphically oriented system. In 1989, WordPerfect Corporation stopped all Amiga development, including work on a version of PlanPerfect, stating that it had lost $800,000 on the computer and could not afford to add Amiga-specific features. After customers stated that they would be satisfied with a DOS-like word processor the company resumed development of only the Amiga version of WordPerfect, but discontinued it in 1992. Linux In 1995, WordPerfect 6.0 was made available for Linux as part of Caldera's internet office package. In late 1997, a newer version was made available for download, but had to be purchased to be activated. In 1998 Corel released WordPerfect 8.0 for Linux. The full version was sold as a package. A cut-down version was made available for downloading. Hoping to establish themselves in the nascent commercial Linux market, Corel also developed their own distribution of Linux. This included WordPerfect 8.1 for Linux. Although the Linux distribution was fairly well-received, the response to WordPerfect for Linux varied. Some Linux promoters appreciated the availability of a well-known, mainstream application for the operating system. Once OpenOffice.org appeared in 1999, there was little demand for a proprietary, closed-source project like WordPerfect. On top of this, WordPerfect 9.0, which was released as part of the WordPerfect Office 2000 for Linux package, was not a native Linux application like WP 6–8, but derived from the Windows version using Corel's own version of the Wine compatibility library, and hence had performance problems. WordPerfect failed to gain a large user base, and as part of Corel's change of strategic direction following a (non-voting) investment by Microsoft, WordPerfect for Linux was discontinued and their Linux distribution was sold to Xandros. In April 2004, Corel re-released WordPerfect 8.1 (the last Linux-native version) with some updates, as a "proof of concept" and to test the Linux market. , WordPerfect for Linux is not available for purchase, however it can still be found used, in online marketplaces. As of 2020, WordPerfect for Linux (also known as xwp) can still be run on modern distros. Linux applications may use the libwpd library to convert WordPerfect documents. iOS A WordPerfect X7 app for iOS was released in 2014, but it was merely remote desktop software that connected to a Corel-hosted WordPerfect for Windows session. It was billed as a "Limited Free Trial" and was eventually discontinued by Corel. Unicode and Asian language editing WordPerfect lacks support for Unicode, which limits its usefulness in many markets outside North America and Western Europe. Despite pleas from long-time users, this feature has not yet been implemented. For users in WordPerfect's traditional markets, the inability to deal with complex character sets, such as Asian language scripts, can cause difficulty when working on documents containing those characters. However, later versions have provided better compliance with interface conventions, file compatibility, and even Word interface emulation. However, WordPerfect X4 was reported to be able to import IPA character set, and copy and paste works as long as the pastes into WP are done via Paste Special > Unicode command. Publishing to PDF from WordPerfect embeds the WP-phonetic font together with the Unicode-compatible font. Reception PC Magazine stated in March 1983 that "WordPerfect is very impressive, a more than full-featured program with a few truly state-of-the-art goodies tucked into the package". It cited WordPerfect's inclusion of mail merge, footnotes, and macros—all missing from WordStar—as well as "virtually every ... feature that one ought to expect from a higher-priced program" including find-and-replace, bold and underline display, and automatic paragraph reflow. Byte in December 1984 noted the application's built-in print buffer, ability to show bold, underline, and centered text, and extensive math capabilities. It criticized the quality of the spell checker and difficult tab settings, but concluded that "its powerful capabilities far outweigh the problems mentioned". Compute! in August 1985 called WordPerfect "excellent". It especially praised the clean, uncluttered screen and fast spell checker. Noting the spell checker's size and the company's "excellent track record of supporting its software", Antic in May 1988 concluded that "If you want to own the most power-packed word processor available for the ST today, and can live with the relative complexity needed for harnessing this power, WordPerfect is what you've been waiting for." See also Ability Office – repackaged and sold as Corel Home Office and Corel Office Suite by Corel, but using Ability and Microsoft's file formats instead of WordPerfect Office file formats Comparison of word processors List of word processors Office Open XML software OpenDocument software List of office suites Comparison of office suites References Further reading External links WordPerfect Universe - a WordPerfect Office users group Corel WordPerfect Office Press kit: 12 Small Business Edition, X3, X4, X5, X6 Corel WordPerfect Office X6 - Standard Edition Macintosh users' group - discussion forum, free program download, third-party utilities and enhancements. Older Wordperfect manuals, pre-Borland and Corel Using WordPerfect on Linux - 2020 Download sites WordPerfect for DOS Updated—New printer drivers, updates, and added features for WordPerfect for DOS 5.1 and 6.x (with pages on WP on the Mac and Linux). All you need to know about WPDOS 5.1, 6.0, 6.1, and 6.2 on modern computers. http://www.gmccomb.com/wpdos/toc.htm - out-of-print book on WP macros and templates (free legal download) WordPerfect Shell 3.1 and 4.0 download WordPerfect Editor download 1993 software Amiga software Atari ST software Classic Mac OS word processors Computer-related introductions in 1993 Corel software DOS software IRIX software Linux word processors Office suites Office suites for Linux Office suites for Windows PDF software Proprietary cross-platform software Windows word processors Word processors

The World Calendar is a proposed reform of the Gregorian calendar created by Elisabeth Achelis of Brooklyn, New York in 1930. Features The World Calendar is a 12-month, perennial calendar with equal quarters. Each quarter begins on a Sunday and ends on a Saturday. The quarters are equal: each has exactly 91 days, 13 weeks, or 3 months. The three months in each quarter have 31, 30, and 30 days respectively. Each quarter begins with the 31-day months of January, April, July, or October. The World Calendar also has the following two additional days to maintain the same new year days as the Gregorian calendar. Worldsday The last day of the year following Saturday 30 December. This additional day is dated "W" and named Worldsday, a year-end world holiday. It is followed by Sunday, 1 January in the new year. Leapyear Day This day is similarly added at the end of the second quarter in leap years. It is also dated "W" and named Leapyear Day. It is followed by Sunday, 1 July within the same year. The World Calendar treats Worldsday and Leapyear Day as a 24-hour waiting period before resuming the calendar again. These off-calendar days, also known as "intercalary days", are not assigned weekday designations. They are intended to be treated as holidays. Because any three-month sequence repeats with the same arrangement of days, the World Calendar can be expressed concisely: Background and history The World Calendar has its roots in the proposed calendar of the Abbot Marco Mastrofini, a proposal to reform the Gregorian calendar year so that it would always begin on Sunday, 1 January, and would contain equal quarters of 91 days each. The 365th day of the solar cycle would be a year-end, "intercalary" and optionally holiday. In leap years, a second "intercalary day" follows Saturday, 30 June. Elisabeth Achelis founded The World Calendar Association (TWCA) in 1930 with the goal of worldwide adoption of the World Calendar. It functioned for most of the next twenty-five years as The World Calendar Association, Inc. Throughout the 1930s, support for the concept grew in the League of Nations, the precursor of the United Nations. Achelis started the Journal of Calendar Reform in 1931, publishing it for twenty-five years, and wrote five books on the calendar concept. Following World War II, Achelis solicited worldwide support for the World Calendar. As the movement gained international appeal with legislation introduced in the United States Congress, awaiting international decisions, Achelis accepted advice that the United Nations was the proper body to act on calendar reform. At the United Nations in 1955, the United States significantly delayed universal adoption by withholding support "unless such a reform were favoured by a substantial majority of the citizens of the United States acting through their representatives in the Congress of the United States." Also, Achelis wrote in 1955 (JCR Vol. 25, page 169), "While Affiliates and Committees have over the years and still are able to approach all branches of their governments, the Incorporated (International) Association was prevented from seeking legislation in the United States lest it lose its tax exempt status. Because of this I have been prevented from doing in my own country that which I have been urging all other Affiliates to do in theirs." By 1956, she dissolved The World Calendar Association, Incorporated. It continued as the International World Calendar Association through the rest of the century with several directors including Molly E. Kalkstein, who is related to Achelis, and who provided the Association's first official website during her 2000–2004 tenure. The association reorganised in 2005 as The World Calendar Association, International. It was last active on 2013 as it had resumed efforts towards adoption of the World Calendar in 2017 and 2023. The World Calendar Association's last director was Wayne Edward Richardson of Ellinwood, Kansas who died on 29 May 2020. Reception Benefits As with other calendar reform proposals, supporters point out several benefits to the World Calendar over the current Gregorian calendar. Proponents refer to its simple structure. Each day is assigned an exact, repetitive date relative to week and month. Quarterly statistics are easier to compare, since the four-quarters are the same length each year. Economic savings occur from less need to print calendars because only the year number changes. Work and school schedules do not need to unnecessarily reinvent themselves, at great expense, year after year. The World Calendar can be memorised by anyone and used similarly to a clock. Because the World Calendar is perpetual, there is no need to churn out copies of it every year. Dates in the World Calendar occur with no more than two days difference from Gregorian calendar dates. Religious objections The main opponents of the World Calendar in the 20th century were leaders of religions that worship according to a seven-day cycle. For Jews, Christians and Muslims, particular days of worship are ancient and fundamental elements of their faith. Jews observe Saturday as Shabbat, on the basis of the Decalogue's injunction to "remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy" (Exodus 20:8). Christians worship on Sunday, the Lord's Day, on which they believe Christ rose from the dead. Muslims perform the jumu'ah prayer in Mosques on Fridays, the day they believe Adam was created. Likewise, Seventh-day Adventists are required to worship every Saturday. Adherents of these religions object that intercalary days are counted outside the usual seven-day week and disrupt the traditional weekly cycle. A week with a Worldsday would be eight days long. Adherents of these religions insist that they would have to continue observing their holidays every seventh day, causing the worship days to drift by one day each year (two on a leap year), relative to the World Calendar week. The day of rest would then no longer coincide with the weekend. These concerns played a role in the United States government's decision, at the United Nations, in 1955, not to recommend further study. Supporters of the World Calendar do not deny that their system is at odds with the traditions of a significant portion of the world's population, but argue that Worldsdays and Leapyear Days can be treated as "double" holidays by those who wish to maintain the seven-day week sequence. International standards The World Calendar, unlike some other proposals, is not compatible with the international standard ISO 8601, which is based upon, but differs from, the Gregorian calendar. They differ regarding the first weekday of the week (Sunday vs. Monday), and ISO 8601 does not support intercalary dates (e.g. in notation). The World Calendar, however, modifies the Gregorian calendar less than other calendar reform proposals to achieve the sought after improvements of a simpler and perpetual calendar. See also List of calendars World Season Calendar, proposed by Isaac Asimov in 1973, with similarities to the World Calendar International Fixed Calendar, a 13-month calendar reform proposed around the same time as the World Calendar Hanke-Henry Permanent Calendar, a leap-week perennial calendar proposal, which avoids the religious opposition to the World Calendar References External links The World Calendar Association Website (archived September 22, 2020) Biography of Elisabeth Achelis History of the World Calendar Association House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs: Simplification of the calendar. Washington, DC. 1929. Proposed calendars Specific calendars 1930 in New York (state) 1930 in science 1930 works

William the Lion, sometimes styled William I and also known by the nickname Garbh, "the Rough", (c. 11424 December 1214) reigned as King of Scots from 1165 to 1214. His 49-year long reign was the second-longest in Scottish history. Early life William was born c. 1142, during the reign of his grandfather King David I of Scotland. His parents were the King's son Henry and Ada de Warenne. William was around 10 years old when his father died in 1152, making his elder brother Malcolm the heir apparent to their grandfather. From his father William inherited the Earldom of Northumbria. David I died the next year, and William became heir presumptive to the new king, Malcolm IV. In 1157, William lost the Earldom of Northumbria to Henry II of England. Reign Malcolm IV did not live for long, and upon his death on 9 December 1165, at age 24, William ascended the throne. The new monarch was crowned on 24 December 1165. In contrast to his deeply religious, frail brother, William was powerfully built, redheaded, and headstrong. He was an effective monarch whose reign was marred by his ill-fated attempts to regain control of his paternal inheritance of Northumbria from the Anglo-Normans. After his accession to the throne William spent some time at the court of Henry II, then, quarrelling with Henry, he arranged in 1168 the first definite treaty of alliance between France and Scotland. William was then a key player in the Revolt of 1173–74 against Henry II, which was led by Henry's sons with some short-lived assistance from Louis VII. In 1174, at the Battle of Alnwick, during a raid in support of the revolt, William recklessly charged the English troops himself, shouting, "Now we shall see which of us are good knights!" He was unhorsed and captured by Henry's troops led by Ranulf de Glanvill and taken in chains to Newcastle, then Northampton, and then transferred to Falaise in Normandy. Henry then sent an army to Scotland and occupied it. As ransom and to regain his kingdom, William had to acknowledge Henry as his feudal superior and agree to pay for the cost of the English army's occupation of Scotland by taxing the Scots. The cost was equal to 40,000 Scottish Merks (£). The church of Scotland was also subjected to that of England. William acknowledged this by signing the Treaty of Falaise, and was then allowed to return to Scotland. In 1175 he swore fealty to Henry II at York Castle. The humiliation of the Treaty of Falaise triggered a revolt in Galloway which lasted until 1186, and prompted construction of a castle at Dumfries. In 1179, meanwhile, William and his brother David personally led a force northwards into Easter Ross, establishing two further castles, north of the Beauly and Cromarty Firths; one on the Black Isle at Ederdour; and the other at Dunkeath, near the mouth of the Cromarty Firth opposite Cromarty. The aim was to discourage the Norse Earls of Orkney from expanding beyond Caithness. A further rising in 1181 involved Donald Meic Uilleim, descendant of King Duncan II. Donald briefly took over Ross; not until his death (1187) was William able to reclaim Donald's stronghold of Inverness. Further royal expeditions were required in 1197 and 1202 to fully neutralise the Orcadian threat. William also quarrelled with Pope Alexander III, and arose out of a double choice for the vacant bishopric of St Andrews. The king put forward his chaplain, Hugh, while the pope supported the archdeacon, John Scotus, who had been canonically elected. A hostile interchange followed, then after the death of Alexander in 1181 his successor, Lucius III, consented to a compromise by which Hugh got the bishopric and John became bishop of Dunkeld. In 1188 William secured a papal bull which declared that the Church of Scotland was directly subject only to Rome, thus rejecting the claims to supremacy put forward by the English archbishop. The Treaty of Falaise remained in force for the next fifteen years. Then the English king Richard the Lionheart, needing money to take part in the Third Crusade, agreed to terminate it in return for 10,000 silver marks (£), on 5 December 1189. William then was able to address the turbulent chiefs in the outlying parts of his kingdom. His authority was recognized in Galloway which, hitherto, had been practically independent; he put an end to a formidable insurrection in Moray and Inverness; and a series of campaigns brought the far north, Caithness and Sutherland, under the power of the crown. William attempted to purchase Northumbria from Richard in 1194, as he had a strong claim over it. However, his offer of 15,000 marks (£) was rejected due to wanting the castles within the lands, which Richard was not willing to give. In 1200, William did homage to Richard's successor John, apparently to save face. Despite the Scots regaining their independence, Anglo-Scottish relations remained tense during the first decade of the 13th century. In August 1209 King John decided to flex the English muscles by marching a large army to Norham (near Berwick), in order to exploit the flagging leadership of the ageing Scottish monarch. As well as promising a large sum of money, the ailing William agreed to his elder daughters marrying English nobles and, when the treaty was renewed in 1212, John apparently gained the hand of William's only surviving legitimate son, and heir, Alexander, for his eldest daughter, Joan. Despite continued dependence on English goodwill, William's reign showed much achievement. He threw himself into government with energy and diligently followed the lines laid down by his grandfather, David I. Anglo-French settlements and feudalization were extended, new burghs founded, criminal law clarified, the responsibilities of justices and sheriffs widened, and trade grew. Traditionally, William is credited with founding Arbroath Abbey, the site of the later Declaration of Arbroath. The bishopric of Argyll was established (c.1192) in the same year as papal confirmation of the Scottish church by Pope Celestine III. William died of natural causes in Stirling in 1214 and lies buried in Arbroath Abbey. His son, Alexander II, succeeded him as king, reigning from 1214 to 1249. William was not known as "the Lion" during his own lifetime, and the title did not relate to his tenacious character or his military prowess. It was attached to him because of his flag or standard, a red lion rampant with a forked tail (queue fourchée) on a yellow background. This (with the substitution of a 'double tressure fleury counter-fleury' border instead of an orle) went on to become the Royal Banner of Scotland, still used today but quartered with those of England and of Ireland. It became attached to him because the chronicler John of Fordun called him the "Lion of Justice". Marriage and issue Due to the terms of the Treaty of Falaise, Henry II had the right to choose William's bride. As a result, William married Ermengarde de Beaumont, a great-granddaughter of King Henry I of England, at Woodstock Palace in 1186. Edinburgh Castle was her dowry. The marriage was not very successful, and it was many years before she bore him an heir. William and Ermengarde's children were: Margaret of Scotland, Countess of Kent (1193–1259), married Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent. Isabella of Scotland, Countess of Norfolk (1195–1263), married Roger Bigod, 4th Earl of Norfolk. Alexander II of Scotland (1198–1249). Marjorie (120017 November 1244), married Gilbert Marshal, 4th Earl of Pembroke. Out of wedlock, William I had numerous illegitimate children, their descendants being among those who would lay claim to the Scottish crown. By an unnamed daughter of Adam de Hythus: Margaret, married Eustace de Vesci, Lord of Alnwick. By Isabel d'Avenel: Robert de London Henry de Galightly, father of Patrick Galithly one of the competitors to the crown in 1291 Ada Fitzwilliam (c. 1164–1200), married Patrick I, Earl of Dunbar (c.1152–1232) Aufrica, married William de Say, and whose great-great-grandson Roger de Mandeville was one of the competitors to the crown in 1291 Isabella Mac William (born c. 1165) married Robert III de Brus (1183) then Robert de Ros (died 1227), Magna Carta Suretor Notes Sources Ashley, Mike. Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens. 1998. Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland: Story of a Nation. 2001. External links |- House of Dunkeld 1140s births 1214 deaths 12th-century Scottish monarchs 13th-century Scottish monarchs Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime People from Huntingdon Earls of Huntingdon (1065) William

The Treaty of Washington may refer to: Treaty of Washington (1805), between the U.S. and the Creek National Council (Muscogee (Creek)) Treaty of Washington (1824), two Indian nation treaties, between the U.S. and the Sac (Sauk) and Meskwaki (Fox) (7 Stat. 229), and the Iowa (7 Stat. 231) Treaty of Washington (1826), between the U.S. and the Creek National Council led by Opothleyahola Treaty of Washington, with Menominee (1831), between the U.S. and the Menominee Indian tribe Treaty of Washington (1836), a U.S.–Native American (Ottawa and Chippewa) treaty Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. It settled the border dispute between Canada and the Eastern States, such as Maine and Vermont. It helped to end the slave trade The Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the US–British frontier west of the Rocky Mountains (today's US–Canada boundary) Treaty of Washington (1855), between the U.S. and Ojibwa The Treaty of Washington (1871), a general agreement between the United States and the British Empire The International Meridian Conference of 1884 in Washington DC, establishing the Greenwich Meridian, the world time zone system and the universal day as international standards The Treaty of Washington (1900) between Spain and the United States The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 that limited naval armaments The North Atlantic Treaty of 1949 that created NATO The Treaty of Washington (1989), Treaty on Intellectual Property in respect of integrated circuits The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, better known as CITES

The World Games are an international multi-sport event comprising sports and sporting disciplines that are not contested in the Olympic Games. They are usually held every four years, one year after a Summer Olympic Games, over the course of 11 days. The World Games are governed by the International World Games Association, under the patronage of the International Olympic Committee. In the most recent editions, between 25 and 30 sports have been included in the "official" programme. A number of sports or disciplines that were on the programme of The World Games have been discontinued because they are now included in the programme of the Olympic Games. Around 3500 participants from around 100 nations take part. The World Games differs from other multi-sport events, such as the Olympic Games, in that host cities are not required to construct new venues or facilities for the Games. The competitors are selected by the sports' international federations, as opposed to by National Olympic Committees or national governing bodies. In most disciplines, qualification is by a top ranking at the world championships or a qualification tournament. This is intended to ensure the top athletes in a sport compete at the Games. The event is officially known as "The World Games", spelled with a capital T. The first edition of The World Games was held in Santa Clara, USA in 1981, and the next edition will be held in Birmingham, USA from 7–17 July 2022, having been delayed one year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. History Inauguration The idea for a multi-sport event for non-Olympic sports came from the General Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF). Realising that there were few opportunities to become part of the Olympic programme, non-Olympic federations wanted to form their own showcase event to increase the publicity of their sports, which they called The World Games. These federations formed a steering group in early 1979 to decide on the structure and principles of the games and search for a venue. In May 1979, the steering group announced that they had found a venue for the first event: Santa Clara, USA. The GAISF steering committee became the World Games Executive Council in October 1979, and the inaugural meeting of the World Games Council was held on 19–22 May 1980, with a purpose of creating the concept of the Games. The World Games Council was renamed the International World Games Association, or IWGA in 1985. The first edition of The World Games was held in Santa Clara, USA, in 1981. It was opened by Kim Un-yong, President of The World Games I executive committee. at Buck Shaw Stadium. At the opening ceremony, the athletes marched sorted by sport and not by nation. The 15 sports at the inaugural games included badminton, casting, racquetball, and taekwondo. The first medals of the Games were awarded in the 640 kilo class of tug-of-war, with the gold going to the team from England. Twentieth century After the inaugural Games, the West Nally Group, which had provided financing for the Games in Santa Clara, became owners of the rights to the event, and took the second edition to their headquarters in London. For the third Games in Karlsruhe, 1989, the West Nally Group still owned the commercial rights to the Games, but the host city was responsible for the staff and volunteers organising the event. After this, the IWGA bought back the commercial rights, and the organising committees of the host cities have been responsible for the organisation and financing since. This led to the organisers of The World Games in The Hague (1993) asking the participants to pay accommodation costs. The 1997 edition of the Games was due to be held in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, but in August 1994, Port Elizabeth pulled out of hosting the Games due to the political situation in the country. Lahti in Finland volunteered to host instead and signed the host contract in January 1995. Airsports, dancesport, aerobics and jujitsu made their debut in Lahti and have been contested at the Games ever since. Following the Games in Lahti, the IWGA and IOC agreed on a memorandum of understanding, which was signed in 2000 Here, the IOC recognised the importance of The World Games and set out shared values, including the IOC providing patronage to Organising Committees, encouraging multi-sport national teams, and working together on anti-doping. It also set out that "disciplines/events of sport that are not on the Olympic Games programme could be included on the programme of the World Games". A further memorandum of understanding was signed in 2016. Twenty-first century In 2001, the Games were held in Akita, Japan – the first time it had been held outside of North America or Europe. Several competitions were delayed or moved to an alternative venue when a typhoon hit the city. For the first time, some National Olympic Committees organised hotel accommodation for their athletes, beyond the time they were hosted by the IWGA. The World Games in 2005, in Duisburg, Germany, were the first World Games where athletes paraded into the opening ceremony grouped by nation. Also several standards were set in place which continue to this day, such as the television production of all sports and sports grouped by category, such as ball sports and precision sports. The 2013 Games in Cali, Colombia were particularly noted for the large numbers of spectators, estimated at 500,000. For example, the Bullfight Ring, which was the venue for dancesport, was 'packed' for the salsa dance finals. This edition of the Games saw the first time a competition was cancelled: due to concerns about temperature and air flow at the Del Pueblo Gymnasium, where the sport of rhythmic gymnastics was taking place, the ribbons event was cancelled. The 2017 Games in Wrocław, Poland were the first to be broadcast on the Olympic Channel, to 130 countries. Both the raffa and lyonnaise disciplines of boules were cancelled after a storm destroyed the venue and it could not be repaired in time. In 2015, it was announced that the 11th edition of The World Games was to be held in Birmingham, Alabama, USA in 2021, beating bids from Lima, Peru and Ufa, Russia. On 2 April 2020, the Games were postponed to 2022 so as not to clash with the postponement of the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo due to the coronavirus pandemic. No parasport federations are currently part of the IWGA, but The World Games in Birmingham will be the first edition to include parasports, with the inclusion of wheelchair rugby, and disabled athletes (one per gender) will compete in archery. The IWGA is also aiming to secure a partnership with the International Paralympic Committee and include a quota for para-athletes. In 2019, it was announced that The World Games in 2025 will take place in Chengdu, China. Features Venues In order for hosting to be sustainable, organisers of The World Games are not required to build any new venues or facilities. For example, Sloss Furnaces, a former pig iron-producing blast furnace now in public use, will host the sport climbing, breakdancing, parkour and beach handball competitions in Birmingham 2022. Athletes will stay at the student accommodations of the University of Alabama at Birmingham, several of whose sports facilities will be used for various events. Past venues have included the Lahti City Theatre (bodybuilding), Landschaftspark Nord (a former iron foundry in Duisburg), Wrocław Zoo, and Wrocław's Philharmonic Hall, the National Forum of Music. Even though it is not required, some venues are constructed or renovated for The World Games. For instance, for the 2017 World Games in Wrocław, a new swimming pool and speed skating rink were built, and Olympic Stadium, built in 1928, was renovated and is still used for American football and speedway. Also, for the 2009 World Games, Kaohsiung built a National Stadium – the first stadium in the world to use solar energy technology for its power. Athlete selection Athletes are selected to compete at The World Games by their sport's international federation, as opposed to their sport's national governing body or National Olympic Committee, as in other multi-sport events. The selections are intended to "achieve a satisfactory balance between competitors' positions on world ranking lists and the fair representation of as many as possible of its member nations". International federations are obliged to send their best athletes, with The World Games development agenda setting out that sports are only to be included if "the best athletes/teams in the world are present". International World Games Association The International World Games Association (IWGA) is the international association responsible for the direction and control of The World Games. Its headquarters are located in Lausanne, Switzerland, and its official language is English. Its membership consists of 39 international sporting federations. It also works very closely with the Local Organising Committees (LOCs), temporary committees responsible for the organisation of each World Games. LOCs are dissolved after each Games. The IWGA is officially recognised by the International Olympic Committee. Ceremonies Opening ceremony The opening ceremony marks the official start of The World Games. Until Duisburg 2005, athletes paraded into the ceremony grouped by sport. From 2005, they were grouped by nation, and now march in alphabetical order, with the host country and then the judges last. The Athletes' Oath is taken by an athlete of the host nation, and the Judges' Oath is taken by the chairman of the Tournament Judges' Commission. Parading of flags, speeches and official opening also make up the required parts of the ceremony. There is also often a musical and artistic aspect of the ceremony. For example, more than 400 artists took part in the opening ceremony of the 2017 World Games in Wroclaw. Athlete party Since 1993 at The Hague, an athlete party has been held in the middle of the competition, and a similar event is planned for Birmingham 2022. It was intended to allow all athletes to participate in at least one ceremony (opening, athlete party, or closing) during the competition. Closing ceremony The closing ceremony ends The World Games and follows the last awards ceremony. Official aspects include speeches, a presentation by the next host city and a handing of the flag of the Games to the representatives of the next host city. In Wroclaw, the second part of the ceremony was a concert performed by local artists. Editions Sports Official sports For The World Games in 2017 and before, official sports were selected solely by the IWGA. Only sports whose international federations were members of the IWGA could be selected. From 2022, the official sports are selected by both the IWGA and host city and can include some sports whose federations are not part of the IWGA. As formalised in the memorandum of understanding, "only events that are not on the programme of the Olympic Games can be included in the programme of The World Games". For example, canoe polo is a discipline at The World Games, while canoe sprint and canoe slalom are disciplines at the Olympic Games, despite all three being governed by the International Canoe Federation. Sports which have been contested at all editions of The World Games are bowling, finswimming, trampoline and tumbling disciplines of gymnastics, karate, powerlifting, roller sports, tug of war and water skiing. Invitational sports In addition to the official sports, the host city, in coordination with the IWGA, has been allowed to invite sports to participate in the individual programme. Therefore, these sports can be those whose international federations are not part of the IWGA. For example, the Birmingham Organising Committee have selected men's lacrosse (women's being selected by the IWGA), duathlon, flag football, wushu, and wheelchair rugby. Some sports or disciplines started in The World Games as invitational sports and then became official, often as their international federations became part of the IWGA. These include the lyonnaise discipline of boules sports, beach handball, sumo, and indoor tug of war. In future Games, there will be no distinction between official and invitational sports. The host city is still able to select up to five of their own sports, but they are designated "official" sports, rather than invitational. In addition, the host city will be able to designate "display sports". Olympic sports Sports or disciplines which have been part of The World Games and the Olympics include badminton, baseball and softball, rugby, taekwondo, triathlon, beach volleyball and water polo. Karate, sport climbing and surfing made their Olympic debuts in 2021 in Tokyo. Table of sports Medal tables All-time nation medal table As of the 2017 World Games All-time athlete medal table Top ten medal table for athletes References External links All-time Medal table The World Games 2017 Wrocław Multi-sport events Recurring sporting events established in 1981 Quadrennial sporting events 1981 establishments in the United States

Xenophobia () is the fear or hatred of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange. It is an expression of perceived conflict between an ingroup and an outgroup and may manifest in suspicion by the one of the other's activities, a desire to eliminate their presence, and fear of losing national, ethnic, or racial identity. Alternate definitions A 1997 review article on xenophobia holds that it is "an element of a political struggle about who has the right to be cared for by the state and society: a fight for the collective good of the modern state." According to Italian sociologist Guido Bolaffi, xenophobia can also be exhibited as an "uncritical exaltation of another culture" which is ascribed "an unreal, stereotyped and exotic quality". History Ancient Europe An early example of xenophobic sentiment in Western culture is the Ancient Greek denigration of foreigners as "barbarians", the belief that the Greek people and culture were superior to all others, and the subsequent conclusion that barbarians were naturally meant to be enslaved. Ancient Romans also held notions of superiority over other peoples. COVID-19 The COVID-19 pandemic, which was first reported in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019, has led to an increase in acts and displays of Sinophobia, as well as prejudice, xenophobia, discrimination, violence, and racism against people of East Asian and Southeast Asian descent and appearance around the world. With the spread of the pandemic and the formation of COVID-19 hotspots, such as those in Asia, Europe, and the Americas, discrimination against people from these hotspots has been reported. Regional manifestations Americas Brazil Despite the majority of the country's population being of mixed (Pardo), African, or indigenous heritage, depictions of non-European Brazilians on the programming of most national television networks is scarce and typically relegated for musicians/their shows. In the case of telenovelas, Brazilians of darker skin tone are typically depicted as housekeepers or in positions of lower socioeconomic standing. Canada Muslim and Sikh Canadians have faced racism and discrimination in recent years, especially since the 2001 terrorist attacks on the U.S. and the spillover effect of the United States' War on Terror. A 2016 survey from The Environics Institute, which was a follow-up to a study conducted 10 years prior, found that there may be discriminating attitudes that may be a residual of the effects of the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States. A poll in 2009 by Maclean's revealed that only 28% of Canadians view Islam favourably, and only 30% viewed the Sikh religion favourably. 45% of respondents believed Islam encourages violence. In Quebec in particular, only 17% of respondents had a favourable view of Islam. Colombia According to the UNHCR, by June 2019, 1.3 million of the 4 million Venezuelan refugees were in Colombia. Because of their urgent situation, many migrants from Venezuela crossed the border illegally, indicating they had few opportunities to gain "access to legal and other rights or basic services and are exposed to exploitation, abuse, manipulation and a wide range of other protection risks, including racism, discrimination and xenophobia". Since the start of the migrant crisis, media outlets and state officials have raised concerns about increasing discrimination against migrants in the country, especially xenophobia and violence against the migrants. Guyana There has been racial tension between the Indo-Guyanese people and the Afro-Guyanese. Mexico Racism in Mexico has a long history. Historically, Mexicans with light skin tones had absolute control over dark skinned Amerindians due to the structure of the Spanish colonial caste system. When a Mexican of a darker-skinned tone marries one of a lighter skinned-tone, it is common for them say that they are " 'making the race better' (mejorando la raza)". This can be interpreted as a self-attack on their ethnicity. Despite improving economic and social conditions of indigenous Mexicans, discrimination against them continues to this day and there are few laws to protect indigenous Mexicans from discrimination. Violent attacks against indigenous Mexicans are moderately common and many times go unpunished. On 15 March 1911 a band of Maderista soldiers entered Torreón, Mexico, and massacred 303 Chinese and five Japanese. Historian Larissa Schwartz argues that Kang Youwei had successfully organized the prosperous Chinese businessmen there, making them a visible target for class antagonism made extreme by xenophobia. The Chinese were easy to identify in northern cities and were frequent targets especially in Sonora in the 1930s. Systematic persecution resulted from economic, political, and psychological fears of the Chinese, and the government showed little interest in protecting them. Theresa Alfaro-Velcamp argues that the Porfiriato, 1876-1910 promoted immigration from the Middle East. However the revolution of 1910-20 saw a surge in xenophobia and nationalism based on "mestizaje." The community divided into the economically prosperous Lebanese Mexicans who took pride in a distinct Lebanese-Mexican identity, while the downscale remainder often merged into the mestizo community. Carlos Slim, among the richest men in the world, demonstrates Lebanese Mexican success. Panama Peter Szok argues that when the United States brought in large numbers of laborers from the Caribbean--called "Afro-Panamanians"-- to build the Panama Canal (1905-1914), xenophobia emerged. The local elite in Panama felt its culture was threatened: they cried out, "La Patria es el Recuerdo." ("The Homeland is the Memory") and developed a Hispanophile elitist identity through an artistic literary movement known as "Hispanismo." Another result was the election of the "overtly nationalist and anti-imperialist" Arnulfo Arias as president in 1940. Venezuela In Venezuela, like other South American countries, economic inequality often breaks along ethnic and racial lines. A 2013 Swedish academic study stated that Venezuela was the most racist country in the Americas, followed by the Dominican Republic. United States A network of more than 300 US-based civil rights and human rights organizations stated in a 2010 report that "Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and it extends to all communities of color." Discrimination against racial, ethnic, and religious minorities is widely acknowledged, especially in the case of Indians, Muslims, Sikhs as well as other ethnic groups. Members of every major American ethnic and religious minority group have perceived discrimination in their dealings with members of other minority racial and religious groups. Philosopher Cornel West has stated that "racism is an integral element within the very fabric of American culture and society. It is embedded in the country's first collective definition, enunciated in its subsequent laws, and imbued in its dominant way of life." A 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center suggested that 76% of black and Asian respondents had experienced some form of discrimination, at least from time to time. In 2020 the COVID-19 epidemic was often blamed on China, leading to attacks on Chinese Americans. This represents a continuation of xenophobic attacks on Chinese Americans for 150 years. Asia In 2008, a Pew Research Center survey found that negative views concerning Jews were most common in the three predominantly Arab nations which were polled, with 97% of Lebanese having an unfavorable opinion of Jews, 95% of Egyptians and 96% of Jordanians. Bhutan In 1991–92, Bhutan is said to have deported between 10,000 and 100,000 ethnic Nepalis (Lhotshampa). The actual number of refugees who were initially deported is debated by both sides. In March 2008, this population began a multiyear resettlement in third countries including the U.S., Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and Australia. At present, the United States is working towards resettling more than 60,000 of these refugees in the US in accordance with its third country settlement program. Brunei Brunei law permits positive discrimination in favor of ethnic Malays. China Sinophobia In the early 20th century, fear of China--"Sinophobia" -- was a widespread form of xenophobia, especially in the popular media. China scholar Julia Lovell argues: Britain buzzed with sinophobia. Respectable middle-class magazines, tabloids and comics alike spread stories of ruthless Chinese ambitions to destroy the west. The Chinese master-criminal (with his "crafty yellow face twisted by a thin-lipped grin", dreaming of world domination) had become a staple of children's publications. In 1911, "The Chinese in England: A Growing National Problem" (an article distributed around the Home Office) warned of "a vast and convulsive Armageddon to determine who is to be the master of the world, the white or yellow man". After the first world war, cinemas, theatres, novels and newspapers broadcast visions of the "Yellow Peril" machinating to corrupt white society. The Boxers The Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign, anti-Christian, and anti-imperialist uprising in China between 1899 and 1901. It was led by a new group the "Militia United in Righteousness' known as Boxers because many of their members had practised Chinese martial arts, referred to at the time as Chinese Boxing. After China's defeat in war by Japan in 1895, villagers in North China feared the expansion of foreign spheres of influence and resented the extension of privileges to Christian missionaries. In a severe drought, Boxer violence spread across Shandong and the North China Plain, destroying foreign property, attacking or murdering Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians. In June 1900, Boxer fighters, convinced they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing with the slogan "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners." Diplomats, missionaries, soldiers and some Chinese Christians took refuge in the diplomatic Legation Quarter. They were besieged for 55 days by the Imperial Army of the Chinese government and the Boxers. George Makari says the Boxers, "promoted a violent hatred of all those from other lands and made no effort to distinguish the beneficient from the rapacious ones.... They were unabashedly xenophobic." The Boxers were overthrown by an Eight Nation Alliance of American, Austro-Hungarian, British, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian troops--20,000 in all--that invaded China to lift the siege in August 1900. The allies imposed the Boxer Protocol in 1901, with a massive annual cash indemnity to be paid by the Chinese government. The episode generated worldwide attention and denunciation of xenophobia. Chinese nationalism and xenophobia Historian Mary C. Wright has argued that the combination of Chinese nationalism and xenophobia had a major impact on the Chinese worldview in the first half of the 20th century. Examining the bitterness and hatred which existed toward Americans and Europeans in the decades before the Communist takeover in 1949, she argues:The crude fear of the white peril that the last imperial dynasty had been able to exploit in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 had been submerged but not overcome, and expanding special privileges of foreigners were irritants in increasingly wide spheres of Chinese life. These fears and irritations provided a mass sounding board for what otherwise might have been rather arid denunciations of imperialists. It is well to remember that both Nationalists and Communists have struck this note.In further support see Donald Gillin, "China and the Foreigner, 1911 to 1950." South Atlantic Quarterly 58 (1969): 208-219. Covid-19 In China, xenophobia against non-Chinese residents has been inflamed by the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, with foreigners being described as "foreign garbage" and targeted for "disposal". Some black people in China were evicted from their homes by police and told to leave China within 24 hours, due to disinformation that they and other foreigners were spreading the virus. Expressions of Chinese xenophobia and discriminatory practices, such as the exclusion of black customers from restaurants, were criticized by foreign governments and members of the diplomatic corps. Persecution of Uighurs Since 2017, China has come under intense international criticism for its treatment of one million Muslims (the majority of them are Uyghurs, an Turkic ethnic minority mostly in Xinjiang) who are being held in secret detention camps without any legal process. Critics of the policy have described it as the Sinicization of Xinjiang and they have also called it an ethnocide or a cultural genocide, In March 2020, the Chinese government was found to be using the Uyghur minority for forced labour, inside sweat shops. According to a report which was published by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), no fewer than around 80,000 Uyghurs were forcibly removed from the region of Xinjiang and used for forced labor in at least twenty-seven corporate factories. Indonesia A number of discriminatory laws against Chinese Indonesians were enacted by the government of Indonesia. In 1959, President Sukarno approved PP 10/1959 that forced Chinese Indonesians to close their businesses in rural areas and relocate into urban areas. Moreover, political pressures in the 1970s and 1980s restricted the role of the Chinese Indonesian in politics, academics, and the military. As a result, they were thereafter constrained professionally to becoming entrepreneurs and professional managers in trade, manufacturing, and banking. In 1998, Indonesia riots over higher food prices and rumors of hoarding by merchants and shopkeepers often degenerated into anti-Chinese attacks. India Gijs Kruijtzer argues that the roots of modern communalism (the antagonism between "communities" of Hindus and Muslims) first appeared in the 1677-1687 period when the Maratha king Shivaji introduced the factional strife between the Dedccanis and the Afghans. It has festered ever since, and in the 21st century became a defining characteristic of the government of India. The 2020 Delhi riots, which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured, were triggered by protests against a citizenship law seen by many critics as anti-Muslim. Japan Japan had successfully isolated itself from the outside world, allowing anti-foreign sentiments and myths to multiply unchecked by actual observation. In 2005, a United Nations report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and it also stated that the government's recognition of the depth of the problem was not total. The author of the report, Doudou Diène (Special Rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights), concluded after a nine-day investigation that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan primarily affected three groups: national minorities, Latin Americans of Japanese descent, mainly Japanese Brazilians, and foreigners from poor countries. Surveys conducted in 2017 and 2019 have shown that 40 to nearly 50% of the foreigners who were surveyed have experienced some form of discrimination. Another report has also noted differences in how the media and some Japanese treat visitors from the West as compared to those from East Asia, with the latter being viewed much less positively than the former. Japan accepted just 16 refugees in 1999, while the United States took in 85,010 for resettlement, according to the UNHCR. New Zealand, which is 30 times smaller than Japan, accepted 1,140 refugees in 1999. Just 305 persons were recognized as refugees by Japan from 1981, when Japan ratified the U.N. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, to 2002. Former Prime Minister Taro Aso called Japan a "one race" nation. A 2019 Ipsos poll also suggested that Japanese respondents had a relatively lower sympathy for refugees compared to most other countries in the survey. Sharon Yoon and Yuki Asahina argue that Zaitokukai a right-wing organization, succeeded in framing Korean minorities as undeserving recipients of Japanese welfare benefits. Evan as Zaitokukai declined, the perceptions of a Korean internal threat powerfully influences public fears. Malaysia The racial tension between the dominant poor Malay Muslims and the minority wealthier Chinese has long characterized Malaysia. It was a major factor in the separation of Singapore in 1965 to become an independent, primarily Chinese nation. Amy L. Freedman points to the electoral system, the centrality of ethnic parties, gerrymandering, and systematic discrimination against the Chinese in education and jobs as critical factors in xenophobia. Recently the goal of creating a more inclusive national identity has been emphasized. In Malaysia xenophobia occurs regardless of race. Most of xenophobia is towards foreign labourers, who normally came from Indonesia, Bangladesh and Africa. There is also a significant degree of xenophobia towards neighbouring Singaporeans and Indonesians too. South Korea Xenophobia in South Korea has been recognized by scholars and the United Nations as a widespread social problem. An increase in immigration to South Korea since the 2000s catalyzed more overt expressions of racism, as well as criticism of those expressions. Newspapers have frequently reported on and criticized discrimination against immigrants, in forms such as being paid lower than the minimum wage, having their wages withheld, unsafe work conditions, physical abuse, or general denigration. After 2010, xenophobia became increasingly prevalent in the widely used social media. Jiyeon Kang reports a common pattern scapegoating dark-skinned migrants by gender, race and class. They are presented as accomplices and beneficiaries of the elite coalition allegedly taking traditional rights away from South Korean male citizens. In a 2010–2014 World Values Survey, 44.2% of South Koreans reported they would not want an immigrant or foreign worker as a neighbor. Racist attitudes are more commonly expressed towards immigrants from other Asian countries and Africa, and less so towards European and white North American immigrants who can occasionally receive what has been described as "overly kind treatment". Related discrimination have also been reported with regards to mixed-race children, Chinese Korean, and North Korean immigrants. Thailand There are no laws within the Kingdom of Thailand which criminalize racial discrimination and the use of racist cliches. Unlike neighboring nations which were colonized, Thailand's history as an uncolonized state further shaped its existing laws. Anti-refugee sentiment has been significant in Thailand, with a 2016 Amnesty International survey indicating that 74% of surveyed Thais do not believe (to varying degrees) that people should be able to take refuge in other countries in order to escape war or persecution. Middle East Egypt The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood leader Mohammed Mahdi Akef has denounced what he called "the myth of the Holocaust" in defense of the former-Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's denial of it. In an article in October 2000 columnist Adel Hammoda alleged in the state-owned Egyptian newspaper al-Ahram that Jews make Matza from the blood of non-Jewish children (see Blood libel). Mohammed Salmawy, the editor of Al-Ahram Hebdo, "defended the use of old European myths like the blood libel against Jews" in his newspapers. Jordan Jordan does not allow entry to Jews who have visible signs of Judaism or possess personal religious items. The Jordanian ambassador to Israel replied to a complaint by a religious Jew who was denied entry by stating that security concerns required that travelers who are entering the Hashemite Kingdom should not do so with prayer shawls (Tallit) and phylacteries (Tefillin). Jordanian authorities state that the policy is in order to ensure the Jewish tourists' safety. In July 2009, six Breslov Hasidim were deported after attempting to enter Jordan in order to visit the tomb of Aaron / Sheikh Harun on Mount Hor, near Petra. The group had taken a ferry from Sinai, Egypt because they understood that Jordanian authorities were making it hard for visible Jews to enter their country from Israel. Israel According to the 2004 U.S. State Department Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for Israel and the Occupied Territories, the Israeli government had done "little to reduce institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country's Arab citizens." The 2005 US Department of State report on Israel wrote: "[T]he government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas, including... institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country's Arab citizens." The 2010 U.S. State Department Country Report stated that Israeli law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, and the Israeli government effectively enforced these prohibitions. Former Likud MK and Minister of Defense Moshe Arens has criticized the treatment of minorities in Israel, saying that they did not bear the full obligation of Israeli citizenship, nor were they extended the full privileges of citizenship. The Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) published reports which documented racism in Israel, and the 2007 report suggested that anti-Arab racism was increasing in the country. One analysis of the report summarized it thus: "Over two-thirds of Israeli teens believe that Arabs are less intelligent, uncultured and violent. The Israeli government spokesman responded that the Israeli government was "committed to fighting racism whenever it raises its ugly head and is committed to full equality to all Israeli citizens, irrespective of ethnicity, creed or background, as defined by our declaration of independence". Isi Leibler of the Jerusalem Center for Public affairs argues that Israeli Jews are troubled by "increasingly hostile, even treasonable outbursts by Israeli Arabs against the state" while it is at war with neighboring countries. A 2018 poll by Pew Research Center also suggested there to be particularly widespread anti-refugee sentiment among surveyed Israelis compared to the people from other selected countries. Lebanon Hezbollah's Al-Manar TV channel has often been accused of airing antisemitic broadcasts, accusing the Jews/Zionists of conspiring against the Arab world, and frequently airing excerpts from The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which the Encyclopædia Britannica describes as a "fraudulent document which served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century". In another incident, an Al-Manar commentator recently referred to "Zionist attempts to transmit AIDS to Arab countries". Al-Manar officials denied broadcasting any antisemitic incitement and they also stated that their group's position is anti-Israeli, not antisemitic. However, Hezbollah has directed strong rhetoric against both Israel and Jews, and it has cooperated in publishing and distributing outright antisemitic literature. The government of Lebanon has not criticized Hezbollah's continued broadcast of antisemitic material on television. There are also substantial accounts of abuses against migrant domestic workers in Lebanon, notably from Ethiopia, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Sudan, and other countries in Asia and Africa, exacerbated by the Kafala system, or "sponsorship system". Recent increases in abuse have also occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. Palestine Various Palestinian organizations and individuals have been regularly accused of being antisemitic. Howard Gutman believes that much of Muslim hatred of Jews stems from the ongoing Arab–Israeli conflict and that peace would significantly reduce antisemitism. In August, 2003, senior Hamas official Dr Abd Al-Aziz Al-Rantisi wrote in the Hamas newspaper Al-Risala: It is no longer a secret that the Zionists were behind the Nazis' murder of many Jews, and agreed to it, with the aim of intimidating them and forcing them to immigrate to Palestine. In August 2009, Hamas refused to allow Palestinian children to learn about the Holocaust, which it called "a lie invented by the Zionists" and referred to Holocaust education as a "war crime". Saudi Arabia Racism in Saudi Arabia is practiced against labor workers who are foreigners, mostly from developing countries. Asian maids who work in the country have been victims of racism and other forms of discrimination, foreign workers have been raped, exploited, under- or unpaid, physically abused, overworked and locked in their places of employment. The international organisation Human Rights Watch (HRW) describes these conditions as "near-slavery" and attributes them to "deeply rooted gender, religious, and racial discrimination". In many cases the workers are unwilling to report their employers for fear of losing their jobs or further abuse. There were several cases of antisemitism in Saudi Arabia and it is common within the country's religious circles. The Saudi Arabian media often attacks Jews in books, in news articles, in its Mosques and with what some describe as antisemitic satire. Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that Jews are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as factual. Europe A study that ran from 2002 to 2015 has mapped the countries in Europe with the highest incidents of racial bias towards black people, based on data from 288,076 white Europeans. It used the Implicit-association test (a reaction-based psychological test designed to measure implicit racial bias). The strongest bias was found in several Central (the Czech Republic, Slovakia)) and Eastern European countries (Lithuania, Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Bulgaria), as well as Malta, Italy, and Portugal. A 2017 report by the University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism tentatively suggests that "individuals of Muslim background stand out among perpetrators of antisemitic violence in Western Europe". The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe. There have been reports of hate crimes targeting Muslims across Europe. Belgium There were recorded well over a hundred antisemitic attacks in Belgium in 2009. This was a 100% increase from the year before. The perpetrators were usually young males of immigrant background from the Middle East. In 2009, the Belgian city of Antwerp, often referred to as Europe's last shtetl, experienced a surge in antisemitic violence. Bloeme Evers-Emden, an Amsterdam resident and Auschwitz survivor, was quoted in the newspaper Aftenposten in 2010: "The antisemitism now is even worse than before the Holocaust. The antisemitism has become more violent. Now they are threatening to kill us." France In 2004, France experienced rising levels of Islamic antisemitism and acts that were publicized around the world. In 2006, rising levels of antisemitism were recorded in French schools. Reports related to the tensions between the children of North African Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children. The climax was reached when Ilan Halimi was tortured to death by the so-called "Barbarians gang", led by Youssouf Fofana. In 2007, over 7,000 members of the community petitioned for asylum in the United States, citing antisemitism in France. In the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 recorded acts of antisemitism took place in France, more than the whole of 2008. Speaking to the World Jewish Congress in December 2009, the French Interior Minister Hortefeux described the acts of antisemitism as "a poison to our republic". He also announced that he would appoint a special coordinator for fighting racism and antisemitism. Germany The period after Germany's loss of World War I led to the increased espousal of anti-Semitism and other forms of racism in the country's political discourse, for example, emotions which were initially expressed by members of the right-wing Freikorps finally culminated in the ascent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1933. The Nazi Party's racial policy and the Nuremberg Race Laws against Jews and other non-Aryans represented the most explicit racist policies in twentieth century Europe. These laws deprived all Jews (including half-Jews and quarter-Jews) and all other non-Aryans of German citizenship. The official title of Jews became "subjects of the state". At first, the Nuremberg Race Laws only forbade racially mixed sexual relationships and marriages between Aryans and Jews but later they were extended to "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring". Such interracial relationships were known as "racial pollution" Rassenschande, and they became a criminal and punishable offence under the race laws. The Nazi racial theory regarded Poles and other Slavic peoples as racially inferior Untermenschen. Nazi Germany's Directive No.1306 stated: "Polishness equals subhumanity. Poles, Jews and gypsies are on the same inferior level." After the 1950s the steady arrival of Turkish workers led to xenophobia. According to a 2012 survey, 18% of Turks in Germany believe that Jews are inferior human beings. Hungary Anti-refugee sentiment has been strong in Hungary, and Hungarian authorities along the border have been accused of detaining migrants under harsh conditions with some reported instances of beatings and other violence from the guards. Surveys from Pew Research Center have also suggested that negative views of refugees and Muslims are held by the majority of the country's locals. As in other European countries, the Romani people faced disadvantages, including unequal treatment, discrimination, segregation and harassment. Negative stereotypes are often linked to Romani unemployment and reliance on state benefits. In 2008 and 2009 nine attacks took place against Romani in Hungary, resulting in six deaths and multiple injuries. According to the Hungarian curia (supreme court), these murders were motivated by anti-Romani sentiment and sentenced the perpetrators to life imprisonment. Italy A new party emerged in the 1980s, Lega Nord. According to Gilda Zazzara, it started with identity-based claims and secessionist proposals for the North to break away from Southern Italy. It shifted to xenophobia and the demand that job priority be accorded to native Italian workers. Anti-Roma sentiment in Italy takes the form of hostility, prejudice, discrimination or racism directed at Romani people. There's no reliable data for the total number of Roma people living in Italy, but estimates put it between 140,000 and 170,000. Many national and local political leaders engaged in rhetoric during 2007 and 2008 that maintained that the extraordinary rise in crime at the time was mainly a result of uncontrolled immigration of people of Roma origin from recent European Union member state Romania. National and local leaders declared their plans to expel Roma from settlements in and around major cities and to deport illegal immigrants. The mayors of Rome and Milan signed "Security Pacts" in May 2007 that "envisaged the forced eviction of up to 10,000 Romani people." According to a May 2008 poll 68% of Italians, wanted to see all of the country's approximately 150,000 Gypsies, many of them Italian citizens, expelled. The survey, published as mobs in Naples burned down Gypsy camps that month, revealed that the majority also wanted all Gypsy camps in Italy to be demolished. Netherlands In early 2012 the Dutch right-wing Party for Freedom established an anti-Slavic (predominantly anti-Polish) and anti-Romani website, where native Dutch people could air their frustration about losing their job because of cheaper workers from Poland, Bulgaria, Romania and other non-Germanic Central and Eastern European countries. This led to commentaries involving hate speech and other racial prejudice mainly against Poles and Roma, but also aimed at other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups. According to a 2015 report by the OECD and EU Commission, 37% of young people born in the country with immigrant parents say they had experienced discrimination in their lives. In the Netherlands, antisemitic incidents, from verbal abuse to violence, are reported, allegedly connected with Islamic youth, mostly boys of Moroccan descent. A phrase made popular during football matches against the so-called Jewish football club Ajax has been adopted by Muslim youth and is frequently heard at pro-Palestinian demonstrations: "Hamas, Hamas, Jews to the gas!" According to the Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel, a pro-Israel lobby group in the Netherlands, in 2009, the number of anti-Semitic incidents in Amsterdam, the city that is home to most of the approximately 40,000 Dutch Jews, doubled compared to 2008. Norway In 2010, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation after one year of research, revealed that antisemitism was common among Norwegian Muslims. Teachers at schools with large shares of Muslims revealed that Muslim students often "praise or admire Adolf Hitler for his killing of Jews", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim students," and "Muslims laugh or command [teachers] to stop when trying to educate about the Holocaust." Additionally that "while some students might protest when some express support for terrorism, none object when students express hate of Jews" and that it says in "the Quran that you shall kill Jews, all true Muslims hate Jews." Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. One Jewish father also told that his child after school had been taken by a Muslim mob (though managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest and hanged because he was a Jew". Russia Lien Verpoest explores the era of the Napoleonic wars to identify the formation of conservative ideas ranging from traditionalism to ardent patriotism and xenophobia. Conservatives generally controlled Russia in the 19th century, and imposed xenophobia in education and the academy. In the late 19th century, especially after nationalistic uprisings in Poland in the 1860s, the government displayed xenophobia in its hostility toward ethnic minorities that did not speak Russian. The decision was to reduce the use of other languages, and insist on Russification. By the beginning of the 20th century, most European Jews lived in the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western frontier of the Russian Empire consisting generally of the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and neighboring regions. Many pogroms accompanied the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000. During the civil war era (1917-1922) both the Bolsheviks and the Whites employed nationalism and xenophobia as weapons to delegitimise the opposition. After World War II official national policy was to bring in students from Communist countries in East Europe and Asia for advanced training in Communist leadership roles . These students encountered severe xenophobia on campus. They survived by sticking together, but developed a hostility toward the Soviet leadership. Even after the fall of Communism foreign students faced hostility on campus. In the 2000s, "skinheads" were especially visible in attacking anything foreign. Racism against both the Russian citizens (peoples of the Caucasus, indigenous peoples of Siberia and Russian Far East, etc.) and non-Russian citizens of Africans, Central Asians, East Asians (Vietnamese, Chinese, etc.) and Europeans (Ukrainians, etc.) became a significant factor. Using surveys from 1996, 2004, and 2012, Hannah S. Chapman, et al. reports a steady increase in Russians' negative attitudes toward seven outgroups. Muscovites especially became more xenophobic. In 2016, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty reported that "Researchers who track xenophobia in Russia have recorded an "impressive" decrease in hate crimes as the authorities appear to have stepped up pressure on far-right groups". David Barry uses surveys to investigate the particularistic and xenophobic belief that all citizens should join Russia's dominant Orthodox religion. It is widespread among ethnic Russians and is increasing. Sweden A government study in 2006 estimated that 5% of the total adult population and 39% of adult Muslims "harbour systematic antisemitic views". The former prime minister Göran Persson described these results as "surprising and terrifying". However, the rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden, said, "It's not true to say that the Swedes are antisemitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel because they support the weak side, which they perceive the Palestinians to be." In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzk told Die Presse, an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews are being "harassed and physically attacked" by "people from the Middle East", although he added that only a small number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of Jews". Sieradzk also stated that approximately 30 Jewish families have emigrated from Malmö to Israel in the past year, specifically to escape from harassment. Also in March, the Swedish newspaper Skånska Dagbladet reported that attacks on Jews in Malmö totaled 79 in 2009, about twice as many as the previous year, according to police statistics. In December 2010, the Jewish human rights organization Simon Wiesenthal Center issued a travel advisory concerning Sweden, advising Jews to express "extreme caution" when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens by Muslims in the city of Malmö. Ukraine Israel's Antisemitism Report for 2017 stated that "A striking exception in the trend of decrease in antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe was Ukraine, where the number of recorded antisemitic attacks was doubled from last year and surpassed the tally for all the incidents reported throughout the entire region combined." Ukrainian state historian, Vladimir Vyatrovich dismissed the Israeli report as anti-Ukrainian propaganda and a researcher of antisemitism from Ukraine, Vyacheslav Likhachev said the Israeli report was flawed and amateurish. United Kingdom Derek Wilson notes that xenophobia was a factor in anti-alien riots in London in 1517, protesting the prominence of foreigners in London wool and cloth businesses. Bernard Porter argues that Anti-black and anti-Indian themes waxed strong in the late 19th century, not only because of racism but also because of rebellious episodes in the British Empire in Africa and India, empire. Xenophobia in popular literature targeted Germans in the early 20th centuries, based on fears of militarism and espionage. The extent and the targets of racist attitudes in the United Kingdom have varied over time. It has resulted in cases of discrimination, riots and racially motivated murders. Racism was mitigated by the attitudes and norms of the British class system during the 19th century, in which race mattered less than social distinction: a black African tribal chief was unquestionably superior to a white English costermonger. Use of the word "racism" became more widespread after 1936, although the term "race hatred" was used in the late 1920s by sociologist Frederick Hertz. Laws were passed in the 1960s that specifically prohibited racial segregation. Racism has been observed as having a correlation between factors such as levels of unemployment and immigration in an area. Some studies suggest Brexit led to a rise in racist incidents, where locals became hostile to foreigners. Studies published in 2014 and 2015 claimed racism was on the rise in the UK, with more than one third of those polled admitting they were racially prejudiced. However a 2019 EU survey, Being Black in the EU, ranked the UK as the least racist in the 12 Western European countries surveyed. Sectarianism between Ulster Protestants and Irish Catholics in Northern Ireland has been called a form of racism by some international bodies. It has resulted in widespread discrimination, segregation and serious violence, especially during partition and the Troubles. In recent years the intense debates over Brexit has increased xenophobia in London, especially against French living in the city. Africa Ivory Coast In the past recent years, Ivory Coast has seen a resurgence in ethnic tribal hatred and religious intolerance. In addition to the many victims among the various tribes of the northern and southern regions of the country that have perished in the ongoing conflict, white foreigners residing or visiting Ivory Coast have also been subjected to violent attacks. According to a report by Human Rights Watch, the Ivory Coast government is guilty of fanning ethnic hatred for its own political ends. In 2004, the Young Patriots of Abidjan, a strongly nationalist organisation, rallied by the state media, plundered possessions of foreign nationals in Abidjan. Calls for violence against whites and non-Ivorians were broadcast on national radio and TV after the Young Patriots seized control of its offices. Rapes, beatings, and murders of persons of European and Lebanese descent followed. Thousands of expatriates and white or ethnic Lebanese Ivorians fled the country. The attacks drew international condemnation. Mauritania Slavery in Mauritania persists despite its abolition in 1980 and mostly affects the descendants of black Africans abducted into slavery who now live in Mauritania as "black Moors" or haratin and who partially still serve the "white Moors", or bidhan, as slaves. The practice of slavery in Mauritania is most dominant within the traditional upper class of the Moors. For centuries, the haratin lower class, mostly poor black Africans living in rural areas, have been considered natural slaves by these Moors. Social attitudes have changed among most urban Moors, but in rural areas, the ancient divide remains. Niger In October 2006, Niger announced that it would deport to Chad the "Diffa Arabs", Arabs living in the Diffa region of eastern Niger. Their population numbered about 150,000. While the government was rounding up Arabs in preparation for the deportation, two girls died, reportedly after fleeing government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages. Niger's government eventually suspended their controversial decision to deport the Arabs. South Africa Xenophobia in South Africa has been present in both the apartheid and post–apartheid eras. Hostility between the British and Boers exacerbated by the Second Boer War led to rebellion by poor Afrikaners who looted British-owned shops. South Africa also passed numerous acts intended to keep out Indians, such as the Immigrants Regulation Act of 1913, which provided for the exclusion of "undesirables", a group of people that included Indians. This effectively halted Indian immigration. The Township Franchise Ordinance of 1924 was intended to "deprive Indians of municipal franchise". Xenophobic attitudes toward the Chinese have also been present, sometimes in the form of robberies or hijackings, and a hate speech case in 2018 was put to court the year later with 11 offenders on trial. In 1994 and 1995, gangs of armed youth destroyed the homes of foreign nationals living in Johannesburg, demanding that the police work to repatriate them to their home countries. In 2008, a widely documented spate of xenophobic attacks occurred in Johannesburg. It is estimated that tens of thousands of migrants were displaced; property, businesses and homes were widely looted. The death toll after the attack stood at 56. In 2015, another widely documented series of xenophobic attacks occurred in South Africa, mostly against migrant Zimbabweans. This followed remarks by Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu stating that the migrants should "pack their bags and leave". As of 20 April 2015, 7 people had died and more than 2000 foreigners had been displaced. Following the riots and murders of other Africans from 2008 and 2015, violence again broke out in 2019. Sudan In the Sudan, black African captives in the civil war were often enslaved, and female prisoners were often abused sexually, with their Arab captors claiming that Islamic law grants them permission. According to CBS News, slaves have been sold for US$50 a piece. In September 2000, the U.S. State Department alleged that "the Sudanese government's support of slavery and its continued military action which has resulted in numerous deaths are due in part to the victims' religious beliefs." Jok Madut Jok, professor of history at Loyola Marymount University, states that the abduction of women and children of the south is slavery by any definition. The government of Sudan insists that the whole matter is no more than the traditional tribal feuding over resources. Uganda Former British colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa have many citizens of South Asian descent. They were brought by the British Empire from British India to do clerical work in imperial service. The most prominent case of anti-Indian racism was the ethnic cleansing of the Indian (called Asian) minority in Uganda by the strongman dictator and human rights violator Idi Amin. Oceania Australia The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (White Australia policy) effectively barred people of non-European descent from immigrating to Australia. There was never any specific policy titled as such, but the term was invented later to encapsulate a collection of policies that were designed to exclude people from Asia (particularly China) and the Pacific Islands (particularly Melanesia) from immigrating to Australia. The Menzies and Holt Governments effectively dismantled the policies between 1949 and 1966 and the Whitlam Government passed laws to ensure that race would be totally disregarded as a component for immigration to Australia in 1973. The 2005 Cronulla riots were a series of race riots and outbreaks of mob violence in Sydney's southern suburb Cronulla which resulted from strained relations between Anglo-Celtic and (predominantly Muslim) Lebanese Australians. Travel warnings for Australia were issued by some countries but were later removed. In December 2005, a fight broke out between a group of volunteer surf lifesavers and Lebanese youth. These incidents were considered to be a key factor in a racially motivated confrontation the following weekend. Violence spread to other southern suburbs of Sydney, where more assaults occurred, including two stabbings and attacks on ambulances and police officers. On 30 May 2009, Indian students protested against what they claimed were racist attacks, blocking streets in central Melbourne. Thousands of students gathered outside the Royal Melbourne Hospital where one of the victims was admitted. In light of this event, the Australian Government started a Helpline for Indian students to report such incidents. The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, termed these attacks "disturbing" and called for Australia to investigate the matters further. See also References Further reading Akinola, Adeoye O. ed. The Political Economy of Xenophobia in Africa (Springer, 2018) 128pp. Auestad, Lene, ed. Nationalism and the Body Politic: Psychoanalysis and the Rise of Ethnocentrism and Xenophobia. (Karnac Books, 2013). Bernasconi, Robert. "Where is xenophobia in the fight against racism?." Critical Philosophy of Race 2.1 (2014): 5–19. online Bordeau, Jamie. Xenophobia (The Rosen Publishing Group, 2009). global. Dovido, John F., Kerry Kawakami, and Kelly R. Beach. "Implicit and Explicit Attitudes: Examination of the Relationship between Measures of Intergroup Bias." in Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes ed by R. Brown and S. Gaertner, (Blackwell, 2003) Pp. 175–97. Frayling, Christopher/ The Yellow Peril: Dr. Fu Manchu and the Rise of Chinaphobia (2014); role of popular culture in promoting xenophobia against Chinese. excerpt Harrison, Faye V. Resisting Racism and Xenophobia: Global Perspectives on Race, Gender, and Human Rights (2005) excerpt Hjerm, Mikael. "Education, xenophobia and nationalism: A comparative analysis." Journal of ethnic and Migration Studies 27.1 (2001): 37–60. online Neocosmos, Michael. From 'Foreign Natives' to 'Native Foreigners': Explaining Xenophobia in Post-apartheid South Africa, Citizenship and Nationalism, Identity and Politics (2010). Nyamnjoh, Francis B. Insiders and Outsiders: Citizenship and Xenophobia in Contemporary Southern Africa (Zed, 2006) Quillian, Lincoln. "New approaches to understanding racial prejudice and discrimination." Annual Review of Sociology 32 (2006): 299–328. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123132 Rydgren, Jens. "The logic of xenophobia." Rationality and society 16.2 (2004): 123–148. online Schlueter, Elmar, Anu Masso, and Eldad Davidov. "What factors explain anti-Muslim prejudice? An assessment of the effects of Muslim population size, institutional characteristics and immigration-related media claims." Journal of ethnic and migration studies 46.3 (2020): 649–664. online Sundstrom, Ronald R., and David Haekwon Kim. "Xenophobia and racism." Critical philosophy of race 2.1 (2014): 20–45. online Tafira, Hashi Kenneth. Xenophobia in South Africa: A History (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018). Yakushko, Oksana. Modern-Day Xenophobia: Critical Historical and Theoretical Perspectives on the Roots of Anti-Immigrant Prejudice (Springer. 2018) 129pp, theoretical Europe Bartram, David, and Erika Jarochova. "A longitudinal investigation of integration/multiculturalism policies and attitudes towards immigrants in European countries." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies (2021): 1-20. online Baumgartl, Bernd, and Adrian Favell, eds. New xenophobia in Europe (Martinus Nijhoff, 1995). Bukhair, Syed Attique Uz Zaman Hyder, et al. "Islamophobia in the West and Post 9/11 Era." International Affairs and Global Strategy 78 (2019): 23–32. online Davidov, Eldad, et al. "Direct and indirect predictors of opposition to immigration in Europe: individual values, cultural values, and symbolic threat." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 46.3 (2020): 553–573. online De Master, Sara, and Michael K. Le Roy. "Xenophobia and the European Union." Comparative politics (2000): 419–436. online Doty, Roxanne Lynn. Anti-Immigrantism in Western Democracies: Statecraft, desire and the politics of exclusion (Routledge, 2003). Finzsch, Norbert, and Dietmar Schirmer, eds. Identity and intolerance: nationalism, racism, and xenophobia in Germany and the United States (Cambridge UP, 2002) 16 essays by scholars. Harrison, Faye V. Resisting Racism and Xenophobia: Global Perspectives on Race, Gender, and Human Rights (2005) Heath, Anthony, et al. "Contested terrain: explaining divergent patterns of public opinion towards immigration within Europe." (2020): 475–488. online Jolly, Seth K., and Gerald M. DiGiusto. "Xenophobia and Immigrant Contact: French Public Attitudes Toward Immigration" The Social Science Journal (2014) 51#3: 464–73. Kende, Anna, and Péter Krekó. "Xenophobia, prejudice, and right-wing populism in East-Central Europe." Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 34 (2020): 29–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.11.011 Krumpal, Ivar. "Estimating the Prevalence of Xenophobia and Anti-Semitism in Germany: A Comparison of Randomized Response and Direct Questioning." Social Science Research (2012) 41: 1387–1403. Makari, George. Of Fear and Strangers: A History of Xenophobia (2021), scholarly history focused on US and Europe; excerpt Minkenberg, Michael. "The Radical Right and Anti-Immigrant Politics in Liberal Democracies since World War II: Evolution of a Political and Research Field." Polity 53.3 (2021): 394–417. Quillian, Lincoln. "Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat: Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe." American Sociological Review (1995): 586–611. online Schlueter, Elmar, Anu Masso, and Eldad Davidov. "What factors explain anti-Muslim prejudice? An assessment of the effects of Muslim population size, institutional characteristics and immigration-related media claims." Journal of ethnic and migration studies 46.3 (2020): 649–664. online Scully, Richard, and Andrekos Varnava, ed. Comic Empires: Imperialism in Cartoons, Caricature, and Satirical Art (Manchester UP, 2020) Strabac, Zan, Toril Aalberg, and Marko Valenta. "Attitudes towards Muslim immigrants: Evidence from survey experiments across four countries." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40.1 (2014): 100–118. Tausch, Arno. "Muslim immigration continues to divide Europe: A quantitative analysis of European social survey data." Middle East Review of International Affairs 20.2 (2016). online Thränhardt, Dietrich. "The political uses of xenophobia in England, France and Germany." Party politics 1.3 (1995): 323–345. United States. Anbinder, Tyler. "Nativism and prejudice against immigrants," in A companion to American immigration, ed. by Reed Ueda (2006) pp. 177–201 excerpt Awan, Muhammad Safeer. "Global terror and the rise of xenophobia/Islamophobia: An analysis of American cultural production since September 11." Islamic Studies (2010): 521–537. online Baker, Joseph O., David Cañarte, and L. Edward Day. "Race, xenophobia, and punitiveness among the American public." Sociological Quarterly 59.3 (2018): 363–383. online Bennett, David H. The Party of Fear: The American Far Right from Nativism to the Militia Movement (U of North Carolina Press, 1988). Bergquist, James M. "The Concept of Nativism in Historical Study Since" Strangers in the Land". American Jewish History 76.2 (1986): 125–141. online Clermont, Kevin M. and Theodore Eisenberg. "Xenophilia in American Courts" Harvard Law Review 109 (1996) 1120–1143. online DOI: 10.2307/1342264 Argues xenophobia is NOT rampant in American courts; foreigners more often win than Americans. Moore, Kimberly A. "Xenophobia in American courts." Northwestern University Law Review 97 (2002): 1497+ onlineargues that foreigners lose more patent cases. Finzsch, Norbert, and Dietmar Schirmer, eds. Identity and intolerance: nationalism, racism, and xenophobia in Germany and the United States (Cambridge UP, 2002) 16 essays by scholars. FitzGerald, David Scott, and David Cook-Martín. Culling the Masses: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the Americas (Harvard UP, 2014) excerpt , in United States. Goodman, Adam. The Deportation Machine: America's Long History of Expelling Immigrants (Princeton UP, 2020) excerpt Lee, Erika. "America first, immigrants last: American xenophobia then and now." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 19.1 (2020): 3–18. online Lee, Erika. America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (2019). excerpt; also online review Makari, George. Of Fear and Strangers: A History of Xenophobia (2021), scholarly history focused on US and Europe; excerpt Ullah, Inayat, and Kulsoom Shahzor. "Cultural (Mis) Appropriation, Ideological Essentialism and Language: Analysis of Stereotyping in Hollywood Movie." International Journal of English Linguistics 6.7 (2017): 171–177. online External links Prejudice and discrimination by type Racism Phobias Strangers

X Multimedia System (XMMS) is an audio player for Unix-like systems released under a free software license. History XMMS was originally written as X11Amp by Peter and Mikael Alm in November 1997. The player was made to resemble Winamp, which was first released in May that year. As such, XMMS has supported Winamp 2 "classic" skins since its release. Though the original release was made under a license that did not provide any access to the program's source code, it is now released under the GPL-2.0-or-later. On June 10, 1999, 4Front Technologies decided to sponsor X11Amp development and the project was renamed to XMMS - the name being an acronym for X MultiMedia System. Most XMMS users take this to mean "X11 MultiMedia System" or "X Window System MultiMedia System"; the official interpretation of the "X" is "Cross-platform". In 2002, Peter Alm initiated the XMMS2 project, aiming to produce a successor to XMMS using all new code and devoted solely to audio playback. Forks XMMS has continued to use GTK+ 1.x toolkit, despite the current version being GTK 4. The primary reason for this reluctance to upgrade is that many XMMS plugins (written by third parties) are dependent on the older version of GTK+ to properly function, e.g., "about" boxes and configuration dialogs. Many software developers also consider the XMMS codebase to be poorly designed and difficult to maintain. These factors led to various forks and related projects: The Beep Media Player, a fork of XMMS code that uses GTK+ 2, started around 2003 Youki, the remade continuation of Beep Media Player, started around the end of 2005 Audacious, a fork from Beep Media Player started around 2005 when Beep Media Player development ceased in favor of Youki A GTK+2 based fork by Mohammed Sameer, named XMMS2. It is unrelated to the current XMMS2 project, which uses a new codebase and client/server architecture not derived from XMMS. Features XMMS currently supports the following audio and video file formats: AAC support is provided by the FAAD2 library, supporting m4a files APE Monkey's Audio Codec .ape files — support provided by the mac-port project plugin Audio CD, including CDDB via FreeDB lookup FLAC support is provided by a plugin in the FLAC library Icecast and SHOUTcast streaming supported, and is compatible with Winamp 2 skins. libmikmod supported formats (including .XM, .MOD, .IT) See: MikMod's Home JACK plug-in for support of the JACK Audio Connection Kit. ModPlug plug-in for playing .MOD, .S3M, .XM, .IT and other famous tracker formats. mp3PRO support is provided by a third party plugin (which does not support SHOUTcast title streaming) MPEG Layer 1,2 and 3 (Also known as MP3), using the mpg123 library Musepack support using XMMS-Musepack plugin. OGG Vorbis support is provided by a plug-in provided by xiph.org SHN support is provided by a plug-in provided by etree. speex high quality & ratio speech compression format via plugin TTA support is provided by a third party plugin UADE plug-in provides support for most Amiga music formats WAV WavPack with support provided by a third party plugin WMA Limited support provided by third party plugin. Skins XMMS has a default skin provided, but it is also possible to use any WSZ classic skins to enhance the graphic attractiveness of the player. (see attached image) Coverviewer xmms-coverviewer is an XMMS plugin which allows XMMS to display album art and further enhance the graphical interface of the player. (see attached image) References External links Audio player software that uses GTK Audio software with JACK support Free audio software Free media players Free software programmed in C Linux media players

Yeast extracts consist of the cell contents of yeast without the cell walls; they are used as food additives or flavorings, or as nutrients for bacterial culture media. They are often used to create savory flavors and umami taste sensations, and can be found in a large variety of packaged food, including frozen meals, crackers, snack foods, gravy, stock and more. They are rich in B vitamins (but not B12), and so are of particular importance to vegans and vegetarians. Yeast extracts and fermented foods contain glutamic acid (free glutamates), an amino acid which adds an umami flavor. Glutamic acid is found in meat, cheese, fungi (mushrooms and yeast), and vegetables—such as broccoli, and tomatoes. The heat-autolytic process to make yeast extract of the autolysate type was invented in the 19th century by Justus von Liebig. Yeast cells are heated until they rupture, then the cells' own digestive enzymes break their proteins down into simpler compounds (amino acids and peptides), a process called autolysis. The insoluble cell walls are then separated by centrifuge, filtered, and usually spray-dried. This is the process used for Vegemite, Marmite, and the like. Yeast extracts in liquid form can be dried to a light paste or a dry powder. This is not the same as nutritional yeast, which are made from intact cells not directly hydrolyzed and consequently have a lighter flavor. Production Yeast extracts in general are produced in three steps: fermentation (growing the yeast), disruption (breaking of the cells), and separation (to keep the soluble part). Although the vast majority of yeast extract spreads are made using von Liebig's traditional approach of heat-autolysis using surplus yeast from beer brewing, other methods do exist for producing specialized types. In terms of fermentation, spent beer yeast is commonly contaminated with the bitter compounds from hops, requiring a "debittering" step to wash out most of this undesired flavor. Yeast from other sources are not affected by this issue. Spent brewer's yeast is also quite biodiverse, containing yeasts other than traditional Saccharomyces cerevisiae and sometimes beer spoilage-causing lactic acid bacteria too. For disruption of the cell, some physical and chemical methods may be used in place of the heat-autolysis process. Doing so may allow specific compounds to be extracted or to produce an extract without the hydrolysis of cell contents (as in autolysis) happening. Dietary concerns Depending on the source, yeast extract may contain gluten. Brewer's yeast are especially likely to contain the protein due to contact with the grains used in brewing. In the case of yeast autolysate, however, the yeast proteases are able to degrade most of the gluten. For example, Marmite contains around 30 part per million gluten according to third-party testing, meeting the EU "very low gluten" limit but not the "gluten free" definition. Uniliver reports that no cases of gluten-related reactions have been reported for Marmite. Yeast extract products derived from plant feedstock are by definition vegan and kosher–pareve, although some consumers prefer extra certification. They are also generally considered halal, despite the concern that the yeast has come into contact with alcohol. Use in food Yeast autolysates are the main ingredient in AussieMite, Mightymite, Vegemite, Marmite, New Zealand Marmite, Promite, Cenovis, Vitam-R, Brazilian Cenovit and Maggi sauce. Bovril (Ireland and the United Kingdom) switched from beef extract to yeast extract for 2005 and most of 2006, but later switched back. Yeast extract is used as a flavoring in foods. It is a common ingredient in American barbecue-flavored potato chips such as Lay's. It is also widely used in soup bases. Marmite Marmite ( ) is a British food spread produced by Unilever. Marmite has been produced since 1902. It is a sticky, dark brown food paste with a distinctive, powerful flavour, which is extremely salty. This distinctive taste is represented in the marketing slogan: "Love it or hate it." Such is its prominence in British popular culture that the product's name is often used as a metaphor for something that is an acquired taste or tends to polarise opinions. In Australasia and the Pacific, British Marmite is sold as "Our Mate", due to the presence of a licensed Marmite produced in New Zealand. Vegemite Vegemite ( ) is a thick, black Australian food spread made from leftover brewers' yeast extract with various vegetable and spice additives. It was developed by Cyril Percy Callister in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1922. The Vegemite brand was owned by Mondelez International (formerly Kraft Foods Inc.) until January 2017, when it was acquired by the Australian Bega Cheese group in a agreement for full Australian ownership after Bega would buy most of Mondelez International's Australia and New Zealand grocery and cheese business. A spread for sandwiches, toast, crumpets and cracker biscuits as well as a filling for pastries, Vegemite is similar to British Marmite, New Zealand Marmite, Australian Promite, MightyMite, AussieMite, OzEmite, Brazilian Cenovit, German Vitam-R, and Swiss Cenovis. Vegemite is salty, slightly bitter, malty, and rich in glutamates – giving it an umami flavour similar to beef bouillon. It is vegan, kosher, and halal. Marmite (New Zealand) Marmite (/ˈmɑːrmaɪt/ MAR-myte) is a food spread produced in New Zealand by Sanitarium Health and Wellbeing Company and distributed in Australia and the Pacific. It is similar to the British Marmite, but the two products are made by different companies. This is the only product sold as Marmite in Australasia and the Pacific, whereas elsewhere in the world the British version predominates. In the rest of the world it is sold as "NZ-Mite". Marmite has been manufactured in New Zealand since 1919. The product's popularity in England prompted the Sanitarium Health Food Company to obtain sole rights to distribute the product in New Zealand and Australia in 1908. They later began manufacturing Marmite under licence in Christchurch, albeit using a modified version of the original recipe, most notable for its inclusion of sugar and caramel. Common ingredients are also slightly different quantities from the British version; the New Zealand version has high levels of potassium, for example. New Zealand Marmite is described as having a "weaker" or "less tangy" flavour than the British version. Vitam-R Vitam-R is a savory yeast extract spread made in Hameln, Germany, by the company Vitam Hefe-Produkt GmbH. It was first developed by Rückforth AG in Stettin (today's Szczecin, Poland) in 1925 following the discovery by Justus von Liebig that yeast could be concentrated. It is sometimes described as having a smoother flavor than similar products such as Marmite, Vegemite or Cenovis. Unlike those brands, Vitam-R is not an iconic part of its home country's cuisine, but it is also described as having a love-it-or-hate-it flavor. It is both vegan and by extension, vegetarian, and is sold primarily in Reformhaus health-food stores. Cenovis Cenovis is a product based on yeast extract that is similar to Marmite and Vegemite, rich in vitamin B1. In the form of a dark brown food paste, it is used to flavour soups, sausages and salads. The most popular way to consume Cenovis, however, is to spread it on a slice of buttered bread, as stated on the product's packaging (or it can be blended into the butter and spread on bread or as a filling in croissants and buns). Cenovis is popular in Switzerland (particularly Romandie). It was developed in Rheinfelden in 1931, on the initiative of a master brewer called Alex Villinger, and was subsequently produced by the company Cenovis SA. Other uses The nutrition-rich nature of yeast extract lends it to a variety of uses. It was historically popular as a vitamin supplement for humans. Rich in proteins and nucleotides, it currently finds use in animal feed and microbiology (see yeast extract agar) as nutritional supplements. It also finds use in cosmetics and skincare products due to moisturizing and alleged antioxidant properties. See also Meat extract Malt extract References Further reading External links yeastextract.info: Homepage of Eurasyp (European Association of Specialty Yeast Products) Savory Taste Alliance Food ingredients Microbiological media ingredients Umami enhancers Yeasts

The Armed Forces of Serbia and Montenegro ( / Vojska Srbije i Crne Gore, ВСЦГ / VSCG) included ground forces with internal and border troops, naval forces, air and air defense forces, and civil defense. Preceding the VSCG was the Yugoslav Army (1992–2003; / Vojska Jugoslavije, ВЈ / VJ, ) from the remnants of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), the military of SFR Yugoslavia. The state, then named Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, participated in the Yugoslav Wars with limited direct intervention of its own armed forces. Following the end of the Wars and the constitutional reforms of 2003 by which the state was renamed "Serbia and Montenegro", the military accordingly changed its name. The military was heavily involved in combating Albanian separatists during the Kosovo War and Preševo Valley conflict, and also engaged NATO airplanes during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Upon the dissolution of Serbia and Montenegro with the Montenegrin independence referendum (2006), a fraction of the joint military was given to Montenegro, with the bulk of the force remaining in Serbia. Montenegro inherited the navy as Serbia is landlocked. Organization VJ The Armed Forces of Yugoslavia (VJ) was organized into the following: Ground Forces 1st Army Novi Sad Corps Belgrade Command Kragujevac Corps Independent units 2nd Army Podgorica Corps Užice Corps Independent units 3rd Army Niš Corps Leskovac Corps Priština Corps Independent units Navy War Command Flotilla 81st 83rd 85th 108th 110th 82nd 69th 367th 9th 10th 27th 61st 223rd 9th Air Force VSCG Ground Forces Inventory Ground Forces Armoured vehicles M-84 T-55A-~750 M-80A BTR-50 BRDM-2 BOV Artillery M-46 M-56 M-84 Nora-A D-30 2S1 Gvozdika M-63 M-77 Air Defence Bofors 40 mm gun L/70 M53/59 Praga – 100–200 SA-7 SA-14 SA-18 SA-9 SA-13 SA-3 SA-6 Infantry weapons CZ-99 Pistol 9 mm M70A/M70B1 Assault Rifles 7.62 mm M93 Black Arrow Long Range Rifle BGA M76 7.9 mm Sniper rifle M72 7.62 mm Machine gun M84 7.62 mm Machine gun M87 12.7 mm Heavy Machine gun AT-3 Sagger AT-4 Spigot M79 "Osa" 90 mm M80 "Zolja" 64 mm rocket grenade launcher Air Force The inventory included MiG-21 (fighter/recon/trainer), MiG-29 (fighter/trainer), Soko J-22 (ground/recon/trainer), Soko G-2 (fighter/bomber/trainer), Soko G-4 (fighter/bomber/target/trainer, Antonov An-2 (cargo), Antonov An-26 (cargo), Yakovlev Yak-40 (VIP), Mil Mi-8 (multirole), Mil Mi-14 (anti-submarine), Kamov Ka-25 (anti-submarine), Kamov Ka-28 (anti-submarine), Aérospatiale Gazelle (attack/utility/recon). Navy The Navy, known as the Yugoslav Navy ( [RMVJ], ) from 1992 to 2003 and the Navy of Serbia and Montenegro (, ) from 2003 to 2006, was based in Kotor and was largely made of vessels inherited from the pre-1992 Federal Yugoslav Navy (, ). During NATO's Operation Allied Force in 1999, the Navy took control over civilian shipping around Kotor, despite NATO's blockade and in several actions the navy's warships fired at NATO aircraft that were on their way to strike Yugoslav targets. The Navy claimed to have shot down three UAVs over Boka Kotorska. The images of the remains of one of them were displayed online. Koni-class frigate (2) Kotor-class frigate (2) Heroj-class submarine (3) Sava-class submarine (2) Una-class submarine (5) Končar-class missile boat (6) Osa class missile boat (10) Jadran sailboat Neštin class minesweeper (7) Kozara river ship Intelligence Security Administration Operational experience Croatian War and Bosnian War (1992–1995), unofficially, logistical support and supplies Insurgency in Kosovo (27 May 1995 – 28 February 1998), belligerent, counter-terrorism Kosovo War (28 March 1998 – 11 June 1999), including NATO bombing of Yugoslavia (23 March – 10 June 1999), belligerent Insurgency in the Preševo Valley (12 June 1999 – 1 June 2001), belligerent, counter-terrorism Statistics Civilians fit for military service were estimated at about 4,888,595 (2001 est.). The 2002 estimate for military expenditures as percent of GDP was 4.6%. Significant reforms were undertaken in the military of Serbia and Montenegro. In 2002 the Serbo-Montenegrin Military force numbered around 117,500 soldiers, supported by some 450,000 reserves. The 100,000 strong Army had 1,500 main battle tanks and 687 armed infantry vehicles. The Navy had 3,500 personnel, of whom 900 were marines. The entire Navy was composed totally out of 6 submarines, 3 frigates, 41 patrol & coastal ships and 14 "other" vessels. The Air force 14,000 personnel had 192 combat aircraft and 72 armed helicopters. Branches Army or Ground Forces (Kopnena vojska – KoV VSCG) Air Force and Air Defense (Ratno Vazduhoplovstvo i Protivvazdušna odbrana – RV i PVO VSCG) Navy (Ratna Mornarica – RM VSCG) Military manpower – military age: 19 years of age (2003 est.) Military manpower – availability: males age 15–49: 3,579,620 (2003 est.) Military manpower – fit for military service: males age 15–49: 3,077,660 (2003 est.) Military manpower – reaching military age annually: males: 101,547 (2003 est.) Military expenditures – dollar figure: $954 million (2002) Military expenditures – percent of GDP: 4.6% (2002. est.) International deployment The VSCG was part of MONUC, the UN mission in the Congo. The VSCG was also part of UNAMSIL, the UN mission into Sierra Leone. Last chief of staff of the Military of Serbia and Montenegro was general Ljubiša Jokić. See also Yugoslav People's Army Destruction of Albanian heritage in Kosovo Notes References External links Yugoslavia Ground Forces Serbian and Montenegrin Armed Forces / Vojska Srbije i Crne Gore – VSCG Army of Yugoslavia / Vojska Jugoslavije The Great Secret of Serbian Military Affair, which covers the time when Serbia and Montenegro was in the state union Encyclopedia of the Nations Military units and formations established in 1992 Disbanded armed forces

Zirconium is a chemical element with the symbol Zr and atomic number 40. The name zirconium is taken from the name of the mineral zircon (the word is related to Persian zargun (zircon; zar-gun, "gold-like" or "as gold"), the most important source of zirconium. It is a lustrous, grey-white, strong transition metal that closely resembles hafnium and, to a lesser extent, titanium. Zirconium is mainly used as a refractory and opacifier, although small amounts are used as an alloying agent for its strong resistance to corrosion. Zirconium forms a variety of inorganic and organometallic compounds such as zirconium dioxide and zirconocene dichloride, respectively. Five isotopes occur naturally, four of which are stable. Zirconium compounds have no known biological role. Characteristics Zirconium is a lustrous, greyish-white, soft, ductile, malleable metal that is solid at room temperature, though it is hard and brittle at lesser purities. In powder form, zirconium is highly flammable, but the solid form is much less prone to ignition. Zirconium is highly resistant to corrosion by alkalis, acids, salt water and other agents. However, it will dissolve in hydrochloric and sulfuric acid, especially when fluorine is present. Alloys with zinc are magnetic at less than 35 K. The melting point of zirconium is 1855 °C (3371 °F), and the boiling point is 4409 °C (7968 °F). Zirconium has an electronegativity of 1.33 on the Pauling scale. Of the elements within the d-block with known electronegativities, zirconium has the fifth lowest electronegativity after hafnium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium. At room temperature zirconium exhibits a hexagonally close-packed crystal structure, α-Zr, which changes to β-Zr, a body-centered cubic crystal structure, at 863 °C. Zirconium exists in the β-phase until the melting point. Isotopes Naturally occurring zirconium is composed of five isotopes. 90Zr, 91Zr, 92Zr and 94Zr are stable, although 94Zr is predicted to undergo double beta decay (not observed experimentally) with a half-life of more than 1.10×1017 years. 96Zr has a half-life of 2.4×1019 years, and is the longest-lived radioisotope of zirconium. Of these natural isotopes, 90Zr is the most common, making up 51.45% of all zirconium. 96Zr is the least common, comprising only 2.80% of zirconium. Twenty-eight artificial isotopes of zirconium have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 78 to 110. 93Zr is the longest-lived artificial isotope, with a half-life of 1.53×106 years. 110Zr, the heaviest isotope of zirconium, is the most radioactive, with an estimated half-life of 30 milliseconds. Radioactive isotopes at or above mass number 93 decay by electron emission, whereas those at or below 89 decay by positron emission. The only exception is 88Zr, which decays by electron capture. Five isotopes of zirconium also exist as metastable isomers: 83mZr, 85mZr, 89mZr, 90m1Zr, 90m2Zr and 91mZr. Of these, 90m2Zr has the shortest half-life at 131 nanoseconds. 89mZr is the longest lived with a half-life of 4.161 minutes. Occurrence Zirconium has a concentration of about 130 mg/kg within the Earth's crust and about 0.026 μg/L in sea water. It is not found in nature as a native metal, reflecting its intrinsic instability with respect to water. The principal commercial source of zirconium is zircon (ZrSiO4), a silicate mineral, which is found primarily in Australia, Brazil, India, Russia, South Africa and the United States, as well as in smaller deposits around the world. As of 2013, two-thirds of zircon mining occurs in Australia and South Africa. Zircon resources exceed 60 million tonnes worldwide and annual worldwide zirconium production is approximately 900,000 tonnes. Zirconium also occurs in more than 140 other minerals, including the commercially useful ores baddeleyite and eudialyte. Zirconium is relatively abundant in S-type stars, and it has been detected in the sun and in meteorites. Lunar rock samples brought back from several Apollo missions to the moon have a high zirconium oxide content relative to terrestrial rocks. EPR spectroscopy has been used in investigations of the unusual 3+ valence state of zirconium. The EPR spectrum of Zr3+, which has been initially observed as a parasitic signal in Fe‐doped single crystals of ScPO4, was definitively identified by preparing single crystals of ScPO4 doped with isotopically enriched (94.6%)91Zr. Single crystals of LuPO4 and YPO4 doped with both naturally abundant and isotopically enriched Zr have also been grown and investigated. Production Occurrence Zirconium is a by-product of the mining and processing of the titanium minerals ilmenite and rutile, as well as tin mining. From 2003 to 2007, while prices for the mineral zircon steadily increased from $360 to $840 per tonne, the price for unwrought zirconium metal decreased from $39,900 to $22,700 per ton. Zirconium metal is much more expensive than zircon because the reduction processes are costly. Collected from coastal waters, zircon-bearing sand is purified by spiral concentrators to separate lighter materials, which are then returned to the water because they are natural components of beach sand. Using magnetic separation, the titanium ores ilmenite and rutile are removed. Most zircon is used directly in commercial applications, but a small percentage is converted to the metal. Most Zr metal is produced by the reduction of the zirconium(IV) chloride with magnesium metal in the Kroll process. The resulting metal is sintered until sufficiently ductile for metalworking. Separation of zirconium and hafnium Commercial zirconium metal typically contains 1–3% of hafnium, which is usually not problematic because the chemical properties of hafnium and zirconium are very similar. Their neutron-absorbing properties differ strongly, however, necessitating the separation of hafnium from zirconium for nuclear reactors. Several separation schemes are in use. The liquid-liquid extraction of the thiocyanate-oxide derivatives exploits the fact that the hafnium derivative is slightly more soluble in methyl isobutyl ketone than in water. This method is used mainly in United States. In India, TBP-Nitrate solvent extraction process is used for the separation Zr and Hf can also be separated by fractional crystallization of potassium hexafluorozirconate (K2ZrF6), which is less soluble in water than the analogous hafnium derivative. Fractional distillation of the tetrachlorides, also called extractive distillation, is used primarily in Europe. The product of a quadruple VAM (vacuum arc melting) process, combined with hot extruding and different rolling applications is cured using high-pressure, high-temperature gas autoclaving. This produces reactor-grade zirconium that is about 10 times more expensive than the hafnium-contaminated commercial grade. Hafnium must be removed from zirconium for nuclear applications because hafnium has a neutron absorption cross-section 600 times greater than zirconium. The separated hafnium can be used for reactor control rods. Compounds Like other transition metals, zirconium forms a wide range of inorganic compounds and coordination complexes. In general, these compounds are colourless diamagnetic solids wherein zirconium has the oxidation state +4. Far fewer Zr(III) compounds are known, and Zr(II) is very rare. Oxides, nitrides, and carbides The most common oxide is zirconium dioxide, ZrO2, also known as zirconia. This clear to white-coloured solid has exceptional fracture toughness (for a ceramic) and chemical resistance, especially in its cubic form. These properties make zirconia useful as a thermal barrier coating, although it is also a common diamond substitute. Zirconium monoxide, ZrO, is also known and S-type stars are recognised by detection of its emission lines. Zirconium tungstate has the unusual property of shrinking in all dimensions when heated, whereas most other substances expand when heated. Zirconyl chloride is a rare water-soluble zirconium complex with the relatively complicated formula [Zr4(OH)12(H2O)16]Cl8. Zirconium carbide and zirconium nitride are refractory solids. The carbide is used for drilling tools and cutting edges. Zirconium hydride phases are also known. Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is the most commonly used piezoelectric material, with applications such as ultrasonic transducers, hydrophones, common rail injectors, piezoelectric transformers and micro-actuators. Halides and pseudohalides All four common halides are known, ZrF4, ZrCl4, ZrBr4, and ZrI4. All have polymeric structures and are far less volatile than the corresponding monomeric titanium tetrahalides. All tend to hydrolyse to give the so-called oxyhalides and dioxides. The corresponding tetraalkoxides are also known. Unlike the halides, the alkoxides dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Dihydrogen hexafluorozirconate is used in the metal finishing industry as an etching agent to promote paint adhesion. Organic derivatives Organozirconium chemistry is key to Ziegler–Natta catalysts, used to produce polypropylene. This application exploits the ability of zirconium to reversibly form bonds to carbon. Zirconocene dibromide ((C5H5)2ZrBr2), reported in 1952 by Birmingham and Wilkinson, was the first organozirconium compound. Schwartz's reagent, prepared in 1970 by P. C. Wailes and H. Weigold, is a metallocene used in organic synthesis for transformations of alkenes and alkynes. Most complexes of Zr(II) are derivatives of zirconocene, one example being (C5Me5)2Zr(CO)2. History The zirconium-containing mineral zircon and related minerals (jargoon, hyacinth, jacinth, ligure) were mentioned in biblical writings. The mineral was not known to contain a new element until 1789, when Klaproth analyzed a jargoon from the island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He named the new element Zirkonerde (zirconia). Humphry Davy attempted to isolate this new element in 1808 through electrolysis, but failed. Zirconium metal was first obtained in an impure form in 1824 by Berzelius by heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride in an iron tube. The crystal bar process (also known as the Iodide Process), discovered by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925, was the first industrial process for the commercial production of metallic zirconium. It involves the formation and subsequent thermal decomposition of zirconium tetraiodide, and was superseded in 1945 by the much cheaper Kroll process developed by William Justin Kroll, in which zirconium tetrachloride is reduced by magnesium: ZrCl4 + 2 Mg → Zr + 2 MgCl2 Applications Approximately 900,000 tonnes of zirconium ores were mined in 1995, mostly as zircon. Compounds Most zircon is used directly in high-temperature applications. Because it is refractory, hard, and resistant to chemical attack, zircon finds many applications. Its main use is as an opacifier, conferring a white, opaque appearance to ceramic materials. Because of its chemical resistance, zircon is also used in aggressive environments, such as moulds for molten metals. Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is used in laboratory crucibles, in metallurgical furnaces, and as a refractory material. Because it is mechanically strong and flexible, it can be sintered into ceramic knives and other blades. Zircon (ZrSiO4) and the cubic zirconia (ZrO2) are cut into gemstones for use in jewelry. Zirconium dioxide is a component in some abrasives, such as grinding wheels and sandpaper. Metal A small fraction of the zircon is converted to the metal, which finds various niche applications. Because of zirconium's excellent resistance to corrosion, it is often used as an alloying agent in materials that are exposed to aggressive environments, such as surgical appliances, light filaments, and watch cases. The high reactivity of zirconium with oxygen at high temperatures is exploited in some specialised applications such as explosive primers and as getters in vacuum tubes. The same property is (probably) the purpose of including Zr nanoparticles as pyrophoric material in explosive weapons such as the BLU-97/B Combined Effects Bomb. Burning zirconium was used as a light source in some photographic flashbulbs. Zirconium powder with a mesh size from 10 to 80 is occasionally used in pyrotechnic compositions to generate sparks. The high reactivity of zirconium leads to bright white sparks. Nuclear applications Cladding for nuclear reactor fuels consumes about 1% of the zirconium supply, mainly in the form of zircaloys. The desired properties of these alloys are a low neutron-capture cross-section and resistance to corrosion under normal service conditions. Efficient methods for removing the hafnium impurities were developed to serve this purpose. One disadvantage of zirconium alloys is the reactivity with water, producing hydrogen, leading to degradation of the fuel rod cladding: Zr + 2 H2O → ZrO2 + 2 H2 Hydrolysis is very slow below 100 °C, but rapid at temperature above 900 °C. Most metals undergo similar reactions. The redox reaction is relevant to the instability of fuel assemblies at high temperatures. This reaction occurred in the reactors 1, 2 and 3 of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant (Japan) after the reactor cooling was interrupted by the earthquake and tsunami disaster of March 11, 2011, leading to the Fukushima I nuclear accidents. After venting the hydrogen in the maintenance hall of those three reactors, the mixture of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen exploded, severely damaging the installations and at least one of the containment buildings. Zirconium is a constituent of the uranium zirconium hydride (UZrH) nuclear fuel used in TRIGA reactors. Space and aeronautic industries Materials fabricated from zirconium metal and ZrO2 are used in space vehicles where resistance to heat is needed. High temperature parts such as combustors, blades, and vanes in jet engines and stationary gas turbines are increasingly being protected by thin ceramic layers, usually composed of a mixture of zirconia and yttria. Medical uses Zirconium-bearing compounds are used in many biomedical applications, including dental implants and crowns, knee and hip replacements, middle-ear ossicular chain reconstruction, and other restorative and prosthetic devices. Zirconium binds urea, a property that has been utilized extensively to the benefit of patients with chronic kidney disease. For example, zirconium is a primary component of the sorbent column dependent dialysate regeneration and recirculation system known as the REDY system, which was first introduced in 1973. More than 2,000,000 dialysis treatments have been performed using the sorbent column in the REDY system. Although the REDY system was superseded in the 1990s by less expensive alternatives, new sorbent-based dialysis systems are being evaluated and approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Renal Solutions developed the DIALISORB technology, a portable, low water dialysis system. Also, developmental versions of a Wearable Artificial Kidney have incorporated sorbent-based technologies. Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate is used by mouth in the treatment of hyperkalemia. It is a selective sorbent designed to trap potassium ions in preference to other ions throughout the gastrointestinal tract. A mixture of monomeric and polymeric Zr4+ and Al3+ complexes with hydroxide, chloride and glycine, called Aluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex gly or AZG, is used in a preparation as an antiperspirant in many deodorant products. It is selected for its ability to obstruct pores in the skin and prevent sweat from leaving the body. Defunct applications Zirconium carbonate (3ZrO2·CO2·H2O) was used in lotions to treat poison ivy but was discontinued because it occasionally caused skin reactions. Safety Although zirconium has no known biological role, the human body contains, on average, 250 milligrams of zirconium, and daily intake is approximately 4.15 milligrams (3.5 milligrams from food and 0.65 milligrams from water), depending on dietary habits. Zirconium is widely distributed in nature and is found in all biological systems, for example: 2.86 μg/g in whole wheat, 3.09 μg/g in brown rice, 0.55 μg/g in spinach, 1.23 μg/g in eggs, and 0.86 μg/g in ground beef. Further, zirconium is commonly used in commercial products (e.g. deodorant sticks, aerosol antiperspirants) and also in water purification (e.g. control of phosphorus pollution, bacteria- and pyrogen-contaminated water). Short-term exposure to zirconium powder can cause irritation, but only contact with the eyes requires medical attention. Persistent exposure to zirconium tetrachloride results in increased mortality in rats and guinea pigs and a decrease of blood hemoglobin and red blood cells in dogs. However, in a study of 20 rats given a standard diet containing ~4% zirconium oxide, there were no adverse effects on growth rate, blood and urine parameters, or mortality. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for zirconium exposure is 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended exposure limit (REL) is 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and a short term limit of 10 mg/m3. At levels of 25 mg/m3, zirconium is immediately dangerous to life and health. However, zirconium is not considered an industrial health hazard. Furthermore, reports of zirconium-related adverse reactions are rare and, in general, rigorous cause-and-effect relationships have not been established. No evidence has been validated that zirconium is carcinogenic or genotoxic. Among the numerous radioactive isotopes of zirconium, 93Zr is among the most common. It is released as a product of nuclear fission of 235U and 239Pu, mainly in nuclear power plants and during nuclear weapons tests in the 1950s and 1960s. It has a very long half-life (1.53 million years), its decay emits only low energy radiations, and it is not considered as highly hazardous. See also Zirconium alloys Zirconia light References External links Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Zirconium Zirconium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) Chemical elements Transition metals Pyrotechnic fuels Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure

Zope is a family of free and open-source web application servers written in Python, and their associated online community. Zope stands for "Z Object Publishing Environment", and was the first system using the now common object publishing methodology for the Web. Zope has been called a Python killer app, an application that helped put Python in the spotlight. Over the last few years, the Zope community has spawned several additional web frameworks with disparate aims and principles, but sharing philosophy, people, and source code. Zope 2 is still the most widespread of these frameworks, largely thanks to the Plone content management system, which runs on Zope 2. BlueBream (earlier called Zope 3) is less widespread but underlies several large sites, including Launchpad. Grok was started as a more programmer-friendly framework, "Zope 3 for cavemen", and in 2009 Pyramid gained popularity in the Zope community as a minimalistic framework based on Zope principles. History The Zope Corporation was formed in 1995 in Fredericksburg, Virginia under the name Digital Creations, as a joint venture with InfiNet (a joint newspaper chain venture). The company developed a classified advertisement engine for the Internet. In 1997, the company became independently owned and private. The company's software engineers are led by CTO Jim Fulton. PythonLabs, creators of Python, became part of the company in 2000 (Python founder Guido van Rossum left Zope Corp in 2003). What is now known as Zope 2 began with the merging of three separate software products – Bobo, Document Template, and BoboPOS – into the Principia application server. At the behest of its largest investor, Opticality Ventures, Principia was re-released as free software under the name Zope in 1998. Bobo, and therefore Zope, was the first Web object publishing solution. In November 2004, Zope 3 was released. Zope 3 is a complete rewrite that preserves only the original ZODB object database. It is directly intended for enterprise Web application development using the newest development paradigms. Zope 3 is, however, not compatible with Zope 2, so you cannot run Zope 2 applications on Zope 3. It was originally intended to introduce a backwards-compatibility layer so that Zope 2 software would run on Zope 3. Instead a module known as Five introduced the new Zope 3 paradigms into Zope 2, although full compatibility isn't possible that way either. The existence of two incompatible Web frameworks called Zope has caused a lot of confusion. In response, in January 2010, Zope 3 was renamed "BlueBream". "Zope" and "blue bream" are names of a kind of fish, Ballerus ballerus. Zope Foundation The Zope Foundation is an organization that promotes the development of the Zope platform by supporting the community that develops and maintains the relevant software components. The community includes both open source software, documentation and web infrastructure contributors, as well as business and organization consumers of the software platform. It manages the zope.org websites, an infrastructure for open source collaboration. Zope Versions Zope 2 A Zope website is usually composed of objects in a Zope Object Database, not files on a file system, as is usual with most web servers. This allows users to harness the advantages of object technologies, such as encapsulation. Zope maps URLs to objects using the containment hierarchy of such objects; methods are considered to be contained in their objects as well. Data can be stored in other databases as well, or on the file system, but ZODB is the most common solution. Zope provides two mechanisms for HTML templating: Document Template Markup Language (DTML) and Zope Page Templates (ZPT). DTML is a tag-based language that allows implementation of simple scripting in the templates. DTML has provisions for variable inclusion, conditions, and loops. However, DTML can be problematic: DTML tags interspersed with HTML form non-valid HTML documents, and its use requires care when including logic into templates, to retain code readability. The use of DTML is discouraged by many leading Zope developers. ZPT is a technology that addresses the shortcomings of DTML. ZPT templates can be either well-formed XML documents or HTML documents, in which all special markup is presented as attributes in the TAL (Template Attribute Language) namespace. ZPT offers a very limited set of tools for conditional inclusion and repetition of XML elements. Consequently, the templates are usually quite simple, with most logic implemented in Python code. One significant advantage of ZPT templates is that they can be edited in most graphical HTML editors. ZPT also offers direct support for internationalization. Zope 2 underlies the Plone content management system, as well as the ERP5 open source enterprise resource planning system. BlueBream BlueBream is a rewrite by the Zope developers of the Zope 2 web application server. It was created under the name "Zope 3", but the existence of two incompatible frameworks with the same name caused much confusion, and Zope 3 was renamed "BlueBream" in January 2010. BlueBream is distributed under the terms of the Zope Public License and is thus free software. Zope 2 has proven itself as a useful framework for Web applications development, but its use revealed some shortcomings. To name a few, creating Zope 2 products involves copying a lot of boilerplate code – "magic" code – that just has to be there, and the built-in management interface is difficult to modify or replace. Zope 3 was a rewrite of the software that attempts to address these shortcomings while retaining the advantages of Zope that led to its popularity. BlueBream is based on a component architecture that makes it easy to mix software components of various origins written in Python. Although originally intended as a replacement for Zope 2, the Zope Component Architecture has instead been backported to Zope 2, starting with Zope 2.8. Many Zope platforms such as Plone are going through the same type of piece-by-piece rewriting. The first production release of the new software, Zope X3 3.0.0, was released on November 6, 2004. History The Zope 3 project started in February 2001 as an effort to develop a new version of Zope as an almost complete rewrite, with the goal to retain the successful features of Zope 2 while trying to fix some of its shortcomings. The goal was to create a more developer-friendly and flexible platform for programming web applications than Zope 2 is. The project began with the development of a component architecture, which allows the structuring of code into small, composable units with introspectable interfaces. The interfaces are supported by an interface package in order to provide the functionality of explicitly declared interfaces to the Python language. The first production release of the software, Zope X3, was released on November 6, 2004. In January 2010 Zope 3 was renamed BlueBream. Technology The goal of the project was to enable programmers to use Zope in order to expose arbitrary Python objects as model objects to the web without the need to make these objects fulfill particular behavior requirements. In Zope 2 there had been many behavior requirements to allow objects to participate in the framework, which resulted in a large amount of mixin base classes and special attributes. BlueBream uses a model/view architecture, separating the presentation code from the problem domain code. Views and models are linked together by the component architecture. The libraries underlying BlueBream have been evolving into a collection of useful libraries for web application development rather than a single, monolithic application server. BlueBream includes separate packages for interfaces, component architecture, HTTP server, publisher, Zope Object Database (ZODB), Zope Page Templates, I18N, security policy, and so on. The component architecture is used to glue these together. The component architecture is configured using a ZCML (Zope Configuration Markup Language), an XML based configuration file language. The Zope 3 project pioneered the practice of sprints for open source software development. Sprints are intensive development sessions when programmers, often from different countries, gather in one room and work together for a couple of days or even several weeks. During the sprints various practices drawn from agile software development are used, such as pair programming and test-driven development. Besides the goal of developing software, sprints are also useful for geographically separated developers to meet in person and attracting new people to the project. They also serve as a way for the participants to learn from each other. BlueBream is considered a stable framework, used on production projects worldwide, most notably Launchpad. Zope Toolkit As a result of the development of Zope 3 / BlueBream, there are now many independent Python packages used and developed as a part of BlueBream, and although many of these are usable outside of BlueBream, many are not. The Zope Toolkit (ZTK) project was started to clarify which packages were usable outside BlueBream, and to improve the re-usability of the packages. Thus the Zope Toolkit is a base for the Zope frameworks. Zope 2.12 is the first release of a web framework that builds on Zope Toolkit, and Grok and BlueBream were set to have releases based on the ZTK during 2010. Grok In 2006 the Grok project was started by a number of Zope 3 developers who wanted to make Zope 3 technology more agile in use and more accessible to newcomers. Grok has since then seen regular releases and its core technology (Martian, grokcore.component) is also finding uptake in other Zope 3 and Zope 2 based projects. Zope 4 In late 2017, development began on Zope 4. Zope 4 is a successor to Zope 2.13, making many changes that are not backwards compatible with Zope 2. Zope 5 Zope 5 was released in 2020. Zope Page Templates As mentioned previously, Zope Page Templates are themselves XHTML documents, which means they can be viewed and edited using normal HTML editors or XHTML compliant tools (a big advantage compared to other template languages used for Web applications). Templates can also be checked for XHTML compliance so you can be fairly confident that they will automatically expand into proper XHTML. However, these page templates are not meant to be rendered as is. Instead they are marked up with additional elements and attributes in special XML namespaces (see below). This additional information is used to describe how the page template should ultimately be processed. Here are some basic examples. To conditionally include a particular element, like a div element, simply add the tal:condition attribute to the element as follows: <div tal:condition="..."> ... </div> To control what appears inside an element, use the tal:content attribute like this: <h1><span tal:content="..."/></h1> ... Finally, to introduce or replace values of attributes use the tal:attributes attribute as below. You can use Python to alter the href at runtime. <a href="" tal:attributes="href python:'http://someurl.com/%s'%someobject">...</a> This is a very cursory explanation of Zope Page Templates. The behavior of Zope Page Templates is almost completely described by a template language, fixed on TAL, TALES, and METAL specifications: Template Attribute Language (TAL), Template Attribute Language Expression Syntax (TALES), Macro Expansion Template Attribute Language (METAL). Notable software using Zope SchoolTool is an open source student information system that uses Zope. Plone is an open source content management system that uses Zope. See also Pylons project Django web2py Content management (CM) Content management system (CMS) Web content management system (WCMS) Plone Naaya Zwiki ERP5 Twisted References External links 1995 establishments in Virginia Cross-platform free software Free content management systems Free software programmed in Python Python (programming language) web frameworks Software companies based in Virginia Software companies established in 1995 Web development software Web server software for Linux Software companies of the United States it:Zope 3 pt:BlueBream

Zhang Heng (; AD 78–139), formerly romanized as Chang Heng, was a Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman who lived during the Han dynasty. Educated in the capital cities of Luoyang and Chang'an, he achieved success as an astronomer, mathematician, seismologist, hydraulic engineer, inventor, geographer, cartographer, ethnographer, artist, poet, philosopher, politician, and literary scholar. Zhang Heng began his career as a minor civil servant in Nanyang. Eventually, he became Chief Astronomer, Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages, and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court. His uncompromising stance on historical and calendrical issues led to his becoming a controversial figure, preventing him from rising to the status of Grand Historian. His political rivalry with the palace eunuchs during the reign of Emperor Shun (r. 125–144) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator of Hejian Kingdom in present-day Hebei. Zhang returned home to Nanyang for a short time, before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138. He died there a year later, in 139. Zhang applied his extensive knowledge of mechanics and gears in several of his inventions. He invented the world's first water-powered armillary sphere to assist astronomical observation; improved the inflow water clock by adding another tank; and invented the world's first seismoscope, which discerned the cardinal direction of an earthquake away. He improved previous Chinese calculations for pi. In addition to documenting about 2,500 stars in his extensive star catalog, Zhang also posited theories about the Moon and its relationship to the Sun: specifically, he discussed the Moon's sphericity, its illumination by reflected sunlight on one side and the hidden nature of the other, and the nature of solar and lunar eclipses. His fu (rhapsody) and shi poetry were renowned in his time and studied and analyzed by later Chinese writers. Zhang received many posthumous honors for his scholarship and ingenuity; some modern scholars have compared his work in astronomy to that of the Greco-Roman Ptolemy (AD 86–161). Life Early life Born in the town of Xi'e in Nanyang Commandery (north of the modern Nanyang City in Henan province), Zhang Heng came from a distinguished but not very affluent family. His grandfather Zhang Kan () had been governor of a commandery and one of the leaders who supported the restoration of the Han by Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57), following the death of the usurping Wang Mang of the Xin (AD 9–23). When he was ten, Zhang's father died, leaving him in the care of his mother and grandmother. An accomplished writer in his youth, Zhang left home in the year 95 to pursue his studies in the capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang. While traveling to Luoyang, Zhang passed by a hot spring near Mount Li and dedicated one of his earliest fu poems to it. This work, entitled "Fu on the Hot Springs" (Wēnquán fù 溫泉賦), describes the throngs of people attending the hot springs, which later became famous as the "Huaqing Hot Springs", a favorite retreat of imperial concubine Yang Guifei during the Tang dynasty. After studying for some years at Luoyang's Taixue, he was well-versed in the classics and friends with several notable persons, including the mathematician and calligrapher Cui Yuan (78–143), the official and philosophical commentator Ma Rong (79–166), and the philosopher Wang Fu (78–163). Government authorities offered Zhang appointments to several offices, including a position as one of the Imperial Secretaries, yet he acted modestly and declined. At age 23, Zhang returned home with the title "Officer of Merit in Nanyang", serving as the master of documents under the administration of Governor Bao De (in office from 103 to 111). As he was charged with composing inscriptions and dirges for the governor, he gained experience in writing official documents. As Officer of Merit in the commandery, he was also responsible for local appointments to office and recommendations to the capital of nominees for higher office. He spent much of his time composing rhapsodies on the capital cities. When Bao De was recalled to the capital in 111 to serve as a minister of finance, Zhang continued his literary work at home in Xi'e. Zhang Heng began his studies in astronomy at the age of 30 and began publishing his works on astronomy and mathematics. Official career In 112, Zhang was summoned to the court of Emperor An (r. 106–125), who had heard of his expertise in mathematics. When he was nominated to serve at the capital, Zhang was escorted by carriage—a symbol of his official status—to Luoyang, where he became a court gentleman working for the Imperial Secretariat. He was promoted to Chief Astronomer for the court, serving his first term from 115 to 120 under Emperor An and his second under the succeeding emperor from 126 to 132. As Chief Astronomer, Zhang was a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies, one of Nine Ministers ranked just below the Three Excellencies. In addition to recording heavenly observations and portents, preparing the calendar, and reporting which days were auspicious and which ill-omened, Zhang was also in charge of an advanced literacy test for all candidates to the Imperial Secretariat and the Censorate, both of whose members were required to know at least 9,000 characters and all major writing styles. Under Emperor An, Zhang also served as Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages under the Ministry of Guards, in charge of receiving memorials to the throne (formal essays on policy and administration) as well as nominees for official appointments. When the government official Dan Song proposed the Chinese calendar should be reformed in 123 to adopt certain apocryphal teachings, Zhang opposed the idea. He considered the teachings to be of questionable stature and believed they could introduce errors. Others shared Zhang's opinion and the calendar was not altered, yet Zhang's proposal that apocryphal writings should be banned was rejected. The officials Liu Zhen and Liu Taotu, members of a committee to compile the dynastic history (), sought permission from the court to consult Zhang Heng. However, Zhang was barred from assisting the committee due to his controversial views on apocrypha and his objection to the relegation of Gengshi Emperor's (r. 23–25) role in the restoration of the Han Dynasty as lesser than Emperor Guangwu's. Liu Zhen and Liu Taotu were Zhang's only historian allies at court, and after their deaths Zhang had no further opportunities for promotion to the prestigious post of court historian. Despite this setback in his official career, Zhang was reappointed as Chief Astronomer in 126 after Emperor Shun of Han (r. 125–144) ascended to the throne. His intensive astronomical work was rewarded only with the rank and salary of 600 bushels, or shi, of grain (mostly commuted to coin cash or bolts of silk). To place this number in context, in a hierarchy of twenty official ranks, the lowest-paid official earned the rank and salary of 100 bushels and the highest-paid official earned 10,000 bushels during the Han. The 600-bushel rank was the lowest the emperor could directly appoint to a central government position; any official of lower status was overseen by central or provincial officials of high rank. In 132, Zhang introduced an intricate seismoscope to the court, which he claimed could detect the precise cardinal direction of a distant earthquake. On one occasion his device indicated that an earthquake had occurred in the northwest. As there was no perceivable tremor felt in the capital his political enemies were briefly able to relish the failure of his device, until a messenger arrived shortly afterwards to report that an earthquake had occurred about 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang in Gansu province. A year after Zhang presented his seismoscope to the court, officials and candidates were asked to provide comments about a series of recent earthquakes which could be interpreted as signs of displeasure from Heaven. The ancient Chinese viewed natural calamities as cosmological punishments for misdeeds that were perpetrated by the Chinese ruler or his subordinates on earth. In Zhang's memorial discussing the reasons behind these natural disasters, he criticized the new recruitment system of Zuo Xiong which fixed the age of eligible candidates for the title "Filial and Incorrupt" at age forty. The new system also transferred the power of the candidates' assessment to the Three Excellencies rather than the Generals of the Household, who by tradition oversaw the affairs of court gentlemen. Although Zhang's memorial was rejected, his status was significantly elevated soon after to Palace Attendant, a position he used to influence the decisions of Emperor Shun. With this prestigious new position, Zhang earned a salary of 2,000 bushels and had the right to escort the emperor. As Palace Attendant to Emperor Shun, Zhang Heng attempted to convince him that the court eunuchs represented a threat to the imperial court. Zhang pointed to specific examples of past court intrigues involving eunuchs, and convinced Shun that he should assume greater authority and limit their influence. The eunuchs attempted to slander Zhang, who responded with a fu rhapsody called "Fu on Pondering the Mystery", which vents his frustration. Rafe de Crespigny states that Zhang's rhapsody used imagery similar to Qu Yuan's (340–278 BC) poem "Li Sao" and focused on whether or not good men should flee the corrupted world or remain virtuous within it. Literature and poetry While working for the central court, Zhang Heng had access to a variety of written materials located in the Archives of the Eastern Pavilion. Zhang read many of the great works of history in his day and claimed he had found ten instances where the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian (145–90 BC) and the Book of Han by Ban Gu (AD 32–92) differed from other ancient texts that were available to him. His account was preserved and recorded in the 5th century text of the Book of Later Han by Fan Ye (398–445). His rhapsodies and other literary works displayed a deep knowledge of classic texts, Chinese philosophy, and histories. He also compiled a commentary on the Taixuan (, "Great Mystery") by the Daoist author Yang Xiong (53 BC–AD 18). Xiao Tong (501–531), a crown prince of the Liang Dynasty (502–557), immortalized several of Zhang's works in his literary anthology Selections of Refined Literature (Wen xuan ). Zhang's fu rhapsodies include "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" (Xī jīng fù ), "Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody" (Dōng jīng fù ), "Southern Capital Rhapsody" (Nán dū fù ), "Rhapsody on Contemplating the Mystery" (Sī xuán fù ), and "Rhapsody on Returning to the Fields" (Guī tián fù ). The latter fuses Daoist ideas with Confucianism and was a precursor to later Chinese metaphysical nature poetry, according to Liu Wu-chi. A set of four short lyric poems (shi 詩) entitled "Lyric Poems on Four Sorrows" (Sì chóu shī ), is also included with Zhang's preface. This set constitutes some of the earliest heptasyllabic shi Chinese poetry written. While still in Luoyang, Zhang became inspired to write his "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" and "Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody", which were based on the "Rhapsody on the Two Capitals" by the historian Ban Gu. Zhang's work was similar to Ban's, although the latter fully praised the contemporaneous Eastern Han regime while Zhang provided a warning that it could suffer the same fate as the Western Han if it too declined into a state of decadence and moral depravity. These two works satirized and criticized what he saw as the excessive luxury of the upper classes. Zhang's "Southern Capital Rhapsody" commemorated his home city of Nanyang, home of the restorer of the Han Dynasty, Guangwu. In Zhang Heng's poem "Four Sorrows", he laments that he is unable to woo a beautiful woman due to the impediment of mountains, snows and rivers. Rafe de Crespigny, Tong Xiao, and David R. Knechtges claim that Zhang wrote this as an innuendo hinting at his inability to keep in contact with the emperor, hindered by unworthy rivals and petty men. This poem is one of the first in China to have seven words per line. His "Four Sorrows" reads: In another poem of his called "Stabilizing the Passions" (Dìng qíng fù 定情賦) — preserved in a Tang Dynasty (618–907) encyclopedia, but referred to earlier by Tao Qian (365–427) in praise of Zhang's lyrical minimalism — Zhang displays his admiration for an attractive and exemplary woman. This simpler type of fu poem influenced later works by the prominent official and scholar Cai Yong (132–192). Zhang wrote: Zhang's long lyrical poems also revealed a great amount of information on urban layout and basic geography. His rhapsody "Sir Based-On-Nothing" provides details on terrain, palaces, hunting parks, markets, and prominent buildings of Chang'an, the Western Han capital. Exemplifying his attention to detail, his rhapsody on Nanyang described gardens filled with spring garlic, summer bamboo shoots, autumn leeks, winter rape-turnips, perilla, evodia, and purple ginger. Zhang Heng's writing confirms the size of the imperial hunting park in the suburbs of Chang'an, as his estimate for the circumference of the park's encircling wall agrees with the historian Ban Gu's estimate of roughly 400 li (one li in Han times was equal to 415.8 m, or 1,364 ft, making the circumference of the park wall 166,320 m, or 545,600 ft). Along with Sima Xiangru (179–117 BC), Zhang listed a variety of animals and hunting game inhabiting the park, which were divided in the northern and southern portions of the park according to where the animals had originally come from: northern or southern China. Somewhat similar to the description of Sima Xiangru, Zhang described the Western Han emperors and their entourage enjoying boat outings, water plays, fishing, and displays of archery targeting birds and other animals with stringed arrows from the tops of tall towers along Chang'an's Kunming Lake. The focus of Zhang's writing on specific places and their terrain, society, people, and their customs could also be seen as early attempts of ethnographic categorization. In his poem "Xijing fu", Zhang shows that he was aware of the new foreign religion of Buddhism, introduced via the Silk Road, as well as the legend of the birth of Buddha with the vision of the white elephant bringing about conception. In his "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" (), Zhang described court entertainments such as juedi (), a form of theatrical wrestling accompanied by music in which participants butted heads with bull horn masks. With his "Responding to Criticism" (Ying jian ), a work modeled on Yang Xiong's "Justification Against Ridicule", Zhang was an early writer and proponent of the Chinese literary genre shelun, or hypothetical discourse. Authors of this genre created a written dialogue between themselves and an imaginary person (or a real person of their entourage or association); the latter poses questions to the author on how to lead a successful life. He also used it as a means to criticize himself for failing to obtain high office, but coming to the conclusion that the true gentleman displays virtue instead of greed for power. In this work, Dominik Declercq asserts that the person urging Zhang to advance his career in a time of government corruption most likely represented the eunuchs or Empress Liang's (116–150) powerful relatives in the Liang clan. Declercq states that these two groups would have been "anxious to know whether this famous scholar could be lured over to their side", but Zhang flatly rejected such an alignment by declaring in this politically charged piece of literature that his gentlemanly quest for virtue trumped any desire of his for power. Zhang wrote about the various love affairs of emperors dissatisfied with the imperial harem, going out into the city incognito to seek out prostitutes and sing-song girls. This was seen as a general criticism of the Eastern Han emperors and their imperial favorites, guised in the criticism of earlier Western Han emperors. Besides criticizing the Western Han emperors for lavish decadence, Zhang also pointed out that their behavior and ceremonies did not properly conform with the Chinese cyclical beliefs in yin and yang. In a poem criticizing the previous Western Han Dynasty, Zhang wrote: Achievements in science and technology Mathematics For centuries the Chinese approximated pi as 3; Liu Xin (d. AD 23) made the first known Chinese attempt at a more accurate calculation of 3.1457, but there is no record detailing the method he used to obtain this figure. In his work around 130, Zhang Heng compared the celestial circle to the diameter of the earth, proportioning the former as 736 and the latter as 232, thus calculating pi as 3.1724. In Zhang's day, the ratio 4:3 was given for the area of a square to the area of its inscribed circle and the volume of a cube and volume of the inscribed sphere should also be 42:32. In formula, with D as diameter and V as volume, D3:V = 16:9 or V=D3; Zhang realized that the value for diameter in this formula was inaccurate, noting the discrepancy as the value taken for the ratio. Zhang then attempted to remedy this by amending the formula with an additional D3, hence V=D3 + D3 = D3. With the ratio of the volume of the cube to the inscribed sphere at 8:5, the implied ratio of the area of the square to the circle is √8:√5. From this formula, Zhang calculated pi as the square root of 10 (or approximately 3.162). Zhang also calculated pi as = 3.1466 in his book Ling Xian (). In the 3rd century, Liu Hui made the calculation more accurate with his π algorithm, which allowed him to obtain the value 3.14159. Later, Zu Chongzhi (429–500) approximated pi as or 3.141592, the most accurate calculation for pi the ancient Chinese would achieve. Astronomy In his publication of AD 120 called The Spiritual Constitution of the Universe (靈憲, Ling Xian, lit. "Sublime Model"), Zhang Heng theorized that the universe was like an egg "as round as a crossbow pellet" with the stars on the shell and the Earth as the central yolk. This universe theory is congruent with the geocentric model as opposed to the heliocentric model. Although the ancient Warring States (403–221 BC) Chinese astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De had compiled China's first star catalogue in the 4th century BC, Zhang nonetheless catalogued 2,500 stars which he placed in a "brightly shining" category (the Chinese estimated the total to be 14,000), and he recognized 124 constellations. In comparison, this star catalogue featured many more stars than the 850 documented by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus (c. 190–c.120 BC) in his catalogue, and more than Ptolemy (AD 83–161), who catalogued over 1,000. Zhang supported the "radiating influence" theory to explain solar and lunar eclipses, a theory which was opposed by Wang Chong (AD 27–97). In the Ling Xian, Zhang wrote: Zhang Heng viewed these astronomical phenomena in supernatural terms as well. The signs of comets, eclipses, and movements of heavenly bodies could all be interpreted by him as heavenly guides on how to conduct affairs of state. Contemporary writers also wrote about eclipses and the sphericity of heavenly bodies. The music theorist and mathematician Jing Fang (78–37 BC) wrote about the spherical shape of the Sun and Moon while discussing eclipses: The Moon and the planets are Yin; they have shape but no light. This they receive only when the Sun illuminates them. The former masters regarded the Sun as round like a crossbow bullet, and they thought the Moon had the nature of a mirror. Some of them recognized the Moon as a ball too. Those parts of the Moon which the Sun illuminates look bright, those parts which it does not, remain dark. The theory posited by Zhang and Jing was supported by later pre-modern scientists such as Shen Kuo (1031–1095), who expanded on the reasoning of why the Sun and Moon were spherical. The theory of the celestial sphere surrounding a flat, square Earth was later criticized by the Jin-dynasty scholar-official Yu Xi (fl. 307–345). He suggested that the Earth could be round like the heavens, a spherical Earth theory fully accepted by mathematician Li Ye (1192-1279) but not by mainstream Chinese science until European influence in the 17th century. Extra tank for inflow clepsydra The outflow clepsydra was a timekeeping device used in China as long ago as the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–c. 1050 BC), and certainly by the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BC). The inflow clepsydra with an indicator rod on a float had been known in China since the beginning of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC and had replaced the outflow type. The Han Chinese noted the problem with the falling pressure head in the reservoir, which slowed the timekeeping of the device as the inflow vessel was filled. Zhang Heng was the first to address this problem, indicated in his writings from 117, by adding an extra compensating tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel. Zhang also mounted two statuettes of a Chinese immortal and a heavenly guard on the top of the inflow clepsydra, the two of which would guide the indicator rod with their left hand and point out the graduations with their right. Joseph Needham states that this was perhaps the ancestor of all clock jacks that would later sound the hours found in mechanical clocks by the 8th century, but he notes that these figures did not actually move like clock jack figurines or sound the hours. Many additional compensation tanks were added to later clepsydras in the tradition of Zhang Heng. In 610 the Sui Dynasty (581–618) engineers Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai crafted an unequal-armed steelyard balance able to make seasonal adjustments in the pressure head of the compensating tank, so that it could control the rate of water flow for different lengths of day and night during the year. Zhang mentioned a "jade dragon's neck", which in later times meant a siphon. He wrote of the floats and indicator-rods of the inflow clepsydra as follows: Water-powered armillary sphere Zhang Heng is the first person known to have applied hydraulic motive power (i.e. by employing a waterwheel and clepsydra) to rotate an armillary sphere, an astronomical instrument representing the celestial sphere. The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes (276–194 BC) invented the first armillary sphere in 255 BC. The Chinese armillary sphere was fully developed by 52 BC, with the astronomer Geng Shouchang's addition of a permanently fixed equatorial ring. In AD 84  the astronomers Fu An and Jia Kui added the ecliptic ring, and finally Zhang Heng added the horizon and meridian rings. This invention is described and attributed to Zhang in quotations by Hsu Chen and Li Shan, referencing his book Lou Shui Chuan Hun Thien I Chieh (Apparatus for Rotating an Armillary Sphere by Clepsydra Water). It was likely not an actual book by Zhang, but a chapter from his Hun I or Hun I Thu Chu, written in 117 AD. His water-powered armillary influenced the design of later Chinese water clocks and led to the discovery of the escapement mechanism by the 8th century. The historian Joseph Needham (1900–1995) states: What were the factors leading to the first escapement clock in China? The chief tradition leading to Yi Xing (AD 725 ) was of course the succession of 'pre-clocks' which had started with Zhang Heng about 125. Reason has been given for believing that these applied power to the slow turning movement of computational armillary spheres and celestial globes by means of a water-wheel using clepsydra drip, which intermittently exerted the force of a lug to act on the teeth of a wheel on a polar-axis shaft. Zhang Heng in his turn had composed this arrangement by uniting the armillary rings of his predecessors into the equatorial armillary sphere, and combining it with the principles of the water-mills and hydraulic trip-hammers which had become so widespread in Chinese culture in the previous century. Zhang did not initiate the Chinese tradition of hydraulic engineering, which began during the mid Zhou Dynasty (c. 6th century BC), through the work of engineers such as Sunshu Ao and Ximen Bao. Zhang's contemporary, Du Shi, (d. AD 38) was the first to apply the motive power of waterwheels to operate the bellows of a blast furnace to make pig iron, and the cupola furnace to make cast iron. Zhang provided a valuable description of his water-powered armillary sphere in the treatise of 125, stating: The equatorial ring goes around the belly of the armillary sphere 91 and 5/19 (degrees) away from the pole. The circle of the ecliptic also goes round the belly of the instrument at an angle of 24 (degrees) with the equator. Thus at the summer solstice the ecliptic is 67 (degrees) and a fraction away from the pole, while at the winter solstice it is 115 (degrees) and a fraction away. Hence (the points) where the ecliptic and the equator intersect should give the north polar distances of the spring and autumn equinoxes. But now (it has been recorded that) the spring equinox is 90 and 1/4 (degrees) away from the pole, and the autumn equinox is 92 and 1/4 (degrees) away. The former figure is adopted only because it agrees with the (results obtained by the) method of measuring solstitial sun shadows as embodied in the Xia (dynasty) calendar. Zhang Heng's water-powered armillary sphere had profound effects on Chinese astronomy and mechanical engineering in later generations. His model and its complex use of gears greatly influenced the water-powered instruments of later astronomers such as Yi Xing (683–727), Zhang Sixun (fl. 10th century), Su Song (1020–1101), Guo Shoujing (1231–1316), and many others. Water-powered armillary spheres in the tradition of Zhang Heng's were used in the eras of the Three Kingdoms (220–280) and Jin Dynasty (266–420), yet the design for it was temporarily out of use between 317 and 418, due to invasions of northern Xiongnu nomads. Zhang Heng's old instruments were recovered in 418, when Emperor Wu of Liu Song (r. 420–422) captured the ancient capital of Chang'an. Although still intact, the graduation marks and the representations of the stars, Moon, Sun, and planets were quite worn down by time and rust. In 436, the emperor ordered Qian Luozhi, the Secretary of the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar, to recreate Zhang's device, which he managed to do successfully. Qian's water-powered celestial globe was still in use at the time of the Liang Dynasty (502–557), and successive models of water-powered armillary spheres were designed in subsequent dynasties. Zhang's seismoscope From the earliest times, the Chinese were concerned with the destructive force of earthquakes. It was recorded in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian of 91 BC that in 780 BC an earthquake had been powerful enough to divert the courses of three rivers. It was not known at the time that earthquakes were caused by the shifting of tectonic plates in the Earth's crust; instead, the people of the ancient Zhou Dynasty explained them as disturbances with cosmic yin and yang, along with the heavens' displeasure with acts committed (or the common peoples' grievances ignored) by the current ruling dynasty. These theories were ultimately derived from the ancient text of the Yijing (Book of Changes), in its fifty-first hexagram. There were other early theories about earthquakes, developed by those such as the ancient Greeks. Anaxagoras (c. 500–428 BC) believed that they were caused by excess water near the surface crust of the earth bursting into the Earth's hollows; Democritus (c. 460–370 BC) believed that the saturation of the Earth with water caused them; Anaximenes (c. 585–c. 525 BC) believed they were the result of massive pieces of the Earth falling into the cavernous hollows due to drying; and Aristotle (384–322 BC) believed they were caused by instability of vapor (pneuma) caused by the drying of the moist Earth by the Sun's rays. During the Han Dynasty, many learned scholars—including Zhang Heng—believed in the "oracles of the winds". These oracles of the occult observed the direction, force, and timing of the winds, to speculate about the operation of the cosmos and to predict events on Earth. These ideas influenced Zhang Heng's views on the cause of earthquakes. In 132, Zhang Heng presented to the Han court what many historians consider to be his most impressive invention, the first seismoscope. A seismoscope records the motions of Earth's shaking, but unlike a seismometer, it does not retain a time record of those motions. It was named "earthquake weathervane" (hòufēng dìdòngyí 候風地動儀), and it was able to roughly determine the direction (out of eight directions) where the earthquake came from. According to the Book of Later Han (compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century), his bronze urn-shaped device, with a swinging pendulum inside, was able to detect the direction of an earthquake hundreds of miles/kilometers away. This was essential for the Han government in sending quick aid and relief to regions devastated by this type of natural disaster. The Book of Later Han records that, on one occasion, Zhang's device was triggered, though no observer had felt any seismic disturbance; several days later a messenger arrived from the west and reported that an earthquake had occurred in Longxi (modern Gansu Province), the same direction that Zhang's device had indicated, and thus the court was forced to admit the efficacy of the device. To indicate the direction of a distant earthquake, Zhang's device dropped a bronze ball from one of eight tubed projections shaped as dragon heads; the ball fell into the mouth of a corresponding metal object shaped as a toad, each representing a direction like the points on a compass rose. His device had eight mobile arms (for all eight directions) connected with cranks having catch mechanisms at the periphery. When tripped, a crank and right angle lever would raise a dragon head and release a ball which had been supported by the lower jaw of the dragon head. His device also included a vertical pin passing through a slot in the crank, a catch device, a pivot on a projection, a sling suspending the pendulum, an attachment for the sling, and a horizontal bar supporting the pendulum. Wang Zhenduo (王振鐸) argued that the technology of the Eastern Han era was sophisticated enough to produce such a device, as evidenced by contemporary levers and cranks used in other devices such as crossbow triggers. Later Chinese of subsequent periods were able to reinvent Zhang's seismoscope. They included the 6th-century mathematician and surveyor Xindu Fang of the Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577) and the astronomer and mathematician Lin Xiaogong of the Sui Dynasty (581–618). Like Zhang, Xindu Fang and Lin Xiaogong were given imperial patronage for their services in craftsmanship of devices for the court. By the time of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), it was acknowledged that all devices previously made were preserved, except for that of the seismoscope. This was discussed by the scholar Zhou Mi around 1290, who remarked that the books of Xindu Fang and Lin Xiaogong detailing their seismological devices were no longer to be found. Horwitz, Kreitner, and Needham speculate if Tang Dynasty (618–907) era seismographs found their way to contemporary Japan; according to Needham, "instruments of apparently traditional type there in which a pendulum carries pins projecting in many directions and able to pierce a surrounding paper cylinder, have been described." Hong-sen Yan states that modern replicas of Zhang's device have failed to reach the level of accuracy and sensitivity described in Chinese historical records. Wang Zhenduo presented two different models of the seismoscope based on the ancient descriptions of Zhang's device. In his 1936 reconstruction, the central pillar (du zhu) of the device was a suspended pendulum acting as a movement sensor, while the central pillar of his second model in 1963 was an inverted pendulum. According to Needham, while working in the Seismological Observatory of Tokyo University in 1939, Akitsune Imamura and Hagiwara made a reconstruction of Zhang's device. While it was John Milne and Wang Zhenduo who argued early on that Zhang's "central pillar" was a suspended pendulum, Imamura was the first to propose an inverted model. He argued that transverse shock would have rendered Wang's immobilization mechanism ineffective, as it would not have prevented further motion that could knock other balls out of their position. On June 13, 2005, modern Chinese seismologists announced that they had successfully created a replica of the instrument. Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, a Professor of Early Chinese History at the University of California, Santa Barbara, names Zhang Heng as one of several high-ranking Eastern-Han officials who engaged in crafts that were traditionally reserved for artisans (gong 工), such as mechanical engineering. Barbieri-Low speculates that Zhang only designed his seismoscope, but did not actually craft the device himself. He asserts that this would most likely have been the job of artisans commissioned by Zhang. He writes: "Zhang Heng was an official of moderately high rank and could not be seen sweating in the foundries with the gong artisans and the government slaves. Most likely, he worked collaboratively with the professional casters and mold makers in the imperial workshops." Cartography The Wei (220–265) and Jin Dynasty (266–420) cartographer and official Pei Xiu (224–271) was the first in China to describe in full the geometric grid reference for maps that allowed for precise measurements using a graduated scale, as well as topographical elevation. However, map-making in China had existed since at least the 4th century BC with the Qin state maps found in Gansu in 1986. Pinpointed accuracy of the winding courses of rivers and familiarity with scaled distance had been known since the Qin and Han Dynasty, respectively, as evidenced by their existing maps, while the use of a rectangular grid had been known in China since the Han as well. Historian Howard Nelson states that, although the accounts of Zhang Heng's work in cartography are somewhat vague and sketchy, there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng. Rafe de Crespigny asserts that it was Zhang who established the rectangular grid system in Chinese cartography. Needham points out that the title of his book Flying Bird Calendar may have been a mistake, and that the book is more accurately entitled Bird's Eye Map. Historian Florian C. Reiter notes that Zhang's narrative "Guitian fu" contains a phrase about applauding the maps and documents of Confucius of the Zhou Dynasty, which Reiter suggests places maps (tu) on a same level of importance with documents (shu). It is documented that a physical geography map was first presented by Zhang Heng in 116 AD, called a Ti Hsing Thu. Odometer and south-pointing chariot Zhang Heng is often credited with inventing the first odometer, an achievement also attributed to Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) and Heron of Alexandria (fl. AD 10–70). Similar devices were used by the Roman and Han-Chinese empires at about the same period. By the 3rd century, the Chinese had termed the device the jili guche (, "li-recording drum carriage" (the modern measurement of li = 500 m/1640 ft). Ancient Chinese texts describe the mechanical carriage's functions; after one li was traversed, a mechanically driven wooden figure struck a drum, and after ten li had been covered, another wooden figure struck a gong or a bell with its mechanically operated arm. However, there is evidence to suggest that the invention of the odometer was a gradual process in Han Dynasty China that centered on the "huang men"—court people (i.e. eunuchs, palace officials, attendants and familiars, actors, acrobats, etc.) who followed the musical procession of the royal "drum-chariot". There is speculation that at some time during the 1st century BC the beating of drums and gongs was mechanically driven by the rotation of the road wheels. This might have actually been the design of Luoxia Hong (c. 110 BC), yet by at least 125 the mechanical odometer carriage was already known, as it was depicted in a mural of the Xiao Tang Shan Tomb. The south-pointing chariot was another mechanical device credited to Zhang Heng. It was a non-magnetic compass vehicle in the form of a two-wheeled chariot. Differential gears driven by the chariot's wheels allowed a wooden figurine (in the shape of a Chinese state minister) to constantly point to the south, hence its name. The Song Shu (c. AD 500 ) records that Zhang Heng re-invented it from a model used in the Zhou Dynasty era, but the violent collapse of the Han Dynasty unfortunately did not allow it to be preserved. Whether Zhang Heng invented it or not, Ma Jun (200–265) succeeded in creating the chariot in the following century. Legacy Science and technology Zhang Heng's mechanical inventions influenced later Chinese inventors such as Yi Xing, Zhang Sixun, Su Song, and Guo Shoujing. Su Song directly named Zhang's water-powered armillary sphere as the inspiration for his 11th-century clock tower. The cosmic model of nine points of Heaven corresponding with nine regions of earth conceived in the work of the scholar-official Chen Hongmou (1696–1771) followed in the tradition of Zhang's book Spiritual Constitution of the Universe. The seismologist John Milne, who created the modern seismograph in 1876 alongside Thomas Gray and James A. Ewing at the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo, commented in 1886 on Zhang Heng's contributions to seismology. The historian Joseph Needham emphasized his contributions to pre-modern Chinese technology, stating that Zhang was noted even in his day for being able to "make three wheels rotate as if they were one." More than one scholar has described Zhang as a polymath. However, some scholars also point out that Zhang's writing lacks concrete scientific theories. Comparing Zhang with his contemporary, Ptolemy (83–161) of Roman Egypt, Jin Guantao, Fan Hongye, and Liu Qingfeng state: Based on the theories of his predecessors, Zhang Heng systematically developed the celestial sphere theory. An armillary constructed on the basis of his hypotheses bears a remarkable similarity to Ptolemy's earth-centered theory. However, Zhang Heng did not definitely propose a theoretical model like Ptolemy's earth-centered one. It is astonishing that the celestial model Zhang Heng constructed was almost a physical model of Ptolemy's earth-centered theory. Only a single step separates the celestial globe from the earth-centered theory, but Chinese astronomers never took that step. Here we can see how important the exemplary function of the primitive scientific structure is. In order to use the Euclidean system of geometry as a model for the development of astronomical theory, Ptolemy first had to select hypotheses which could serve as axioms. He naturally regarded circular motion as fundamental and then used the circular motion of deferents and epicycles in his earth-centered theory. Although Zhang Heng understood that the sun, moon and planets move in circles, he lacked a model for a logically structured theory and so could not establish a corresponding astronomical theory. Chinese astronomy was most interested in extracting the algebraic features of planetary motion (that is, the length of the cyclic periods) to establish astronomical theories. Thus astronomy was reduced to arithmetic operations, extracting common multiples and divisors from the observed cyclic motions of the heavenly bodies. Poetic literature Zhang's poetry was widely read during his life and after his death. In addition to the compilation of Xiao Tong mentioned above, the Eastern Wu official Xue Zong (d. 237) wrote commentary on Zhang's poems "Dongjing fu" and "Xijing fu". The influential poet Tao Qian wrote that he admired the poetry of Zhang Heng for its "curbing extravagant diction and aiming at simplicity", in regards to perceived tranquility and rectitude correlating with the simple but effective language of the poet. Tao wrote that both Zhang Heng and Cai Yong "avoided inflated language, aiming chiefly at simplicity", and adding that their "compositions begin by giving free expression to their fancies but end on a note of quiet, serving admirably to restrain undisciplined and passionate nature". Posthumous honors Zhang was given great honors in life and in death. The philosopher and poet Fu Xuan (217–278) of the Wei and Jin dynasties once lamented in an essay over the fact that Zhang Heng was never placed in the Ministry of Works. Writing highly of Zhang and the 3rd-century mechanical engineer Ma Jun, Fu Xuan wrote, "Neither of them was ever an official of the Ministry of Works, and their ingenuity did not benefit the world. When (authorities) employ personnel with no regard to special talent, and having heard of genius neglect even to test it—is this not hateful and disastrous?" In honor of Zhang's achievements in science and technology, his friend Cui Ziyu (Cui Yuan) wrote a memorial inscription on his burial stele, which has been preserved in the Guwen yuan. Cui stated, "[Zhang Heng's] mathematical computations exhausted (the riddles of) the heavens and the earth. His inventions were comparable even to those of the Author of Change. The excellence of his talent and the splendour of his art were one with those of the gods." The minor official Xiahou Zhan (243–291) of the Wei Dynasty made an inscription for his own commemorative stele to be placed at Zhang Heng's tomb. It read: "Ever since gentlemen have composed literary texts, none has been as skillful as the Master [Zhang Heng] in choosing his words well ... if only the dead could rise, oh I could then turn to him for a teacher!" Several things have been named after Zhang in modern times, including the lunar crater Chang Heng, the asteroid 1802 Zhang Heng, and the mineral zhanghengite. In 2018, China launched a research satellite called China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite (CSES) which is also named Zhangheng-1 (ZH-1). See also Han poetry Fu (poetry) Return to the Field Yu Xi References Citation Bibliography Asiapac Editorial. (2004). Origins of Chinese Science and Technology. Translated by Yang Liping and Y.N. Han. Singapore: Asiapac Books Pte. Ltd. . Balchin, Jon. (2003). Science: 100 Scientists Who Changed the World. New York: Enchanted Lion Books. . Barbieri-Low, Anthony J. (2007). Artisans in Early Imperial China. Seattle & London: University of Washington Press. . Declercq, Dominik (1998). Writings Against the State: Political Rhetorics in Third and Fourth Century China. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. Dillon, Michael. (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Surrey: Routledge Curzon Press. . Fraser, Ian W. (2014). "Zhang Heng 张衡", in Kerry Brown, ed., The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography (pp. 369–376). Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing. . Huang, Ray (1997). China: A Macro History. New York: An East Gate Book, M. E. SHARPE Inc. Jones, Kenneth Glyn. (1991). Messier's Nebulae and Star Clusters. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . Krebs, Robert E. (2003). The Basics of Earth Science. Westport: Greenwood Press of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. . Lewis, Mark Edward (2006). The Construction of Space in Early China. New York: State University of New York Press. . Liu, Wu-chi. (1990). An Introduction to Chinese Literature. Westport: Greenwood Press of Greenwood Publishing Group. . Loewe, Michael. (1968). Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period 202 BC-AD 220. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Loewe, Michael. (1990). "The Juedi Games: a re-enactment of the battle between Chiyou and Xianyuan", in Thought and Law in Qin and Han China: Studies dedicated to Anthony Huslewé on the occasion of his eightieth birthday, 140–157, edited by W.L. Idema and E. Zürcher. Leiden: E.J. Brill. . Loewe, Michael. (2005). Faith, Myth, and Reason in Han China. Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing Company, Inc. . Mair, Victor H. (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. . Mansvelt-Beck, B.J. (1990). The Treatises of Later Han: Their Author, Sources, Contents, and Place in Chinese Historiography. Leiden: E.J. Brill. . Minford, John and Joseph S.M. Lau. (2002). Classical Chinese literature: an anthology of translations. New York: Columbia University Press. . Morton, W. Scott and Charlton M. Lewis (2005). China: Its History and Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. reprinted: Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1965). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1: Physics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. reprinted: Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Neinhauser, William H., Charles Hartman, Y.W. Ma, and Stephen H. West. (1986). The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature: Volume 1. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. . Rowe, William T. (2001). Saving the World: Chen Hongmou and Elite Consciousness in Eighteenth-Century China. Stanford: Stanford University Press. . Stein, S., and M. E. Wysession. (2002). An Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure. London: Wiley-Blackwell. ASIN B010WFPEOO. Wagner, Donald B. (2001). The State and the Iron Industry in Han China. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Publishing. . Wilson, Robin J. (2001). Stamping Through Mathematics. New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. Wright, David Curtis (2001) The History of China. Westport: Greenwood Press. Xiao, Tong and David Knechtges. (1996). Wen Xuan, Or, Selections of Refined Literature. Princeton: Princeton University Press. . External links Zhang Heng at Chinaculture.org Zhang Heng at the University of Maine, USA Zhang Heng at the University of St Andrews, Scotland The Early History of Seismology (to 1900) Seismoscope - Research References 2012 78 births 139 deaths 1st-century Chinese poets 2nd-century Chinese poets Ancient Chinese astronomers Ancient Chinese mathematicians Chinese cartographers Chinese Confucianists Chinese ethnographers Chinese geographers Chinese inventors Chinese mechanical engineers Chinese non-fiction writers Chinese scholars Chinese seismologists Engineers from Henan Han dynasty philosophers Han dynasty poets Han dynasty politicians from Henan Han dynasty science writers Hydraulic engineers Mathematicians from Henan Philosophers from Henan Physicists from Henan Poets from Henan Politicians from Nanyang, Henan Technical writers Writers from Nanyang, Henan 2nd-century geographers

Events January–March January 2 – Big Bottom massacre in the Ohio Country, marking the beginning of the Northwest Indian War. January 12 – Holy Roman troops reenter Liège, heralding the end of the Liège Revolution, and the restoration of its Prince-Bishops. January 25 – The British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act 1791, splitting the old province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada. February 8 – The Bank of the United States, based in Philadelphia, is incorporated by the federal government with a 20-year charter and started with $10,000,000 capital. February 21 – The United States opens diplomatic relations with Portugal. March 2 – French Revolution: The abolition of guilds is enacted. A mechanical semaphore line for rapid long-distance communication is demonstrated by Claude Chappe in Paris. March 4 – Vermont is admitted, as the 14th U.S. state. March 13 – Thomas Paine's chief work Rights of Man (first part) is published in London. March – French Revolution: In France, the National Constituent Assembly accepts the recommendation of its Commission of Weights and Measures, that the nation should adopt the metric system. April–June April 21 – The first of forty boundary stones, delineating the borders of the new District of Columbia in the United States, is laid at Jones Point Light, in Alexandria, Virginia. May 3 – The Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth proclaims the Constitution of May 3, 1791, the first modern codified constitution in Europe. June 20 – French Revolution – Flight to Varennes: The French Royal Family is captured when they try to flee in disguise. June 21 – The Ordnance Survey is founded in Great Britain. July–September July 8 – Austrian composer Joseph Haydn, on a visit to England, is awarded an honorary doctorate of music at the University of Oxford. July 11 – The ashes of Voltaire are transferred to the Panthéon in Paris. July 14–17 – Priestley Riots against Dissenters in Birmingham, England. July 17 – French Revolution: The Champ de Mars massacre occurs in Paris. August 4 – The Treaty of Sistova is signed, ending the Ottoman–Habsburg wars. August 6 – The Brandenburg Gate in Berlin (Prussia) is finished. August 7 – George Hammond is appointed as Great Britain's first minister to the United States. August 21 – Haitian Revolution: A slave rebellion breaks out in the French colony of Saint-Domingue. August 26 – John Fitch is granted a patent for the steamboat in the United States. August 27 Declaration of Pillnitz: A proclamation by Frederick William II of Prussia and the Habsburg Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, affirms their wish to "put the King of France in a state to strengthen the bases of monarchic government." Third Anglo-Mysore War: Battle of Tellicherry: Off the south-west coast of India, a British Royal Navy patrol forces a French convoy bound for Mysore to surrender. September 5 – An ordinance is written barring the game of baseball within 80 yards of the Meeting House in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, the first known reference to the game of baseball in North America. Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen is written by activist Olympe de Gouges in response to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. September 6 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera seria, La clemenza di Tito, premières at the Estates Theatre in Prague to mark the coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia. September 9 – The capital of the United States, Washington, D.C., is named after the incumbent 1st President George Washington. September 12 – The first serious secondary education school open to girls in Denmark, the Døtreskolen af 1791, is founded in Copenhagen. September 13 – French Revolution: Louis XVI of France accepts the final version of the completed constitution. September 14 – French Revolution: The Papal States lose Avignon to Revolutionary France. September 25 – Mission Santa Cruz is founded by Basque Franciscan Father Fermín Lasuén, becoming the 12th mission in the California mission chain. September 28 – French Revolution: The law on Jewish emancipation is promulgated in France, the first such legislation in modern Europe. September 30 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's singspiel opera The Magic Flute (Die Zauberflöte) premières at the Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden in Vienna. October–December October 1 – French Revolution: The Legislative Assembly (France) convenes. October 9 – Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad is founded by Father Fermín Lasuén, becoming the 13th mission in the California mission chain. October 28 – French Revolution: The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen is published in France. November 4 – St. Clair's Defeat, the worst loss suffered by the United States Army in fighting against American Indians, takes place in what is now Mercer County, Ohio. Miami fighters led by Chief Mihsihkinaahkwa (Little Turtle) and by Shawnee warriors commanded by War Chief Weyapiersenwah (Blue Jacket) rout the forces of General Arthur St. Clair and kill 630 U.S. soldiers, along with hundreds of civilians. December 4 – The first issue of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published in London. December 5 – Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart dies aged 35 at his home in Vienna, perhaps of acute rheumatic fever, and is buried two days later. December 15 – Ratification by the states of the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution is completed, creating the United States Bill of Rights. Two additional amendments remain pending, and one of these is finally ratified in 1992, becoming the Twenty-seventh Amendment. December 23 – The Pale of Settlement is established by ukase of Catherine the Great, specifying those areas of the Russian Empire in which Jews are permitted permanent residency. Date unknown The first American ship reaches Japan. The School for the Indigent Blind, the oldest continuously operating specialist school of its kind in the world, is founded in Liverpool, England, by blind ex-merchant seaman, writer and abolitionist Edward Rushton. Camembert cheese reputedly first made by Marie Harel, a farmer from Normandy. The Dar Hassan Pacha (palace) in the Casbah of Algiers is completed. Births January 15 – Franz Grillparzer, Austrian writer (d. 1872) January 28 – Ferdinand Hérold, French composer (d. 1833) February 12 – Peter Cooper, American industrialist, inventor and philanthropist (d. 1883) February 21 Carl Czerny, Austrian composer (d. 1857) John Mercer, English chemist, industrialist (d. 1866) March 20 – Marie Ellenrieder, German painter (d. 1863) March 31 – Franciszek Mirecki, Polish composer, conductor and teacher (d. 1862 April 3 – Anne Lister, landowner, diarist, mountaineer and traveller, "the first modern lesbian" (d. 1840) April 23 – James Buchanan, American lawyer, politician, and 15th president of the United States. (d. 1868) April 27 – Samuel Morse, American inventor (d. 1872) June 1 – John Nelson, American lawyer (d. 1860) June 30 – Félix Savart, French physicist (d. 1841) July 26 – Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian composer, pianist (d. 1844) September 5 – Giacomo Meyerbeer, German composer (d. 1864) September 21 – István Széchenyi, Hungarian politician, writer (d. 1860) September 22 – Michael Faraday, British scientist (d. 1867) September 23 Johann Franz Encke, German astronomer (d. 1865) Theodor Körner, German author, soldier (d. 1813) September 26 – Théodore Géricault, French painter (d. 1824) October 29 – John Elliotson, British physician (d. 1868) November 11 – Josef Munzinger, member of the Swiss Federal Council (d. 1855) December 7 – Ferenc Novák, Hungarian Slovene song collector and priest (d. 1836) December 26 – Charles Babbage, British mathematician, inventor (d. 1871) approximate date – Enriqueta Favez, Swiss-born physician, surgeon (d. 1856) Deaths January 11 – William Williams Pantycelyn, Welsh hymnist (b. 1717) January 23 – Johann Phillip Fabricius, German missionary (b. 1711) March 2 – John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (b. 1703) March 10 – William Wentworth, 2nd Earl of Strafford (1722–1791), England (b. 1722) March 14 – Johann Salomo Semler, German historian, Bible commentator (b. 1725) March 31 – Ralph Verney, 2nd Earl Verney of Ireland (b. 1714) April 2 – Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, French revolutionary leader (b. 1749) April 19 – Richard Price, Welsh philosopher (b. 1723) April 24 – Benjamin Harrison V, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence (b. 1726) May 9 – Francis Hopkinson, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence (b. 1737) June 5 – Frederick Haldimand, Swiss-born British colonial governor (b. 1718) June 10 – Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte, French admiral (b. 1720) June 17 – Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, English Methodist leader (b. 1707) June 30 – Jean-Baptiste Descamps, Flemish painter and art historian (b. 1714) July 9 – Jacques-Nicolas Tardieu, French engraver (b. 1716) July 17 – Martin Dobrizhoffer, Austrian Jesuit missionary (b. 1717) July 25 – Isaac Low, American delegate to the Continental Congress (b. 1735) August 22 – Johann David Michaelis, German biblical scholar and teacher (b. 1717) September 25 – William Bradford, American printer (b. 1719) October 7 – Mary Frances of the Five Wounds, Italian Franciscan saint (b. 1715) October 12 Anna Louisa Karsch, German poet (b. 1722) Peter Oliver, Massachusetts colonial judge (b. 1713) October 16 – Grigory Potemkin, Russian military leader, statesman, nobleman and favourite of Catherine the Great (b. 1739) November 4 – Richard Butler, American soldier (b. 1743) November 16 – Edward Penny, British painter (b. 1714) December 5 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer (b. 1756) December 12 Etteilla, French occult cartomancer (b. 1738) Catharina Freymann, Norwegian pietist leader (b. 1708) December 13 – Mathieu Tillet, French botanist (b. 1714) December 19 – Jean-François de Neufforge, Flemish architect and engraver (b. 1714) December 27 – John Monro, British physician of Bethlem Hospital (b. 1716) date unknown – Maria Petraccini, Italian anatomist, physician (b. 1759) References Further reading

The 1910s (pronounced "nineteen-tens") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1910, and ended on December 31, 1919. The 1910s represented the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the second half of the 19th century. The conservative lifestyles during the first half of the decade, as well as the legacy of military alliances, were forever changed by the assassination, on June 28, 1914, of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The murder triggered a chain of events in which, within 33 days, World War I broke out in Europe on August 1, 1914. The conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11, 1918, leading to the controversial, one-sided Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28, 1919. The war's end triggered the abdication of various monarchies and the collapse of five of the last modern empires of Russia, Germany, China, Ottoman Turkey and Austria-Hungary, with the latter splintered into Austria, Hungary, southern Poland (who acquired most of their land in a war with Soviet Russia), Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, as well as the unification of Romania with Transylvania and Moldavia. However, each of these states (with the possible exception of Yugoslavia) had large German and Hungarian minorities, creating some unexpected problems that would be brought to light in the next two decades. (See Dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire: Successor states for better description of composition of names of successor countries/states following the splinter.) The decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. The Portuguese 5 October 1910 revolution, which ended the eight-century long monarchy, spearheaded the trend, followed by the Mexican Revolution in November 1910, which led to the ousting of dictator Porfirio Diaz, developing into a violent civil war that dragged on until mid-1920, not long after a new Mexican Constitution was signed and ratified. The Russian Empire also had a similar fate, since its participation on World War I led it to a social, political and economical collapse which made the tsarist autocracy unsustainable and, as a following of the events of 1905, culminated in the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, under the direction of the Bolshevik Party later renamed as Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October Revolution, was followed by the Russian Civil War, which dragged on until approximately late 1922. Much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed. Many of the fashionable restaurants were equipped with dance floors. Prohibition in the United States began January 16, 1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Best-selling books of this decade include The Inside of the Cup, Seventeen, Mr. Britling Sees It Through, and The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. Politics and wars Wars World War I (1914–1918) Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo leads to the outbreak of the First World War Germany signs the Treaty of Versailles after losing the first world war. Armenian genocide during and just after World War I. It was characterised by the use of massacres and deportations involving forced marches under conditions designed to lead to the death of the deportees, with the total number of Armenian deaths generally held to have been between one and one-and-a-half million. Wadai War (1909–1911) Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) First Balkan Wars (1912–1913) – two wars that took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Saudi-Ottoman War (1913) Latvian War of Independence (1918-1920) – a military conflict in Latvia between the Republic of Latvia and the Russian SFSR. Internal conflicts October Revolution in Russia results in the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of the world's first self-proclaimed socialist state; political upheaval in Russia culminating in the establishment of the Russian SFSR and the assassination of Emperor Nicholas II and the royal family. The Russian Revolution (1917) is the collective term for the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. April 13, 1919 – The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Amritsar in the Punjab Province of British India, sows the seeds of discontent and leads to the birth of the Indian Independence Movement. Xinhai Revolution causes the overthrow of China's ruling Qing Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China (1912-1949). Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) Francisco I. Madero proclaims the elections of 1910 null and void, and calls for an armed revolution at 6 p.m. against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution lead to the ousting of Porfirio Díaz (who ruled from 1876 to 1880 and since 1884) six months later. The Revolution progressively becomes a civil war with multiple factions and phases, culminating with the Mexican Constitution of 1917, but combat would persist for three more years. Major political changes Portugal becomes the first republican country in the century after the 5 October 1910 revolution, ending its long-standing monarchy and creating the First Portuguese Republic in 1911. Germany abolishes its monarchy and becomes under the rule of a new elected government called the Weimar Republic. Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is passed, causing US Senators to be directly elected rather than appointed by the state legislatures. Federal Reserve Act is passed by United States Congress, establishing a Central Bank in the US. George V becomes king in Britain. Dissolution of the German colonial empire, Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire, reorganization of European states, territorial boundaries, and the creation of several new European states and territorial entities: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Finland, Free City of Danzig, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Saar, Ukraine, and Yugoslavia. Fourteen Points as designed by United States President Woodrow Wilson advocates the right of all nations to self-determination. Rise to power of the Bolsheviks in Russia under Vladimir Lenin, creating the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, the first state committed to the establishment of communism. Decolonization and independence Easter Rising against the British in Ireland; eventually leads to Irish independence. Several nations in Eastern Europe get their own nation state, thereby replacing major multiethnic empires. The Republic of China is established on January 1, 1912. Prominent political events Assassinations and attempts Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include: March 18, 1913: George I of Greece June 11, 1913: Mahmud Şevket Pasha, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire June 28, 1914 — Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; prompting the events that led up to the start of World War I. July 17, 1918: Shooting of former Russian Emperor Nicholas II, his consort, their five children, and four retainers at the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic following the October Revolution of 1917, and the usurpation of power by the Bolsheviks. April 10, 1919: Emiliano Zapata Disasters The RMS Titanic, a British ocean liner which was the largest and most luxurious ship at that time, struck an iceberg and sank 2 hours and forty minutes later in the North Atlantic during its maiden voyage on April 15, 1912. 1,517 people perished in the disaster. On November 21, 1916 HMHS Britannic was holed in an explosion while passing through a channel which had been seeded with enemy mines and sank in 55 minutes. On May 7, 1915, the British ocean liner RMS Lusitania was torpedoed by , a German U-boat, off the Old Head of Kinsale in Ireland, sinking in 18 minutes. 1,198 lives were lost. From 1918 through 1920, the Spanish flu killed from 17.4 to 100 million people worldwide. In 1916, the Netherlands was hit by a North Sea storm that flooded the lowlands and killed 19 people. From July 1 to July 12, 1916, a series of shark attacks, known as the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, occurred along the Jersey Shore, killing four and injuring one. On January 11, 1914, Sakurajima erupted which resulted in the death of 35 people. In addition, the surrounding islands were consumed, and an isthmus was created between Sakurajima and the mainland. In 1917, the Halifax explosion killed 2,000 people. In 1919, the Great Molasses Flood in Boston, Massachusetts killed 21 people and injured 150. Other significant international events The Panama Canal is completed in 1914. World War I from 1914 until 1918 dominates the Western world. Hiram Bingham rediscovers Machu Picchu on July 24, 1911. Science and technology Technology Gideon Sundback patented the first modern zipper. Harry Brearley invented stainless steel. Charles Strite invented the first pop-up bread toaster. The Model T Ford dominated the automobile market, selling more than all other makers combined in 1914. The army tank was invented. Tanks in World War I were used by the British Army, the French Army and the German Army. 1912 - Articulated trams, invented and first used by the Boston Elevated Railway. Science In 1916, Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. Max von Laue discovers the diffraction of x-rays by crystals. In 1912, Alfred Wegener puts forward his theory of continental drift. Economics In the years 1910 and 1911, there was a minor economic depression known as the Panic of 1910–11, which was followed by the enforcement of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Popular culture Flying Squadron of America promotes temperance movement in the United States. Edith Smith Davis edits the Temperance Educational Quarterly. The first U.S. feature film, Oliver Twist, was released in 1912. The first mob film, D. W. Griffith's The Musketeers of Pig Alley was released in 1912. Hollywood, California, replaces the East Coast as the center of the movie industry. The first crossword puzzle was published 21 December 1913 appearing in The New York World newspaper. The comic strip Krazy Kat begins. Charlie Chaplin débuts his trademark mustached, baggy-pants "Little Tramp" character in Kid Auto Races at Venice in 1914. The first African American owned studio, the Lincoln Motion Picture Company, was founded in 1917. The four Warner brothers, (from older to younger) Harry, Albert, Samuel, and Jack opened their first major film studio in Burbank in 1918. Tarzan of the Apes starring Elmo Lincoln is released in 1918, the first Tarzan film. The first jazz music is recorded by the Original Dixieland Jass Band for Victor (#18255) in late February, 1917. The Salvation Army has a new international leader, General Bramwell Booth who served from 1912 to 1929. He replaces his father and co-founder of the Christian Mission (the forerunner of the Salvation Army), William Booth. Sports 1912 Summer Olympics were held in Stockholm, Sweden. 1916 Summer Olympics were cancelled because of World War I. Literature and arts Below are the best-selling books in the United States of each year, as determined by The Bookman, a New York-based literary journal (1910 - 1912) and Publishers Weekly (1913 and beyond). 1910: The Rosary by Florence L. Barclay 1911: The Broad Highway by Jeffery Farnol 1912: The Harvester by Gene Stratton Porter 1913: The Inside of the Cup by Winston Churchill 1914: The Eyes of the World by Harold Bell Wright 1915: The Turmoil by Booth Tarkington 1916: Seventeen by Booth Tarkington 1917: Mr. Britling Sees It Through by H. G. Wells 1918: The U.P. Trail by Zane Grey 1919: The Four Horseman of the Apocalypse by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez Visual Arts The 1913 Armory Show in New York City was a seminal event in the history of Modern Art. Innovative contemporaneous artists from Europe and the United States exhibited together in a massive group exhibition in New York City, and Chicago. Art movements Imagism Cubism and related movements Proto-Cubism Crystal Cubism Orphism Section d'Or Synchromism Futurism Expressionism and related movements Symbolism Blaue Reiter Die Brücke Geometric abstraction and related movements Suprematism De Stijl Constructivism Other movements and techniques Surrealism Dada Collage Influential artists Pablo Picasso Georges Braque Henri Matisse Jean Metzinger Marcel Duchamp Wassily Kandinsky Albert Gleizes Kasimir Malevich Giorgio de Chirico Robert Frost People Politics John Barrett, Director-general Organization of American States Georges Louis Beer, Chairman Permanent Mandates Commission Henry P. Davison, Chairman International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Sir James Eric Drummond, Secretary-general League of Nations Emil Frey, Director International Telecommunication Union Christian Louis Lange, Secretary-general Inter-Parliamentary Union Baron Louis Paul Marie Hubert Michiels van Verduynen, Secretary-general Permanent Court of Arbitration William E. Rappard, Secretary-general International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Manfred von Richthofen, alias the "Red Baron", fighter pilot Eugène Ruffy, Director Universal Postal Union William Napier Shaw, President World Meteorological Organization Albert Thomas, Director International Labour Organization Grigory Yevseyevich Zinoviev, Chairman of the Executive Committee Communist International Business Arnold Rothstein, gangster, gambler, fixed the 1919 World Series Henry Ford, industrialist, founder of the Ford Motor Company Inventors Nikola Tesla, electrical and mechanical engineer Authors Edgar Rice Burroughs James Joyce Entertainers Fatty Arbuckle Theda Bara Richard Barthelmess Béla Bartók Irving Berlin Ben Black Eubie Blake Shelton Brooks Lew Brown Tom Brown Anne Caldwell Eddie Cantor Enrico Caruso Charlie Chaplin Lon Chaney George M. Cohan Henry Creamer Bebe Daniels Cecil B. DeMille Buddy De Sylva Walter Donaldson Marie Dressler Eddie Edwards Gus Edwards Douglas Fairbanks Fred Fisher John Ford Eddie Foy George Gershwin Beniamino Gigli Dorothy Gish Lillian Gish Samuel Goldwyn D. W. Griffith W. C. Handy Otto Harbach Lorenz Hart Victor Herbert Harry Houdini Charles Ives Tony Jackson Emil Jannings William Jerome Al Jolson Gus Kahn Gustave Kahn Buster Keaton Jerome David Kern Ring Lardner Nick LaRocca Harry Lauder Florence Lawrence Ted Lewis Harold Lloyd Charles McCarron Joseph McCarthy Winsor McCay Oscar Micheaux Mae Murray Alla Nazimova Pola Negri Anna Q. Nilsson Ivor Novello Alcide Nunez Geoffrey O'Hara Sidney Olcott Jack Pickford Mary Pickford Armand J. Piron Cole Porter Richard Rodgers Sigmund Romberg Jean Schwartz Mack Sennett Larry Shields Chris Smith Erich von Stroheim Arthur Sullivan Gloria Swanson Wilber Sweatman Blanche Sweet Albert Von Tilzer Harry Von Tilzer Sophie Tucker Pete Wendling Pearl White Bert Williams Clarence Williams Harry Williams Spencer Williams P. G. Wodehouse Mabel Normand Sports figures Baseball Babe Ruth, (American baseball player) Honus Wagner, (American baseball player) Christy Mathewson, (American baseball player) Walter Johnson, (American baseball player) Ty Cobb, (American baseball player) Tris Speaker, (American baseball player) Nap Lajoie, (American baseball player) Eddie Collins, (American baseball player) Mordecai Brown, (American baseball player) Olympics Jim Thorpe Boxing Jack Dempsey Jess Willard See also 1910s in literature Timeline The following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade: 1910 • 1911 • 1912 • 1913 • 1914 • 1915 • 1916 • 1917 • 1918 • 1919 References Further reading (covers 1910–1912) 20th century

Events January January 1 The Nurses Registration Act 1901 comes into effect in New Zealand, making it the first country in the world to require state registration of nurses. On January 10, Ellen Dougherty becomes the world's first registered nurse. Nathan Stubblefield demonstrates his wireless telephone device in Kentucky, United States. January 8 – A train collision in the New York Central Railroad's Park Avenue Tunnel kills 17 people, injures 38, and leads to increased demand for electric trains and the banning of steam locomotives in New York City. January 12 – The Uddevalla Suffrage Association in Sweden is officially dissolved. January 23 – Hakkōda Mountains incident: A snowstorm in the Hakkōda Mountains of northern Honshu, Japan, kills 199 during a military training exercise. January 28 – The Carnegie Institution is founded in Washington, D.C., to promote scientific research with a $10 million gift from Andrew Carnegie. January 30 – The Anglo-Japanese Alliance is signed. February February 11 – Police and universal suffrage demonstrators are involved in a physical altercation in Brussels, Belgium. February 15 – The Berlin U-Bahn underground is opened. February 18 – U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt prosecutes the Northern Securities Company for violation of the Sherman Act. February 27 – Australian officers Breaker Morant and Peter Handcock are executed for the murder of Boer prisoners of war near Louis Trichardt. March March 6 – Real Madrid CF is founded as Madrid Football Club. March 7 – Second Boer War: Battle of Tweebosch – South African Boers win their last battle over the British Army, with the capture of a British general and 200 of his men. March 8 – Jean Sibelius's Symphony No. 2 is premiered in Helsinki, Grand Duchy of Finland. March 10 Clashes between police and Georgian workers led by Joseph Stalin leave 15 dead, 54 wounded, and 500 in prison. A Circuit Court decision in the United States ends Thomas Edison's monopoly on 35 mm movie film technology. April April 2 – The Electric Theatre, the first movie theater in the United States, opens in Los Angeles. April 11 – Tenor Enrico Caruso makes the first million-selling recording, for the Gramophone Company in Milan, Italy. April 13 – A new land speed record of is set in Nice, France, by Léon Serpollet driving a steam car. April 19 – The 7.5 Guatemala earthquake shakes Guatemala with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), killing between 800 and 2,000. May May 5 – The Commonwealth Public Service Act creates Australia's Public Service. May 7 – La Soufrière volcano on the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent erupts, devastating the northern portion of the island and killing 2,000 people May 8 – Mount Pelée in Martinique erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre and killing over 30,000. May 13 – Alfonso XIII of Spain begins his reign. May 20 – Cuba gains independence from the United States. May 22 – The White Star Liner SS Ionic is launched by Harland and Wolff in Belfast. May 29 – The London School of Economics is opened by Lord Rosebery. May 31 – The Treaty of Vereeniging ends the Second Boer War. June June 2 – The Anthracite Coal Strike begins in the United States. June 13 – Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing, predecessor of global consumer goods brand 3M, begins trading as a mining venture at Two Harbors in the United States. June 15 – The New York Central Railroad inaugurates the 20th Century Limited passenger train between Chicago and New York City. June 16 – The Commonwealth Franchise Act in Australia grants women's suffrage in federal elections for resident British subjects (with certain ethnic minorities excepted), making Australia the first independent country to grant women the vote at a national level, and the first country to allow them to stand for Parliament. June 26 – Edward VII institutes the Order of Merit, an order bestowed personally by the British monarch on up to 24 distinguished Empire recipients. July July – James Stevenson-Hamilton is appointed warden of the Sabie Game Reserve in South Africa. July 2 – Philippine–American War ends. July 5 – Erik Gustaf Boström returns as Prime Minister of Sweden. July 8 – The United States Bureau of Reclamation is established within the U.S. Geological Survey. July 10 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania kills 112 miners. July 11 Lord Salisbury retires as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The British Order of the Garter is conferred on Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. July 14 – St Mark's Campanile in Venice collapses. July 21 – Fluminense Football Club is founded in Rio de Janeiro. July 22 – Felix Pedro discovers gold in modern-day Fairbanks, Alaska. August August 1 – 100 miners die in a pit explosion in Wollongong, Australia. August 9 – Coronation of Edward VII as King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, Emperor of India at Westminster Abbey in London. August 22 – Theodore Roosevelt becomes the first American President to ride in an automobile, a Columbia Electric Victoria through Hartford, Connecticut. August 24 – A statue of Joan of Arc is unveiled in Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier, the French town which she stormed in 1429. August 30 – Mount Pelée again erupts in Martinique, destroying the town of Le Morne-Rouge and causing 1,000 deaths. September September 1 – The first science fiction film, the silent A Trip to the Moon (Le Voyage dans La Lune), is premièred at the Théâtre Robert-Houdin in Paris, France, by actor/producer Georges Méliès, and proves an immediate success. September 19 – Shiloh Baptist Church disaster: A stampede at the Shiloh Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, after a talk by Booker T. Washington, kills 115. October October 16 – The first Borstal (youth offenders' institution) opens in Borstal, Kent, U.K. October 21 – A five-month strike by the United Mine Workers in the United States ends. November November 15 King Leopold II of Belgium survives an attempted assassination in Brussels by Italian anarchist Gennaro Rubino. The Hanoi exhibition, a world's fair, opens in French Indochina. November 16 – A newspaper cartoon inspires creation of the first teddy bear by Morris Michtom in the United States. November 30 – On the American frontier, the second-in-command of Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch, Harvey Logan ("Kid Curry"), is sentenced to 20 years hard labor. December December–February 1903 – Venezuelan crisis: Britain, Germany and Italy sustain a naval blockade on Venezuela, in order to enforce collection of outstanding financial claims. This prompts the development of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. December 10 – The first Aswan Dam on the Nile is completed. December 17 – The Commercial Telegraph Agency (TTA, Torgovo-Telegrafnue Agenstvo), predecessor of TASS, is officially established under the Ministry of Finance at Saint Petersburg in the Russian Empire. December 30 – Discovery Expedition: British explorers Scott, Shackleton and Wilson reach the furthest southern point reached thus far by man, south of 82°S. Date unknown The capital of French Indochina is moved from Saigon (in Cochinchina) to Hanoi (Tonkin). Construction of the Paul Doumer Bridge, linking both sections of Hanoi, is completed. The first Korean Empire passports are issued to assist Korean immigration to Hawaii. The Potawatomi Zoo in South Bend, Indiana, begins life as a duck pond. De'Longhi home appliance brand is founded in the Veneto region of Italy. Daniels Linseed, predecessor of Archer Daniels Midland (ADM), a global livestock, commodities trading, food processing brand, is founded in Minnesota, United States. Births January January 1 – Buster Nupen, South African cricketer (d. 1977) January 3 – Tommaso Dal Molin, Italian aviator (d. 1930) January 4 – John A. McCone, American politician, 6th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 1991) January 8 – Georgy Malenkov, Soviet politician (d. 1988) January 9 Sir Rudolf Bing, Austrian-born British opera manager (d. 1997) Josemaría Escrivá, Spanish Roman Catholic priest and saint (d. 1975) Ann Nixon Cooper, African-American civil rights activist (d. 2009) January 11 – Maurice Duruflé, French composer (d. 1986) Evelyn Dove, British singer and actress (d. 1987) January 15 Nâzım Hikmet, Turkish poet and director (d. 1963) King Saud of Saudi Arabia (d. 1969) January 16 – Eric Liddell, Scottish runner (d. 1945) January 17 – Martin Harlinghausen, German air force general (d. 1986) January 19 – Marjorie Daw, American actress (d. 1979) January 20 Kevin Barry, Irish republican (d. 1920) Leon Ames, American actor (d. 1993) January 22 – Daniel Kinsey, American hurdler (d. 1970) January 24 – Alan Stuart Paterson, New Zealand cartoonist (d. 1968) January 25 André Beaufre, French general (d. 1975) Pablo Antonio, Filipino modernist architect (d. 1975) January 26 – Menno ter Braak, Dutch author, polemicist (d. 1940) January 31 Tallulah Bankhead, American actress (d. 1968) Alva Myrdal, Swedish politician, diplomat, and writer, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1986) February February 1 Therese Brandl, German concentration camp guard and war criminal (d. 1948) Langston Hughes, African-American writer (d. 1967) February 4 Charles Lindbergh, American aviator (d. 1974) Hartley Shawcross, British barrister, politician (d. 2003) February 5 – Iwamoto Kaoru, Japanese professional Go player (d. 1999) February 8 – Demchugdongrub, Mongolian politician (d. 1966) February 9 Blanche Calloway, American jazz singer (d. 1978) Léon M'ba, 1st President of Gabon (d. 1967) February 10 – Walter Houser Brattain, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987) February 11 – Arne Jacobsen, Danish architect, designer (d. 1971) February 12 – William Collier Jr., American actor (d. 1987) February 14 – Thelma Ritter, American actress (d. 1969) February 19 – Kay Boyle, American writer (d. 1992) February 20 – Ansel Adams, American photographer (d. 1984) February 22 – Herma Szabo, Austrian figure skater (d. 1986) February 27 Gene Sarazen, American golfer (d. 1999) John Steinbeck, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968) March March 7 Heinz Rühmann, German actor (d. 1994) Ernő Schwarz, Hungarian-American soccer player (d. 1977) March 9 – Will Geer, American actor (d. 1978) March 13 – Mohammed Abdel Wahab, Egyptian singer (d. 1991) March 15 – Carla Porta Musa, Italian essayist, poet (d. 2012) March 17 – Bobby Jones, American golfer (d. 1971) March 18 – Siegfried Westphal, German general (d. 1982) March 19 Fuad Chehab, 8th President of Lebanon (d. 1973) Louisa Ghijs, Belgian stage actress, wife of Johannes Heesters (d. 1985) March 21 – Son House, American musician (d. 1988) March 24 – Thomas E. Dewey, American politician (d. 1971) March 27 – Émile Benveniste, French linguist (d. 1976) March 28 – Dame Flora Robson, English actress (d. 1984) March 29 Marcel Aymé, French writer (d. 1967) William Walton, English composer (d. 1983) March 30 – Brooke Astor, American socialite, philanthropist (d. 2007) April April 2 – Jan Tschichold, German-born typographer (d. 1974) April 4 Louise Lévêque de Vilmorin, French actress (d. 1969) Stanley G. Weinbaum, American science-fiction author (d. 1935) April 8 Andrew Irvine, British mountaineer (d. 1924) Josef Krips, Austrian conductor, violinist (d. 1974) April 12 – Louis Beel, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977) April 14 Olive Diefenbaker, second wife of Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker (d. 1976) Yakov Smushkevich, Soviet Air Force general (d. 1941) April 18 – Giuseppe Pella, Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1981) April 20 – Sir Donald Wolfit, English actor (d. 1968) April 23 – Halldór Laxness, Icelandic writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) April 25 – Werner Heyde, German psychiatrist (d. 1964) April 28 – Johan Borgen, Norwegian author (d. 1979) April 30 – Theodore Schultz, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) May May 2 – Brian Aherne, English-born actor (d. 1986) May 3 – Alfred Kastler, French physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize (d. 1984) May 6 – Max Ophüls, German film director (d. 1957) May 8 – André Michel Lwoff, French microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1994) May 10 – David O. Selznick, American film producer (d. 1965) May 15 – Richard J. Daley, American politician, 48th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1976) May 18 – Meredith Willson, American composer (d. 1984) May 21 Marcel Lajos Breuer, Hungarian-born architect (d. 1981) Anatole Litvak, Ukrainian-born film director (d. 1974) Leonidas Zervas, Greek organic chemist (d. 1980) May 22 – Al Simmons, American baseball player (d. 1956) May 24 – Wilbur Hatch, American music composer, musical director of Desilu Productions (d. 1969) May 29 – Henri Guillaumet, French aviator (d. 1940) June June 1 – C. Wade McClusky, United States Navy admiral (d. 1976) June 2 – James T. Berryman, American political cartoonist, recipient of the 1950 Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning (d. 1971) June 8 – James Stillman Rockefeller, American Olympic rower – Men's eights (d. 2004) June 9 – Skip James, American Delta blues singer, songwriter, and musician (d. 1969) June 16 – Barbara McClintock, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1992) June 22 – Henri Deglane, French wrestler (d. 1975) June 24 – Juan Antonio Yanes, Venezuelan professional baseball pioneer (d. 1987) June 25 Li Ziming, Chinese martial artist (d. 1993) Ralph Erickson, American baseball relief pitcher (d. 2002) Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu, Japanese prince (d. 1953) June 26 – Hugues Cuénod, Swiss tenor (d. 2010) June 27 – Stanisław Wycech, Polish World War I veteran (d. 2008) June 28 – Richard Rodgers, American composer (d. 1979) June 29 – Ellen Pollock, British actress (d. 1997) July July 1 – William Wyler, American film director (d. 1981) July 4 Vince Barnett, American actor (d. 1977) Meyer Lansky, Russian-born American mobster (d. 1983) George Murphy, American dancer, actor and politician (d. 1992) July 6 – Jerónimo Mihura, Spanish film director (d. 1990) July 7 – Ted Radcliffe, American professional baseball player (d. 2005) July 8 Richard Barrett Lowe, American governor of both Guam and American Samoa (d. 1972) Gwendolyn Bennett, American writer (d. 1981) July 10 Kurt Alder, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958) Nicolás Guillén, Cuban poet, journalist, political activist and writer (d. 1989) July 12 – Tony Lovink, Dutch politician (d. 1995) July 16 Alexander Luria, Russian neuropsychologist (d. 1977) Andrew L. Stone, American screenwriter, director and producer (d. 1999) July 18 – Chill Wills, American actor, singer (d. 1978) July 21 Georges Wambst, French cyclist (d. 1988) Margit Manstad, Swedish actress (d. 1996) Joseph Kesselring, American playwright (d. 1967) July 28 Albert Namatjira, Australian painter (d. 1959) Karl Popper, Austrian philosopher (d. 1994) July 31 Gubby Allen, Australian-born English cricketer, cricket administrator (d. 1989) Randolph E. Haugan, American author, editor and publisher (d. 1985) August August 2 – Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria, Coptic Orthodox Patriarch (d. 1971) August 7 – Ann Harding, American actress (d. 1981) August 8 – Paul Dirac, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984) August 9 – Zino Francescatti, French violinist (d. 1991) August 10 – Arne Tiselius, Swedish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) August 11 Alfredo Binda, Italian cyclist (d. 1986) Lloyd Nolan, American film, television actor (d. 1985) Norma Shearer, Canadian actress (d. 1983) August 12 – Mohammad Hatta, 1st Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1980) August 13 – Felix Wankel, German mechanical engineer (d. 1988) August 16 – Georgette Heyer, British writer (d. 1974) August 18 – Adamson-Eric, Estonian artist (d. 1968) August 19 Ogden Nash, American poet (d. 1971) J. B. L. Reyes, Filipino jurist (d. 1994) August 22 – Leni Riefenstahl, German film director (d. 2003) August 24 – Carlo Gambino, American gangster (d. 1976) August 25 – Stefan Wolpe, German-born composer (d. 1972) September September 2 – Peter Pitseolak, Inuit photographer, author (d. 1973) September 6 – Sylvanus Olympio, Togolese politician, 1st President of Togo (assassinated) (d. 1963) September 9 – Roberto Noble, Argentine politician, journalist and publisher (d. 1969) September 12 – Juscelino Kubitschek, 21st President of Brazil (d. 1976) September 14 – Giorgos Papasideris, Greek singer, composer, and lyricist (d. 1977) September 21 Luis Cernuda, Spanish poet (d. 1963) Ilmari Salminen, Finnish athlete (d. 1986) September 22 John Houseman, Romanian-born actor, producer (d. 1988) Ruhollah Khomeini, Iranian Shia cleric (d. 1989) September 23 – Ion Gheorghe Maurer, Romanian lawyer and politician, 49th Prime Minister of Romania (d. 2000) September 26 – Albert Anastasia, Italian-born American gangster (d. 1957) October October 2 – Leopold Figl, former Chancellor of Austria (d. 1965) October 5 Larry Fine, American actor and comedian, better known as a member of The Three Stooges (d. 1975) Ray Kroc, American fast food entrepreneur, known for his ownership of the McDonald's chain (d. 1984) October 12 – Hiromichi Yahara, Imperial Japanese Army officer (d. 1981) October 18 Miriam Hopkins, American actress (d. 1972) Pascual Jordan, German physicist (d. 1980) October 21 – Eddy Hamel, American footballer (d. 1943 in Auschwitz) October 25 Carlo Gnocchi, Italian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (d. 1956) Eddie Lang, American jazz guitarist (d. 1933) October 26 – Jack Sharkey, American heavyweight boxing champion (d. 1994) October 28 – Elsa Lanchester, British-American actress (d. 1986) October 31 – Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Brazilian poet (d. 1987) November November 1 – Eugen Jochum, German conductor (d. 1987) November 2 Princess Mafalda of Savoy (d. 1944) Prince Rostislav Alexandrovich of Russia (d. 1978) November 9 – Anthony Asquith, British film director (d. 1968) November 17 – Eugene Wigner, Hungarian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995) November 21 Isaac Bashevis Singer, Polish-American novelist, writer and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991) Mikhail Suslov, Soviet politician (d. 1982) November 22 – Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, French general (d. 1947) November 23 – Victor Jory, Canadian actor (d. 1982) November 27 – Marcial Lichauco, Filipino lawyer and diplomat (d. 1971) November 30 – Hussein ibn Nasser, 8th Prime Minister of Jordan (d. 1982) December December 2 – Wifredo Lam, Cuban artist (d. 1982) December 3 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese aviator, naval officer, and Christian evangelist (d. 1976) December 5 Emeric Pressburger, Hungarian-British film director (d. 1988) Strom Thurmond, American politician (d. 2003) December 9 – Margaret Hamilton, American actress (d. 1985) December 14 – Frances Bavier, American stage and television actress (d. 1989) December 19 – Ralph Richardson, English actor (d. 1983) December 20 – Prince George, Duke of Kent (d. 1942) December 23 Norman Maclean, American author (d. 1990) Charan Singh, 5th Prime Minister of India (d. 1987) December 25 – Barton MacLane, American actor (d. 1969) December 27 – Francesco Agello, Italian aviator (d. 1942) December 28 Mortimer Adler, American philosopher (d. 2001) Shen Congwen, Chinese writer (d. 1988) Date unknown Nazem Akkari, 19th Prime Minister of Lebanon (d. 1985) Harun Babunagari, Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and educationist (d. 1986) Remziye Hisar, Turkish chemist (d. 1992) Deaths January–June January 5 – Martis Karin Ersdotter, Swedish businesswoman (born 1829) January 11 – Johnny Briggs, English cricketer (b. 1862) January 30 – François Claude du Barail, French general and Minister of War (b. 1820) February 6 – Clémence Royer, French scholar (b. 1830) February 15 – Viggo Hørup, Danish politician (b. 1841) February 18 – Albert Bierstadt, German-born American painter (b. 1830) February 26 – Edward Henry Cooper, British army officer and politician (b. 1827) February 27 Breaker Morant, Australian soldier (executed) (b. 1864) Peter Handcock, Australian soldier (executed) (b. 1869) March 3 – Isaäc Dignus Fransen van de Putte, 11th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1822) March 7 – Pud Galvin, American baseball player, MLB Hall of Famer (b. 1856) March 11 – Friedrich Engelhorn, German industrialist, founder of BASF (b. 1821) March 12 – John Peter Altgeld, American politician, 20th Governor of Illinois (b. 1847) March 15 – Sir Richard Temple, British colonial administrator of India (b. 1826) March 23 – Kálmán Tisza, Hungarian politician, former Prime Minister (b. 1830) March 26 – Cecil Rhodes, British imperialist (b. 1853) March 29 – Sir Andrew Clarke, British army officer and colonial governor (b. 1824) April 3 – Esther Hobart Morris, American suffragist judge (b. 1814) April 8 – John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley, British politician (b. 1826) April 11 – Wade Hampton III, Confederate soldier and South Carolina politician (b. 1818) April 15 – Jules Dalou, French sculptor (b. 1838) April 17 – Francis, Duke of Cádiz, former king consort of Spain (b. 1822) April 19 – Hans von Pechmann, German chemist (b. 1850) April 26 – Lazarus Fuchs, German mathematician (b. 1833) April 28 – Sol Smith Russell, American comedian (b. 1848) May – Harriet Abbott Lincoln Coolidge, American philanthropist, author and reformer (b. 1849) May 5 – Bret Harte, American writer (b. 1836) May 6 Martha Perry Lowe, American social activist and organizer (b. 1829) William T. Sampson, American admiral (b. 1840) May 7 – Agostino Roscelli, Italian priest, founder of the Institute of Sisters of the Immaculata (b. 1818) May 26 – Almon Brown Strowger, American inventor (b. 1839) June 5 - Louis J. Weichmann, American witness to the assassination of Abraham Lincoln (b. 1842) June 8 – Charles Ingalls, American pioneer and father of Laura Ingalls Wilder (b. 1836) June 10 Jacint Verdaguer, Catalan poet (b. 1845) Auguste Schmidt, German educator, activist (b. 1833) June 18 – Samuel Butler, British author (b. 1835) June 19 – King Albert of Saxony, member of the House of Wettin (b. 1828) July–December July 4 – Swami Vivekananda, Indian religious leader (b. 1863) July 6 – Maria Goretti, Italian Roman Catholic virgin, martyr and saint (b. 1890) July 16 – Henry Dunning Macleod, Scottish economist (b. 1821) July 18 – Saigō Jūdō, Japanese general, admiral, and politician (b. 1843) July 27 – Gustave Trouvé, French electrical engineer and inventor (b. 1839) August 8 – James Tissot, French artist (b. 1836) August 31 – Mathilde Wesendonck, German poet (b. 1828) September 5 – Rudolf Virchow, German scientist, politician (b. 1821) September 6 Sir Frederick Abel, British chemist (b. 1827) Hammerton Killick, Haitian admiral (b. 1856) Winfield Scott Stratton, American mining prospector and philanthropist (b. 1848) September 15 – Horace Gray, American jurist (b. 1828) September 18 – Thorborg Rappe, Swedish social reformer (b. 1832) September 19 – Masaoka Shiki, Japanese haiku poet (b. 1867) September 23 – John Wesley Powell, American explorer (b. 1834) September 26 – Levi Strauss, German-born American inventor of Levi's Jeans (b. 1829) September 29 William McGonagall, Scottish doggerel poet (b. 1825) Émile Zola, French author (b. 1840) September 30 – James Edward Jouett, American admiral (b. 1826) October 6 John Hall Gladstone, British chemist (b. 1827) Liu Kunyi, Chinese general (b. 1830) October 25 – Frank Norris, American novelist (b. 1870) October 26 – Elizabeth Cady Stanton, American activist (b. 1815) November 4 – Hale Johnson, American politician (b. 1847) November 17 – Hugh Price Hughes, Welsh social reformer (b. 1847) November 22 Friedrich Alfred Krupp, German industrialist (b. 1854) Walter Reed, American army physician (b. 1851) December 2 – Count Richard Belcredi, former Prime minister of the Austrian Empire (b. 1823) December 3 Prudente de Morais, 3rd President of Brazil (b. 1841) Robert Lawson, New Zealand architect (b. 1833) December 4 – Charles Dow, American journalist, co-founder of Dow Jones & Company (b. 1851) December 5 – Johannes Wislicenus, German chemist (b. 1835) December 6 – Alice Freeman Palmer, American educator (b. 1855) December 7 – Thomas Nast, American caricaturist, cartoonist (b. 1840) December 11 – Mary Mathews Adams, Irish-born American philanthropist (b. 1840) December 14 – Julia Grant, First Lady of the United States (b. 1826) December 22 – Richard von Krafft-Ebing, German sexologist (b. 1840) December 23 – Frederick Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1821) Nobel Prizes Physics – Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman Chemistry – Hermann Emil Fischer Medicine – Ronald Ross Literature – Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen Peace – Élie Ducommun and Charles Albert Gobat References Further reading and year books Colby, Frank Moore ed. he International Yearbook A Compendium Of The Worlds Progress During The Year 1902 (1903) coverage of each state online 1902 Annual Cyclopedia (1903) online; highly detailed coverage of "Political, Military, and Ecclesiastical Affairs; Public Documents; Biography, Statistics, Commerce, Finance, Literature, Science, Agriculture, and Mechanical Industry" for 1902; massive compilation of facts and primary documents; worldwide coverage; 865pp Wall, Edgar G. ed. The British Empire yearbook (1903), 1276pp; covers 1902 online Gilbert, Martin. A History of the Twentieth Century: vol. 1 1900-1933 (1997) pp 55–68; global coverage of politics, diplomacy and warfare.

1648 has been suggested as possibly the last year in which the overall human population declined, coming towards the end of a broader period of global instability which included the collapse of the Ming dynasty and the Thirty Years' War, the latter of which ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. Events <onlyinclude> January–June January – The Khmelnytsky Uprising in Ukraine, at this time part of the Republic of Both Nations (Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), begins. January 17 – England's Long Parliament passes the Vote of No Addresses, breaking off negotiations with King Charles I, and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War. January 30 – The Dutch and the Spanish sign the Peace of Münster, ending the Eighty Years' War. The Spanish Empire recognizes the Dutch Republic of United Netherlands as a sovereign state (governed by the House of Orange-Nassau and the States General), which was previously a province of the Spanish Empire (ratified May 15). March 31 – A major earthquake strikes Van in Ottoman Armenia. April 19 – First Battle of Guararapes: The Portuguese army defeats the Dutch army, in the north of Brazil. June–September – Semyon Dezhnyov makes the first recorded voyage through the Bering Strait, between Asia and North America. June 1 – The Roundheads defeat the Cavaliers at the Battle of Maidstone in the Second English Civil War. July–December July 16–19 – Thirty Years' War – Battle of Prague: The west bank of Prague (including Prague Castle) is occupied and looted by Swedish armies. August Arabs besiege the Portuguese in Muscat. The First Fronde, the Fronde Parlementaire, an insurrection, begins in France. The Cambridge Platform, a new, localized system of Christian church governance, is agreed upon and written down in New England. August 8 – Mehmed IV (1648–1687) succeeds Ibrahim I (1640–1648), as Ottoman Emperor. August 20 – Battle of Lens: The French under the Prince of Condé defeat the Spaniards. September 12 – Battle of Stirling in Scotland: "Engagers" achieve victory over the Kirk Party. October 24 – Signing of the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück conclude the Peace of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years' War. Rulers of the Imperial States can personally convert to Protestant, Catholic or Calvinist. Ecclesiastical property is restored to the status of 1624, with the minorities of each of the three recognized faiths granted toleration of worship, and there is general recognition of exclusive sovereignty, including that of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland. France and Sweden gain territory, and the latter is granted an indemnity. However, France remains at war with Spain until 1659. October 31 – A treaty is signed between the Arabs and the Portuguese. The terms include a provision that the Portuguese should build fortresses at Kuriyat, Dibba Al-Hisn (Sharjah) and Muttrah (Oman). November 11 – France and the Netherlands agree to divide the Caribbean island of Saint Martin between them. December 11 – "Pride's Purge" in England: Elements of the New Model Army, under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell invade London and expel a majority of the Long Parliament, resulting in the creation of the Rump Parliament. Date unknown In India, building of the Red Fort in Shahjahanabad is completed. The epic poem Padmavati is written by Alaol. Sabbatai Zevi declares himself the Messiah at Smyrna. George Fox founds the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in England. The Dutch artist Rembrandt produces the works Rembrandt drawing at a window and Beggars at the Door. Giacomo Carissimi composes Historia di Jephte, one of the first significant Latin oratorios. Births January–March January 1 – Matthijs Wulfraet, Dutch painter (d. 1727) January 14 – Clara Elisabeth von Platen, German noblewoman (d. 1700) February 1 – Elkanah Settle, English poet and playwright (d. 1724) February 23 – Arabella Churchill, English mistress of James II of England (d. 1730) February 26 – George Albert II, Count of Erbach-Fürstenau, held the fiefs of Fürstenau (d. 1717) March 2 – John Hales, English politician (d. 1723) March 5 – David Caspari, German Lutheran theologian (d. 1702) March 7 – Charles-Amador Martin, Canadian Catholic priest (d. 1711) March 12 – Charles de Sévigné, French baron (d. 1713) March 13 – Anne Henriette of Bavaria, Duchess of Guise (d. 1723) March 31 – Sebastiaen van Aken, Flemish painter (d. 1722) April–June April 4 – Grinling Gibbons, Dutch-British sculptor and wood carver known for his work in England (d. 1721) April 5 – Nicolas Pasquin, early pioneer in New France (now Quebec) (d. 1708) April 7 – John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, English statesman and poet (d. 1721) April 8 – Charles, Count of Marsan, French noble (d. 1708) April 9 – Henri de Massue, Marquis de Ruvigny, 1st Earl of Galway, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1720) April 13 – Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon, French mystic (d. 1717) April 16 – Antoine de Pas de Feuquières, French soldier (d. 1711) April 20 – Maurice Bocland, English Member of Parliament (d. 1710) April 23 – Philip Verheyen, Flemish physician (d. 1710) April 26 – King Peter II of Portugal (d. 1706) May 12 – Philip Foley, English politician (d. 1716) May 14 – René de Froulay de Tessé, French Marshal and diplomat (d. 1725) May 15 – William, Landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg (from 1683) (d. 1725) May 23 – Johan Teyler, Dutch painter (d. 1709) May 24 – Albert V, Duke of Saxe-Coburg (d. 1699) June 18 – Petrus Houttuyn, Dutch botanist (d. 1709) July–September July 2 – Arp Schnitger, German organ builder (d. 1719) July 19 – Jakub Kresa, Czech mathematician (d. 1715) July 21 – John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee, Scottish general (d. 1689) July 25 – Joseph Anthelmi, French ecclesiastical historian (d. 1697) July 30 – Anne Marie Thérèse de Lorraine, Abbess of Remiremont (d. 1661) August 5 – Guichard Joseph Duverney, French anatomist (d. 1730) August 9 – Johann Michael Bach, German composer (d. 1694) August 11 – Jeremiah Shepard, American Puritan minister and the youngest son of Thomas Shepard (d. 1720) August 14 – Alphonse Henri, Count of Harcourt, French noble (d. 1718) August 22 Gerard Hoet, Dutch painter (d. 1733) Tsarevich Dmitry Alexeyevich of Russia, first son and heir of Tsar Alexis of Russia (d. 1649) August 30 – Jean-Baptiste Morvan de Bellegarde, French Jesuit (d. 1734) September 2 – Magdalena Sibylle of Saxe-Weissenfels, German noblewoman (d. 1681) September 3 – Sarah Cloyce, American accused of witchcraft (d. 1703) September 6 – Johann Schelle, German composer (d. 1701) September 10 – Nicolas Desmarets, Controller-General of Finances under Louis XIV of France (d. 1721) September 14 Louis Nicolas le Tonnelier de Breteuil, French noble (d. 1728) Caspar Neumann, German professor and clergyman (d. 1715) September 24 – Richard Graham, 1st Viscount Preston, English politician (d. 1695) September 27 Charles Gustav of Baden-Durlach, German general (d. 1703) Michelangelo Tamburini, Italian Jesuit Superior General (d. 1730) October–December October 3 – Élisabeth Sophie Chéron, French musician (d. 1711) October 6 – Henrietta Catharina, Baroness von Gersdorff, German noblewoman; poet (d. 1726) October 13 – Françoise Madeleine d'Orléans, French princess (d. 1664) October 19 – Domenico Viva, Italian Jesuit theologian (d. 1726) October 22 – Aleijda Wolfsen, Dutch Golden Age painter (d. 1692) October 29 – John Verelst, Dutch Golden Age painter (d. 1734) November 12 Louis-Hector de Callière, French politician (d. 1703) Juana Inés de la Cruz, Mexican Hieronymite nun and polymath (d. 1695) November 15 – Juan María de Salvatierra, Italian Jesuit priest and missionary (d. 1717) November 16 – Charles Duncombe, English banker and politician (d. 1711) November 24 – Humphrey Humphreys, British bishop (d. 1712) November 27 – Petrus Codde, Dutch cleric, first Old Catholic bishop (d. 1710) December 5 – Charles François d'Angennes, Marquis de Maintenon, French nobleman, Caribbean buccaneer (d. 1691) December 6 – Leonard Goffiné, German Catholic priest and writer (d. 1719) December 15 – Gregory King, English statistician (d. 1712) December 20 – Tommaso Ceva, Italian Jesuit mathematician from Milan (d. 1737) December 23 – Robert Barclay, Scottish Quaker (d. 1690) Date unknown John Coode, Colonial governor of Maryland (d. 1709) Lionel Copley, colonial governor of Maryland (d. 1693) Anne de Rohan-Chabot, short-term mistress of Louis XIV of France (d. 1709) Kong Shangren, Qing Chinese dramatist and poet (d. 1718). Deaths January 14 – Caspar Barlaeus, Dutch polymath (b. 1584) January 15 – St. Francisco Fernandez de Capillas, Spanish saint (b. 1607) January 20 – Countess Palatine Magdalene Catherine of Zweibrücken and Duchess of Birkenfeld (b. 1607) January 23 – Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Spanish dramatist (b. 1607) January 29 – Francesco Palliola, Italian Servant of God (b. 1612) February 22 – Wilhelm Lamormaini, Luxembourgian theologian (b. 1570) February 28 – Christian IV, King of Denmark and Norway (b. 1577) March 4 – Nicholas Stoughton, English politician (b. 1592) March 7 – Catherine of Lorraine, Abbess of Remiremont (b. 1573) March 12 – Tirso de Molina, Spanish writer (b. 1571) March 14 – Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron, English general (b. 1584) March 22 – Sir Edward Hussey, 1st Baronet, English politician (b. 1585) April 7 – Robert Roberthin, German poet (b. 1600) April 12 – Countess Catharina Belgica of Nassau, regent of Hanau-Münzenberg (b. 1578) April 29 – John Forbes, Scottish theologian (b. 1593) May 17 – Peter Melander Graf von Holzappel, Protestant military leader (b. 1589) May 20 – King Władysław IV Vasa of Poland (b. 1595) May 26 – Vincent Voiture, French poet (b. 1597) June 4 – George Seton, Lord Seton, Scottish noble (b. 1613) July 4 – Antoine Daniel, Jesuit missionary at Sainte-Marie among the Hurons (b. 1601) July 31 – Noël Juchereau, Quebec pioneer (b. 1593) August 2 – Claude Françoise de Lorraine, Princess of Lorraine (b. 1612) August 5 – Ivan III Drašković, Croatian nobleman and soldier (b. 1603) August 12 – Peter Sainthill, English politician (b. 1593) August 18 – Ibrahim, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1615) August 20 – Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury, English diplomat, poet, and philosopher (b. 1583) August 24 – Juan Damián López de Haro, Spanish Catholic bishop of Puerto Rico (b. 1581) August 25 – Joseph Calasanz, Spanish priest and founder of Piarists (b. 1557) August 31 – Michele Mazzarino, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1605) September 1 – Marin Mersenne, French mathematician (b. 1588) October 11 – George I Rákóczi, Hungarian prince of Transylvania (b. 1593) October 15 – Simone Cantarini, Italian painter and engraver (b. 1612) November 1 – Ulrich II, Count of East Frisia, ruler of East Frisia (b. 1605) November 17 – Thomas Ford, English composer (b. c. 1580) November 25 – Daišan, Manchu politician (b. 1583) November 27 – Squire Bence, English politician (b. 1597) December 10 – Frederick IV, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (b. 1574) December 17 – George Gillespie, Scottish theologian (b. 1613) December 25 – Claudia de' Medici (b. 1604) date unknown – Emerentia Krakow, Swedish war heroine Cvijeta Zuzorić, Croatian poet (b. 1552) References Leap years in the Gregorian calendar

Events January–March January 1–24 – Siege of Geok Tepe: Russian troops under General Mikhail Skobelev defeat the Turkomans. January 13 – War of the Pacific – Battle of San Juan and Chorrillos: The Chilean army defeats Peruvian forces. January 15 – War of the Pacific – Battle of Miraflores: The Chileans take Lima, capital of Peru, after defeating its second line of defense in Miraflores. January 24 – William Edward Forster, chief secretary for Ireland, introduces his Coercion Bill, which temporarily suspends habeas corpus so that those people suspected of committing an offence can be detained without trial; it goes through a long debate before it is accepted February 2. January 25 – Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell form the Oriental Telephone Company. February 13 – The first issue of the feminist newspaper La Citoyenne is published by Hubertine Auclert. February 14 – Pine City, Minnesota is incorporated. February 16 – The Canadian Pacific Railway is incorporated. February 18 – Carlos Finlay introduces his discovery of the transmission of Yellow Fever by mosquitoes Aedes aegypti, in the Fifth International Sanitary Conference held in Washington D.C. February 19 – Kansas becomes the first U.S. state to prohibit all alcoholic beverages. February 24 (February 12 Old Style) – Qing dynasty China signs the Treaty of Saint Petersburg with the Russian Empire providing for the return to China of the eastern part of the Ili Basin. February 25 – Phoenix, Arizona is incorporated. March 1 – The Cunard Line's , the first steel transatlantic liner, is launched at Clydebank in Scotland. March 4 – James A. Garfield is sworn in, as the 20th President of the United States. March 12 – Andrew Watson makes his Scotland debut, as the world's first black international football player. March 13 – Alexander II of Russia is killed near his palace, when a bomb is thrown at him, an act falsely blamed upon Russian Jews. He is succeeded by his son, Alexander III. March 23 The First Boer War comes to an end. A fire caused by a gas explosion destroys the Opéra de Nice in the south of France with fatalities. March 26 (March 14 Old Style) – The Principality of Romania is proclaimed the Kingdom of Romania. April–June April 11 – Spelman College is established in Atlanta, Georgia. April 14 – The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight erupts in El Paso, Texas. April 15 – Temuco, Chile is founded. April 15 – Anti-Semitic pogroms in Southern Russia begin. April 21 – The University of Connecticut is founded as the Storrs Agricultural School. April 25 – Caulfield Grammar School is founded in Melbourne, Australia. April 28 – Billy the Kid escapes from his 2 jailers at the Lincoln County Jail in Mesilla, New Mexico, killing James Bell and Robert Ollinger, before stealing a horse and riding out of town. May 12 – In North Africa, Tunisia becomes a French protectorate by the Treaty of Bardo. May 13 – The Pacific island of Rotuma cedes to Great Britain, becoming a dependency of the Colony of Fiji. May 16 – The world's first regular electric tram service is started in Berlin, by Siemens & Halske. May 21 The American Red Cross is established by Clara Barton. The United States Tennis Association is established by a small group of tennis club members; the first U.S. Tennis Championships are played this year. May 22 (May 10 Old Style) – Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is crowned King of Romania. June 12 – The USS Jeannette is crushed in an Arctic Ocean ice pack. June 18 – The League of the Three Emperors is resurrected. June 20 – The current Cincinnati Reds baseball team plays its first game. June 26 – War of the Pacific – Battle of Sangrar: Peruvian and Chilean forces battle to a draw. July–September July 1 – General Order 70, the culmination of the Cardwell–Childers reforms of the British Army's organization, comes into effect. July 2 – Assassination of James A. Garfield: United States President James A. Garfield is shot by lawyer Charles J. Guiteau in Washington, D.C. The wound becomes infected, killing Garfield on September 19. July 4 – Tuskegee Institute opens in Alabama. July 7 – The first episode of Carlo Collodi's The Adventures of Pinocchio is published in Italy. July 14–20 – The International Anarchist Congress is held in London; delegates include Marie Le Compte, Peter Kropotkin, Errico Malatesta, Saverio Merlino, Louise Michel, Nicholas Tchaikovsky and Émile Gautier. July 14 – Billy the Kid is shot and killed by Pat Garrett, outside Fort Sumner, New Mexico. July 20 – American Indian Wars: Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. July 23 – The Boundary Treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina is signed in Buenos Aires. August 3 – The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed, officially ending the war between the Boers and Britain. August 27 – The fifth hurricane of the Atlantic season hits Florida and the Carolinas, killing about 700. September 5 – The Thumb Fire in the U.S. state of Michigan destroys over a million acres (4,000 km2) and kills 282 people. September 12 – Francis Howell High School (Howell Institute) in St. Charles, Missouri, and Stephen F. Austin High School in Austin, Texas open on the same day, putting them in a tie for the title of the oldest public high school west of the Mississippi River. September 19 – President James A. Garfield dies eleven weeks after being shot. Vice President Chester A. Arthur becomes the 21st President of the United States. September 20 – President Chester A. Arthur is sworn in. September 26 – Godalming in England becomes the first town to have its streets illuminated by electric light (hydroelectrically generated). October–December October 5–December 31 – The International Cotton Exposition is held in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. October 10 – Richard D'Oyly Carte's Savoy Theatre opens in London, the world's first public building to be fully lit by electricity, using Joseph Swan's incandescent light bulbs. The stage is first lit electrically on December 28. October 13 – Determined to bring about the revival of the Hebrew language as a way of unifying Jews, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda has what is believed to be the first conversation in Modern Hebrew, with friends living in Paris. October 26 – The Gunfight at the O.K. Corral occurs in Tombstone, Cochise County, Arizona, USA. October 29 – The satirical magazine Judge is first published in the United States. November – The Newcastle United F.C. is founded in the north east of England as the Stanley F.C., with a further name change to Newcastle East End F.C. the following year. November 3 – The Mapuche uprising of 1881 begins, with an attack on Quillem, Chile. November 9 – Brahms' Piano Concerto No. 2 premieres in Budapest. November 11 – The Clarkson Memorial to an anti-slavery campaigner in Wisbech (England) is completed, and unveiled to the public. November 19 – A meteorite strikes the Earth near the village of Großliebenthal, a few kilometers southwest of Odessa, Ukraine. December 8 – Ringtheaterbrand: At least 380 die in a fire at the Vienna Ringtheater. December 25–27 – The Warsaw pogrom is carried out in Vistula Land, Russian Empire. December 28 – Virgil Earp is ambushed in Tombstone, Arizona, and loses the use of his left arm. Date unknown Kinshasa (the capital of the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) is founded by Henry Morton Stanley, as a trading outpost called Léopoldville. On the Isle of Man (an internally self-governing dependent territory of the United Kingdom), the House of Keys Election Act extends the franchise for the national legislature, to spinsters and widows owning real estate of a certain value. Edward Rudolf founds the Church of England Central Society for Providing Homes for Waifs and Strays (modern-day The Children's Society). The Pali Text Society is founded by British scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids, for the study of Pali (Ceylonese) texts. Some Vatican archives are opened to scholars for the first time. Abilene, Texas, is founded. Rafaela, Argentina, is formed. New York City's oldest independent school for girls, the Convent of the Sacred Heart New York (91st Street), is founded. Culford School, a public school in Suffolk, England, is founded as the East Anglian School for Boys. Leyton Orient F.C. is founded in London. Meiji Law School, as predecessor of Meiji University, founded in Yurakucho, Tokyo, Japan. Tokyo Law College, as predecessor of Hosei University was founded in Japan. The Vocational and Technical College of Tokyo, later Tokyo Institute of Technology was founded in Japan. Hattori Watching Shop (服部時計店) founded by Kanetarō Hattori in Ginza, Tokyo, as predecessor of watch brand in Japan Seiko. Births January January 9 Lascelles Abercrombie, English poet, critic (d. 1938) Giovanni Papini, Italian essayist, poet and novelist (d. 1956) January 13 – Essington Lewis, Australian industrialist (d. 1961) January 15 – John Rodgers, American naval officer, naval aviation pioneer (d. 1926) January 17 – Antoni Łomnicki, Polish mathematician (d. 1941) January 21 – Arch McCarthy, American baseball player (d. unknown) January 23 – Luisa Casati, Italian heiress, artistic muse and patron of the arts (d. 1957) January 30 – Whitford Kane, Irish born American actor (d. 1956) January 31 – Irving Langmuir, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957) February February 1 – Dimitrana Ivanova, Bulgarian reform pedagogue, suffragist and women's rights activist (d. 1960) February 2 – Gustav Herglotz, German mathematician (d. 1953) February 4 Eulalio Gutiérrez, President of Mexico (d. 1939) Fernand Léger, French artist (d. 1955) Kliment Voroshilov, Russian military officer, politician (d. 1969) February 11 – Carlo Carrà, Italian painter (d. 1966) February 12 – Anna Pavlova, Russian ballerina (d. 1931) February 13 – Eleanor Farjeon, English children's writer, poet (d. 1965) February 17 – Bess Streeter Aldrich, American fiction writer (d. 1954) February 21 – Kenneth J. Alford, British soldier, composer (d. 1945) February 25 – Alexei Rykov, Premier of Russia and Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1938) February 27 – Sveinn Björnsson, 1st President of Iceland (d. 1952) February 28 – Otto Dowling, United States Navy Captain, 25th Governor of American Samoa (d. 1946) March March 4 Thomas Sigismund Stribling, American novelist (d. 1965) Richard C. Tolman, American mathematical physicist (d. 1948) March 9 – Ernest Bevin, British labour leader, politician and statesman (d. 1951) March 10 – Thomas Quinlan, English operatic impresario (d. 1951) March 13 – Louis Chauvin, American ragtime pianist (d. 1908) March 17 – Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973) March 20 – Fritz Pfleumer, German-Austrian engineer, inventor (d. 1945) March 22 – Hans Wilsdorf, German-Swiss watchmaker, founder of Rolex (d. 1960) March 23 Roger Martin du Gard, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958) Hermann Staudinger, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965) March 25 Béla Bartók, Hungarian composer (d. 1945) Mary Webb, English novelist (d. 1927) March 26 – Guccio Gucci, Italian fashion designer, founder of Gucci (d. 1953) April April 1 – Octavian Goga, 37th Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1938) April 3 – Alcide De Gasperi, Italian statesman, politician (d. 1954) April 12 – Rudolf Ramek, 5th Chancellor of Austria (d. 1941) April 14 – Husain Salaahuddin, Maldivian writer (d. 1948) April 16 – E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax, British politician (d. 1959) April 24 – Harald Giersing, Austrian painter (d. 1927) April 27 – Móric Esterházy, 18th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1960) May May 1 – Mary MacLane, Canadian writer (d. 1929) May 4 - Alexander Kerensky, Russian politician (d. 1970) May 13 – Lima Barreto, Brazilian writer (d. 1922) May 14 G. Murray Hulbert, American politician (d. 1950) Maude Fulton, American playwright and actress (d. 1950) May 19 – Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder and first President of Turkey (conventional; d. 1938) May 20 – Władysław Sikorski, Polish general, politician (d. 1943) May 26 – Adolfo de la Huerta, 38th President of Mexico (d. 1955) May 30 – Georg von Küchler, German field marshal (d. 1968) June June 3 – Juliusz Rómmel, Polish general (d. 1967) June 9 – Marion Leonard, American silent film actress (d. 1956) June 11 – Maggie Gripenberg, Finnish dancer and choreographer (d. 1976) June 17 – Tommy Burns, Canadian-born boxer (d. 1955) June 26 – Ya'akov Cohen, Israeli poet (d. 1960) July July 2 – Royal H. Weller, American politician (d. 1929) July 3 – Leon Errol, Comedic American actor (d. 1951) July 4 – Ulysses S. Grant III, American soldier, planner (d. 1968) July 11 Dirk Janssen, Dutch gymnast (d. 1986) Louise Marion Bosworth, American social scientist (d. 1982) July 22 Augusta Fox Bronner, American psychologist, specialist in juvenile psychology (d. 1966) Kenneth Whiting, United States Navy officer, submarine and naval aviation pioneer (d. 1943) July 27 – Hans Fischer, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1945) July 28 – Günther Quandt, German industrialist, founder of the industrial empire that in modern times includes BMW and Altana (d. 1954) July 30 – Smedley Butler, United States Marine Corps general (d. 1940) August August 3 – Nathan Post, 7th and 10th Governor of American Samoa (d. 1938) August 6 – Sir Alexander Fleming, Scottish biomedical researcher, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1955) August 7 – François Darlan, French admiral and 81st Prime Minister of France from 1941 to 1942 (d. 1942) August 8 – Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist, German field marshal (b. 1954) August 12 – Cecil B. DeMille, American film director, producer (d. 1959) August 19 – George Enescu, Romanian composer (d. 1955) August 20 – Edgar Guest, English poet (d. 1959) September September 5 Otto Bauer, Austrian Social Democratic politician (d. 1938) Henry Maitland Wilson, British field marshal (d. 1964) September 8 Harry Hillman, American track athlete (d. 1945) Refik Saydam, 5th Prime Minister of Turkey (d. 1942) September 11 – Asta Nielsen, Danish silent film star (d. 1972) September 12 – Daniel Jones, British phonetician (d. 1967) September 15 – Ettore Bugatti, Italian car designer, founder of Bugatti Automobiles (d. 1947) September 16 – Clive Bell, English art critic (d. 1964) September 17 Alfred Francis Blakeney Carpenter, British admiral (d. 1955) Aubrey Faulkner, South African cricketer (d. 1930) September 25 – Lu Xun, leading figure of modern Chinese literature (d. 1936) September 26 – Hiram Wesley Evans, American Ku Klux Klan Imperial Wizard (d. 1966) September 29 – Ludwig von Mises, Austrian economist (d. 1973) October October 1 – William Boeing, American engineer, airplane manufacturer (d. 1956) October 4 – Walther von Brauchitsch, German field marshal (d. 1948) October 11 – Hans Kelsen, Austrian legal theorist (d. 1973) October 15 William Temple, English Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1944) P. G. Wodehouse, English-born comic writer (d. 1975) October 16 – Alexey Schastny, Russian naval officer (d. 1918) October 21 – Mieczyslaw Rys-Trojanowski, Polish general (d. 1945) October 22 – Clinton Davisson, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958) October 25 – Pablo Picasso, Spanish painter (d. 1973) October 26 – Margaret Wycherly, English stage, film actress (d. 1956) October 28 – Vin Coutie, Australian footballer (d. 1951) November November 4 – Gaby Deslys, French dancer, actress (d. 1920) November 5 – George A. Malcolm, American lawyer, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines and educator (d. 1961) November 8 – Robert Esnault-Pelterie, French aircraft designer, pioneer rocket theorist (d. 1957) November 12 – Maximilian von Weichs, German field marshal (d. 1954) November 14 – Nicholas Schenck, Russian-born film studio executive (d. 1969) November 15 – Franklin Pierce Adams, American columnist, poet (d. 1960) November 16 – Ioan Bengliu, Romanian general (d. 1940) November 24 – Al Christie, Canadian-born director, producer (d. 1951) November 25 Jacob Fichman, Romanian-born Israeli poet, essayist (d. 1958) Pope John XXIII (b. Angelo Roncalli), Italian pontiff (1958-1963) (d. 1963) November 28 – Stefan Zweig, Austrian writer (d. 1942) December December 2 – Heinrich Barkhausen, German physicist (d. 1956) December 5 – René Cresté, French actor, director (d. 1922) December 3 – Henry Fillmore, American composer, bandleader (d. 1956) December 12 – Doris Keane, American stage actress (d. 1945) December 16 – Henri Dentz, French general (d. 1945) December 23 – Juan Ramón Jiménez, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958) December 30 – Wiktor Thommée, Polish general (d. 1962) Deaths January–June January 1 – Louis Auguste Blanqui, French socialist, political activist (b. 1805) January 3 – Anna McNeill Whistler, James Whistlers mother, subject of his painting (b. 1804) January 18 – Auguste Mariette, French Egyptologist (b. 1821) January 21 – Wilhelm Matthias Naeff, member of the Swiss Federal Council (b. 1802) January 24 – Frances Stackhouse Acton, British botanist, archaeologist, writer and artist (b. 1794) February 5 – Thomas Carlyle, Scottish writer, historian (b. 1795) February 8 – Marie Jules Dupré, French admiral and colonial governor (b. 1813) February 9 – Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Russian novelist (b. 1821) February 14 – Fernando Wood, New York City mayor (b. 1812) February 23 – Robert F. R. Lewis, American naval officer (b. 1826) March 2 – Sir John Cracroft Wilson, British civil servant, and politician in New Zealand (b. 1808) March 13 – Emperor Alexander II of Russia (assassinated) (b. 1818) March 28 – Modest Mussorgsky, Russian composer (b. 1839) March 31 – Lucy Virginia French, American blank verse poet (b. 1825) April 19 – Benjamin Disraeli, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1804) April 26 – Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann-Rathsamhausen, Bavarian general (b. 1815) April 27 – Ludwig von Benedek, Austrian general (b. 1804) May 24 – Samuel Palmer, English artist (b. 1805) May 25 – Giuseppe Maria Giulietti, Italian explorer (b. 1847) June 6 – Henri Vieuxtemps, Belgian composer (b. 1820) June 28 – Jules Armand Dufaure, 3-time Prime Minister of France (b. 1798) June 30 – Gustav von Alvensleben, Prussian general (b. 1803) July – December July 1 Baron Jules Dupotet de Sennevoy, French writer (b. 1796) Hermann Lotze, German philosopher and logician (b. 1817) July 4 – J. V. Snellman, Finnish statesman and an influential Fennoman philosopher (b. 1806) July 14 – Billy the Kid, American gunslinger (b. 1859) July 17 – Jim Bridger, American explorer and trapper (b. 1804) August 11 – Jane Digby, English adventurer (b. 1807) August 15 – Alexandru G. Golescu, 11th Prime Minister of Romania (b. 1819) September 7 – Sidney Lanier, American writer (b. 1842) September 8 – Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, Dutch noble, general (b. 1797) September 13 – Ambrose Burnside, American Civil War general, inventor, politician from Rhode Island (b. 1824) September 19 – James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States (b. 1831) September 22 – Solomon L. Spink, U.S. Congressman from Illinois (b. 1831) October 3 Orson Pratt, American religious leader (b. 1811) Princess Sumiko, Japanese princess (b. 1829) October 31 – George W. De Long, American naval officer, explorer (starvation) (b. 1844) December 4 – Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, American general, politician, and diplomat (b. 1836) December 18 – George Edmund Street, British architect (b. 1824) See also Upside down year References

Events January–March January 3 – The Treaty of Tripoli, a peace treaty between the United States and Ottoman Tripolitania, is signed at Algiers (see also 1796). January 7 – The parliament of the Cisalpine Republic adopts the Italian green-white-red tricolour as the official flag (this is considered the birth of the flag of Italy). January 13 – Action of 13 January 1797, part of the War of the First Coalition: Two British Royal Navy frigates, HMS Indefatigable and HMS Amazon, drive the French 74-gun ship of the line Droits de l'Homme aground on the coast of Brittany, with over 900 deaths. January 14 – Battle of Rivoli during the War of the First Coalition: French forces under General Napoleon Bonaparte defeat an Austrian army of 28,000 men, under Feldzeugmeister József Alvinczi, near Rivoli (modern-day Italy), ending Austria's fourth and final attempt to relieve the fortress city of Mantua. January 26 – The Treaty of the Third Partition of Poland is signed in St. Petersburg by the Russian Empire, Austria and the Kingdom of Prussia. February 2 – Siege of Mantua: Field marshal Dagobert von Wurmser surrenders the fortress city to the French; only 16,000 men of the garrison are capable of marching out as prisoners of war. February 3 – Battle of Faenza: A French corps (9,000 men) under General Claude Victor-Perrin defeats the forces from the Papal States, at Castel Bolognese near Faenza, Italy. February 4 – The Riobamba earthquake in Ecuador, estimated magnitude 8.3, causes up to 40,000 casualties. February 12 – "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" is first performed, with the music composed in January by Joseph Haydn, which also becomes the tune to the Deutschlandlied, the German national anthem (Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, later Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit). February 14 – French Revolutionary Wars – Battle of Cape St. Vincent: The British Royal Navy under Admiral Sir John Jervis defeats a larger Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, Portugal. February 18 – Invasion of Trinidad: Spanish Governor José María Chacón peacefully surrenders the colony of Trinidad to a British naval force, commanded by Sir Ralph Abercromby. February 19 – Treaty of Tolentino: Pope Pius VI signs a peace treaty with Revolutionary France. He is forced to deliver works of art, treasures, territory, the Comtat Venaissin and 30 million francs. February 22 – The last invasion of Britain begins: French forces, under the command of American Colonel William Tate, land near Fishguard, Wales. February 25 – William Tate surrenders to the British at Fishguard. February 26 – Bank Restriction Act removes the requirement for the Bank of England (the national bank of Great Britain) to convert banknotes into gold - Restriction period lasts until 1821. The Bank of England issues the first one-pound and two-pound notes (pound notes discontinued March 11, 1988). March 4 – John Adams is sworn in as the second President of the United States, with an uneventful transition of power from the administration of George Washington. March 5 – Protestant missionaries from the London Missionary Society land in Tahiti, from the Duff (celebrated as Missionary Day in French Polynesia). March 13 – Médée, an opera by Luigi Cherubini, is premiered in Paris. March 16 – Battle of Valvasone: The Austrian army, led by Archduke Charles, fights a rearguard action at the crossing of the Tagliamento River, but is defeated by Napoleon Bonaparte at Valvasone. March 21 – Battle of Parramatta: Resistance leader Pemulwuy led a group of aboriginal warriors, estimated to be at least 100, in an attack on a government farm at Toongabbie in Sydney, Australia. April–June April 16 – The Spithead and Nore mutinies break out in the British Royal Navy. April 17 Battle of San Juan: Sir Ralph Abercromby unsuccessfully invades San Juan, Puerto Rico in what will be one of the largest British attacks on Spanish territories in the western hemisphere, and one of the worst defeats of the British Royal Navy for years to come. Veronese Easter: Citizens of Verona, Italy, began an unsuccessful eight-day rebellion against the French occupying forces. April 18 – Armistice of Leoben: On behalf of the French Republic, a delegation under Napoleon Bonaparte signs a peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire at Leoben. May 10 – The first ship of the United States Navy, the frigate USS United States, is commissioned. May 12 – War of the First Coalition: Napoleon Bonaparte conquers Venice, ending the city and Republic of Venice's 1,100 years of independence. The last doge of Venice, Ludovico Manin, steps down. The Venetian Ghetto is thrown open. May 30 – English abolitionist William Wilberforce marries Barbara Ann Spooner about six weeks after their first meeting. June 28 – French troops disembark in Corfu, beginning the First period of French rule in the Ionian Islands. June 29 – Napoleon Bonaparte decrees the birth of the Cisalpine Republic; he appoints ministers and establishes the first constitution. July–September July 9 – U.S. Senator William Blount becomes the first federal legislator to be expelled from office, as his fellow Senators vote 25 to 1 to block him from his seat during an investigation against him on charges of criminal conspiracy. July 24 – Horatio Nelson is wounded at the Battle of Santa Cruz, losing an arm. August 29 – Massacre of Tranent: British troops attack protestors against enforced recruitment into the militia at Tranent, Scotland, killing 12. September 4 – The Coup of 18 Fructidor is carried out in France as three of the five members of The Directory, France's executive council, arrested royalist members of the Council of Five Hundred, the national legislature, and discard the results of the spring elections. September 5 – France's new government decrees that citizens who left the country without authorization are subject to the death penalty if they return. September 30 – Dominique-Vincent Ramel-Nogaret, French finance minister, repudiates two thirds of France's debt. October–December October 11 – Battle of Camperdown: the British Royal Navy defeats the fleet of the Batavian Republic off the coast of Holland. October 17 – The Treaty of Campo Formio ends the War of the First Coalition. October 18 – The XYZ Affair inflames tensions between France and the United States when American negotiators Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry meet with French government representatives Jean-Conrad Hottinguer, Pierre Bellamy and Lucien Hauteval and are told that a treaty between France and the U.S. will require payment of a bribe to France's Foreign Minister Charles Talleyrand and a large loan of American cash to France. Pinckney tells people later that his response was "No, no, not a sixpence!"; Hottinguer, Bellamy and Hauteval are referred to, respectively, as "X", "Y" and "Z" in U.S. government reports on the failed negotiations. October 21 – In Boston Harbor, the 44-gun United States Navy frigate is launched to fight Barbary pirates off the coast of Tripoli; the ship will remain in commission in the 21st century. October 22 – André-Jacques Garnerin makes the first parachute descent, at Parc Monceau, Paris; he uses a silk parachute to descend approximately from a hot air balloon. November – 1797 Rugby School rebellion: The students at Rugby School in England rebel against the headmaster, Henry Ingles, after he decrees that the damage to a tradesman's windows should be paid for by the students. November 16 The Prussian heir apparent, Frederick William, becomes King of Prussia as Fredrick William III. (or November 23?) – British Royal Navy frigate is wrecked on the approaches to Halifax, Nova Scotia; of the 240 on board, all but 12 are lost. Undated The secret Lautaro Lodge as the Logia de los Caballeros Racionales ("Lodge of Rational Knights") is founded, perhaps in Cádiz; membership will include many leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence such as Francisco de Miranda, Bernardo O'Higgins and José de San Martín. Shinyukan Cram School (進修館) founded by Masataka Okudaira (奥平昌孝) in Nakatsu, Buzen Province (now Oita Prefecture), Kyushu Island, as predecessor of Keio-Gijyuku University in Japan. Joseph-Louis Lagrange publishes his treatise on differential calculus, entitled Théorie des fonctions analytiques. Births January–March January 1 Christopher Jacob Boström, Swedish philosopher (d. 1866) Robert Crittenden, American attorney, politician (d. 1834) William Greene, lieutenant governor of the state of Rhode Island (d. 1883) Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Japanese woodblock printer (ukiyo-e) (d. 1861) January 2 – Eliakim Littell, American editor (d. 1870) January 3 – Frederick William Hope, English entomologist at the University of Oxford (d. 1862) January 4 Wilhelm Beer, German banker, astronomer (d. 1850) John Hampden Pleasants, American journalist, businessman (d. 1846) January 5 Eduard Vogel von Falckenstein, Prussian general (d. 1885) Timothy Gilbert, American piano manufacturer (d. 1865) January 6 Edward Turner Bennett, English zoologist, writer (d. 1836) James Kingsley, attorney and mayor of Ann Arbor (1855–1856) (d. 1878) January 7 – Henry Piddington, English merchant captain sailing in East India and China and later settling in Bengal (d. 1858) January 8 – David Barker Jr., American politician, member of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1834) January 9 – Edmund Murray Dodd, Canadian lawyer (d. 1876) January 10 Hazen Aldrich, early American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement (d. 1873) Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, German writer (d. 1848) Eugenio Kincaid, American Baptist missionary to Burma (d. 1883) January 11 Carl Rottmann, German landscape painter, the most famous member of the Rottmann family of painters (d. 1850) Connop Thirlwall, English bishop (in Wales), historian (d. 1875) January 12 Gideon Brecher, Austrian physician, writer (d. 1873) George Evans, American politician from the state of Maine (d. 1867) January 14 – George Agar-Ellis, 1st Baron Dover, British peer and man of letters (d. 1833) January 15 – Vincenz Kollar, Austrian entomologist specializing in Diptera (d. 1860) January 16 – Richard Barnes Mason, career officer in the United States Army, governor of California (d. 1850) January 17 – Joseph Barclay Pentland, Irish geographer (d. 1873) January 19 Henri-Bernard Dabadie, French baritone (d. 1853) Cornelia Aletta van Hulst, Dutch painter (d. 1870) January 20 – Jonathan Leavitt, American bookbinder, co-founder of the New York City publishing firm of Leavitt & Trow (d. 1852) January 21 – Joseph Méry, French writer (d. 1866) January 22 Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria (d. 1826) Charlotte Lyon-Bowes, Lady Glamis, English noblewoman, daughter of Joseph Valentine Grimstead (d. 1881) Thomas Moore-Lane, Irish oculist, surgeon, physician to the Nawab (d. 1844) January 24 Leo Dupont, Martinique-born Venerated French Catholic, who helped spread various Catholic devotions (d. 1876) John Shaw-Lefevre, British barrister, Whig politician and civil servant (d. 1879) January 25 Achille Rémy Percheron, French entomologist (d. 1869) John Stuart, 12th Earl of Moray (d. 1867) January 26 – Therese Albertine Luise Robinson, German-American author (d. 1870) January 28 Obadiah Bush, American prospector, businessman (d. 1851) Narcisse Girard, French violinist (d. 1860) Charles Gray Round, English barrister, Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for North Essex 1837–47 (d. 1867) Félix Tanco, Colombian-born Cuban writer, poet, and novelist (d. 1871) January 29 Marguerite Beaubien, Canadian nun, mother superior with the Sisters of Charity (d. 1848) Prince Adolf zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Prussian nobleman (d. 1873) January 30 John Fairfield, U.S. politician from Maine (d. 1847) Edwin Vose Sumner, career United States Army officer who became a Union Army general during the American Civil War (d. 1863) January 31 – Franz Schubert, Austrian pianist, composer (d. 1828) February 1 – Frederick Sullivan, English first-class cricketer associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) (d. 1873) February 2 Joseph Louis Corbin, French general who took command of the successful attack that lifted the Siege of Constantine in 1837 (d. 1859) Lambert Blackwell Larking, English clergyman (d. 1868) Bertha Zück, German-born treasurer of Queen Josephine of Sweden (d. 1868) February 4 Armine Simcoe Henry Mountain, British Army officer, Adjutant-General in India (d. 1854) Frederick Henry Yates, English actor, theatre manager (d. 1842) February 5 György Andrássy, Hungarian nobleman (d. 1872) Robert Benson, English barrister and author, serving as recorder of Salisbury (d. 1844) F. W. P. Greenwood, Unitarian minister of King's Chapel in Boston (d. 1843) February 6 Richard Hawes, United States Representative from Kentucky and the second Confederate Governor of Kentucky (d. 1877) Vaast Barthélemy Henry, French Catholic priest (d. 1884) Joseph von Radowitz, conservative Prussian statesman, general (d. 1853) February 7 – François Chouteau, American pioneer fur trader (d. 1838) February 10 – George Chichester, 3rd Marquess of Donegall, British landowner, courtier and politician (d. 1883) February 11 Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, English Conservative politician (d. 1861) John Allen Wakefield, American historian (d. 1873) February 12 – John Timon, first Roman Catholic Bishop of Buffalo (d. 1867) February 13 – Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro of Novar, Scottish art collector (d. 1864) February 14 John Capron, American military officer in the infantry (d. 1878) Pierre Sylvain Dumon, French politician who was a deputy (1831-1848) (d. 1870) February 15 Elias Florence, member of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1880) Henry Engelhard Steinway, German-American piano manufacturer (d. 1871) February 17 – Charles Alexandre, French Hellenist (d. 1870) February 18 Jean-Baptiste Boucho, French-born Vicar Apostolic of Malacca-Singapore (d. 1871) John Day, Liberian politician and jurist, 2nd Chief Justice of Liberia (1854 until his death) (d. 1859) John Davis Pierce, American Congregationalist minister (d. 1882) February 19 Giuseppe Avezzana, Italian soldier fighting in Europe and America (d. 1879) Wincenty Smokowski, Polish-Lithuanian painter, illustrator (Academic and Classical styles) (d. 1876) February 21 – João Mouzinho de Albuquerque, Portuguese writer, administrator (d. 1881) February 22 Jean Baptiste Hippolyte Dance, French pathologist remembered for Dance's sign (d. 1832) Yelizaveta Golitsyna, Russian noble, Catholic nun (d. 1844) February 23 – Heinrich Halfeld, German engineer (d. 1873) February 24 – Samuel Lover, Irish songwriter (d. 1868) February 25 – Maria Abdy, English poet (d. 1867) February 27 Wilhelm Meinhold, Pomeranian priest, author (d. 1851) Henry George Ward, English diplomat, politician, and colonial administrator (d. 1860) February 28 John Henderson, Mississippi lawyer, United States Senator (d. 1857) George Keats, businessman, civic leader in Louisville, Kentucky (d. 1841) March 2 Étienne Mulsant, French entomologist, ornithologist (d. 1880) Stephen Olin, American educator, minister (d. 1851) March 3 Emily Eden, English poet, novelist (d. 1869) Gotthilf Hagen, German civil engineer who made important contributions to fluid dynamics (d. 1884) March 4 Jasper Ewing Brady, Whig member of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1871) Charles Jackson, 18th Governor of Rhode Island (1845-1846) (d. 1876) Thomas Thorp, English Anglican priest (d. 1877) March 5 Friedrich von Gerolt, Prussian Privy Councillor, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in the United States (d. 1879) James Rider, American politician from New York (d. 1876) March 6 – Gerrit Smith, American social reformer (d. 1874) March 7 – Édouard Thibaudeau, Lower Canadian lawyer, political figure (d. 1836) March 10 Henry Acton, English Unitarian minister (d. 1843) Selah R. Hobbie, United States Representative from New York (d. 1854) Henry Liddell, 1st Earl of Ravensworth, British peer, Member of Parliament for several constituencies (d. 1878) George Julius Poulett Scrope, English geologist, political economist and magistrate (d. 1876) March 12 – Benjamin Caesar, English professional cricketer who played first-class cricket (1824-1830) (d. 1867) March 13 Eleazer Parmly, American dentist in New York City (d. 1874) Charles de Rémusat, French politician and writer (d. 1875) George Bacon Wood, American physician (d. 1879) March 15 – Benjamin Guérard, French librarian, historian (d. 1854) March 16 Lavinia Ryves, British woman claiming to be a member of the British royal family (d. 1871) Alaric Alexander Watts, British poet, journalist (d. 1864) March 17 Andrew Fernando Holmes, Canadian physician (d. 1860) Johann Adam Pupikofer, Swiss historian, curator of the Thurgau cantonal archive in Frauenfeld (d. 1882) March 18 Michel Goudchaux, French banker, politician who was twice Minister of Finance during the French Second Republic (d. 1862) James Wilson II, United States Representative from New Hampshire (d. 1881) March 19 John Braithwaite, English engineer, inventor of the first steam fire engine (d. 1870) Addison Gardiner, American lawyer and politician, Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals (1854-1855) (d. 1883) March 20 – John Roberton, Scottish physician, social reformer (d. 1876) March 21 William K. Clowney, United States Representative from South Carolina (d. 1851) Johann Andreas Wagner, German palaeontologist (d. 1861) March 22 Pierre Bossier, Louisiana soldier, state senator (d. 1844) Eduard Gans, German jurist (d. 1839) Emperor Wilhelm I of Germany (d. 1888) Jean-Bernard Rousseau, French Roman Catholic professed religious of the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (d. 1867) Józef Zaliwski, Polish independence activist (d. 1855) March 23 – Ernest Edgcumbe, 3rd Earl of Mount Edgcumbe, English politician (d. 1861) March 24 Abraham Hoagland, early American Mormon leader (d. 1872) Thomas B. Jackson, United States Representative from New York (d. 1881) Sackville Lane-Fox, British Conservative Party politician (d. 1874) Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, Italian Catholic priest, philosopher (d. 1855) March 25 Auguste-Arthur, Comte de Beugnot, French historian, statesman (d. 1865) J. G. M. Ramsey, American historian (d. 1884) John Winebrenner, American founder of the Churches of God General Conference (d. 1860) March 26 Fortunato José Barreiros, Portuguese colonial administrator, military architect (d. 1885) Joseph Fielding, early American leader of the Latter Day Saint movement (d. 1863) Hedworth Lambton, Liberal Party politician in the United Kingdom (d. 1876) March 27 John Dix Fisher, physician and founder of Perkins Institution for the Blind in Boston (d. 1850) George Glyn, 1st Baron Wolverton, English banker with interests in the railways (d. 1873) Heinrich LXXII, Prince Reuss of Lobenstein and Ebersdorf (d. 1853) Alfred de Vigny, French poet, early leader of French Romanticism (d. 1863) March 28 – George O. Belden, American politician, Representative from New York (d. 1833) March 29 – Charles I. du Pont, American manufacturer, politician (d. 1869) March 31 William Ryerson, Methodist minister, political figure in western Canada (d. 1872) Walter Calverley Trevelyan, English naturalist, geologist (d. 1879) April–June April 1 Sir William Alexander, 3rd Baronet of England (d. 1873) Ludwig Titze, Austrian singer who gives a number of first public performances of Franz Schubert's songs (d. 1850) April 2 Samuel Bogart, itinerant Methodist minister, militia captain from Ray County, Missouri (d. 1861) Joseph-François Deblois, Lower Canadian lawyer (d. 1860) John Peter Gassiot, English businessman, amateur scientist (d. 1877) Dunning R. McNair, Sergeant at Arms of the United States Senate (1853-1861) (d. 1875) David Robertson, 1st Baron Marjoribanks, Scottish stockbroker, politician (d. 1873) Franz Graf von Wimpffen, Austrian general, admiral (d. 1870) April 3 Judson Allen, American businessman, politician (d. 1880) Ebenezer Childs, American pioneer (d. 1864) Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier, Belgian botanist, Member of Parliament (d. 1878) April 4 Asa Wentworth Jr., Vermont businessman and politician, President of the Vermont State Senate (d. 1882) Joseph Dresser Wickham, American minister (d. 1891) April 5 Karl August Devrient, German stage actor best known for performances of Schiller and Shakespeare (d. 1872) Johann Fischbach, Austrian painter (d. 1871) Henry Perrine, physician, horticulturist, United States Consul in Campeche, Mexico (d. 1840) April 7 Théodore Anne, French playwright (d. 1869) Louis Thomas Jérôme Auzoux, French anatomist, naturalist (d. 1880) Pierre Leroux, French philosopher, political economist (d. 1871) Joseph Young, early American convert to the Latter Day Saint movement, missionary, longtime general authority of the LDS Church (d. 1881) April 8 – Jehiel Brooks, American soldier, territorial governor, and plantation owner (d. 1886) April 9 Pierre Carmouche, French playwright, chansonnier (d. 1868) John Hill, United States Representative from North Carolina (d. 1861) April 12 Ernst August Hagen, Prussian art writer, novelist (d. 1880) Zina Pitcher, American physician (d. 1872) April 13 – Stanislas Julien, French sinologist, Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years (d. 1873) April 15 Philip Dorsheimer, politician, New York State Treasurer (d. 1868) Michel Garicoïts, French Basque Roman Catholic priest, founder of the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Bétharram (d. 1863) Adolphe Thiers, President of France and Prime Minister of France (d. 1877) April 17 William Beresford, British Conservative politician (d. 1883) John Ogilvie, Scottish lexicographer, editor of the Imperial Dictionary of the English Language (d. 1867) April 18 Thomas J. Drake, American lawyer, Lieutenant Governor of Michigan (d. 1875) Richard Ryan, British biographer of Irish descent (d. 1849) April 19 Carlo Emanuele Muzzarelli, Italian clergyman (d. 1856) Jeronis de Soysa, pioneering Ceylonese entrepreneur, philanthropist (d. 1860) April 21 – George Stephen Benjamin Jarvis, Upper Canadian judge, political figure (d. 1878) April 23 Ranulph Dacre, New Zealand naval seaman (d. 1884) Giuseppe Ferlini, Italian combat medic turned explorer and treasure hunter (d. 1870) Penina Moise, United States poet (d. 1880) Ernst Ferdinand Oehme, German Romantic painter, illustrator (d. 1855) April 24 Henry Bliss, author, lawyer and provincial agent for New Brunswick and Nova Scotia (d. 1873) Peter I. Borst, American politician, United States Representative from New York (d. 1848) April 26 – Albert Seerig, German surgeon, anatomist (d. 1862) April 27 Jean Victoire Audouin, French naturalist, entomologist, herpetologist, ornithologist, and malacologist (d. 1841) Eliphaz Fay, fourth president of Colby College (then called the Waterville College) in Maine (d. 1854) William B. Slaughter, United States politician (d. 1879) Linus Yale Sr., American inventor, manufacturer of locks (d. 1858) April 28 – John Richardson, Australian convict, accompanies several exploring expeditions as botanical collector (d. 1882) April 29 – Gideon Hard, American lawyer, politician (d. 1885) May 1 Pierre Nicolas Gerdy, French physician, native of Loches-sur-Ource (d. 1856) Johann Jakob Stähelin, Swiss theologian (d. 1875) May 2 Abraham Pineo Gesner, Canadian geologist and inventor (d. 1864) May 3 Heinrich Berghaus, German geographer (d. 1884) George Webster, English architect practising in Kendal (d. 1864) May 6 – Joseph Brackett, American religious leader, composer (d. 1882) May 7 Walter Colton, Chaplain for the United States Navy (d. 1851) Charles Frederick, Royal Navy officer, Third Naval Lord (d. 1875) Elizabeth Grant, British diarist (d. 1885) José Antonio Saco, Cuban statesman, deputy to the Spanish Cortes, writer, social critic, publicist, essayist, anthropologist, historian (d. 1879) May 8 Giacomo Luigi Brignole, Italian Catholic Cardinal, Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals (d. 1853) John Septimus Roe, first Surveyor-General of Western Australia (d. 1878) May 9 – Lansdown Guilding, St. Vincent-born English theologian, early naturalist (d. 1831) May 10 – Daniel Lynn Carroll, sixth President of Hampden–Sydney College (1835-1838) (d. 1851) May 11 Clement Finley, 10th Surgeon General of the United States Army (d. 1879) Ernst Meyer, German-born Danish genre painter of Jewish ancestry (d. 1861) José Mariano Salas, Mexican general and politician, twice interim president of Mexico (1846 and 1859) (d. 1867) May 12 – Johann Hermann Kufferath, German composer (d. 1864) May 13 Ulrik Frederik Cappelen, Norwegian jurist, politician (d. 1864) William Chapman, British surgeon, Director of the Kew Botanical Gardens, emigrates to New Zealand (d. 1867) Sir William Miles, 1st Baronet, English politician (d. 1878) May 14 – Carl Georg Christian Schumacher, German painter (d. 1869) May 15 George Dromgoole, Virginia politician, lawyer (d. 1847) Lydia Irving, British philanthropist, prison visitor (d. 1893) Auguste Bottée de Toulmon, 19th-century French composer, musicologist (d. 1850) May 16 Pascual Echagüe, Argentine soldier, politician (d. 1867) Pierre-Chéri Lafont, French actor (d. 1873) May 18 Stoddard Judd, American physician, politician (d. 1873) Frederick Augustus II of Saxony (d. 1854) May 19 Jean-Baptiste Marc Bourgery, French physician and anatomist, native of Orléans (d. 1849) Richard Pakenham, British diplomat, Ambassador to the United States (d. 1868) Maria Isabel of Portugal, Queen of Spain (d. 1818) May 20 – Alexis-François Rio, French writer on art (d. 1874) May 21 Claus Winter Hjelm, Norwegian legal scholar, judge (d. 1871) Nathan Ryno Smith, American surgeon, medical school professor (d. 1877) May 24 James Turner Morehead, United States Senator and the 12th Governor of Kentucky (d. 1854) Archibald Randall, United States federal judge (d. 1846) Lars Rasch, Norwegian jurist, politician (d. 1864) Henry Thynne, 3rd Marquess of Bath, England (d. 1837) May 26 – Ralph Randolph Gurley, American clergyman (d. 1872) May 27 – Sir Thomas Bazley, 1st Baronet of England (d. 1883) May 29 Edwin Croswell, American journalist, politician (d. 1871) Nicolas Roret, French editor, publisher known for an important series of manuals (Manuels) and encyclopedias (d. 1860) May 30 Johann Christian Lobe, German composer, music theorist (d. 1881) Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann, German mineralogist (d. 1873) June 1 – Abby Hadassah Smith, early American suffragist, campaigner for property and voting rights from Glastonbury (d. 1879) June 2 – Joseph Blake, 3rd Baron Wallscourt, Irish nobleman and pioneering socialist (d. 1849) June 6 – Rehuel Lobatto, Dutch mathematician (d. 1866) June 7 Manuel Alves Branco, 2nd Viscount of Caravelas, Brazilian politician (d. 1855) Richard Samuel Guinness, Irish lawyer and a Member of Parliament (d. 1857) June 8 – Henry William-Powlett, 3rd Baron Bayning, English peer and clergyman (d. 1866) June 11 Francis Conyngham, 2nd Marquess Conyngham, English soldier, courtier and politician (d. 1876) Henry Lascelles, 3rd Earl of Harewood, English peer and Member of Parliament (d. 1857) José Trinidad Reyes, Honduran Father, National Hero, and founder of Autonomous National University of Honduras (d. 1855) June 12 – Thomas Ainslie Young, official and political figure in Lower Canada (d. 1860) June 13 – Richard Ely Selden, American politician and author (d. 1868) June 14 John Beard, American politician (d. 1876) Jules Lefèvre-Deumier, French author and poet (d. 1857) Calvin Pollard, New York City architect (d. 1850) June 15 Honoratus Bonnevie, Norwegian politician (d. 1848) Sámuel Brassai, centenarian, linguist, teacher, "The Last Transylvanian Polymath" (d. 1897) June 16 Sophie Frémiet, French painter (d. 1867) Alexander Kazarsky, Russian Navy officer, hero of the Russo-Turkish War (d. 1833) June 17 – Alexandre Vinet, Swiss critic and theologian (d. 1847) June 19 – Hamilton Hume, early explorer of the present-day Australian states of New South Wales and Victoria (d. 1873) June 20 – Karolina Gerhardinger, German Roman Catholic professed religious, established the School Sisters of Notre Dame (d. 1879) June 21 Christoffel Brand, South African jurist (d. 1875) William Jessup, Pennsylvania judge and father of the missionary Henry Harris Jessup (d. 1868) Benson Leavitt, Boston businessman (d. 1869) June 23 – Théophile Bra, French Romantic sculptor and exact contemporary of Eugène Delacroix (d. 1863) June 24 Mary Ann Aldersey, English nonconformist, first Christian missionary woman to serve in China (d. 1868) Francisco Freire Allemão e Cysneiro, Brazilian botanist who collected in northeast Brazil and along the Rio de Janeiro (d. 1874) Ann Freeman, British Bible Christian preacher (d. 1826) Johan Coenraad van Hasselt, Dutch physician, zoologist (d. 1823) John Hughes, Irish-born prelate of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States (d. 1864) June 26 – Imam Shamil, Avar political and religious leader of the Muslim tribes of the Northern Caucasus (d. 1871) June 27 Andrew W. Loomis, United States Representative from Ohio (d. 1873) Henry Noble Shipton, British junior officer who served in the Royal Marines and the Army (d. 1821) June 29 – Frederic Baraga, Slovenian Catholic missionary to the United States, grammarian of Native American languages (d. 1868) July–September July 2 Maria Antonia Koháry de Csábrág, Hungarian noblewoman, ancestor of several European monarchs (d. 1862) Pierre Joseph Michel Lorquin, French entomologist specializing in Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (d. 1873) July 4 Jacquette Löwenhielm, Swedish noble and lady-in-waiting (d. 1839) James W. Parker, American pioneer, uncle of Cynthia Ann Parker and the great uncle of Comanche Quanah Parker (d. 1864) July 6 – Henry Paget, 2nd Marquess of Anglesey, England (d. 1869) July 7 – George Meads, English professional cricketer who played first-class cricket (1825-1836) (d. 1881) July 11 – Francis Close, Anglican rector of Cheltenham (1826–1856) and Dean of Carlisle (1856–1881) (d. 1882) July 12 John Gaylord, early American Mormon leader (d. 1874) Adele Schopenhauer, German author (d. 1849) July 14 – James Scott Bowerbank, British naturalist, palaeontologist (d. 1877) July 15 Kloka Anna, Swedish cunning woman, medium (d. 1860) Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar I, attorney, jurist in his native Georgia (d. 1834) Pier Alessandro Paravia, Venetian writer, scholar, philanthropist, professor of Italian eloquence (d. 1857) July 16 – Daniel D. Barnard, American politician, Representative from New York (d. 1861) July 17 Paul Delaroche, French painter (d. 1856) William Matthew Harries, influential member of both houses of the Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope (d. 1865) John Hodgetts-Foley, British Member of Parliament (d. 1861) July 18 – Robert Christison, Scottish toxicologist, physician (d. 1882) July 20 Gotthard Fritzsche, Prussian-Australian pastor (d. 1863) Eli Kirk Price, Philadelphia lawyer (d. 1884) Sir Paweł Strzelecki, Polish explorer, geologist (d. 1873) July 21 – John M. Read, American lawyer (d. 1874) July 24 – Maria Foote, English actress, peeress (d. 1867) July 25 Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1889) Nicholas Marcellus Hentz, French American educator, arachnologist (d. 1856) Nehemiah Platt, American politician from New York (d. 1851) July 26 William Bulkeley Hughes, Welsh politician (d. 1882) William Gore Ouseley, British diplomat serving in various roles in Washington (d. 1866) William Ranwell, English marine painter (d. 1861) July 29 François Bourdon, French engineer, inventor (d. 1865) Daniel Drew, American businessman (d. 1879) Beverly R. Wellford, American physician (d. 1870) July 30 – Harriet Windsor-Clive, 13th Baroness Windsor of England (d. 1869) July 31 – Alonzo C. Paige, American lawyer, politician from New York (d. 1868) August 1 Joseph Gensoul, French surgeon (d. 1858) William Thomas Knollys, British Army General (d. 1883) August 2 John Brown, English geographer (d. 1861) William Gibson-Craig, Scottish advocate, politician (d. 1878) Amédée Thierry, French journalist, historian (d. 1873) August 4 William S. Hamilton, American politician, miner (d. 1850) Benjamin F. H. Witherell, Michigan jurist (d. 1867) August 5 Cayetano Heredia, Peruvian physician (d. 1861) Friedrich August Kummer, German violoncellist, pedagogue and composer (d. 1879) August 6 – August Wilhelm Stiehler, German government official, paleobotanist (d. 1878) August 7 James Kānehoa, member of the court of King Kamehameha II and Kamehameha III during the Kingdom of Hawaii (d. 1851) Justin von Linde, German jurist, statesman from the Grand Duchy of Hesse (d. 1870) August 8 George Peck, American Methodist clergyman (d. 1876) Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury, French painter (d. 1890) George Rykert, Upper Canada businessman, surveyor and political figure (d. 1857) William Walker, Quebec lawyer, political figure (d. 1844) August 9 Charles Allen, United States Representative from Massachusetts (d. 1869) Charles Robert Malden, British naval officer (d. 1855) Christian Wilhelm Niedner, German church historian, theologian (d. 1865) Archibald Yell, American politician, Representative from Arkansas (d. 1847) August 10 Guillaume Louis Cottrau, French composer, music publisher (d. 1847) Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, Finnish entomologist, governor of the Viipuri province in the Grand Duchy of Finland (d. 1854) John M. Patton, Virginia politician, lawyer (d. 1858) Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini, German botanist (d. 1848) August 11 – George Shillibeer, English coachbuilder (d. 1866) August 12 – Manuel Aguilar Chacón, Costa Rican head of state (d. 1846) August 13 – Horatio Chriesman, American surveyor, politician in Mexican Texas and participant in the Texas Revolution (d. 1878) August 14 – Robert Radcliffe, English first-class cricketer associated with Cambridge University (d. 1832) August 15 – James Black, Scottish-born Canadian clergyman (d. 1886) August 17 – Peter Broun, first Colonial Secretary of Western Australia (d. 1846) August 18 – Antoine Claudet, French photographer, artist who produced daguerreotypes (d. 1867) August 20 Johan Frederik Møller, Danish painter, photographer (d. 1882) John Sinclair, Archdeacon of Middlesex (d. 1875) Francesco Zantedeschi, Italian priest, physicist (d. 1873) August 21 Chauncey J. Fox, American politician from New York (d. 1883) John Montagu, Indian-born Tasmanian colonial secretary (d. 1853) John Iltyd Nicholl, Welsh Member of Parliament (d. 1853) August 22 Augustin-Magloire Blanchet, French Canadian Catholic prelate in the Pacific Northwest (d. 1887) Thomas Dale, British priest in the Church of England, Dean of Rochester (d. 1870) August 23 – Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant, French mechanic, mathematician (d. 1886) August 24 John Cobbold, British brewer, railway developer and Conservative Party politician (d. 1882) Laufilitonga, 39th and last Tuokinai of Tonga (d. 1865) August 25 John P. Bigelow, American politician (d. 1872) Henrik Hertz, Danish poet (d. 1870) August 26 Innocent of Alaska, Russian Orthodox missionary priest (d. 1879) Sheldon Peck, American folk artist (d. 1869) August 27 John Bathurst Deane, South African-born English clergyman, schoolmaster, antiquary and author (d. 1887) Edwin James, American botanist (d. 1861) Henry Wilson, Suffolk politician (d. 1866) August 28 Ferenc Duschek, Hungarian politician (d. 1872) Karl Otfried Müller, German scholar, Philodorian (d. 1840) August 30 – Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, English novelist, dramatist, essayist, biographer and travel writer (d. 1851) August 31 Philipp von Brunnow, Russian diplomat (d. 1875) Ramón Castilla, Peruvian caudillo who served as President of Peru three times (d. 1867) James Ferguson, Scottish-born American astronomer and engineer (d. 1867) September 1 – William FitzGerald-de Ros, 23rd Baron de Ros of England (d. 1874) September 2 – William Stephenson, English Geordie printer, publisher, auctioneer, poet and songwriter (d. 1838) September 3 – Benjamin Nottingham Webster, English actor-manager and dramatist (d. 1882) September 4 Alvan Cullom, American politician, Representative from Tennessee (d. 1877) Raynold Kaufgetz, Swiss soldier (d. 1869) September 5 Francis H. Cone, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Georgia (U (d. 1859) John Blennerhassett Martin, American painter (d. 1857) William Ruggles, professor at George Washington University (d. 1877) September 6 William Smith, lawyer, congressman, Governor of Virginia, Major General during the American Civil War (d. 1887) Jenny Vertpré, French stage actress (d. 1865) September 7 Louis Vulliemin, Swiss theologian, historian (d. 1897) Per Erik Wallqvist, Swedish ballet dancer, ballet master (d. 1855) September 10 Benjamin Nicolas Marie Appert, French philanthropist (d. 1847) Franz Krüger, German (Prussian) painter, lithographer (d. 1857) Daniel Parkhurst Leadbetter, United States Representative from Ohio (d. 1870) Carl Gustaf Mosander, Swedish chemist (d. 1858) Piotr Wysocki, Polish lieutenant, leader of the Polish conspiracy against Russian Tsar Nicolas I (d. 1875) September 11 – George Strange Boulton, Upper Canada lawyer, political figure (d. 1869) September 12 Jacob Barit, Russian Talmudist, communal worker (d. 1883) George Barrell Emerson, American educator, pioneer of women's education (d. 1881) Samuel Joseph May, American reformer (d. 1871) Samuel McLean, United States Consul for Trinidad (d. 1881) September 13 – Joseph Stannard, English marine and landscape painter (d. 1830) September 14 – Joseph-Désiré Court, French painter of historical subjects and portraits (d. 1865) September 15 – Andrew Trumbo, United States Representative from Kentucky (d. 1871) September 16 Levi Silliman Ives, American theologian, bishop (d. 1867) Samuel Milford, English-born Australian barrister, judge (d. 1865) Anthony Panizzi, Italian-born British librarian, head of the British Museum (d. 1879) Johann Friedrich Ludwig Wöhlert, German businessman (d. 1877) September 17 Eugène Defacqz, Belgian liberal politician, magistrate (d. 1871) Heinrich Kuhl, German naturalist, zoologist (d. 1821) September 18 – Camille-Melchior Gibert, French dermatologist (d. 1866) September 19 – January Suchodolski, Polish painter, Army officer (d. 1875) September 21 George Hamilton Seymour, British diplomat (d. 1880) John Talbot, Irish-born Canadian schoolmaster (d. 1874) September 23 Johannes Henrik Berg, Norwegian politician (d. 1886) Charles Brown, Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania (d. 1883) Thomas H. Rochester, 6th son of Colonel Nathaniel Rochester, 6th mayor of Rochester (d. 1874) September 24 – Carl Peter Wilhelm Gramberg, German theologian, biblical scholar (d. 1830) September 25 – John J. Allen, Virginia lawyer (d. 1871) September 26 – Olry Terquem, French pharmacist, paleontologist (d. 1887) September 27 Édouard Frère, French bookseller (d. 1874) Jacob von der Lippe, Norwegian politician, Bishop of the Diocese of Christianssand (d. 1878) September 28 Sophie von Knorring, Swedish novelist, noble (d. 1848) Caroline LeRoy, second wife of American author Daniel Webster (d. 1882) Aimée Caroillon des Tillières, wealthy French heiress, saloniste during the July Monarchy (d. 1862) September 29 Percy Nugent, Irish politician (d. 1874) Joseph Thompson, early settler of Atlanta, Georgia (d. 1885) October–December October 1 – Lewis Ruffner, salt manufacturer from Malden, West Virginia (d. 1883) October 2 – Jonathan Pitney, American physician, promoter of Absecon Island as healing seashore resort (d. 1889) October 3 Knud Ibsen, father of Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen (d. 1877) Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1870) Hopkins L. Turney, Democratic United States Representative from Tennessee (d. 1857) October 4 Jeremias Gotthelf, Swiss novelist (d. 1854) Charles-Séraphin Rodier, Canadian merchant (d. 1876) October 5 – John Gardner Wilkinson, English traveller, writer and pioneer Egyptologist (d. 1875) October 6 Albrecht Elof Ihre, Swedish diplomat, Swedish-Norwegian prime minister of foreign affairs (d. 1877) Charles Panet, lawyer and political figure in Quebec (d. 1877) Joseph Othmar Rauscher, Austrian Prince-Archbishop of Vienna and cardinal (d. 1875) October 7 Peter Georg Bang, Danish politician, jurist (d. 1861) John Wedderburn Dunbar Moodie, Scottish-born army officer (d. 1869) October 8 William H. DeLancey, American Episcopal bishop (d. 1865) Ludwig Förster, German-born Austrian architect (d. 1863) Charles Knapp, United States Representative from New York (d. 1880) William Thomasson, United States Representative from Kentucky (d. 1882) October 9 Thomas Boutillier, Quebec doctor, political figure (d. 1861) Henry Collen, English miniature portrait painter to Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and the Duchess of Kent (d. 1879) Philippe Suchard, Swiss chocolatier, industrialist (d. 1884) October 10 August Heinrich Hermann von Dönhoff, Prussian diplomat (d. 1874) Thomas Drummond, British army officer, civil engineer, senior public official (d. 1840) October 12 – Gaspard Thémistocle Lestiboudois, French naturalist (d. 1876) October 13 George Anson, British military officer, Whig politician (d. 1857) Thomas Haynes Bayly, English poet (d. 1839) Dong Haichuan, Chinese martial artist, credited to be the founder of Baguazhang (d. 1882) John H. McHenry, United States House of Representatives (d. 1871) William Motherwell, Scottish poet, antiquary and journalist (d. 1835) October 14 Jean Crespon, French zoologist and naturalist (d. 1857) Ida Laura Pfeiffer, Austrian traveler and travel book author (d. 1858) October 15 Johann Gottlieb Fleischer, German botanist and ornithologist (d. 1838) Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse, German philologist (d. 1855) William Siborne, British officer and military historian whose most notable work was a history of the Waterloo Campaign (d. 1849) October 16 – James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan (d. 1868) October 17 Mario Aspa, Italian composer (d. 1868) Juan Lavalle, Argentine military and political figure (d. 1841) October 18 Gallus Jacob Baumgartner, Swiss statesman and prominent federalist (d. 1869) Alexandre Jacques François Brière de Boismont, French physician and psychiatrist (d. 1881) October 19 – Littleton Kirkpatrick, American Whig Party politician (d. 1859) October 20 – José Bernardo Escobar, interim President of Guatemala (d. 1849) October 21 Thomas M. Allen, clergyman who played a prominent role in establishing the Christian Church in Missouri (d. 1871) William Hale, British inventor (d. 1870) October 24 – Štefan Moyses, Slovak bishop, teacher, patriot, co-founder and first chairman of Matica slovenská (d. 1869) October 25 Crispino Agostinucci, Italian Catholic bishop (d. 1856) Thomas Shuldham O'Halloran, first Police Commissioner and first Police Magistrate of South Australia (d. 1870) October 26 Johann Adam Philipp Hepp, German physician, lichenologist (d. 1867) Luther Severance, United States Representative, diplomat from Maine (d. 1855) Antoine-Charles Taschereau, Quebec official, political figure (d. 1862) October 27 – Andrew Combe, Scottish physician, phrenologist (d. 1847) October 28 – James C. Curtis, American lawyer, politician (d. 1881) October 30 Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1829) Lott Warren, United States Representative from Georgia (U (d. 1861) October 31 Jacob Bailey Moore, American journalist, historical writer (d. 1853) Benjamin H. Smith, American politician from Virginia (d. 1887) November 1 María Santos Corrales, inspiration of Peru's famous poet and patriot soldier (d. 1881) Michael Loam, British (Cornish) engineer, introduced the first man engine to carry men up and down a mine shaft into the UK (d. 1871) Sir Hedworth Williamson, 7th Baronet of England (d. 1861) November 2 – Baltazar Mathias Keilhau, Norwegian geologist, mountain pioneer (d. 1858) November 3 – Thomas Icely, early colonial New South Wales landholder, stockbreeder (d. 1874) November 4 – Carlo Blasis, Italian dancer (d. 1878) November 5 – Elisha H. Groves, mid-level American LDS Church leader (d. 1867) November 6 – Gabriel Andral, French pathologist, professor at the University of Paris (d. 1876) November 13 Jacob Astley, 16th Baron Hastings of England (d. 1859) Niklas Westring, Swedish entomologist, arachnologist (d. 1882) November 14 Moses M. Haarbleicher, German-Jewish poet, critic (d. 1869) Tilghman Howard, U.S. Representative from Indiana (d. 1844) Charles Lyell, Scottish geologist (d. 1875) Justus Radius, German pathologist, ophthalmologist (d. 1884) November 15 Leopold von Sonnleithner, Austrian lawyer (d. 1873) Thurlow Weed, New York newspaper publisher, Whig and Republican politician (d. 1882) November 17 Isaac Funk, American rancher and, politician (d. 1865) Saint-Amand, French playwright (d. 1885) November 18 – Carl Reinhold Roth, Swedish businessman, ironmaster (d. 1858) November 19 Charles Anthon, American classical scholar (d. 1867) John Crenshaw, American landowner (d. 1871) Jesse Crowell, pioneer settler in Michigan (d. 1872) November 20 Mary Buckland, English palaeontologist, marine biologist and scientific illustrator (d. 1857) María de los Remedios de Escalada, wife of the leader of the Argentine War of Independence (d. 1823) November 21 – Anders Josef Europaeus, Finnish priest, vicar (d. 1870) November 22 – David Salomons, leading figure in the struggle for Jewish emancipation in the United Kingdom (d. 1873) November 23 Bertram Ashburnham, 4th Earl of Ashburnham, British peer (d. 1878) Benjamin Hale, American educator, clergyman (d. 1863) November 27 – José Xavier de Cerveira e Sousa, Portuguese prelate (d. 1862) November 29 Albert Day, American politician, 27th Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (d. 1876) Gaetano Donizetti, Italian composer (d. 1848) November 30 Pierre-Martial Bardy, Lower Canada teacher, doctor and political figure (d. 1860) Otto Vincent Lange, Norwegian politician (d. 1870) December 2 – Benjamin F. Hallett, Massachusetts lawyer, Democratic Party activist (d. 1862) December 3 Margaretta Morris, American entomologist (d. 1867) Andrew Smith, Scottish surgeon, explorer, ethnologist and zoologist (d. 1872) December 4 Thomas Patterson Brockman, member of South Carolina Senate and House of Representatives (d. 1859) George Tupou I, King of Tonga (d. 1893) December 5 Steen Andersen Bille, Danish vice-admiral and minister for the navy (d. 1883) Eugène Soubeiran, French scientist (d. 1859) December 6 Károly Nagy, Hungarian astronomer (d. 1868) Antoinette Henriette Clémence Robert, French writer of historical fiction (d. 1872) December 7 – Charles J. McCurdy, American lawyer (d. 1891) December 8 – Martin Martens, Belgian botanist, chemist (d. 1863) December 9 Michael Aikman, Lower Canada businessman, political figure (d. 1881) Thomas Davee, United States Representative from Maine (d. 1841) December 10 – Raffaele Fidanza, Italian painter (d. 1846) December 11 Alfred Dockery, American Representative from North Carolina (d. 1875) Hiram Paulding, Rear Admiral in the United States Navy (d. 1878) December 12 Lucy Anderson, English pianist (d. 1878) Pierre Léonard Vander Linden, Belgian entomologist (d. 1831) December 13 – Heinrich Heine, German poet (d. 1856) December 14 Antonio Maria Cagiano de Azevedo, Catholic Cardinal, holder of significant legal positions in the church (d. 1867) Emil Huschke, German anatomist, embryologist (d. 1858) December 15 Karl Friedrich Theodor Krause, German anatomist (d. 1868) Joseph Lecompte, United States Representative from Kentucky (d. 1851) Erik Røring Møinichen, Norwegian politician (d. 1875) Andrew Tracy, American politician (d. 1868) December 17 Richard Cheslyn, English amateur cricketer who played first-class cricket (1825-1846) (d. 1858) Joseph Henry, American scientist (d. 1878) December 18 August Friedrich Wilhelm Forchhammer, jurist, historian from the Duchy of Schleswig (d. 1870) Dirk van Hogendorp, Dutch jurist (d. 1845) December 19 – Antoine Louis Dugès, French obstetrician, naturalist (d. 1838) December 22 Charles Fox, English Quaker scientist (d. 1878) Thomas Manders, English actor-manager and low comedian (d. 1859) William Benjamin Robinson, Upper Canada fur trader and political figure (d. 1873) December 23 – Adrien-Henri de Jussieu, French botanist (d. 1853) December 24 Robert Irwin Jr., American pioneer, territorial legislator (d. 1833) Lewis Jones, British Royal Navy officer (d. 1895) December 25 Bernard Donald Macdonald, second Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island (d. 1859) Joseph-Marie Quérard, French bibliographer (d. 1865) December 26 Enoch Cobb, Massachusetts farmer, businessman, philanthropist (d. 1876) Johann Gustav Heckscher, German politician (d. 1865) Thomas M. Pettit, United States lawyer (d. 1853) Hans Skramstad, Norwegian pianist, composer (d. 1839) December 27 Domitila de Castro, Marchioness of Santos (d. 1867) Charles Hodge, Presbyterian theologian, principal of Princeton Theological Seminary (1851-1878) (d. 1878) Manuela Sáenz, Colombian national heroine (d. 1856) December 28 Rodolphus Dickinson, United States Representative from Ohio (d. 1849) John Marshall, English politician (d. 1836) December 29 – François Leuret, French anatomist, psychiatrist (d. 1851) December 31 – North Ludlow Beamish, Irish military writer, antiquary (d. 1872) approximate date – Sojourner Truth, African-American abolitionist, women's rights activist (d. 1883) Deaths January–March January 11 – Francis Lightfoot Lee, member of the House of Burgesses in the Colony of Virginia (b. 1734) January 13 – Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern, queen consort of Prussia (b. 1715) January 19 – David Graeme, British Army general (b. 1716) January 26 – Antão de Almada, 12th Count of Avranches (b. 1718) January 30 – John Glover, American military general, fisherman and merchant (b. 1732) February 1 – James Duane, American lawyer (b. 1733) February 8 – Princess Joséphine of Lorraine (b. 1753) February 11 – Antoine Dauvergne, French composer (b. 1713) February 13 – Sir Robert Burdett, 4th Baronet, British politician and member of the English gentry (b. 1716) February 17 – Maria Anna Sophia of Saxony, daughter of King Augustus III of Poland (b. 1728) February 21 – John Parkhurst, English academic (b. 1728) February 22 – Karl Friedrich Hieronymus Freiherr von Münchhausen, German officer and adventurer (b. 1720) March 2 – Horace Walpole, English politician and writer (b. 1717) March 5 – Empress Xiaoshurui, first Empress Consort of the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing Dynasty (b. 1760) March 7 John Gabriel Stedman, British–Dutch colonial soldier and author (b. 1744) Johann Heinrich Samuel Formey, German writer (b. 1711) March 16 – Cristina Roccati, Italian scholar in physics (b. 1732) March 17 – Daniel Dulany the Younger, Maryland Loyalist politician (b. 1722) March 26 – James Hutton, Scottish geologist (b. 1726) March 30 – Pierre Jean Van Stabel, French rear-admiral (b. 1744) March 31 Olaudah Equiano, Nigerian ex-slave, abolitionist (b. c. 1746) Betty Washington Lewis, younger sister of George Washington, the only sister to live to adulthood (b. 1733) April–June April 4 – Pierre-François Berruer, French sculptor (b. 1733) April 17 – Susanna Boylston, prominent early-American socialite (b. 1708) April 27 – Henry Louis, Prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken, titular prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken (b. 1768) April 29 – Elizabeth Ryves, Irish writer, translator (b. 1750) May 7 – Jedediah Strutt, English hosier and cotton spinner from Belper (b. 1726) May 14 – Giovanni Fagnano, Italian churchman and mathematician (b. 1715) May 17 – Michel-Jean Sedaine, French dramatist (b. 1719) May 25 Andrew Elliot, acting colonial governor of the Province of New York (b. 1728) John Griffin, 4th Baron Howard de Walden, British field marshal (b. 1719) May 27 François-Noël Babeuf, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1760) Augustin Alexandre Darthé, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1769) June 15 – Christen Friis Rottbøll, Danish physician, botanist and pupil of Carolus Linnaeus (b. 1727) June 17 Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, founder of the Qajar dynasty of Iran (b. 1742) Mohammad Khan Qajar, Iranian king (b. 1742) June 21 – Andreas Peter Bernstorff, Danish statesman, politician (b. 1735) June 24 – Bahadur Shah of Nepal, younger son of King Prithvi Narayan Shah (1723–1775) of modern Nepal (b. 1757) June 30 Welbore Ellis Doyle, third Military Governor of British Ceylon (b. 1758) Richard Parker, English sailor executed for his role as president of the so-called "Floating Republic" (b. 1767) July–September July 9 – Edmund Burke, Irish philosopher (b. 1723) July 11 – Ienăchiță Văcărescu, Wallachian writer (b. 1740) July 12 – Peter Bonnevaux, fourth Military Governor of British Ceylon, third General Officer Commanding (b. 1752) July 14 – Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc, member of the wealthy and influential Rohan family of France (b. 1725) July 25 Richard Bowen, officer of the Royal Navy during the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary Wars (b. 1761) George Thorp, officer of the British Royal Navy during the French Revolutionary Wars (b. 1777) July 29 – John Weatherhead, officer of the British Royal Navy (b. 1775) August 3 August 3 – Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, British soldier and conqueror of Quebec (b. 1717) James Davenport, American lawyer (b. 1758) August 6 – James Pettit Andrews, English historian, antiquary (b. 1737) August 10 – Alexei Senyavin, Russian admiral (b. 1716) August 22 – Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, Alsatian-born Austrian general (b. 1724) August 25 – Thomas Chittenden, first governor of the state of Vermont (b. 1730) August 29 – Joseph Wright of Derby, English landscape and portrait painter (b. 1734) September 4 – Sir William Ashburnham, 4th Baronet, Church of England clergyman, baronet (b. 1710) September 10 – Mary Wollstonecraft, English feminist author (b. 1759) September 12 – David Forman, brigadier general of New Jersey militia (b. 1745) September 19 Samuel Enderby, English whale oil merchant known for sponsoring Arctic exploration (b. 1719) Lazare Hoche, French soldier who rose to be general of the Revolutionary army (b. 1768) September 21 Asaf-ud-Daula, nawab wazir of Oudh (b. 1748) Hugh Pigot, British Royal Navy officer (b. 1769) September 25 – John Baughan, English carpenter, thief and transportee to Australia (b. 1754) September 30 – Gunning Bedford Sr., American lawyer and politician from New Castle (b. 1742) October–December October 9 – Vilna Gaon, Lithuanian rabbi (b. 1720) October 10 Agui, Manchu noble general for the Qing dynasty (b. 1717) Carter Braxton, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, merchant, planter, Virginia politician (b. 1736) October 14 – William Orr, member of the United Irishmen (executed) (b. 1766) October 17 – Jean-François Hubert, bishop of Quebec (b. 1739) October 20 – William Cooke, English cleric, academic (b. 1711) November 14 – Ivan Shuvalov, founder of Moscow University (b. 1727) November 16 – King Frederick William II of Prussia (b. 1744) November 18 – Jacques-Alexandre Laffon de Ladebat, French shipbuilder, merchant (b. 1719) November 26 – Andrew Adams, American lawyer (b. 1736) November 27 – Johann Baptist Wendling, Alsatian-born flute player, composer of the Mannheim School (b. 1723) November 29 – Samuel Langdon, American Congregational clergyman, President of Harvard University (b. 1723) December 1 – Oliver Wolcott, American politician (b. 1726) December 11 – Richard Brocklesby, English physician (b. 1722) December 13 – Louis Legendre, French politician of the Revolution period (b. 1752) December 23 Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg (b. 1732) Solomon Southwick, Newport, Rhode Island printer, newspaper publisher (b. 1731) December 26 – John Wilkes, English radical (b. 1725) December 30 – David Martin, British painter, engraver (b. 1737) date unknown – Wang Zhenyi, Chinese astronomer References

Events January–March January 11 – Louis Pasteur's anti-rabies treatment is defended in the Académie Nationale de Médecine, by Dr. Joseph Grancher. January 20 The United States Senate allows the Navy to lease Pearl Harbor as a naval base. British emigrant ship Kapunda sinks after a collision off the coast of Brazil, killing 303 with only 16 survivors. January 21 The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) is formed in the United States. Brisbane receives a one-day rainfall of (a record for any Australian capital city). January 24 – Battle of Dogali: Abyssinian troops defeat the Italians. January 28 In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, the largest snowflakes on record are reported. They are wide and thick. Construction work begins on the foundations of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. February 2 – The first Groundhog Day is observed in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania. February 4 – The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, passed by the 49th United States Congress, is signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. February 5 – The Giuseppe Verdi opera Otello premieres at La Scala, Milan. February 8 – The Dawes Act, or the General Allotment Act, is enacted in the United States. February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, killing around 2,000 along the coast of the Mediterranean. February 26 – At the Sydney Cricket Ground, George Lohmann becomes the first bowler to take eight wickets, in a Test innings. March 3 – Anne Sullivan begins teaching Helen Keller. March 7 – North Carolina State University is established, as North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. March 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs in the United States. April–June April 1 – The final of the first All-Ireland Hurling Championship is held. April 4 – Argonia, Kansas, elects Susanna M. Salter as the first female mayor in the United States. April 10 (Easter Sunday) – The Catholic University of America is founded in Washington, D.C. April 20 – Occidental College is founded in Los Angeles, California. April 21 – Schnaebele incident: A French/German border incident nearly leads to war between the two countries. May 3 – An earthquake hits Sonora, Mexico. May 9 – Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show opens in London. May 14 – The cornerstone of the new Stanford University, in northern California, is laid (the college opens in 1891). May 25 – The Hells Canyon massacre begins: 34 Chinese gold miners are ambushed and murdered in Hells Canyon, Oregon, United States. June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a U.S. patent for his punched card calculator. June 18 – The Reinsurance Treaty is closed between Germany and Russia. June 21 The British Empire celebrates Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, marking the 50th year of her reign. Zululand becomes a British colony. June 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nation's first national park, Banff National Park. June 28 – Minot, North Dakota is incorporated as a city. June 29 – The United Retail Federation is established in Brisbane, Australia. July–September July – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk, Scotland. July 1 – Construction of the iron structure of the Eiffel Tower starts in Paris, France. July 6 – King Kalākaua of Hawai'i is forced by anti-monarchists to sign the 'Bayonet Constitution', stripping the Hawaiian monarchy of much of its authority, as well as disenfranchising most native Hawaiians, all Asians and the poor. July 12 – Odense Boldklub, the Danish football team, is founded as the Odense Cricket Club. July 19 – Dorr Eugene Felt receives the first U.S. patent for his comptometer. July 26 L. L. Zamenhof publishes "Unua Libro" (Dr. Esperanto's International Language), the first description of Esperanto, the constructed international auxiliary language. Blackpool F.C. is created in England, U.K. August – The earliest constituent of the U.S. National Institutes of Health is established at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, as the Laboratory of Hygiene. August 8 – Antonio Guzmán Blanco ends his term as President of Venezuela. August 13 – Hibernian F.C. of Scotland defeats Preston North End F.C. of England to win the 'Championship of the World', after the two teams win the Association football Cup competitions in their respective countries. September 5 – The Theatre Royal, Exeter, England, burns down, killing 186 people. September 28 – The 1887 Yellow River flood begins in China, killing 900,000 to 2,000,000 people. October–December October 1 – The British Empire takes over Balochistan. October 3 – Florida A&M University opens its doors in Tallahassee, Florida. October 12 – Yamaha Corporation, the global musical instrument and audiovisual brand, is founded as Yamaha Organ Manufacturing in Hamamatsu, Japan. November Results of the Michelson–Morley experiment are published, indicating that the speed of light is independent of motion. Arthur Conan Doyle's detective character Sherlock Holmes makes his first appearance, in the novel A Study in Scarlet, published in Beeton's Christmas Annual. November 3 – The Coimbra Academic Association, the students' union of the University of Coimbra in Portugal, is founded. November 6 – The Association football club Celtic F.C. is formed in Glasgow, Scotland, by Irish Marist Brother Walfrid, to help alleviate poverty in the city's East End by raising money for his charity, the 'Poor Children's Dinner Table'. November 8 – Emile Berliner is granted a U.S. patent for the Berliner Gramophone. November 10 – Louis Lingg, sentenced to be hanged for his alleged role in the Haymarket affair (a bombing in Chicago on May 4, 1886), kills himself by dynamite. November 11 – August Spies, Albert Parsons, Adolph Fischer and George Engel are hanged for inciting riot and murder in the Haymarket affair. November 13 – Bloody Sunday: Police in London clash with radical and Irish nationalist protesters. December 5 – The International Bureau of Intellectual Property is established. December 25 – Glenfiddich single malt Scotch whisky is first produced. Date unknown Laos and Cambodia are added to French Indochina. Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect on the production and reception of electromagnetic (EM) waves (radio); this is an important step towards the understanding of the quantum nature of light. Franz König publishes "Über freie Körper in den Gelenken" in the medical journal Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, describing (and naming) the disease Osteochondritis dissecans for the first time. Teachers College, later part of Columbia University, is founded. The first English-language edition of Friedrich Engels' 1844 study of The Condition of the Working Class in England, translated by Florence Kelley, is published in New York City. Publication in Barcelona of Enrique Gaspar's El anacronópete, the first work of fiction to feature a time machine. Publication begins of Futabatei Shimei's The Drifting Cloud (Ukigumo), the first modern novel in Japan. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn is founded. Nagase Shoten (長瀬商店), predecessor of Japanese cosmetics and toiletry brand Kao Corporation, is founded in Nihonbashi, Tokyo, Japan. Tokyo Fire Insurance, predecessor of Sompo Japan Nipponkoa Insurance, is founded. Global construction and real estate development company Skanska is founded in Malmö, Sweden. American financial services company A. G. Edwards is founded by General Albert Gallatin Edwards in St. Louis, Missouri. Heyl & Patterson Inc., a pioneer in coal unloading equipment, is founded by Edmund W. Heyl and William J. Patterson in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The first battery rail car is used on the Royal Bavarian State Railways. Births January–February January 1 Wilhelm Canaris, head of German military intelligence in World War II (d. 1945) Max Ritter von Müller, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1918) January 3 – August Macke, German painter (d. 1914) January 10 – Robinson Jeffers, American poet (d. 1962) January 13 – Jorge Chávez, pioneer Peruvian aviator (d. 1910) January 17 – Ola Raknes, Norwegian psychoanalyst, philologist (d. 1975) January 19 – Alexander Woollcott, American intellectual (d. 1943) January 21 – Maude Davis, oldest person in the world (d. 2002) January 22 – Elmer Fowler Stone, American aviator, first United States Coast Guard aviator (d. 1936) January 23 Miklós Kállay, 34th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1967) Dorothy Payne Whitney, American-born philanthropist, social activist (d. 1968) January 28 – Arthur Rubinstein, Polish-born pianist and conductor (d. 1982) February 3 – Georg Trakl, Austrian poet (d. 1914) February 5 – Corneliu Dragalina, Romanian general (d. 1949) February 6 – Josef Frings, Archbishop of Cologne (d. 1978) February 10 – John Franklin Enders, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1985) February 11 – Ernst Hanfstaengl, German-born pianist, U.S. politician (d. 1975) February 12 – Edelmiro Julián Farrell, Argentine general, 28th President of Argentina (d. 1980) February 17 Joseph Bech, Luxembourgish politician, 2-time Prime Minister of Luxembourg (d. 1975) Leevi Madetoja, Finnish composer (d. 1947) February 20 – Vincent Massey, Governor General of Canada (d. 1967) February 21 – Korechika Anami, Japanese general (d. 1945) March–April March 4 – Violet MacMillan, American Broadway theatre actress (d. 1953) March 5 Harry Turner, American professional football player (d. 1914) Heitor Villa-Lobos, Brazilian composer (d. 1959) March 11 – Raoul Walsh, American film director (d. 1980) March 13 – Alexander Vandegrift, American general (d. 1973) March 14 Sylvia Beach, American publisher in Paris (d. 1952) Charles Reisner, American silent actor, film director (d. 1962) March 18 – Aurel Aldea, Romanian general and politician (d. 1949) March 21 – Luís Filipe, Prince Royal of Portugal (d. 1908) March 22 – Chico Marx, American comedian and actor (d. 1961) March 23 Juan Gris, Spanish-born painter, graphic artist (d. 1927) Prince Felix Yusupov, Russian assassin of Rasputin (d. 1967) March 24 – Roscoe Arbuckle, American actor, comedian, film director, and screenwriter (d. 1933) March 25 – Chūichi Nagumo, Japanese admiral (d. 1944) March 25 – Padre Pio, Italian Franciscan Capuchin, mystic and Catholic saint (d. 1968) April 2 – Louise Schroeder, German politician (d. 1957) April 3 – Nishizō Tsukahara, Japanese admiral (d. 1966) April 10 – Bernardo Houssay, Argentine physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) April 12 – Harold Lockwood, American film actor (d.1918) April 15 Mike Brady, American golfer (d. 1972) Felix Pipes, Austrian tennis player (d. 1983) April 22 – Harald Bohr, Danish mathematician and footballer (d. 1951) April 26 – Kojo Tovalou Houénou, prominent African critic of the French colonial empire in Africa (d. 1936) May– June May 2 Vernon Castle, British dancer (d. 1918) Eddie Collins, American baseball player (d. 1951) May 5 – Geoffrey Fisher, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1972) May 11 – Paul Wittgenstein, Austrian-born pianist (d. 1951) May 15 – John H. Hoover, American admiral (d. 1970) May 22 – Jim Thorpe, American athlete (d. 1953) May 25 – Pio of Pietrelcina, Italian saint (d. 1968) May 26 – Paul Lukas, Hungarian-born actor (d. 1971) May 31 – Saint-John Perse, French diplomat, writer and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975) June 3 – Carlo Michelstaedter, Italian philosopher (d. 1910) June 4 – Tom Longboat, Canadian distance runner (d. 1949) June 5 – Ruth Benedict, American anthropologist (d. 1948) June 9 – Emilio Mola, Spanish Nationalist commander (d. 1937) June 13 – André François-Poncet, French politician, diplomat (d. 1978) June 22 Julian Huxley, British biologist (d. 1975) Santiago Amat, Spanish sailor (d. 1982) June 26 – Ganna Walska, Polish opera singer (d. 1984) July– August July 1 Maria Isidia da Conceição, Brazilian supercentenarian Morton Deyo, American admiral (d. 1973) July 3 – Elith Pio, Danish actor (d. 1983) July 6 – Annette Kellermann, Australian professional swimmer, vaudeville star, film actress, writer and business owner (d. 1975) July 7 – Marc Chagall, Russian-born painter (d. 1985) July 9 – Samuel Eliot Morison, American historian (d. 1976) July 11 – Nicolae Păiș, Romanian admiral (d. 1952) July 14 – Curtis Shake, American jurist (d. 1978) July 16 – Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player (d. 1951) July 18 – Vidkun Quisling, Norwegian politician, traitor (d. 1945) July 21 – Luis A. Eguiguren, Peruvian historian and politician (d. 1967) July 22 – Gustav Ludwig Hertz, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975) July 28 – Marcel Duchamp, French-born artist (d. 1968) July 29 Sigmund Romberg, Hungarian-born composer (d. 1951) Mamoru Shigemitsu, Japanese diplomat and politician (d. 1957) July 31 – Mitsuru Ushijima, Japanese general (d. 1945) August 3 Rupert Brooke, British war poet (d. 1915) August Wesley, Finnish journalist, trade unionist, and revolutionary (d. ?) August 4 – Peter Bocage, American jazz musician (d. 1967) August 6 – Oliver Wallace, English-born film composer (d. 1963) August 12 – Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961) August 13 – Julius Freed, American inventor, banker (d. 1952) August 17 Emperor Charles I of Austria (d. 1922) Marcus Garvey, African American publisher, entrepreneur and Pan Africanist (d. 1940) August 22 – Walter Citrine, 1st Baron Citrine, British trade unionist (d. 1983) August 24 – Harry Hooper, American baseball player (d. 1974) August 27 – Julia Sanderson, American actress (d. 1975) September–October September 1 – Blaise Cendrars, Swiss writer (d. 1961) September 3 – Frank Christian, American jazz musician (d. 1973) September 5 – Irene Fenwick, American actress (d. 1936) September 8 – Jacob L. Devers, American general (d. 1979) September 9 – Alf Landon, American Republican politician, presidential candidate (d. 1987) September 10 – Giovanni Gronchi, 3rd President of Italy (d. 1978) September 12 – Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli, Azerbaijani statesman, writer and claimed "core author" of novel Ali and Nino (d. in Gulag 1943) September 13 Lancelot Holland, British admiral (d. 1941) Leopold Ružička, Croatian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976) Frank Gray (researcher), Physicist and researcher, known for the Gray code (d. 1969) September 16 – Nadia Boulanger, French composer and composition teacher (d. 1979) September 26 – William Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse, British aviator, first airman to receive the Victoria Cross (d. 1915) September 28 – Avery Brundage, American sports official (d. 1975) October 2 – Violet Jessop, Argentine-born British RMS Titanic survivor (d. 1971) October 4 – Charles Alan Pownall, American admiral, 3rd Military Governor of Guam (d. 1975) October 5 – René Cassin, French judge, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1976) October 6 – Le Corbusier, Swiss architect (d. 1965) October 8 – Huntley Gordon, Canadian-born actor (d. 1956) October 13 – Jozef Tiso, Prime Minister of Slovakia (d. 1947) October 14 – Ernest Pingoud, Finnish composer (d. 1942) October 18 – Takashi Sakai, Japanese general (d. 1946) October 20 – Prince Yasuhiko Asaka, Japanese prince (d. 1981) October 22 – John Reed, American journalist (d. 1920) October 23 – Lothar Rendulic, Austrian-born German general (d. 1971) October 24 – Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, Queen Consort of Spain (d. 1969) October 28 – Herb Byrne, Australian rules footballer (d. 1959) October 31 – Chiang Kai-shek, 1st President of the Republic of China (d. 1975) November - December November 1 – L. S. Lowry, English painter (d. 1976) November 6 – Walter Johnson, American baseball player (d. 1946) November 10 – Arnold Zweig, German writer (d. 1968) November 11 Walther Wever, German general, pre-World War II Luftwaffe commander (d. 1936) Roland Young, English actor (d. 1953) November 14 – Amadeo de Souza Cardoso, Portuguese painter (d. 1918) November 15 – Georgia O'Keeffe, American painter (d. 1986) November 17 – Bernard Montgomery, British World War II commander (d. 1976) November 19 – James B. Sumner, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955) November 23 Boris Karloff, British horror film actor (d. 1969) Henry Moseley, English physicist (d. 1915) November 24 – Erich von Manstein, German field marshal (d. 1973) November 25 – Nikolai Vavilov, Russian and Soviet agronomist, botanist and geneticist (d. 1943) November 27 – Masaharu Homma, Japanese general (d. 1946) November 28 Jacobo Palm, Curaçao-born composer (d. 1982) Ernst Röhm, German Nazi SA leader (d. 1934) November 30 – Beatrice Kerr, Australian swimmer, diver, and aquatic performer (d. 1971) December 3 – Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, former Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1990) December 6 – Lynn Fontanne, British-born actress (d. 1983) December 12 – Kurt Atterberg, Swedish composer (d. 1974) December 13 – Alvin Cullum York, American World War I hero (d. 1964) December 16 – Adone Zoli, Italian politician, 35th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1960) December 22 – Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan, Indian mathematician (d. 1920) December 25 – Conrad Hilton, American hotelier (d. 1979) December 26 – Arthur Percival, British general (d. 1966) Deaths January–June January 12 – Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh, British politician (b. 1818) February 19 – Eduard Douwes Dekker, Dutch writer (b. 1820) February 26 – Anandi Gopal Joshi, first Indian woman doctor (b. 1865) February 27 – Alexander Borodin, Russian composer (b. 1833) March 4 – Catherine Huggins, British actor, singer, director and manager (b. 1821) March 8 – Henry Ward Beecher, American clergyman, reformer (b. 1813) March 24 Jean-Joseph Farre, French general and statesman (b. 1816) Justin Holland, American musician, civil rights activist (b. 1819) Ivan Kramskoi, Russian painter (b. 1837) March 28 – Ditlev Gothard Monrad, Danish politician (b. 1811) April 10 – John T. Raymond, American actor (b. 1836) April 19 – Henry Hotze, Swiss-American Confederate propagandist (b. 1833) April 23 – John Ceiriog Hughes, Welsh poet (b. 1832) May 7 – C. F. W. Walther, German-American theologian (b. 1811) May 8 – Aleksandr Ulyanov, Russian revolutionary, brother of V. I. Lenin (b. 1866) May 14 – Lysander Spooner, American philosopher and abolitionist (b. 1808) June 4 – William A. Wheeler, 19th Vice President of the United States (b. 1819) June 10 – Richard Lindon, British inventor of the rugby ball, the India-rubber inflatable bladder and the brass hand pump for the same (b. 1816) July–December July 8 – John Wright Oakes, English landscape painter (b. 1820) July 17 – Dorothea Dix, American social activist (b. 1802) July 25 – John Taylor, American religious leader (b. 1808) August 8 – Alexander William Doniphan, American lawyer, soldier (b. 1808) August 16 Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (b. 1837) Sir Julius von Haast, German-born New Zealand geologist (b. 1822) August 19 Alvan Clark, American telescope manufacturer (b. 1804) Spencer Fullerton Baird, American naturalist and museum curator (b. 1823) August 20 – Jules Laforgue, French poet (b. 1860) September 12 – August von Werder, Prussian general (b. 1808) October 12 – Dinah Craik, English novelist and poet (b. 1826) October 17 – Gustav Kirchhoff, German physicist (b. 1824) October 21 – Bernard Jauréguiberry, French admiral, statesman (b. 1815) October 26 – Hugo von Kirchbach, Prussian general (d. 1809) October 31 – Sir George Macfarren, British composer and musicologist (b. 1813) November 2 Jenny Lind, Swedish soprano (b. 1820) Alfred Domett, 4th Premier of New Zealand (b. 1811) November 8 – Doc Holliday, American gambler, gunfighter (b. 1851) November 19 – Emma Lazarus, American poet (b. 1859) November 28 – Gustav Fechner, German experimental psychologist (b. 1801) December 5 – Richard Lyons, 1st Viscount Lyons, British diplomat (b. 1817) December 14 – William Garrow Lettsom, British diplomat, mineralogist and spectroscopist (b. 1805) December 23 – Adolphus Frederick Alexander Woodford, British parson (b. 1821) Date unknown Antoinette Nording, Swedish perfume entrepreneur (b. 1814) References

Year 12 BC was either a common year starting on Saturday, Sunday or Monday or a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a common year starting on Friday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Messalla and Quirinius (or, less frequently, year 742 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 12 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus and Publius Sulpicius Quirinius are Roman consuls. Tiberius Claudius Nero summoned to Pannonia due to severe revolt by the Delmataeians. Roman armies based at Xanten, Cologne and Mainz campaign beyond the Rhine. First official mention of Argentoratum, the city known in modern times as Strasbourg. Emperor Augustus is given the title Pontifex Maximus. Approximate date – Pyramid of Cestius erected in Rome. India King Azes II dies. The rule of the Indo-Scythians crumbles as the Kushans, one of the five tribes of the Yuezhi who live in Bactria expand into India to create a Kushan Empire. By topic Astronomy Comet Halley makes an appearance. Births Agrippa Postumus, son of Julia the Elder and grandson of Augustus (d. AD 14) Deaths Gaius Caninius Rebilus, Roman senator and suffect consul Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus, Roman consul (b. c. 45 BC) Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Roman statesman (b. c. 63 BC) Mithridates III, king of Commagene (Armenia) Sextius Propertius, Roman Latin poet and writer (b. c. 50–45 BC) References

The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. This century saw the establishment of Pataliputra as a capital of the Magadha Empire. This city would later become the ruling capital of different Indian kingdoms for about a thousand years. This period saw the rise of two great philosophical schools of the east, Jainism and Buddhism. This period saw Mahavira and Buddha spreading their respective teachings in the northern plains of India. This essentially changed the socio-cultural and political dynamics of the region of South Asia. Buddhism would later go on to become one of the major world religions. This period also saw the work of Yaska, who created Nirukta, that would lay the foundation stone for Sanskrit grammar and is one of the oldest works on grammar known to mankind. This century is also traditionally recognized as the classical period of the Greeks, which would continue all the way through the 4th century until the time of Alexander the Great. The life of Socrates represented a major milestone in Greek philosophy though his teachings only survive through the work of his students, most notably Plato and Xenophon. The tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, as well as the comedian Aristophanes all date from this era and many of their works are still considered classics of the western theatrical canon. The Persian Wars, fought between a coalition of Greek cities and the vast Achaemenid Persian Empire was a pivotal moment in Greek politics. After having successfully prevented the annexation of Greece by the Persians, Sparta, the dominant power in the coalition, had no intention of further offensive action and considered the war over. Meanwhile, Athens counter-attacked, liberating Greek subjects of the Persian Empire up and down the Ionian coast and mobilizing a new coalition, the Delian League. Tensions between Athens, and its growing imperialistic ambitions as leader of the Delian League, and the traditionally dominant Sparta led to a protracted stalemate in the Peloponnesian war. The world in the 5th century BC Events Demotic becomes the dominant script of ancient Egypt. 490s BC 499 BC: Aristagoras, acting on behalf of the Persian Empire, leads a failed attack on the rebellious island of Naxos. 499 BC: Aristagoras instigates the Ionian Revolt, beginning the Persian Wars between Greece and Persia. 499 BC: Sardis sacked by Athenian and Ionian troops. 498 BC: Leontini subjugated by Hippocrates of Gela. 498 BC: Alexander I succeeds his father Amyntas I as king of Macedon. 496 BC: Battle of Lake Regillus: A legendary early Roman victory, won over either the Etruscans or the Latins. 496 BC: Sophocles is born. 495 BC: Temple to Mercury on the Circus Maximus in Rome is built. 494 BC: The Battle of Lade, where Persians take back Ionia. 494 BC: Two tribunes of the plebs and two plebeian aediles are elected for the first time in Rome: the office of the tribunate is established. 494 BC: The year Rome changed from an Aristocratic Republic to a Liberalized Republic. 493 BC: Piraeus, the port town of Athens, is founded. 493 BC: Coriolanus captures the Volscian town of Corioli for Rome. 492 BC: First expedition of King Darius I of Persia against Greece, under the leadership of his son-in-law Mardonius. This marks the start of the campaign that culminated in the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. 491 BC: Leotychidas succeeds his cousin Demaratus as king of Sparta. 491 BC: Gelo becomes Tyrant of Gela. 490 BC: The Battle of Marathon, where Darius I of Persia is defeated by the Athenians and Plataeans under Miltiades 490 BC: Phidippides runs 40 kilometers from Marathon to Athens to announce the news of the Greek victory; origin of the marathon long-distance race. 480s BC 489 BC: Cities of Rhodes unite and start construction of the new city of Rhodes. 488 BC: Leonidas I succeeds his brother Cleomenes I as king of Sparta after Cleomenes is judged insane. 487 BC: Egypt revolts against the Persians. 487 BC: Aegina and Athens go to war. 487 BC: Athenian Archonship becomes elective by lot, an important milestone in the move towards radical Athenian democracy. 487 BC: Siaspiqa becomes ruler of the Kushite kingdom of Meroe. 486 BC: First part of the Grand Canal of China is built. 486 BC: Xerxes I succeeds Darius I as Great King of Persia. 486 BC: Egypt revolts against Persian rule. 486 BC: First Buddhist Council at Rejgaha, under the patronage of King Ajatasattu. Oral tradition established for the first time. 484 BC: Athenian playwright Aeschylus wins a poetry prize. 484 BC: Xerxes I abolishes the Kingdom of Babel and removes the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach). 484 BC: Persians regain control of Egypt. 483 BC: Gautama Buddha dies. 483 BC: Xerxes I of Persia starts planning his expedition against Greece 481 BC: The Isthmus of Corinth ends a war between Athens and Aegina. 480 BC: King Xerxes I of Persia sets out to conquer Greece. 480 BC: Cimon and his friends burn horse-bridles as an offering to Athena and join the marines 480 BC: Pleistarchus succeeds his father Leonidas I as king of Sparta. August, 480 BC: Battle of Artemisium—The Persian fleet fights an inconclusive battle with the Greek allied fleet. August 11, 480 BC: The Battle of Thermopylae, a costly victory by Persians over the Greeks. September 23, 480 BC: Battle of Salamis between Greece and Persia, leading to a Greek victory. 480 BC: Battle of Himera—The Carthaginians under Hamilcar are defeated by the Greeks of Sicily, led by Gelon of Syracuse. 480 BC: Roman troops march against the Veientines. 470s BC 479 BC: The Battle of Plataea, the Greeks defeat the Persians, ending the Persian Wars. 479 BC: Battle of Mycale. 479 BC: Potidaea is struck by a tsunami. 479 BC: Chinese philosopher Confucius dies. 478 BC: Establishment of the Temple of Confucius at (modern-day) Qufu. 477 BC: The Delian League is inaugurated. 476 BC: Archidamus II succeeds his grandfather Leotychides, who is banished to Tegea, as king of Sparta. 475 BC: King Xuan of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty. 474 BC: Battle of Cumae—The Syracusans under Hiero I defeat the Etruscans and end Etruscan expansion in southern Italy. 474 BC: Greek poet Pindar moves to Thebes. 473 BC: The Chinese State of Wu is annexed by the State of Yue. 472 BC: Carystus in Euboea is forced to join the Delian League (approximate date). 472 BC: The tragedy The Persians is produced by Aeschylus. 471 BC: Athenian politician Themistocles is ostracized. 460s BC 469 BC: Philosopher Socrates is born in Attica, Athens, Greece. 468 BC: Sophocles, Greek playwright, defeats Aeschylus for the Athenian Prize. 468 BC: Antium captured by Roman forces. 468 BC: King Zhending of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 466 BC: Delian League defeats Persia at the Battle of Eurymedon. 466 BC: The Greek colony of Taras, in Magna Graecia, is defeated by Iapyges, a native population of ancient Apulia; Tarentine monarchy falls, with the installation of a democracy and the expulsion of the Pythagoreans. 465 BC: King Xerxes I of the Persian Empire is murdered by Artabanus the Hyrcanian. He is succeeded by Artaxerxes I, possibly with Artabanus acting as Regent. 465 BC: Thasos revolts from the Delian League. 464 BC: An earthquake in ancient Sparta, Greece leads to a Helot uprising and strained relations with Athens, one of the factors that lead to the Peloponnesian War. 464 BC: Regent King Artabanus of Persia is killed by his charge Artaxerxes I. 464 BC: Third Messenian war. 462 BC: The revolt of Thasos against the Delian League comes to an end with their surrender. 461 BC: Athenian politician Cimon is ostracized. 460 BC: Egypt revolts against Persia, starting a six-year war. An Athenian force sent to attack Cyprus is diverted to support this revolt. 460 BC: Cincinnatus becomes consul of the Roman Republic. 460 BC: Physician Hippocrates is born in Kos, Greece. 450s BC 459 BC: Pleistoanax succeeds his father Pleistarchus as king of Sparta. 459 BC: Destruction of the Sicilian town of Morgantina by Douketios, leader of the Sikels, according to Diodoros Siculus. 459 BC: Ezra leads the second body of Jews from Babylon to Jerusalem. 458 BC: Greek playwright Aeschylus completes the Oresteia, a trilogy that tells the story of a family blood feud. The plays will have a great influence on future writers. 458 BC: Cincinnatus is named dictator of the Roman Republic in order to defend it against Aequi. Sixteen days later, after defeating the invaders at the Battle of Mount Algidus, he resigns and returns to his farm. 457 BC: Athenian statesman Pericles' greatest reform, allowing common people to serve in any state office, inaugurates Golden Age of Ancient Athens. 457 BC: Battle of Tanagra—The Spartans defeat the Athenians, near Thebes. 457 BC: Battle of Oenophyta—The Athenians defeat the Thebans and take control of Boeotia. 457 BC: Decree of Artaxerxes I to re-establish the city government of Jerusalem. See Ezra 7, Daniel 9 and Nehemiah 1 in Old Testament. 455 BC: A thirty years' truce concluded between Athens and Lacedaemon. 455 BC: Euripides presents his first known tragedy, Peliades, in the Athenian festival of Dionysia. 454 BC: Athens loses a fleet and possibly as many as 50 000 men in a failed attempt to aid an Egyptian revolt against Persia. 454 BC: The treasury of the Delian League is moved from Delos to Athens. 454 BC: Hostilities between Segesta and Selinunte, two Greek cities on Sicily. 453 BC: Taiyuan, a city in China, gets flooded. 451 BC: Athens makes peace with Sparta and wages a war against Persia. 451 BC: The decemviri come to power in the Roman Republic. They enact the twelve tables, the foundation of Roman Law. 450 BC: Battle of Salamis: Athenians under Cimon defeat the Persian fleet. 450 BC: Perdiccas II succeeds Alexander I as king of Macedonia (approximate date). 450 BC to 325 BC: Olmecs leave La Venta, and it becomes depopulated by 325 BC. 440s BC 449 BC: The Peace of Callias between the Delian League and Persia ends the Persian Wars. 449 BC: Construction begins on the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens. 449 BC: The Twelve Tables are promulgated to the people of Rome—the first public laws of the Roman Republic. 449 BC: Romans revolt against the decemvirate. The decemvirs resign and the tribunate is re-established. 449 BC: Herodotus completes his History, which records the events concerning the Persian War. 448 BC: Phidias finishes a 9 meter high statue of Athena on the Acropolis. 447 BC: Athens begins construction of the Parthenon, at the initiative of Pericles. 447 BC: Battle of Coronea—The Athenians are driven out of Boeotia. 447 BC: Achaeus of Eretria, a Greek playwright, shows his first play. 445 BC: Pericles declares Thirty Years' Peace between Athens and Sparta. 445 BC: Artaxerxes I gives Nehemiah permission to rebuild Jerusalem. 445 BC: The Lacus Curtius is created by a lightning strike in Rome. It is consecrated by Gaius, Mettius or Marcus Curtius. 443 BC: The Roman Republic creates the office of censor, initially exclusive to patricians. 443 BC: Foundation of the Greek colony of Thurii in Italy. Its colonists include Herodotus and Lysias. 442 BC: Sophocles writes Antigone. 441 BC: King Ai of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China but dies before the year's end. 440 BC: Famine in Rome. 440 BC: King Kao of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 440 BC: Democritus proposes the existence of indivisible particles, which he calls atoms. 430s BC 439 BC: Cincinnatus again becomes dictator of the Roman Republic; during his term he defeats the Volsci. 439 BC: According to legend, Gaius Servilius Ahala saves Rome from Spurius Maelius. 438 BC: Ictinus and Callicrates finish construction of the Parthenon, located on Athens' Acropolis. 435 BC: The Statue of Zeus at Olympia by Phidias, one of the seven wonders of the world, is completed. 434 BC: Conflict occurs between the Greek island of Kerkyra and its mother-city Corinth. 434 BC: Anaxagoras tries to square the circle with straightedge and compass. 433 BC: Battle of Sybota between Kerkyra and Corinth. 433 BC (or later): Burial of Marquis Yi of Zeng in China. 432 BC: Athens adopts a 19-year cycle of synchronizing solar and lunar calendars. 432 BC: Athens defeats Corinth in the battle of Potidaea. 432 BC: The Greek colony of Heraclea is founded by Tarentum and Thurii. 431 BC: The Peloponnesian War begins between Sparta and Athens and their allies. 431 BC: Defeat of the Aequi by the Romans under the dictator Aulus Postumius Tubertus. 431 BC: The Greek physician and philosopher Empedocles articulates the notion that the human body has four humors: blood, bile, black bile, and phlegm, a belief that dominates medical thinking for centuries. 430 BC: Athens suffers a major pestilence, believed to be caused by epidemic typhus. 430 BC: The philosopher Xenophon is born. c. 430 BC: First performance of Sophocles's Oedipus Rex. 420s BC 429 BC: Battle of Chalcis—Chalcidians and their allies are defeated by Athens. 429 BC: Battle of Naupactus—Phormio defeats the Peloponnesian fleet. 429 BC: An outbreak of a plague kills over one-third of the population of Athens. 429 BC: King Sitalkes of Thrace invades Macedonia. 428 BC: Mytilene rebels against Athens but is crushed. 428 BC: Sparta attempts to crush a rebellion on Corcyra, but cancels the effort when the Athenians try to intercept them. 428 BC: The Greek colony of Cumae in Italy falls to the Samnites. 427 BC: The leaders of the Mytilenian revolt are executed. 427 BC: Platea surrenders to the Spartans, who execute over 200 prisoners and destroy the city. 427 BC: The Athenians intervene in Sicily to blockade Sparta from the island. 428 BC: The philosopher Plato is born. 426 BC: Demosthenes unsuccessfully besieges the Corinthian colony of Leukas. 426 BC: When Ambracia invades Acarnania, they seek help from the Spartans and Athenians respectively. The Athenians then defeat the Spartans in the Battle of Olpae. 425 BC: Demosthenes captures the port of Pylos in the Peloponnesus. 425 BC: The Athenians invade Sphacteria and defeat the Spartans in the Battle of Pylos. 424 BC: Sicily withdraws from the war and expels every foreign power. Thus, Athens is forced to withdraw from the island. 424 BC: The Athenians try to capture Megara, but are defeated by the Spartans. 424 BC: The Spartan general Brasidas captures Amphipolis, which is a setback for Athens. Thucydides is held responsible for the Athenian failure and is ostracised. This gives him time to start writing his history book. 423 BC: The Athenians propose a cease-fire, which the Spartan general Brasidas ignores. 422 BC: The Spartans defeat the Athenians in the Battle of Amphipolis, where the Athenian Cleon and the Spartan Brasidas are both killed. 421 BC: The Peace of Nicias puts a temporary end to the hostilities between Athens and Sparta. 420 BC: Alcibiades is elected strategos of Athens and begins dominating Athenian politics. 410s BC 419 BC: The Peace of Nicias is broken when Sparta defeats Argos. 418 BC: The Spartans win a major victory over the Athenians in the Battle of Mantinea, the biggest land battle of the Peloponnesian War. 416 BC: The Athenians capture the island of Melos and treat the inhabitants with great cruelty. 416 BC: The Athenians adhere to a plea of help from Sicily and start planning an invasion of the island. 415 BC: The sacred Hermae busts in Athens are mutilated just before the expedition to Sicily is sent away. One of the culprits, Andocides, is captured and is forced to turn informer. He names the other mutilators, among them Alcibiades, who are sentenced to death in their absence. 415 BC: Alcibiades defects from Athens to Sparta after having learned about his death sentence. 414 BC: The Athenians try to make a breakthrough in their siege of Syracuse but are defeated by the Spartans. 413 BC: Demosthenes suggests the Athenians leave Syracuse in order to return to Athens, where help is needed. However, Nicias refuses and they are again defeated in battle by the Spartans. Both Demosthenes and Nicias are killed. 413 BC: Caria allies itself with Sparta. 412 BC: The Persian Empire starts preparing an invasion of Ionia and signs a treaty with Sparta about it. 411 BC: The democracy in Athens is overthrown and replaced by the oligarchic Council of Four Hundred. This council is itself soon defeated and order is almost restored, when the Five Thousand start ruling. Early next year, they are also overthrown and the old democracy is restored. 410 BC: Athens regains control over its vital grain route from the Black Sea by defeating Sparta in the Battle of Cyzicus. 400s BC 409 BC: Athens recaptures Byzantium, thereby putting an end to its revolt against Athens and taking control of the whole Bosporus. 409 BC: The city of Rhodes is founded. 409 BC: The Carthaginians invade Sicily. 408 BC: The Persian king, Darius II, decides to aid Sparta in the war and makes his son Cyrus a satrap. However, Cyrus starts collecting an army to benefit his own interests, rather than his father's. 408 BC: Alcibiades returns to Athens in triumph after an absence of seven years. 407 BC: The Athenian fleet is routed by the Spartan one in the Battle of Notium, which gives Alcibiades' opponents a reason to strip him of command. He never returns to Athens again. 406 BC: Athens defeats Sparta in the Battle of Arginusae and the blockade of Conon is lifted. 406 BC: Sparta sues for peace, but Athens rejects this. 406 BC: The Carthaginians once again invade Sicily and return to Carthage with spoils of war, but also with the plague. 405 BC: The Spartan king Pausanias lays siege to Athens, which makes the city start starving. 405 BC: Dionysius the Elder rises to power in Syracuse. He signs a peace with Carthage and starts consolidating and expanding his influence. April 25, 404 BC: Athens surrenders to Sparta, ending the Peloponnesian War. Sparta introduces an oligarchic system, the Thirty Tyrants, in Athens. 404 BC: Egypt rebels against Persian rule. 403 BC: The Chinese state of Jin is divided into three smaller nations. 403 BC: The first hydraulic engineering in China for a large irrigation canal system is designed by Ximen Bao. 403 BC: Some exiled Athenians return to fight the Thirty Tyrants and restore democracy in Athens. They are, however, narrowly defeated by the Spartans in the Battle of Piraeus. After this, the Spartan king Pausanias allows democracy to be restored in Athens. 403 BC: Thrasybulus restores the Athenian democracy and grants an almost general amnesty. 403 BC: The Athenians adopt the Ionian alphabet. 401 BC: Cyrus the Younger rebels against the Persian king Artaxerxes II but is, however, eventually slain in battle. 400 BC: After Cyrus has been killed, his Greek mercenaries make their way back to Greece, where Sparta is so impressed with their feats in and march through Persia that they declare war on the Persians. 400 BC: The Carthaginians occupy Malta. 400 BC: The Egyptians successfully revolt against Persian rule. 400 BC: London has its origins as far back as this time. 400 BC: Jōmon period ends in Ancient Japan. Inventions, discoveries, introductions Cast iron is first used in the Chinese Kingdom of Wu with the innovation of the blast furnace, and soon becomes widespread for agricultural tools and weapons during the Warring States. Trebuchet catapult is first used by followers of the Chinese philosopher Mozi. The Greeks invent the Anchor with flukes. The Greeks start to use shear-leg cranes for construction and loading of ships. The Greeks invent linear perspective. The Greeks develop an indirect lost wax process for casting bronze. The Chinese hydraulic engineer Ximen Bao (西門豹) oversees an enormous canal system for agricultural irrigation, while employed by Marquis Wen of Wei (文侯) (445 BC–396 BC). The Chinese philosopher Li Kui writes the Book of Law (Fajing, 法经) in 407 BC, the basis for the law codes of the following Qin Dynasty and partially that of the Han Dynasty. Scholars commonly accept that the Hindu text the Bhagavad Gita was written. Creation of the Berlin Foundry Cup (early 5th century). The oldest known Maya Calendar Sovereign states See: List of sovereign states in the 5th century BC. References -5 -95

Year 1000 (M) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the proleptic Gregorian calendar, it was a non-leap century year starting on Wednesday (like 1800). It was also the last year of the 10th century as well as the last year of the 1st millennium of the Christian Era ending on December 31, but the first year of the 1000s decade. The year falls well into the period of Old World history known as the Middle Ages; in Europe, it is sometimes and by convention considered the boundary date between the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. The Muslim world was in its Golden Age. China was in its Song dynasty, Korea was in its Goryeo dynasty, Japan was in its classical Heian period. India was divided into a number of lesser empires, such as the Chalukya Empire, Pala Empire (Kamboja Pala dynasty; Mahipala), Chola dynasty (Raja Raja Chola I), Yadava dynasty, etc. Sub-Saharan Africa was still in the prehistoric period, although trans Saharan slave trade was beginning to be an important factor in the formation of the Sahelian kingdoms. The pre-Columbian New World was in a time of general transition in many regions. Wari and Tiwanaku cultures receded in power and influence while Chachapoya and Chimú cultures rose toward florescence in South America. In Mesoamerica, the Maya Terminal Classic period saw the decline of many grand polities of the Petén like Palenque and Tikal yet a renewed vigor and greater construction phases of sites in the Yucatán region like Chichén Itzá and Uxmal. Mitla, with Mixtec influence, became the more important site of the Zapotec, overshadowing the waning Monte Albán. Cholula flourished in central Mexico, as did Tula, the center of Toltec culture. World population is estimated to have been between c. 250 and 310 million. Events Japan Palace Scandal: Princess Consort Yasuko has an affair. Michinaga (her half-brother) investigates it secretly and finds out the truth about her pregnancy. Yasuko cries a lot and repents what she did. Yasuko leaves the palace under the patronage of Empress Dowager Senshi and Michinaga (moved to his residence). Murasaki Shikibu starts to write The Tale of Genji. 10 January: Death of Empress Dowager Masako (empress consort of the late Emperor Reizei) 8 April: Fujiwara no Shoshi is promoted to Empress (Chugu), while there is an other empress, Fujiwara no Teishi (kogo) - this is the first time that there are two empresses Americas The Taíno have become the dominant culture of modern day Puerto Rico Christendom In continental Europe, the Holy Roman Empire established itself as the most powerful state. The Holy Roman Emperor Otto III made a pilgrimage from Rome to Aachen and Gniezno (Gnesen), stopping at Regensburg, Meissen, Magdeburg, and Gniezno. The Congress of Gniezno (with Bolesław I Chrobry) was part of his pilgrimage. In Rome, he built the basilica of San Bartolomeo all'Isola, to host the relics of St. Bartholomew. In the Kingdom of France, Robert II, the son of Hugh Capet, was the first King of the Capetian royal dynasty. The Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty was engaged in a long and hard war with the First Bulgarian Empire. In the year 1000, the Byzantine generals Theodorokanos and Nikephoros Xiphias captured the former Bulgarian capitals of Pliska and Great Preslav, along with Little Preslav, extending Byzantine control over the northeastern portion of the Bulgarian state (Mysia and Scythia Minor). At the same time, Byzantium was instrumental in the Christianization of the Kievan Rus' and of other medieval confederations of Slavic states. In Great Britain, a unified Kingdom of England had developed out of the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In Scandinavia, Christianization was in its early stages, with the Althingi of the Icelandic Commonwealth embracing Christianity in the year 1000. On September 9, the King of Norway, Olaf Tryggvason, was defeated by the Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden in the Battle of Svolder. Sweyn I established Danish control over part of Norway. The city of Oslo was founded in Norway (the exact year is debatable, but the 1,000 year anniversary was held in the year 2000). It is known that in or around this year, Norse explorer Leif Erikson became the first European to land in the Americas, at L'Anse aux Meadows in modern-day Newfoundland. The papacy during this time was in a period of decline, in retrospect known as the saeculum obscurum ("Dark Age") or "pornocracy" ("rule of harlots"), a state of affairs that would result in the Great Schism between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy later in the 11th century. The Kingdom of Hungary was established in 1000 as a Christian state. In the next centuries, the Kingdom of Hungary became the pre-eminent cultural power in the Central European region. On December 25, Stephen I was crowned as the first King of Hungary in Esztergom. Sancho III of Navarre became King of Aragon and Navarre. The Reconquista was gaining some ground, but the southern Iberian peninsula would still be dominated by Islam for centuries to come; Córdoba at this time was the world's largest city with 450,000 inhabitants. In the Kingdom of Croatia the army of the Republic of Venice lead by Doge Pietro II Orseolo conquered the island of Lastovo. The Château de Goulaine vineyard was founded in France. The archdiocese in Gniezno was founded; the first archbishop was Gaudentius (Radim), from Slavník's dynasty, and dioceses in Kołobrzeg, Kraków and Wrocław. The Bell foundry was founded in Italy by Pontificia Fonderia Marinelli. Muslim world The Islamic world was in its Golden Age; still organised in caliphates, it continued to be dominated by the Abbasid Caliphate, with the Caliphate of Córdoba to the west, and experienced ongoing campaigns in Africa and in India. Persia was in a period of instability, with various polities seceding from Abassid rule, among whom the Ghaznavids would emerge as the most powerful. The Islamic world was reaching the peak of its historical scientific achievements. Important scholars and scientists who flourished in AD 1000 include Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), Ibn Yunus (publishes his astronomical treatise Al-Zij al-Hakimi al-Kabir in Cairo in c. 1000), Abu Sahl al-Quhi (Kuhi), Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, Abu Nasr Mansur, Abu al-Wafa, Ahmad ibn Fadlan, Al-Muqaddasi, Ali Ibn Isa, and al-Karaji (al-Karkhi). Ibn al-Haytham (Book of Optics), Avicenna, and Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, who all flourished around the year 1000, are considered to be among the greatest scientists of the Middle Ages altogether. The Turkic migration by this time had reached Eastern Europe, and most of the Turkic tribes (Khazars, Bulghars, Pechenegs etc.) had been Islamized. Babylon abandoned Babylon was abandoned around this year. Largest cities Córdoba, Caliphate of Córdoba – 450,000 Kaifeng, Song Dynasty (China) – 400,000 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire – 300,000 Angkor, Khmer Empire (Cambodia) – 200,000 Kyoto, Heian Period (Japan) – 175,000 Cairo, Fatimid Caliphate – 135,000 Baghdad, Buyid Dynasty (Iraq) – 125,000 Nishapur, Ghaznavid Dynasty (Iran) – 125,000 Al-Hasa, Qarmatian State (Arabia) – 110,000 Patan, Chaulukya Dynasty (India) – 100,000 Births June 22 – Robert I, duke of Normandy (d. 1035) Adalbert, duke of Upper Lorraine (d. 1048) Adalbert, archbishop of Hamburg (d. 1072) Argyrus, Byzantine general (approximate date) Berthold II, duke of Carinthia (approximate date) Constantine IX, Byzantine emperor (d. 1055) Dominic of Silos, Spanish abbot (d. 1073) Egbert, German Benedictine abbot (d. 1058) Duthac, patron saint of Tain (Scotland) (d. 1065) Gilbert, Norman nobleman (approximate date) Guigues I, French nobleman (approximate date) Irmgardis, German noblewoman and saint John Mauropous, Byzantine hymnographer Kyiso, Burmese king of the Pagan Dynasty (d. 1038) Liudolf, German nobleman (approximate date) Lý Thái Tông, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1054) Michael I, Byzantine patriarch (approximate date) Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi, Fatimid scholar (d. 1078) Otto Bolesławowic, Polish prince (d. 1033) Qawam al-Dawla, Buyid governor (d. 1028) Robert de Turlande, French priest (d. 1067) Rotho, bishop of Paderborn (approximate date) Sylvester III, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1063) Uta von Ballenstedt, margravine of Meissen William V, count of Auvergne (d. 1064) Yi Yuanji. Chinese painter (approximate date) Deaths May 17 – Ramwold, German Benedictine monk and abbot September 9 – Olaf Tryggvason (or Olaf I), king of Norway Abu'l Haret Ahmad, Farighunid ruler (approximate date) Abu-Mahmud Khojandi, Persian astronomer and mathematician Abū Sahl al-Qūhī, Persian physician, mathematician and astronomer Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi, Persian physician Ahmad ibn Fadlan, Arab traveller and writer (approximate date) Ælfthryth, English queen and wife of Edgar I (approximate date) Barjawan, vizier and regent of the Fatimid Caliphate Fantinus (the Younger), Italian hermit and abbot García Sáchez II, king of Pamplona (approximate date) Gosse Ludigman, governor (potestaat) of Friesland Huyan Zan, Chinese general of the Song Dynasty Ivar of Waterford, Norse Viking king of Dublin Jacob ibn Jau, Andalusian-Jewish silk-manufacturer Judah ben David Hayyuj, Moroccan-Jewish linguist Malfrida, Russian Grand Princess consort of Kiev Manfred I, Frankish nobleman (approximate date) Masako, Japanese empress consort (b. 950) Minamoto no Shigeyuki, Japanese waka poet Shahriyar III, Bavand ruler of Tabaristan Tyra of Denmark, queen consort of Norway Ukhtanes of Sebastia, Armenian historian Wulfhilda of Barking, English nun and abbess See also References Robert Lacey and Danny Danziger The Year 1000: What Life Was Like at the Turn of the First Millennium (1999) John Man Atlas of the Year 1000 (1999) 1000

The 1680s decade ran from January 1, 1680, to December 31, 1689. References

Events January–March January 13 – The U.S. Congress enacts a law providing for, effective May 1, 1795, a United States flag of 15 stars and 15 stripes, in recognition of the recent admission of Vermont and Kentucky as the 14th and 15th states. A subsequent act restores the number of stripes to 13, but provides for additional stars upon the admission of each additional state. January 21 – King George III of Great Britain delivers the speech opening Parliament and recommends a continuation of Britain's war with France. February 4 – French Revolution: The National Convention of the French First Republic abolishes slavery. February 8 – Wreck of the Ten Sail on Grand Cayman. February 11 – The first session of the United States Senate is open to the public. March 4 – The Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution is passed by Congress for submission to the states for ratification. March 11 – Canonsburg Academy (modern-day Washington & Jefferson College) is chartered by the Pennsylvania General Assembly. March 12 – General Antoni Madaliński, a commander of the National Cavalry in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, disobeys an order from the ruling Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia imposing demobilization, advancing his troops from Ostrołęka to Kraków. March 14 – Eli Whitney is granted a United States patent for the cotton gin. March 22 – Congress prohibits American ships from supplying slaves to any nation other than the United States, setting a penalty of forfeiture of the ship and a $2,000 fine. March 23 – British troops capture Martinique from the French. March 24 – Tadeusz Kościuszko makes his proclamation, starting the Kościuszko Uprising against the Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia, in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussian Partition. March 26 – The U.S. lays a 60-day embargo on all shipping to and from Great Britain. March 27 The United States Government authorizes the building of the first six United States Navy vessels (in 1797 the first three frigates, , and go into service), not to be confused with October 13, 1775, which is observed as the Navy's Birthday. The U.S. Senate passes a rule ending its policy of closing all of its sessions to the public. April–June April 4 – Battle of Racławice: Polish supporters of the Kościuszko Uprising defeat forces of the Russian Empire. April 5 – French Revolution: Reign of Terror – Georges Danton is executed. April 17–19 – Kościuszko Uprising – Warsaw Uprising: The Polish people overthrow the Russian garrison in Warsaw. April 19 – Britain, Prussia and the Netherlands sign a treaty of alliance against France. April 28 – Sardinian Vespers: The people of Cagliari in Sardinia oust the viceroy and his Piedmontese functionaries. April 29–May 1 – Battle of Boulou: The French defeat the Spanish and Portuguese forces. May 7 – French Revolution: Robespierre establishes the Cult of the Supreme Being as the new state religion of the French First Republic. May 8 – French Revolution: Reign of Terror – Chemist Antoine Lavoisier is tried, convicted and executed by guillotine in Paris, on the same day as with 27 co-defendants also associated with the former ferme générale. May 18 – Battle of Tourcoing: French troops defeat British forces. May 28–June 1 – The Glorious First of June (Battle of Ushant): The British win a crushing tactical victory over the French fleet, but the merchant convoy escorted by the French fleet arrives safely in France. June 4– British troops capture Port-au-Prince in Haiti from the French. June 17 The Anglo-Corsican Kingdom is established. Battle of Mykonos: The British Royal Navy captures . June 24 – Bowdoin College is founded in Brunswick, Maine. June 26 – Battle of Fleurus: French forces defeat the Austrians and their allies, leading to permanent loss of the Austrian Netherlands and destruction of the Dutch Republic. French use of an observation balloon marks the first participation of an aircraft in battle. June–July – Mount Vesuvius erupts in Italy; the town of Torre del Greco is destroyed. July–September July 12 – Horatio Nelson loses the sight in his right eye, in the British Siege of Calvi in Corsica. July 13 – Battle of Trippstadt between French forces and those of Prussia and Austria (First Coalition). July 13–September 6 – Kościuszko Uprising: Siege of Warsaw – The Polish people resist a siege by armies of the Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia. July 17 – The sixteen Carmelite Martyrs of Compiègne are executed 10 days prior to the end of the French Revolution's Reign of Terror. July 27 (9 Thermidor) – French Revolution – Thermidorian Reaction: Maximilien, Augustin Robespierre and Saint-Just are arrested on the orders of the French National Convention; they are executed the next day, ending the French Revolution's Reign of Terror. August – Colombian Antonio Nariño is denounced as a traitor after he translates and publishes the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. August 1 – Aristocrats in Sweden gather to mourn the demise of coffee after the beverage is forbidden by royal decree. August 20 – Battle of Fallen Timbers in Northwestern Ohio: American troops under the command of General Anthony Wayne (nicknamed "Mad Anthony") defeat Native American tribes of the Western Confederacy. August 21 – British troops capture Corsica following the bombardment by Nelson. August 29 – Stonyhurst College is finally established as a Roman Catholic school in Lancashire, England, having had several European locations. September 10 – The University of Tennessee is established at Knoxville. September 23 – France occupies Aachen. September 28 – Austria, Britain and Russia ally against France. October–December October 2 – Battle of Aldenhoven between French forces and those of Austria. October 4 – In the first and only instance of an incumbent United States president leading men into battle, George Washington arrives at Carlisle, Pennsylvania to guide the U.S. Army's suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion. The rebels soon disperse and the insurrection collapses by the end of the month. October 10 – Battle of Maciejowice: Forces of the Russian Empire defeat Polish supporters of the Kościuszko Uprising; Tadeusz Kościuszko is wounded and captured. October 22 – Fort Wayne founded in what is now the U.S. state of Indiana. November 4 – Battle of Praga: Russian General Alexander Suvorov storms Warsaw in the war against the Polish Kościuszko Uprising and captures Praga, one of its suburbs, killing many civilians. November 14 – The first recorded meeting of the Franklin Literary Society is held at Canonsburg Academy (modern-day Washington & Jefferson College). November 19 – The United States and Great Britain sign the Jay Treaty (coming into effect 1796), which attempts to clear up some issues left over from the American Revolutionary War and secures a decade of peaceful trade between the two nations. Britain agrees to evacuate border forts in the Northwest Territory (roughly the area north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi) and thereby end British support for the Indians. November 20 – Battle of St-Laurent-de-la-Muga fought between French and Spanish forces. December 8 – The Great New Orleans Fire (1794) burns over 200 buildings in the French Quarter. December 23 – St. Louis Cathedral, New Orleans is dedicated. Date unknown The Ayrshire (Earl of Carrick's Own) Yeomanry, a British Yeomanry Cavalry Regiment, is formed by the Earl of Cassillis at Culzean Castle, Ayrshire. The Oban distillery is built in Scotland. Births January 7 – Eilhard Mitscherlich, German chemist (d. 1863) February 11 – Charlotta Eriksson, Swedish actor (d. 1862) February 20 – William Carleton, Irish novelist (d. 1869) February 21 – Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mexican general and President of Mexico (d. 1876) March 5 Robert Cooper Grier, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1870) Joseph Livesey, English temperance movement campaigner (d. 1884) April 10 – Matthew Calbraith Perry, American commodore (d. 1858) April 11 – Edward Everett, American politician (d. 1865) May 17 – Anna Brownell Jameson, British writer (d. 1860) May 24 – William Whewell, English scientist, philosopher and historian of science (d. 1866) May 27 – Cornelius Vanderbilt, American entrepreneur (d. 1877) June 16 – María Trinidad Sánchez, heroine of the Dominican War of Independence (d. 1846) July 5 – Sylvester Graham, American nutritionist, inventor (d. 1851) July 7 – Frances Stackhouse Acton, British botanist, archaeologist, writer and artist (d. 1881) July 18 – Feargus O'Connor, Irish political radical, Chartist leader (d. 1855) July 28 – Charles Longley, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1868) August 8 – Francesco Puccinotti, Italian pathologist (d. 1872) September 24 – Jeanne Villepreux-Power, French marine biologist (d. 1871) November 3 – William Cullen Bryant, American poet (d. 1878) November 10 – Robert Towns, merchant, founder of Townsville, Queensland, Australia (d. 1873) Date unknown Caroline Howard Gilman, American author (d. 1888) Gustafva Lindskog, Swedish athlete (d. 1851) Deaths January 4 – Nicolas Luckner, Marshal of France (executed) (b. 1722) January 6 Pierre Bouchet, French physician (b. 1752) Maurice d'Elbée, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1752) January 8 – Justus Möser, German statesman (b. 1720) January 11 – Caroline Townshend, 1st Baroness Greenwich, English peeress (b. 1717) January 16 – Edward Gibbon, English historian (b. 1737) January 28 – Henri de la Rochejaquelein, French Revolutionary leader (b. 1772) January 31 – Mariot Arbuthnot, British admiral (b. 1711) February 10 – Jacques Roux, French priest (b. 1752) February 12 – Mahadaji Shinde, Maratha emperor of India (1764–1794) March 24 – Jacques Hébert, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1757) March 28 – Marquis de Condorcet, French mathematician, philosopher and political scientist (died in prison) (b. 1743) April 5 Georges Danton, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1759) Camille Desmoulins, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1760) Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1759) Fabre d'Églantine, French dramatist, revolutionary (executed) (b. 1750) François Joseph Westermann, French Revolutionary leader and general (executed) (b. 1751) April 13 Pierre Gaspard Chaumette, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1763) Lucile Duplessis, wife of Camille Desmoulins (executed) (b. 1770) April 18 – Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1714) April 23 – Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French statesman (executed) (b. 1721) April 27 James Bruce, Scottish explorer (b. 1730) Sir William Jones, British philologist (b. 1746) May 8 – Antoine Lavoisier, French chemist (executed) (b. 1743) May 10 – Élisabeth of France, French princess (executed) (b. 1764) May 17 – Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 9th Baronet (b. 1752) May 27 – Mary Palmer, English writer (b. 1716) June 14 – Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Marquess of Hertford, Viceroy of Ireland (b. 1718) June 17 – Marguerite-Élie Guadet, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1753) June 18 François Buzot, French Revolutionary leader (suicide) (b. 1760) James Murray, British military officer, administrator June 19 – Richard Henry Lee, 12th President of the Continental Congress (b. 1732) June 25 – Jean-Olivier Briand, French-born Catholic bishop of Quebec (b. 1715) June 27 Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, Austrian statesman (b. 1711) Philippe de Noailles, French soldier (executed) (b. 1715) Victor de Broglie, French soldier (executed) (b. 1756) July 13 – James Lind, British pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy (b. 1716) July 17 – John Roebuck, English inventor (b. 1718) July 23 – Alexandre de Beauharnais, French politician and general (executed) (b. 1760) July 25 André Chénier, French writer (executed) (b. 1762) Joseph Frye, American general (b. 1712) July 28 Maximilien Robespierre, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1758) Augustin Robespierre, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1763) Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1767) Jean-Baptiste de Lavalette, French general (executed) (b. 1753) François Hanriot, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1761) August 6 – Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, British politician (b. 1714) August 14 – Jacoba van den Brande, Dutch cultural personality (b. 1735) August 17 – Countess Palatine Elisabeth Auguste of Sulzbach, politically active Electress of Bavaria (b. 1721) September 1 – Catherine Théot, French visionary (b. 1716) September 4 – John Hely-Hutchinson, Irish statesman (b. 1724) September 15 – Abraham Clark, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1725) September 16 – Hester Bateman, English silversmith (bap. 1708) September 25 – Paul Rabaut, French Huguenot pastor (b. 1718) October 21 Francis Light, founder of the British colony of Penang (b. 1740) Antoine Petit, French physician (b. 1722) November 3 – François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis, French cardinal, statesman (b. 1715) November 9 – Thomas Walker, distinguished Virginia physician, explorer (b. 1715) November 15 Countess Palatine Maria Franziska of Sulzbach, German aristocrat (b. 1724) John Witherspoon, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1723) November 22 John Alsop, American Continental Congressman (b. 1724) Alison Cockburn, British poet (b. 1712) November 28 Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, Prussian army officer (b. 1730) Sir James Tylney-Long, 7th Baronet, English politician (b. 1736) December 2 – Johann Gottlob Leidenfrost, German physician (b. 1715) December 12 – Meshullam Feivush Heller, Austrian Hasidic author (b. c. 1742) December 16 – Jean-Baptiste Carrier, French Revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1756) References

Events January–March January 6 – American-born British citizen Elihu Yale, for whom Yale University in the U.S. is named, completes his term as the first leader of the Madras Presidency in India, administering the colony on behalf of the East India Company, and is succeeded by William Gyfford. January 8 – Almost 200 people are arrested in Coventry by English authorities for gathering to hear readings of the sermons of the non-conformist Protestant minister Obadiah Grew February 4 – A treaty is signed between Brandenburg-Prussia and the indigenous chiefs at Takoradi in what is now Ghana to permit the German colonists to build a third fort on the Brandenburger Gold Coast. February 6 – Catholic James Stuart, Duke of York, becomes King James II of England and Ireland, and King James VII of Scotland, in succession to his brother Charles II (1660–1685), King of England, Scotland, and Ireland since 1660. James II and VII reigns until deposed, in 1688. February 20 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, intending to establish a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi River, lands with 200 surviving colonists at Matagorda Bay on the Texas coast, believing the Mississippi to be near. He establishes Fort St. Louis. February–March – Morean War (part of the Great Turkish War): The Ottoman serasker Halil Pasha invades the Mani Peninsula, and forces it to surrender hostages. March 28 – An attack on a Mughal Empire envoy, Khwajah Abdur Rahim, outside of the Maratha fortress at the Bijapur Fort in India leads to a siege of the city by the forces of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. The siege lasts for 15 months before Bijapur surrenders. March – Louis XIV of France passes the Code Noir, allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies. April–June April 16 – Wara Dhammaraza becomes the new King of Arakan on the western coast of Burma upon the death of his brother, Thiri Thuriya. April 23 – The coronation of King James II of England (and his Queen Consort, Mary of Modena) takes place at Westminster Abbey. May 7 – Morean War – Battle on Vrtijeljka: Advancing Ottoman forces prevail over defending Venetian irregulars, on a hill in the Sanjak of Montenegro. May 11 – The Killing Time: Five Covenanters in Wigtown, Scotland, notably Margaret Wilson, are executed for refusing to swear an oath declaring King James of England, Scotland and Ireland as head of the church, becoming the Wigtown martyrs. June 11 – Monmouth Rebellion: James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, illegitimate son of King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland, lands at Lyme Regis with an invasion force brought from the Netherlands, to challenge his uncle, James II, for the Crown of England. June 20 – Monmouth Rebellion: James, Duke of Monmouth declares himself at Taunton to be King, and heir to his father's Kingdoms as James II of England and Ireland, and James VII of Scotland. July–September July 6 – Monmouth Rebellion: In the Battle of Sedgemoor, the last pitched battle fought on English soil, the armies of King James II of England defeat rebel forces under James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, and capture the Duke himself shortly after the battle. July 15 – James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, is executed at Tower Hill, London, England. August 11 – Morean War: The Republic of Venice captures the fortress of Koroni from the Ottoman Empire; its garrison is massacred. August 25 – The Bloody Assizes begin in Winchester: Lord Chief Justice of England George Jeffreys tries over 1000 of Monmouth's rebels and condemns them to death or transportation. September 14 – Morean War: The Republic of Venice defeats an Ottoman army at Kalamata. September 29 – The first organised street lighting is introduced by the city of London in England, as Edward Hemming begins carrying out his contract to be paid for lighting an oil lamp "at every tenth house on main streets between 6 PM and midnight between September 29 and March 25" on nights in the autumn and winter without adequate moonlight. October–December October 22 – Louis XIV of France issues the Edict of Fontainebleau, which revokes the Edict of Nantes and declares Protestantism illegal, thereby depriving Huguenots of civil rights. Their Temple de Charenton-le-Pont is immediately demolished and many flee to England, Prussia and elsewhere. November 8 (October 29 O.S.) – The Edict of Potsdam is issued by Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg in response to France's Edict of Fontainebleau, welcoming the Protestant Huguenots of France to resettle in eastern Germany in Brandenburg. The French Colony of Magdeburg is established on December 1 in Saxony as a community separate from Magdeburg. November 11 – Morean War: The Republic of Venice captures the fortress town of Igoumenitsa from the Ottoman Empire, and razes it to the ground. December 3 – King Charles XI of Sweden issues an order banning Jews from settling in Sweden, particularly in the capital at Stockholm "on account of the danger of the eventual influence of the Jewish religion on the pure evangelical faith." December 10 – In what is now Thailand, King Narai of Ayutthaya signs a treaty with representatives of France at Lopburi, allowing Roman Catholic missionaries to preach the Gospel and exempting Thai Catholics from work on Sunday, as well as appointing a special court to settle disputes between Thai Christians and non-Christians. Date unknown The Chinese army of the Qing dynasty attacks a Russian post at Albazin, during the reigns of the Kangxi Emperor and the dual Russian rulers Ivan V of Russia and Peter I of Russia. The event leads to the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689. Adam Baldridge finds a pirate base at Île Sainte-Marie, Madagascar. The Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow in the State of New York is constructed by the original Dutch settlers (later to become famous as the site of the rampage of the "Headless Horseman" spirit in the novel The Legend of Sleepy Hollow). Births January 1 – Joseph Burroughs, English minister (d. 1761) January 6 – Manuel de Montiano, Spanish colonial administrator (d. 1762) January 7 Jonas Alströmer, Swedish pioneer of agriculture and industry (d. 1761) George Clifford III, Dutch banker and gardener (d. 1760) January 9 – Tiberius Hemsterhuis, Dutch philologist and critic (d. 1766) January 24 – Giuseppe Alessandro Furietti, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1764) February 6 – Sir John Rushout, 4th Baronet, England (d. 1775) February 8 – Charles-Jean-François Hénault, French writer and historian (d. 1770) February 9 – Francesco Loredan, Doge of Venice (d. 1762) February 10 – Aaron Hill (writer), English dramatist and miscellaneous writer (d. 1750) February 12 – George Hadley, English lawyer and amateur meteorologist (d. 1768) February 23 – George Frideric Handel, German composer (d. 1759) February 24 – Hieronymus Pez, Austrian historian (d. 1762) March 2 – Moses Williams (antiquarian), Welsh scholar (d. 1742) March 11 William Flower, 1st Baron Castle Durrow, Irish politician (d. 1746) Jean-Pierre Nicéron, French encyclopedist (d. 1738) March 12 – George Berkeley, Irish philosopher (d. 1753) March 13 – Johann Paul Schiffelholz, German Baroque composer (d. 1758) March 17 – Jean-Marc Nattier, French painter (d. 1766) March 18 – Ralph Erskine (preacher), Scottish churchman (d. 1752) March 24 – John Fane, 7th Earl of Westmorland, British politician (d. 1762) March 26 Germain Louis Chauvelin, French politician (d. 1762) Johann Alexander Thiele, German painter (d. 1752) March 27 – Simon Hatley, English sailor (d. 1723) March 31 – Johann Sebastian Bach, German composer (d. 1750) April 4 – Claude Sallier, French librarian (d. 1761) April 18 – Jacques-Pierre de Taffanel de la Jonquière, Marquis de la Jonquière, French admiral, colonial administrator (d. 1752) April 24 – Cosimo Imperiali, Italian cardinal (d. 1764) April 30 – Hermann Friedrich Teichmeyer, German botanist (d. 1746) May 4 – Akdun, Chinese Manchu statesman (d. 1756) May 6 – Sophia Louise of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Prussian queen consort (d. 1735) May 19 – Neri Maria Corsini, Italian Catholic priest and cardinal (d. 1770) June 6 – Spencer Phips, Acting governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (d. 1757) June 10 – Harry Grey, 3rd Earl of Stamford, English peer (d. 1739) June 11 – Thomas Wedgwood III, English potter, father of Josiah Wedgwood (d. 1739) June 14 – Princess Charlotte Wilhelmine of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, countess by marriage of Hanau-Münzenberg (d. 1767) June 23 – Antonio Bernacchi, Italian opera singer (d. 1756) June 24 – Hans von Lehwaldt, German general (d. 1768) June 30 John Gay, English writer (d. 1732) Dominikus Zimmermann, German Rococo architect, stuccoist (d. 1766) July 3 – Sir Robert Rich, 4th Baronet, British cavalry officer (d. 1768) July 22 – Henrik Magnus von Buddenbrock, Swedish general, noble (d. 1743) July 28 – Richard Newport (MP) (d. 1716) August 6 – Martin Bouquet, French Benedictine monk and historian (d. 1754) August 7 – Claude Lamoral, 6th Prince of Ligne, Austrian Field Marshal (d. 1766) August 8 – Claude Joseph Geoffroy, brother of Étienne François Geoffroy (d. 1752) August 15 – Jacob Theodor Klein, German scholar (d. 1759) August 18 – Brook Taylor, English mathematician (d. 1731) September 2 – Christiane Charlotte of Nassau-Ottweiler, Countess, later Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg (d. 1761) September 3 – Charles Powlett, 3rd Duke of Bolton (d. 1754) September 4 – Johann Adolf II, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels (d. 1746) September 14 – Didier Diderot, French craftsman (d. 1759) September 16 – Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt, German scientist (d. 1735) September 17 Joshua Allen, 2nd Viscount Allen, Irish politician (d. 1742) Charles August, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg (1719-1753) (d. 1753) Robert Marsham, 1st Baron Romney, British politician (d. 1724) Uvedale Tomkins Price, British politician (d. 1764) September 20 – Giuseppe Matteo Alberti, Italian Baroque composer and violinist (d. 1751) September 29 – George Brudenell, 3rd Earl of Cardigan (d. 1732) October 1 – Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1740) October 13 – Henri François Le Dran, French surgeon (d. 1770) October 15 – Diederik van Domburg, 23rd Governor of Zeylan, during the Dutch period in Ceylon (d. 1736) October 21 – George Forbes, 3rd Earl of Granard, English Royal Navy admiral (d. 1765) October 26 – Domenico Scarlatti, Italian composer (d. 1757) October 28 – Hans Gram (historian), Danish historian (d. 1748) October 31 – John Murray, 2nd Earl of Dunmore, Scottish soldier and peer (d. 1752) November 3 – François Roettiers, Flemish engraver, medallist, painter, sculptor (d. 1742) November 5 – Peter Angelis, French painter (d. 1734) November 7 Jared Eliot, Connecticut farmer, author on horticulture (d. 1763) Georg Lenck, German musician (d. 1744) November 10 – Duncan Forbes, Lord Culloden, Scottish politician, judge (d. 1747) November 11 Lucrezia Elena Cevoli, Italian Catholic professed religious of the Capuchin Poor Clares (d. 1767) Jean Charles de Saint-Nectaire, French general (d. 1771) November 15 – Balthasar Denner, German artist (d. 1749) November 17 – Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, French Canadian military officer (d. 1749) November 24 – Princess Dorothea of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, German noble (d. 1761) November 25 – Eiler Hagerup d.e., Norwegian bishop (d. 1743) November 29 – John Willes (judge), English lawyer (d. 1761) December 6 – Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, wife of Louis, Dauphin of France, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1712) December 8 – Johann Maria Farina, Italian-born German perfumier (d. 1766) December 12 – Lodovico Giustini, Italian composer (d. 1743) December 17 – Thomas Tickell, minor English poet and man of letters (d. 1740) date unknown Marie Wulf, Danish Pietist leader (d. 1738) Henri-Guillaume Hamal, Walloon musician and composer (d. 1752) Aldegonde Jeanne Pauli, banker in the Austrian Netherlands (d. 1761) Mary Read, English-born pirate (d. 1721) Deaths January 2 – Harbottle Grimston, English politician (b. 1603) January 13 – Daniello Bartoli, Italian Jesuit priest (b. 1608) February 6 – King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland (b. 1630) February 11 – David Teniers III, Flemish painter (b. 1638) February 20 – Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Danish queen (b. 1628) February 24 Archduchess Isabella Clara of Austria, Austrian archduchess (b. 1629) Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Carlisle, English politician and military leader (b. 1629) March 6 – Sir Thomas Spencer, 3rd Baronet, English Member of Parliament (b. 1639) March 7 – Giles Hungerford, English politician (b. 1614) March 9 – Carpoforo Tencalla, Swiss-Italian Baroque painter of canvases and frescoes (b. 1623) March 11 – Klara Izabella Pacowa, politically active Polish court official (b. 1631) March 17 – Sir Richard Bulkeley, 1st Baronet, Irish politician (b. 1634) March 19 – René-François de Sluse, Walloon mathematician (b. 1622) March 22 – Emperor Go-Sai of Japan (b. 1638) March 25 – Nicolas Robert, French painter (b. 1614) March 30 – Friedrich Casimir, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1641–1680) and Hanau-Münzenberg (1642–1680) (b. 1623) March 31 – Juan Hidalgo de Polanco, Spanish composer (b. 1614) April – Adriaen van Ostade, Dutch painter and engraver (b. 1610) April 5 – Samuel Sandys, English politician (b. 1615) April 14 – Thomas Otway, English dramatist (b. 1652) May 11 – Margaret Wilson (Scottish martyr) (b. c. 1667) May 25 – Sir John Marsham, 1st Baronet, English politician (b. 1602) May 26 – Karl II, Elector Palatine (b. 1651) June 10 – Henry Goring, English politician (b. 1646) June 16 – Anne Killigrew, English poet and painter (b. 1660) June 26 – John Evelyn, English politician (b. 1601) June 30 – Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, Scottish peer (b. 1629) July 6 – Nicholas Pedley, English politician (b. 1615) July 15 – James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, illegitimate son of Charles II of England (beheaded) (b. 1649) July 28 – Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington, English statesman (b. 1618) August 8 – Giovanni Battista Salvi da Sassoferrato (b. 1609) September 1 – Leoline Jenkins, Welsh lawyer and diplomat (b. 1625) September 5 – Francis North, 1st Baron Guilford (b. 1637) September 9 – Richard Ingoldsby, English politician (b. 1617) September 17 – Arthur Spry, English politician (b. 1612) September 24 – Gustaf Otto Stenbock, Swedish soldier and politician (b. 1614) October 1 – Kanō Yasunobu, Japanese painter of the Kanō school of painting, during the Edo period (b. 1614) October 3 Juan Carreño de Miranda, Spanish artist (b. 1614) Johann Heinrich Roos, Dutch painter (b. 1631) October 12 Christoph Ignaz Abele, Austrian jurist (b. 1628) Gerard Brandt, Dutch historian (b. 1626) October 23 – Yamaga Sokō, Japanese philosopher (b. 1622) October 29 – Anne Wharton, English poet (b. 1659) October 30 – Michel Le Tellier, French statesman (b. 1603) November 4 – Girolamo Grimaldi-Cavalleroni, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1597) November 7 – Sir William Maynard, 1st Baronet, English politician (b. 1641) November 9 – Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti (b. 1661) November 18 – George Courthope, English politician (b. 1616) November 28 Maffeo Barberini, Prince of Palestrina (b. 1631) Nicolas de Neufville de Villeroy, Marshal of France (b. 1598) December 12 – John Pell, English mathematician (b. 1610) date unknown – Nalan Xingde, Chinese poet who became a scholar and officer in the Imperial Bodyguard (b. 1655) References

Year 146 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lentulus and Achaicus (or, less frequently, year 608 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 146 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Republic With Carthage and Greece conquered, Rome becomes the sole superpower in the Mediterranean world, a distinction it will continue to hold for approximately the next 600 years. Africa Spring – Carthage falls to Roman forces under Scipio Aemilianus and the city is completely destroyed. End of the Third Punic War. Greece Achaean War: The Romans conquer the Achaean League and southern Greece becomes a Roman province. Battle of Scarpheia: The Romans led by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus defeat an Achaean League force under Critolaus Battle of Corinth: The Romans under Lucius Mummius defeat the Achaean League near Corinth. Corinth is destroyed, and the Achaean League dissolved. By topic Astronomy Hipparchus determines the equinoctial point. Births Deaths Critolaus, general of the Achaean League Gentius, the last king of Illyria (approximate date) References

The 760s decade ran from January 1, 760, to December 31, 769. 0906398218 References

Events January–June February 22 – Native American Quadequine introduces popcorn to English colonists. March – Fedorovych Uprising: Zaporozhian Cossacks rebel against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and occupy a large part of modern-day Ukraine. After a number of indecisive skirmishes with a Polish army sent to pacify the region, the Treaty of Pereyaslav is signed, ending the uprising. March 3 – A fleet sent by the Dutch West India Company captures Recife from the Portuguese, establishing Dutch Brazil. March 9 – The 1630 Crete earthquake occurs. April 8 – Puritan migration to New England (1620-1640): Winthrop Fleet – The ship Arbella and three others set sail from the Solent in England, with 400 passengers under the leadership of John Winthrop, headed for the Massachusetts Bay Colony in America; seven more, with another 300 aboard, follow in the next few weeks. June – Scottish-born Presbyterian (and former physician) Alexander Leighton is brought before Archbishop William Laud's Star Chamber court in London for publishing the seditious pamphlet An Appeale to the Parliament, or, Sions Plea Against the Prelacy, an attack on Anglican bishops (printed in the Netherlands, 1628). He is sentenced to be pilloried and whipped, have his ears cropped, one side of his nose slit, and his face branded with "SS" (for "sower of sedition"), to be imprisoned, and be degraded from holy orders. June 6 – Swedish warships depart from Stockholm, Sweden for Central Europe. June 12 – Massachusetts Bay Colony founded, John Winthrop governor. June 14 – Passengers of the Arbella, including Anne Bradstreet, America's first poet of significance, finally set foot in the New World at Salem, Massachusetts. September 7 – Governor John Winthrop passed a resolution declaring "that Trimontaine" on Shawmut peninsula shall be called Boston from now on. July–December July – The Italian plague of 1629–31 reaches Venice. July 6 The Success, last ship of the Winthrop Fleet, lands safely at Salem harbor, Massachusetts Bay Colony. Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War begins when King Gustav Adolf of Sweden, leading an army of 13,000 on the Protestant side, makes landfall at Peenemünde, Pomerania. July 9 – Thirty Years' War: Stettin is taken by Swedish forces. July 18 – War of the Mantuan Succession: Mantua is sacked by an army of the Holy Roman Empire, led by Count Johann von Aldringen. July 30 – John Winthrop helps in founding a church in Massachusetts, which will later become known as First Church in Boston. August – Thirty Years' War: As a result of heavy pressure from the Prince-electors, Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, dismisses general Albrecht von Wallenstein from command of the Imperial Army. September 4 – Thirty Years' War: the Treaty of Stettin is signed by Sweden and the Duchy of Pomerania, forming a close alliance between them, as well as giving Sweden full military control over Pomerania. September 17 (September 7 Old Style) – The settlement of Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony is founded. September 24 – The first ship of de Sauce's emigrants arrive at Southampton Hundred, on the James River in Virginia. October 13 – War of the Mantuan Succession: the Peace of Regensburg is signed. Charles Gonzaga is confirmed as Duke of Mantua. October 18 – Frendraught Castle in Scotland, the home of James Crichton of Frendraught, burns down. November 10–12 – Day of the Dupes: Marie de' Medici unsuccessfully attempts to oust Cardinal Richelieu from the French Court. Date unknown Paramaribo (in modern-day Suriname) is first settled by the English. The Deccan Famine of 1630–32 in India begins; it will kill some two million. In the Mughal Empire, Shah Jahan's Pearl Mosque at Lahore Fort is consecrated (completed 1635). The central square of Covent Garden in London is laid out, and a market begins to develop there. Johann Heinrich Alsted's Encyclopaedia septem tomis distincta is published. Settlers leave Pannaway Plantation and begin to settle in Strawbery Banke which in 1653 is renamed Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Births January–March January 3 – Herbert Westfaling, English politician (d. 1705) January 5 – Manuel da Câmara III, Portuguese noble (d. 1673) January 10 – Edward Blaker, English politician (d. 1678) January 11 Charles Berkeley, 1st Earl of Falmouth, English noble, son of Charles Berkeley (d. 1665) John Rogers, English-born President of Harvard (d. 1684) January 13 – Ōta Suketsugu, Japanese daimyō (d. 1685) January 16 – Guru Har Rai, Sikh guru (d. 1661) January 18 – Andrew Balfour, Scottish doctor (d. 1694) January 20 – Philip Florinus of Sulzbach, Austrian field marshal (d. 1703) January 25 – Louis VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (1661–1678) (d. 1678) January 27 – Job Adriaenszoon Berckheyde, Dutch painter (d. 1693) February 8 – Pierre Daniel Huet, French churchman and scholar (d. 1721) February 12 – Cornelis Bisschop, Dutch painter (d. 1674) February 16 – Jan Vermeer van Utrecht, Dutch painter (d. 1696) February 19 – Shivaji, Indian warrior king, founder of the Maratha Empire (d. 1680) February 20 (bapt.) – Josefa de Óbidos, Spanish artist (d. 1684) March 23 – Ignace Cotolendi, French bishop (d. 1662) March 24 – José Saenz d'Aguirre, Spanish Catholic cardinal (d. 1699) March 25 – Thierry Beschefer, French Jesuit missionary (d. 1711) March 28 – Silvestro Valiero, Doge of Venice (d. 1700) April–June April 1 – Jacob Boreel, Dutch diplomat and politician (d. 1697) April 7 – Ulrik Christian Gyldenløve, commander-in-chief of the Danish army (d. 1658) April 16 – Lambert van Haven, Danish architect (d. 1695) April 21 – Pieter Gerritsz van Roestraten, Dutch painter (d. 1700) April 28 – Charles Cotton, English poet and writer (d. 1687) May 3 Thomas Rosewell, English minister (d. 1692) Jacob von Sandrart, German engraver (d. 1708) May 4 – Hendrik Schoock, Dutch painter (d. 1707) May 6 – Johan Hadorph, Swedish director-general of the Central Board of National Antiquities (d. 1693) May 12 – Jean-Baptiste de Santeul, French writer (d. 1697) May 17 – John Howe, English Puritan theologian (d. 1705) May 29 – King Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland (d. 1685) June 1 – Carlo Barberini, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1704) June 4 – Jacques Rousseau, French painter (d. 1693) June 7 – John Talbot of Lacock, English politician and general (d. 1714) June 8 – Wolf Caspar von Klengel, German architect in Saxony (d. 1691) June 10 – Willem van Bemmel, Dutch Golden Age painter (d. 1708) June 24 – Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle, English politician (d. 1691) July–September July 22 – Madame de Brinvilliers, French murderer (d. 1676) August 1 – Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh, English statesman (d. 1673) August 2 – Estephan El Douaihy, Lebanese Maronite Patriarch, historian (d. 1704) August 20 or August 27 – Maria van Oosterwijck, Dutch Golden Age painter (d. 1693) August 22 – Guy Aldonce de Durfort de Lorges, French noble, soldier (d. 1702) August 27 – Thomas Risley, English Presbyterian minister (d. 1716) September 6 – Thomas Hele, English politician (d. 1665) September 17 – Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma from 1646 until his death (d. 1694) September 25 – Pierre Cally, French philosopher and theologian (d. 1709) September 27 – Michael Willmann, German painter (d. 1706) October–December October 2 – Henry Caesar, English politician (d. 1668) October 8 – Henry Bull, English politician (d. 1692) October 10 – Thomas Lawson, British botanist (d. 1691) October 14 – Sophia of Hanover, heir to the throne of Great Britain (d. 1714) October 18 – Henry Powle, English politician (d. 1692) October – John Tillotson, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1694) November 8 – Robert Bertie, 3rd Earl of Lindsey, English noble (d. 1701) November 12 – Catherine Duchemin, French flower and fruit painter (d. 1698) November 16 – Edvard Edvardsen, Norwegian historian and educator (d. 1695) November 17 – Hachisuka Mitsutaka, Japanese daimyō who ruled the Tokushima Domain (d. 1666) November 18 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Queen consort of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1686) November 24 – Étienne Baluze, French scholar (d. 1718)) November 27 – Sigismund Francis, Archduke of Austria, ruler of Further Austria including Tyrol (1662-1665) (d. 1665) December 5 – Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp, Regent of Anhalt-Zerbst (d. 1680) December 12 – Olaus Rudbeck, Swedish architect (d. 1702) December 14 – Horatio Townshend, 1st Viscount Townshend, English viscount (d. 1687) December 16 – Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort, British botanist (d. 1715) December 28 – Ludolf Bakhuizen, Dutch painter (d. 1708) Probable Stefano Erardi, Maltese painter (d. 1716) John Leslie, 1st Duke of Rothes, Scottish noble (d. 1681) Lucy Walter, Welsh mistress to King Charles II of England Deaths January 26 – Henry Briggs, English mathematician (b. 1556) February 12 – Fynes Moryson, English traveler and writer (b. 1566) February 26 – William Brade, English composer (b. 1560) April 2 – George Talbot, 9th Earl of Shrewsbury, English earl (b. 1566) April 10 – William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, English noble, courtier and patron of the arts (b. 1580) April 17 – Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, German prince of the House of Ascania (b. 1568) April 19 – Anne Howard, Countess of Arundel, English countess and poet (b. 1557) April 22 – Agostino Ciampelli, Italian painter (b. 1565) April 29 – Agrippa d'Aubigné, French poet and soldier (b. 1552) May 17 – Dorothea Flock, German alleged witch (b. 1608) May 30 – Emanuel Scrope, 1st Earl of Sunderland, English noble (b. 1584) June 25 – Jacob Ulfeldt, Danish politician (b. 1567) July 26 – Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy (b. 1562) August 11 – Thomas Walsingham, English spymaster (b. 1561) August 22 – Giulio Mancini, Italian papal physician (b. 1559) September 5 – Nicolaus Mulerius, Dutch astronomer and medical academic (b. 1564) September 17 – Thomas Lake, English statesman (b. 1567) September 18 – Melchior Klesl, Austrian cardinal and statesman (b. 1552) September 20 – Claudio Saracini, Italian composer (b. 1586) September 22 – Yuan Chonghuan, Chinese politician, military general and writer (b. 1584) September 24 – Charles Günther, Count of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (b. 1576) September 25 – Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases, Italian general (b. 1569) October 10 – John Heminges, English actor (b. 1566) October 22 – Jerónima de la Asunción, Spanish founder of the Monastery of Santa Clara (b. 1555) November 15 – Johannes Kepler, German astronomer (b. 1571) November 9 – Tōdō Takatora, Japanese daimyo (b. 1556) November 18 – Esaias van de Velde, Dutch painter (b. 1587) November 19 Antonio Brunelli, Italian composer and theorist (b. 1577) Johann Hermann Schein, German composer (b. 1586) November 29 – Teodósio II, Duke of Braganza (b. 1568) December 11 – Franciscus Dousa, Dutch classical scholar (b. 1577) December 19 – Orazio Riminaldi, Italian painter (b. 1593) approx. date Adam Haslmayr, Austrian commentator on the Rosicrucian Manifestos (b. c. 1560) Fede Galizia, Italian painter (b. c. 1578) unknown date – Mariangiola Criscuolo, Italian painter (b. c. 1548) References

Events January–June February 4 – Prince Bethlen Gabor signs a peace treaty with Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. May 17 – The first merry-go-round is seen at a fair (Philippapolis, Turkey). June 3 – The oldest stone church in French North America, Notre-Dame-des-Anges, is begun at Quebec City, Canada. July–December July 3 Under the terms of the Treaty of Ulm, the Protestant Union declares neutrality and ceases to support Frederick V of Bohemia. Captain Andrew Shilling, on behalf of the English Honourable East India Company, lays claim to Table Bay in Africa. July 25 (July 15 OS) – The armed merchant ship Mayflower embarks about 65 emigrants for New England at or near her home port of Rotherhithe on the Thames east of London; about July 29 (July 19 OS) she anchors in Southampton Water. August 1 (July 22 OS) – The ship Speedwell departs Delfshaven with English separatist Puritans from Leiden bound to rendezvous with the Mayflower; on August 5 (July 26 OS) she anchors in Southampton Water. August 15 (probable date; August 5 OS) – Mayflower and Speedwell depart together from Southampton, but are forced to put back into Dartmouth, Devon, for repairs to a leak in the latter ship on August 22 or 23 (August 12 or 13 OS). August 7 The mother of Johannes Kepler is arrested for witchcraft. Battle of Les Ponts-de-Cé, Poitou: French king Louis XIII defeats his mother Marie de' Medici. September 2 (August 23 OS) – Mayflower and Speedwell depart together from Dartmouth; they are well out into the Atlantic when the Speedwell is again found to be leaking. September 7 (August 28 OS) Mayflower and Speedwell return again to England, anchoring at Plymouth; the latter ship is given up as a participant in the voyage and on September 12 (September 2 OS) departs for London with most of her passengers and stores having been transferred to the Mayflower. The town of Kokkola () was founded by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.Historia - Kokkola (in Finnish) September 16 (September 6 OS) – Mayflower departs from Plymouth in England on her third attempt to cross the Atlantic. The Pilgrims on board comprise 41 "saints" (English separatists largely from Holland), 40 "strangers" (largely secular planters from London), 23 servants and hired workers, together with c. 30 crew. September 17–October 7 – Battle of Cecora: The Ottoman Empire defeats Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth–Moldavian troops. October 6 – Battle of Amedamit in Gojjam, Ethiopia: The Roman Catholic Ras Sela Kristos, half-brother of Emperor Susenyos, crushes a group of rebels, who were opposed to Susenyos' pro-Catholic beliefs. November 3 – The Great Patent is granted to Plymouth Colony. November 8 – Thirty Years' War: Battle of White Mountain – Catholic forces are victorious in only two hours near Prague. November 21 (November 11 OS) – The Mayflower arrives inside the tip of Cape Cod (named from the Concord voyage of 1602), at what becomes known as Provincetown Harbor, with the Pilgrims and Planters; 41 Plymouth Colony settlers sign the Mayflower Compact, the first governing document of the colony, on board the ship. November 25 – The Wedding of Gustav II Adolf and Maria Eleonora takes place. December 21 – Plymouth Colony: William Bradford and the Mayflower Pilgrims land on what becomes known as Plymouth Rock, in Plymouth, Massachusetts. Date unknown A severe frost in England freezes the River Thames; 13 continuous days of snow blanket Scotland. On Eskdale Moor, only 35 of a flock of 20,000 sheep survive. Witch-hunts begin in Scotland. History of submarines: Cornelis Drebbel demonstrates the first navigable undersea boat in the Thames in England. The modern violin is developed. Juan Pablo Bonet, teacher of deaf children in the Spanish court, creates a sign alphabet. Francis Bacon publishes the Novum Organum (beyond Aristotle's Organon) on logical thinking. A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies by Bartolomé de las Casas and Origin and progress of the disturbances in the Netherlands by Johannes Gysius is re-published in the Netherlands. Shōgun Tokugawa Hidetada restores Osaka Castle. Its modern-day appearance dates from this remodeling. Ongoing The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) continues (principally on the territory of modern-day Germany). Births January–March January 1 William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker of England (d. 1684) Robert Morison, Scottish botanist and taxonomist (d. 1683) January 5 – Miklós Zrínyi, Croatian military commander (d. 1664) January 9 – Anton Günther I, Count of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (d. 1666) January 17 – Anton Janson, Dutch type founder and printer (d. 1687) January 31 – Prince Georg Friedrich of Waldeck, Dutch general and German field marshal (d. 1692) February 1 – Gustaf Bonde, Swedish politician (d. 1667) February 3 – Sir James Clavering, 1st Baronet, English landowner (d. 1702) February 5 – Paul Barbette, Dutch physician (d. 1666) February 13 – Girolamo Casanata, Italian cardinal (d. 1700) February 15 – François Charpentier, French archaeologist and man of letters (d. 1702) February 16 – Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1688) February 23 – Francis Newport, 1st Earl of Bradford, English politician (d. 1708) March 10 – Johann Heinrich Hottinger, Swiss philologist and theologian (d. 1667) March 13 – Alexander Seton, 1st Viscount of Kingston (d. 1691) March 29 – Edward Digges, English barrister and colonist, Colonial Governor of Virginia (d. 1674) April–June April 4 – Bernardino León de la Rocha, Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Coria and of Tui (1669–1673) (d. 1675) April 15 – Edward Villiers, English politician and military officer (d. 1689) April 17 – Marguerite Bourgeoys, French Catholic nun, founder of the Congregation of Notre Dame (d. 1700) April 18 – Winston Churchill (1620–1688), English noble, soldier (d. 1688) April 21 – Salvatore Castiglione, Italian painter (d. 1676) April 24 – John Graunt, English demographer (d. 1674) May 3 – Bogusław Radziwiłł, Polish-Lithuanian noble (d. 1669) May 21 – Krsto Zmajević, Montenegrin-born Venetian merchant (d. 1688) May 23 – Pieter Neefs the Younger, Flemish painter (d. 1675) May 25 – Warwick Mohun, 2nd Baron Mohun of Okehampton, English Member of Parliament (d. 1665) June 6 – Sir John Covert, 1st Baronet, English politician (d. 1679) June 11 – John Moore (Lord Mayor), Member of Parliament for the City of London (d. 1702) July–September July 20 Nikolaes Heinsius the Elder, Dutch scholar (d. 1681) Camillo Massimo, Italian cardinal, patron of the arts (d. 1677) July 21 – Jean Picard, French astronomer and priest (d. 1682) July 31 – Juan Ignacio de la Carrera Yturgoyen, Chilean politician (d. 1682) August 6 – William Hiseland, English (later British) soldier, reputed supercentenarian (d. 1732) August 19 – Johann Just Winckelmann, German writer and historian (d. 1699) August 22 – Alexander Rigby (died 1694), English politician (d. 1694) August 24 – Thomas Stucley (MP), English politician (d. 1663) August 26 – Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ, German Lutheran administrator (d. 1684) September 4 – Ernest Gottlieb, Prince of Anhalt-Plötzkau (d. 1654) September 6 – Isabella Leonarda, Italian composer (d. 1704) September 18 – Albert II, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, German prince (d. 1667) September 25 – François Bernier, French physician and traveller (d. 1688) September 29 – John Louis of Elderen, Bishop of Liege (d. 1694) October–December October 1 – Nicolaes Pieterszoon Berchem, Dutch Golden Age painter of pastoral landscapes (d. 1683) October 4 – François-Henri Salomon de Virelade, French lawyer (d. 1670) October 15 – William Borlase (died 1665), English politician (d. 1665) October 16 – Pierre Paul Puget, French painter (d. 1694) October 20 – Aelbert Cuyp, Dutch painter (d. 1691) October 27 – Philip Louis, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg (d. 1689) October 31 – John Evelyn, English diarist and writer (d. 1706) November 10 Ninon de l'Enclos, French author (d. 1705) Theodoor Boeyermans, Flemish Baroque painter (d. 1678) November 20 – Peregrine White, first child born to English settlers at Plymouth Colony (d. 1704) December 17 Henri Charles de La Trémoille, son of Henry de La Trémoille (d. 1672) Maurice of the Palatinate, 4th son of Frederick V, Elector Palatine (d. 1652) December 18 – Heinrich Roth, German Jesuit missionary, pioneering Sanskrit scholar (d. 1668) December 23 – Johann Jakob Wepfer, Swiss pathologist (d. 1695) probable – Ecaterina Cercheza, princess consort of Moldavia (d. 1666) Deaths January–March January 23 – John Croke, English politician and judge (b. 1553) January 26 – Amar Singh I, ruler of Mewar (b. 1559) January 28 – Archduchess Eleanor of Austria (b. 1582) February 15 – James Archer, Irish Jesuit; played a controversial role in the Nine Years' War (b. 1550) February 19 Al-Mansur al-Qasim, Imam of Yemen (b. 1559) Roemer Visscher, Dutch writer (b. 1547) February 23 – Nicholas Fuller, English politician (b. 1543) March 1 – Thomas Campion, English poet and composer (b. 1567) March 5 – Giovanni Francesco Sagredo, Italian mathematician (b. 1571) March 17 – St. John Sarkander, Moravian priest (injuries caused by torturing) (b. 1576) March 25 – Johannes Nucius, German composer (b. c. 1556) March 29 – Hachisuka Yoshishige, Japanese daimyō of the Edo period (b. 1586) April–June April 8 – Angelo Rocca, Italian humanist (b. 1545) April 23 – Hayyim ben Joseph Vital, Palestinian-born Kabbalist (b. 1543) April 14 – Rascas de Bagarris, French scholar (b. 1562) May 16 – William Adams, English navigator and samurai (b. 1564) May 30 – Mathias Hovius, Roman Catholic archbishop (b. 1542) June 17 – Mikołaj Zebrzydowski (b. 1553) July–September July 13 – William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg (b. 1560) August 2 – Carolus Luython, Belgian composer (b. 1557) August 14 – Katherine Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, wife of Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon (b. 1540) August 18 – Wanli Emperor, of China (b. 1563) September 13 – Wolfgang Hirschbach, German legal scholar (b. 1570) September 26 – Taichang Emperor, fourteenth emperor of the Ming dynasty of China (b. 1582) September – Sidonia von Borcke, German noble and alleged witch (b. 1548) October–December October 7 – Stanisław Żółkiewski, Polish nobleman of the Lubicz coat of arms (b. 1547) November 6 – Philip III, Margrave of Baden-Rodemachern (1588–1620) (b. 1567) November 7 – Robert Hesketh, English politician (b. 1560) November 9 – Louise de Coligny, daughter of Gaspard II de Coligny; fourth and last spouse of William the Silent (b. 1555) November 11 – Isaac and Josias Habrecht, Swiss watchmaking brothers (b. 1544) November 27 – Francis, Duke of Pomerania-Stettin, Bishop of Cammin (b. 1577) December 3 – Janusz Radziwiłł, Polish noble (b. 1579) December 21 – George Fleetwood, English politician (b. 1564) Date unknown Rose of Turaida, legendary Latvian murder victim (b. 1601) John Flower, English politician (b. 1535) Approximate date Brianda Pereira, Azorean Portuguese heroine (b. 1550) Isabella Parasole, Italian artist (b. ca. 1570) References Leap years in the Gregorian calendar

The 470s decade ran from January 1, 470, to December 31, 479. Significant people References

The 910s decade ran from January 1, 910, to December 31, 919. Significant people References

Year 1410 (MCDX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events January–December March 25 – The first of the Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols is launched, leading to the fall of Öljei Temür Khan. March 29 – The Aragonese capture Oristano, capital of the Giudicato di Arborea in Sardinia. June 15 – Ottoman Interregnum: Süleyman Çelebi defeats his brother Musa Çelebi outside the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. July 11 – Ottoman Interregnum: Süleyman Çelebi defeats his brother Musa Çelebi outside the Ottoman capital, Edirne. July 15 – Battle of Grunwald (Žalgiris), also known as Battle of Tannenberg: Polish and Lithuanian forces under cousins Jogaila and Vytautas the Great decisively defeat the forces of the Teutonic Knights, whose power is broken. Date unknown Jan Hus is excommunicated by the Archbishop of Prague. Antipope John XXIII is elected. Construction begins on Castle Woerden in the Netherlands. The Prague Astronomical Clock (also known as Prague Orloj) is built by Mikuláš of Kadaň and Jan Šindel in Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic. Births January 30 – William Calthorpe, English knight (d. 1494) July 14 – Arnold, Duke of Guelders, Duke of Guelders (1423–1465 and 1471–1473) (d. 1473) August 1 – Jan IV of Nassau, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg (1448–1475) (d. 1475) date unknown Masuccio Salernitano, Italian poet (d. 1475) William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness (d. 1484) probable Johannes Ockeghem, Dutch composer (d. 1497) Ólöf Loftsdóttir, politically active Icelandic woman (d. 1479) Conrad Paumann, German organist and composer (d. 1473) Vecchietta, Sienese painter, sculptor and architect (d. 1480) Deaths March 5 – Matthew of Kraków, Polish reformer (b. 1335) March 16 – John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset (b. 1373) May 3 – Antipope Alexander V, (b. 1339) May 18 – Rupert of Germany, Count Palatine of the Rhine (b. 1352) May 31 – Martin of Aragon (b. 1356) July 15 – Ulrich von Jungingen, German Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (in battle) (b. 1360) August – Matthew I of Constantinople August 10 – Louis II, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1337) date unknown Margareta Dume, influential Swedish-Finnish noble John Badby, English martyr References

The 550s decade ran from January 1, 550, to December 31, 559. Significant people References Bibliography

The 0s BC were the period between 9 BC and 1 BC, the last nine years of the before Christ era. It is one of two "0-to-9" decade-like timespans that contain nine years, along with the 0s. This is a list of events occurring in the 0s BC ordered by year. Significant people Tigranes IV, King of Armenia, r. 12–1 BC Erato, Queen of Armenia, 8–5 BC, 2 BC – AD 2, AD 6–11 Artavasdes III, King of Armenia, r. 5–2 BC Jesus Christ, Jewish preacher and central figure of Christianity, (ca. 4 BC–ca. AD 33) Ariobarzan of Atropatene, Client King of Armenia, r. 1 BC – AD 2 Chend Di, Emperor of Han Dynasty China, r. 32–7 BC Ai Di, Emperor of Han Dynasty China, r. 7–1 BC Ping Di, Emperor of Han Dynasty China, r. 1 BC – AD 5 Wang Mang, Chinese statesman and future emperor of China Dong Xian, Han Dynasty Chinese official under Emperor Ai of Han Antiochus III, King of Commagene, r. 12 BC – AD 17 Arminius, Germanic war chief (18/17 BC – AD 21) Arshak II, King of Caucasian Iberia, r. 20 BC – AD 1 Strato II and Strato III, co-kings of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, r. 25 BC – AD 10 Lugaid Riab nDerg, legendary High King of Ireland, r. 33–9 BC Conchobar Abradruad, legendary High King of Ireland, r. 9–8 BC Crimthann Nia Náir, legendary High King of Ireland, r. (8 BC – AD 9) Suinin, legendary Emperor of Japan, r. 29 BC – AD 70 Amanishakheto, King of Kush, r. 10–1 BC Natakamani, King of Kush, r. 1 BC – AD 20 Ma'nu III, King of Osroene, r. 23–4 BC Abgar V, King of Osroene, r. 4 BC-AD 7, AD 13–50 Phraates IV, king of the Parthian Empire, r. 38–2 BC Phraates V, king of the Parthian Empire, r. 2 BC – AD 4 Musa of Parthia, mother and co-ruler with Phraates V, r. 2 BC – AD 4 Caesar Augustus, Roman Emperor (27 BC – AD 14) Nero Claudius Drusus, Roman Consul, in office 9 BC Gaius Caesar, Roman general Livy, Roman historian Ovid, Roman poet Quirinius, Roman nobleman and politician Tiberius, Roman general, statesman, and future emperor. Herod the Great, client king of Judea Hillel the Elder, Jewish scholar and Nasi of the Sanhedrin, in office c. 31 BC – AD 9 Shammai, Jewish scholar and Av Beit Din of the Sanhedrin, in office 20 BC – AD 20 Hyeokgeose, King of Silla, r. 57 BC – AD 4 References

AD 86 (LXXXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Petronianus (or, less frequently, year 839 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 86 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire Emperor Domitian introduces the Capitoline Games. Roman general (and future emperor) Trajan begins a campaign to crush an uprising in Germany. Germany is divided into two provinces, Germania Inferior and Germania Superior (approximate date). Dacia First Battle of Tapae: Roman legions face disaster in Dacia, when Roman general Cornelius Fuscus launches a powerful offensive that becomes a failure. Encircled in the valley of Timi, he dies along with his entire army. Rome must pay tribute to the Dacians in exchange for a vague recognition of Rome's importance. Asia Ban Gu (Pan Kou) and his sister Ban Zhao (Pan Tchao) compose the History of China. </onlyinclude> Births September 19 – Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor (d. 161) Deaths Cornelius Fuscus, Roman general and praetorian prefect References 0086 als:80er#Johr 86

Year 1284 (MCCLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By area Africa Putting an end to the Bedouin rebellion that had toppled his brother in 1283, Abu Hafs Umar I reconquers Tunis, and reinstalls the Hafsids as the dominating dynasty in Ifriqiya. Peter III of Aragon takes advantage of the weakness of the Hafsid Dynasty, and raids the island of Jerba. The Aragonese massacre the population, and occupy the island. Asia Mamluk sultan of Egypt Al Mansur Qalawun signs a ten-year truce with the Crusader city of Acre; he will violate the truce on various pretexts in 1290. The Byzantine city Tralles falls to the Turkish emirate of Menteşe; 20,000 people are led off as slaves. Europe March 3 – The Statute of Rhuddlan extends English law to Wales. June 5 – Battle of the Gulf of Naples: King Charles II of Naples is captured by Roger of Lauria, admiral to King Peter III of Aragon. May 18 – Jönköping in Sweden is granted town privileges. August 5–6 – Battle of Meloria: The Italian city-state of Genoa defeats its rival Pisa at sea, ending Pisa's marine power and hastening the city's decline in power. September 9 – German warlord Trunda makes a campaign to Karelia to tax Karelians but is defeated by Novgorod and the men from Staraya Ladoga. King Stefan Dragutin of Serbia receives Belgrade, Syrmia, and other territories from Hungary, when his son marries the king of Hungary's cousin. The Kingdom of Germany imposes a trade embargo on Norway, due to the latter pillaging a German ship. The embargo cuts off vital supplies of grain, flour, vegetables and beer, causing a general famine in Norway. The German city of Hamburg is destroyed by a fire. The events giving rise to the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin take place in Lower Saxony. By topic Arts and culture Construction of Beauvais Cathedral is interrupted by a partial collapse of the choir; the event unnerves French masons working in the Gothic style. Jean de Meun translates Vegetius' 4th century military treatise De Re Militari from Latin into French. Education Peterhouse, the oldest collegiate foundation of the University of Cambridge in England, is established by Hugh de Balsham, Bishop of Ely. Health The al-Mansuri bimaristan (hospital) is completed in Cairo. Markets The Republic of Venice begins coining the ducat, a gold coin that is to become the standard of European coinage, for the following 600 years. Births April 25 – King Edward II of England (d. 1327) April 26 – Alice de Toeni, Countess of Warwick (d. 1324) date unknown John I, Count of Holland (d. 1299) Edward, Count of Savoy (d. 1329) Deaths March 24 – Hugh III of Cyprus (b. 1235) April – Adelaide of Holland, regent of Holland (b. c.1230) April 4 – King Alfonso X of Castile (b. 1221) April 20 – Hōjō Tokimune, regent of Japan (b. 1251) August 10 – Tekuder, Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate (executed) August 19 – Alphonso, Earl of Chester, son of Edward I of England (b. 1273) December – Irene Komnene Palaiologina (Eulogia), member of the Byzantine imperial family and nun (b. c.1218) References

Year 110 (CX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Priscinus and Scipio (or, less frequently, year 863 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 110 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire The Forum of Trajan is constructed in Rome, by the Syrian architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The Roman Empire has more than of roads. Asia Caravans make regular departures from Luoyang with Chinese ginger, cassia (a type of cinnamon), and silk to be bartered in Central Asia for gold, silver, glassware, pottery, cloth, and intaglio gems from Rome. By topic Art and Science Suetonius, Roman historian, publishes Viris Illustribus ("On Famous Men" – in the field of literature). Births Hegesippus of Nazarene, Christian chronicler and writer (d. 180) Qiao Xuan (or Gongzu), Chinese official and chancellor (d. 184) Deaths Duan Xi, Chinese Protector General of the Western Regions Pacorus II, ruler (King of Kings ) of the Parthian Empire References

Year 627 (DCXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 627 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Byzantine Empire Spring – Byzantine–Sasanian War: Emperor Heraclius sweeps through southern Armenia with a 50,000-man expeditionary force, recapturing most of the Byzantine fortresses lost to the Persians ten and fifteen years earlier. The army of Shahrbaraz, still in Anatolia, is now cut off completely. Hearing from Byzantine agents (showing him letters) that King Khosrau II, dissatisfied with his failure to capture Constantinople, is planning to have him executed, he surrenders to Heraclius, refusing to join the Byzantine army against his ungrateful sovereign. Third Perso-Turkic War: The Göktürks and their Khazar allies (40,000 men) approach the Caspian Gates, and capture the Persian fortress at Derbent (modern Dagestan). Heraclius marches to the upper Tigris and invades the Persian heartland, leaving the Khazars under Tong Yabghu Qaghan to continue the siege of Tblilisi. December 12 – Battle of Nineveh: Heraclius crosses the Great Zab river and defeats, in a feigned retreat, the Persian army (12,000 men) under Rhahzadh, near the ruins of Nineveh (Iraq). Although wounded, Heraclius refuses to leave the battlefield, and in a final cavalry charge personally kills the Persian general. Winter – Heraclius plunders the city palace of Dastgerd (Iran) and gains tremendous riches (also recovering 300 captured Byzantine flags). He turns north-eastward to Caucasian Albania to rest his army. Khosrau II flees to the mountains of Susiana, to rally support for the defense of the Persian capital Ctesiphon.Norwich, John Julius (1997), A Short History of Byzantium, Vintage Books, p. 93. Britain King Eorpwald of East Anglia is murdered, and succeeded by Ricberht. He is a member of the East Anglian elite; during his rule paganism is re-established. April 12 – King Edwin of Northumbria is converted to Christianity by Bishop Paulinus of York, who previously save his life. Arabia March 31 – Battle of the Trench: Muhammad successfully withstands a siege for 27 days at Medina, by Meccan forces (10,000 men) under Abu Sufyan, whose allies, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, ultimately surrender to Muhammad. By topic Religion April 12 – Paulinus, last of the missionaries sent by Pope Gregory I, builds a wooden church in the old Roman legionary headquarters in York, and baptises Edwin of Northumbria as the first Christian king in northern England. Fourth Council of Mâcon: A council of Christian bishops approves in the city of Mâcon (Burgundy) the Monastic Rule of Saint Columbanus. Cunibert is elected bishop of Cologne. Throughout his episcopacy, monasticism flourishes in Austrasia (approximate date). Education St Peter's School, York, is founded by Paulinus. Births Cui Zhiwen, Tang Dynasty official (d. 683) Deaths Amatus, Benedictine abbot and hermit Bonus, Byzantine general and regent Cathal mac Áedo, king of Cashel (Ireland) King Eorpwald of East Anglia (approximate date) Feng Deyi, chancellor of the Tang dynasty (b. 568) Luo Yi, official of the Sui dynasty Pei Ju, official of the Tang dynasty Rhahzadh, Persian general Sichilde, Frankish queen King Stephen I of Iberia (Georgia) Zaynab bint Khuzayma, wife of Muhammad (b. 595) References Sources

Year 763 (DCCLXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 763 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Byzantine Empire June – Battle of Anchialus: Emperor Constantine V sends a Byzantine expeditionary force (800 ships and 9,600 cavalry) to Thrace, to defend the fortress city of Anchialus on the Black Sea Coast. Meanwhile, Telets, ruler (khagan) of the Bulgarian Empire, blocks the mountain passes and takes positions on the heights near Anchialus. During a desperate cavalry charge, the Bulgars are defeated and many are captured; Telets manages to escape. Constantine enters Constantinople in triumph, and kills all the prisoners. Europe August – Byzantine troops invade the Papal States, in alliance with King Desiderius of the Lombards. King Pepin III ("the Short") intervenes, and begins negotiations between the Lombards and Pope Paul I. Desiderius promises to end the hostilities, but on condition that Pepin sends back Lombard hostages held by the Franks. Britain Ciniod I succeeds Bridei V, as king of the Picts (modern Scotland). Abbasid Caliphate In 763 Al-Mansur sent his troops to conquer Al-Andalus for the Abbasid empire. But the ruler Abd al-Rahman I successfully defended his territory. Al-Mansur withdrew and thereafter focused his troops of holding the eastern part of his empire on lands that were once part of Persia. January 21 – Battle of Bakhamra: The Abbasid army under Isa ibn Musa defeats the Alids, and puts an end to their rebellion. The power of the Abbasid Dynasty is consolidated. Asia February 17 – An Lushan Rebellion: Emperor Shi Chaoyi hangs himself to avoid being captured by Tang troops sent by the renegade Li Huaixian, ending the 7-year rebellion against the Tang Dynasty in China. November 18 – Forces of the Tibetan Empire, under Trisong Detsen, occupy the Tang capital of Chang'an (modern Xi'an) for 15 days, and install a puppet emperor. Tibetans take over the horse pastures. Births Haito, bishop of Basel Harun al-Rashid, Muslim caliph (or 766) Wang, empress of the Tang Dynasty (d. 816) Deaths November 20 – Domnall Midi, High King of Ireland Bridei V, king of the Picts Fang Guan, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 697) Jianzhen, Chinese Buddhist monk (b. 688) Shi Chaoyi, emperor of the Yan (Anshi) state Wei Jiansu, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 687) References

Year 776 (DCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 776 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events <onlyinclude> By place Byzantine Empire April 24 – Emperor Leo IV ("the Khazar") appoints his 5-year-old son Constantine VI co-ruler of the Byzantine Empire. This leads to an uprising, led by one of Leo's half-brothers, Caesar Nikephoros, the second son of former emperor Constantine V. The revolt is quickly suppressed. Fortunately for Nikephoros, his only punishment is to be stripped of his titles, while the rest of the conspirators are blinded, tonsured, and exiled to Cherson (Southern Crimea) under guard. Europe King Charlemagne spends Easter in Treviso (Northern Italy), after putting down a rebellion in Friuli and Spoleto. He removes Hrodgaud of Friuli from power, and reforms the duchy as the March of Friuli (military frontier district). Co-conspirators who support the revolt are Arechis II, duke of Benevento, and Adalgis, son of former Lombard king Desiderius. Frankish counts are placed in the cities of Friuli. Saxon Wars: The Saxons again revolt against Christianity and Frankish rule. Eresburg falls, but a Saxon assault upon the castle of Syburg (near Dortmund) fails. Charlemagne hurriedly returns from Italy, launching a counter-offensive which defeats the Saxons. Most of their leaders are summoned to the Lippe at the town of Bad Lippspringe (North Rhine-Westphalia), to submit formally to Charlemagne. Britain Battle of Otford: King Egbert II of Kent defeats the Mercians under King Offa (near Otford), and re-asserts himself as ruler of Kent. Births February – Al-Jahiz, Afro-Muslim scholar and writer (d. 868) date unknown – Lu Sui, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (d. 835) probable Saint George the Standard-Bearer, archbishop (d. 821) Bai Xingjian, Chinese poet and writer (d. 826) Sahnun ibn Sa'id, Muslim jurist (or 777) Tahir ibn Husayn, Muslim governor (or 775) Deaths date unknown Cellach mac Dúnchada, king of Leinster (Ireland) Cináed Ciarrge mac Cathussaig, Dál nAraide king Flaithniadh mac Congal, abbot of Clonfert Hrodgaud, duke of Friuli (Italy) Humayd ibn Qahtaba, Muslim military leader Nuada ua Bolcain, abbot of Tuam (Ireland) References

Year 153 (CLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Rusticus and Rufinus (or, less frequently, year 906 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 153 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire Minor uprisings occur in Roman Egypt against Roman rule. Asia Change of era name from Yuanjia (3rd year) to Yongxing of the Chinese Han Dynasty. Births Didia Clara, daughter of Didius Julianus Kong Rong, Chinese official and warlord (d. 208) Zhang Hong, Chinese official and politician (d. 212) Deaths Tiberius Julius Rhoemetalces, Roman client king References

Events January–March January 6 – Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison founds the New-England Anti-Slavery Society. January 13 – The Christmas Rebellion of slaves is brought to an end in Jamaica, after the island's white planters organize militias and the British Army sends companies of the 84th regiment to enforce martial law. More than 300 of the slave rebels will be publicly hanged for their part in the destruction. February 6 – The Swan River Colony is renamed Western Australia. February 9 – The Florida Legislative Council grants a city charter for Jacksonville, Florida. February 12 Ecuador annexes the Galápagos Islands. A cholera epidemic in London claims at least 3,000 lives; the contagion spreads to France and North America later this year. February 28 – Charles Darwin and the crew of arrive at South America for the first time. March 24 – In Hiram, Ohio, a group of men beat, tar and feather Mormon leader Joseph Smith. April–June April 6 – The Black Hawk War begins in the United States. May 7 – The Treaty of London creates an independent Kingdom of Greece. Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria, is chosen King; thus begins the history of modern Greece. May 10 – The Egyptians, aided by Maronites, seize Acre from the Ottoman Empire after a 7-month siege. May 11 – Greece is recognized as a sovereign nation; the Treaty of Constantinople ends the Greek War of Independence in July. May 16 – Juan Godoy discovers the rich silver outcrops of Chañarcillo sparking the Chilean silver rush. May 30 The Hambacher Fest, a demonstration for civil liberties and national unity in Germany, ends with no result. The Rideau Canal in eastern Ontario (Canada) is opened. June 5–6 – The June Rebellion in France, anti-monarchist riots led chiefly by students, breaks out in Paris. June 7 – The Reform Act becomes law in the United Kingdom, expanding the franchise. June 9 – The Strasburg Rail Road is incorporated by the Pennsylvania State Legislature, making it the oldest continuously operating railroad in the Western Hemisphere. July–September July 1 – Global conglomerate Jardine Matheson is founded in Canton (modern day Guangzhou) in Qing dynasty China by Scottish merchants. July 2 – André-Michel Guerry presents his Essay on moral statistics of France to the French Academy of Sciences, a significant step in the founding of empirical social science. July 4 – Durham University is founded in the north of England by an act of Parliament given royal assent by King William IV. July 9 – The Commissioner of Indian Affairs post is created within the United States Department of War. July 10 – The United States Survey of the Coast is revived within the Department of the Treasury. August 2 – The Bad Axe Massacre ends the last major Native American rebellion east of the Mississippi in the United States. August 7 – William Howley, Archbishop of Canterbury, has his coach attacked by an angry mob on his first official visit to Canterbury because of his opposition to the Reform Act in the United Kingdom. August 27 – Black Hawk (Sauk leader) surrenders to the United States authorities, ending the Black Hawk War. September 22 – Qasim al-Ahmad is appointed as the new Ottoman Governor (mutasallim) of Jerusalem (Kudüs), after Sultan Mahmud II dismisses Muhammad Said Agha. October–December October 4 – Prince Otto of Bavaria, the second oldest son of King Ludwig I, is selected by Europe's major powers to become Othon, the first King of Greece, after the Hellenic nation's reacquisition of independence. October 20 – Principal Chief Levi Colbert (Itawamba Mingo) and other leaders of the Chickasaw Nation of American Indians sign the Treaty of Pontotoc Creek with the United States, ceding their remaining 9,400 square miles of land to the U.S., in return for a promise that they will receive all proceeds of sales of the land by the federal government to private owners, along with expenses for relocation and food and supplies for one year. The area ceded includes the entire northern one-sixth of the state of Mississippi. November 21 – Wabash College, a small, private, liberal arts college for men, is founded. November 24 – Nullification Crisis: The U.S. state of South Carolina passes the Ordinance of Nullification, challenging the power of the U.S. federal government, by declaring that it will not enforce national tariffs signed into law in 1828 and 1832. December 3 – U.S. presidential election, 1832: Andrew Jackson is re-elected president. December 4 – Siege of Antwerp: The last remaining Dutch stronghold, Antwerp Citadel, comes under French attack in the aftermath of the Belgian Revolution. December 10 – U.S. President Andrew Jackson responds to the Nullification Crisis by threatening to send the U.S. Army and Navy into South Carolina if it does not comply. December 21 – Battle of Konya: The Egyptians defeat the main Ottoman army in central Anatolia. December 23 – The Siege of Antwerp ends with the Dutch garrison losing the citadel. December 28 – John C. Calhoun becomes the first Vice President of the United States to resign. Date unknown George Catlin starts to live among the Sioux in the Dakota Territory. The first Baedeker guidebook, Voyage du Rhin de Mayence à Cologne, is published in Koblenz. Publication begins (posthumously) of Carl von Clausewitz's Vom Kriege ("On War"). The City of Buffalo in New York is incorporated. The Cumberland and Oxford Canal connects the largest lakes of southern Maine with the seaport of Portland, Maine. Global watch brand Longines is founded in Switzerland. The first commutator DC electric motor, capable of turning machinery, is demonstrated by William Sturgeon in London. Births January–June January 1 – Tom Jeffords, US Army scout and Indian agent (d. 1914) January 4 – Sir George Tryon, British admiral (d. 1893) January 6 – Gustave Doré, French painter, sculptor (d. 1883) January 13 – Horatio Alger, Jr., American Unitarian minister, author (d. 1899) January 23 – Édouard Manet, French painter (d. 1883) January 26 – George Shiras Jr., Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1924) January 27 – Lewis Carroll, English author (d. 1898) January 28 – Sir Charles Gough, British general, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1912) January 28 – T. Muthuswamy Iyer, Lawyer, first Indian Judge of the Madras high court (d. 1895) February 9 – Adele Spitzeder, German actress, folk singer and confidence trickster (d. 1895) February 18 – Octave Chanute, French-American engineer, aviation pioneer (d. 1910) April 3 – James Sewall Reed, American soldier (d. 1864) April 5 – Jules Ferry, French premier (d. 1893) April 8 – Howell Edmunds Jackson, American politician, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1895) April 15 Wilhelm Busch, German humorist, poet, illustrator and painter (d. 1908) John Irwin, American admiral (d. 1901) April 19 José Echegaray, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1916) Lucretia Garfield, First Lady of the United States (d. 1918) May 14 – Charles Peace, English criminal (d. 1879) May 21 – Hudson Taylor, English founder of the China Inland Mission (d. 1905) May 22 – Laura Gundersen, Norwegian actor (d. 1898) May 27 – Alexandr Aksakov, Russian writer (d. 1903) June 9 – Martha Waldron Janes, American minister, suffragist, columnist (d. unknown) June 10 – Nicolaus Otto, German engineer (d. 1891) June 12 – Pierre Théoma Boisrond-Canal, Haitian politician, 12th President of Haiti (d. 1905) June 17 – Sir William Crookes, English chemist, physicist (d. 1919) July–December July 6 – Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico (d. 1867) July 11 – Charilaos Trikoupis, 7-time Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1896) July 26 – Joseph P. Fyffe, American admiral (d. 1896) August 2 – Henry Steel Olcott, American officer (d. 1907) August 8 – George, King of Saxony (d. 1904) August 20 – Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, American aeronaut, scientist and inventor (d. 1913) October 1 – Caroline Harrison, First Lady of the United States (d. 1892) October 2 – Sir Edward Tylor, English anthropologist (d. 1917) October 3 – Richard Meade, Lord Gilford, British admiral (d. 1907) October 4 – Thorborg Rappe, Swedish social reformer (d. 1902) October 10 – Joe Cain, American parade organizer for Mardi Gras in Mobile, Alabama (d. 1904) October 23 Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia, fourth son and seventh child of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia and Charlotte of Prussia (d. 1909) Johan Gabriel Ståhlberg, Finnish priest and father of K. J. Ståhlberg, the first President of Finland (d. 1873) October 29 – Narcisa de Jesús, Ecuadorian-born philanthropist, lay hermit, sainted (d. 1869) November 1 – Gyula Szapáry, Hungarian politician, 10th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1905) November 7 – Andrew Dickson White, American historian, diplomat and co-founder of Cornell University (d. 1918) November 12 – Nancy Edberg, Swedish pioneer of women's swimming (d. 1892) November 18 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Finnish-Swedish geologist and explorer (d. 1901) November 26 – Mary Edwards Walker, American physician (d. 1919) November 28 – Sir Leslie Stephen, English writer, critic (d. 1904) November 29 – Louisa May Alcott, American author (d. 1888) December 6 – Thaddeus C. Pound, American businessman and politician (d. 1914) December 8 – Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910) December 13 – Alexander Milton Ross, Canadian abolitionist (d. 1897) December 14 – Ana Betancourt, Cuban national heroine (d. 1901) December 15 – Gustave Eiffel, French engineer (d. 1923) December 21 – John H. Ketcham, American politician (d. 1906) Date unknown Naimuddin, Bengali writer and Islamic scholar (d. 1907) Deaths January–June January 26 – Alexander Cochrane, British admiral (b. 1758) January 27 – Andrew Bell, Scottish educationalist, founder of Madras College, India (b. 1753) February 2 – Ignacio López Rayón, leader of the Mexican War of Independence (b. 1773) February 3 – George Crabbe, English poet and naturalist (b. 1754) March 4 – Jean-François Champollion, French Egyptologist (b. 1790) March 10 – Muzio Clementi, Italian composer and pianist (b. 1752) March 15 – Otto Wilhelm Masing, Estonian linguist (b. 1763) March 22 – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer (b. 1749) March 29 – Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, Queen of Sardinia (b. 1773) April 3 – Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac, Prime Minister of France (b. 1778) April 12 – Shadrach Bond, American politician and the first governor of Illinois (b. 1773) April 18 – Jeanne-Elisabeth Chaudet, French painter (b. 1761) May 13 – Georges Cuvier, French zoologist (b. 1769) May 23 – William Grant, British lawyer, politician and judge (b. 1752) May 28 – Nicolas Bergasse, French lawyer (b. 1750) May 31 – Évariste Galois, French mathematician (b. 1811) June 1 – Jean Maximilien Lamarque, French general and politician (b. 1770) June 5 – Kaʻahumanu, queen consort of Hawaii (b. 1768) June 6 – Jeremy Bentham, English philosopher (b. 1748) June 10 – Joseph Hiester, American politician (b. 1752) June 21 – Princess Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1754) June 23 – James Hall, Scottish geologist (b. 1761) July–December July 22 – Napoleon II of France (b. 1811) July 31 – Edward Abbott, Australian soldier, politician and judge (b. 1766) August 24 – Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, French military engineer and physicist (b. 1796) September 1 – Joseph Kinghorn, Particular Baptist Minister (b. 1766) September 2 – Franz Xaver von Zach, Austrian scientific editor and astronomer (b. 1754) September 21 – Sir Walter Scott, Scottish poet and novelist (b. 1771) September 27 – Karl Christian Friedrich Krause, German philosopher (b. 1781) October 11 – Thomas Hardy, British political reformer (b. 1752) October 31 – Antonio Scarpa, Italian anatomist (b. 1752) November 8 – Marie-Jeanne de Lalande, French astronomer and mathematician (b. 1768) November 12 Henry Eckford, Scottish-born American shipbuilder, naval architect, industrial engineer, and entrepreneur (b. 1775) Barnaba Oriani, Italian priest (b. 1752) November 14 – Charles Carroll of Carrollton, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and U.S. Senator (b. 1737) November 15 – Jean-Baptiste Say, French economist, originator of Say's law (b. 1767) December 18 – Philip Freneau, American poet and journalist (b. 1752) undated – Birgithe Kühle, Norwegian journalist (b. 1762) References Leap years in the Gregorian calendar

Year 378 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Tribunate of Medullinus, Fidenas, Lanatus, Siculus, Pulvillus and Macerinus (or, less frequently, year 376 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 378 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Greece The Theban general and statesman, Epaminondas, takes command of Thebes. Pelopidas is elected boeotarch, or chief magistrate, of the city. Timotheus, the son of the Athenian general Conon, is elected strategos of Athens. A Spartan attempt to seize Piraeus brings Athens closer to Thebes. The Athenian mercenary commander Chabrias successfully faces off the larger army of Agesilaus II near Thebes. At the advance of Agesilaus' forces, instead of giving the order to charge, Chabrias famously orders his men at ease—with the spear remaining pointing upwards instead of towards the enemy, and the shield leaning against the left knee instead of being hoisted against the shoulder. The command is followed immediately and without question by the mercenaries under his command, to be copied by their counterparts beside them, the elite Sacred Band of Thebes under the command of Gorgidas. This "show of contempt" stops the advancing Spartan forces, and shortly afterwards Agesilaus withdraws. Athens allies itself with Thebes and forms the Second Athenian League. The confederacy includes most of the Boeotian cities and some of the Ionian islands. Sicily Dionysius I's third war with Carthage proves disastrous. He suffers a crushing defeat at Cronium and is forced to pay an indemnity of 1,000 talents and cede the territory west of the Halycus River to the Carthaginians. Roman Republic The Servian Wall is constructed around Rome to prevent the city from being captured or sacked (see 390 BC). This is the first fortification that the Romans build around their home city. Births Deaths References

Year 407 (CDVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Honorius and Theodosius(or, less frequently, year 1160 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 407 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire Gratian, Roman usurper, is installed as emperor after the death of Marcus. According to Orosius, he is a native Briton of the urban aristocracy. Gratian is assassinated and Constantine III, a general (magister militum), declares himself Roman emperor. To extend his dominion over Gaul and Spain, he takes practically all the Roman garrisons from Britain and crosses the English Channel. Constantine occupies Arles and establishes tenuous authority over Gaul, sharing control with marauding "barbarians". This is generally seen as the beginning of Rome's withdrawal from Britain. End of Roman rule in Britain: After 360 years of occupation, the local regional British-Roman leaders raise their own levies for defence against Saxon sea rovers. They cultivate oysters, having learned the technique from the Romans. China Liu Bobo (Xia Wuliedi) founds the state of Xia, and claims the title "Heavenly Prince" (Tian Wang). Births Wen Di, Chinese emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty (d. 453) Deaths Fu Xunying, empress of the Xianbei state Later Yan Gratian, Roman usurper John Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople Marcus, Roman usurper Maria, empress consort and wife of Honorius Murong Xi, emperor of the Xianbei state Later Yan (b. 385) Victricius, missionary and bishop of Rouen (approximate date) References

Year 457 (CDLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Constantinus and Rufus (or, less frequently, year 1210 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 457 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire January 27 – Emperor Marcian dies at Constantinople, possibly of foot gangrene, an infection contracted during a long religious journey. He is buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, together with his late wife Pulcheria. February 7 – Leo I, a Thraco-Roman (or Dacian) high-ranking officer, becomes the new emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, reigning for nearly 20 years. He is first to accept the Byzantine crown from the hands of the patriarch of Constantinople.Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I, Chap. XXXVI (Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1952), p. 582. Bibl. Theophanes, p. 95 [ed. Par.; tom. i p. 170, ed. Bonn]. April 1 – Majorian is acclaimed emperor by the Roman army, after defeating 900 Alemanni near Lake Maggiore (Italy).Fasti vindobonenses priores, 583. December 28 – Majorian is crowned emperor of the Western Roman Empire and recognized by pope Leo I. His rule is accepted in Italy, Dalmatia and some territories in Northern Gaul. Europe Childeric I succeeds his father Merovech as king of the Salian Franks. He establishes his capital at Tournai (modern Belgium) and becomes a foederatus (pl. foederati) of the Western Roman Empire. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 4,000 Britons are slain at Crecganford in battle against Hengist and his son Oisc of Kent. Persia Yazdegerd II dies after a 19-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Hormizd III who seizes the Persian throne. His elder brother Peroz I rebels against him in Sistan (Iran). After months of civil war he defeats Hormizd and becomes the seventeenth Sasanian king of the Persian Empire. By topic Religion Victorius of Aquitaine computes new tables for celebrating Easter. Births Leontia, Roman empress and wife of Anthemius (d. 479) Medardus, bishop of Vermandois (approximate date) Deaths January 27 – Flavius Marcian, Roman emperor (b. 392) October 28 – Ibas, bishop of Edessa (modern Turkey) Avitus, emperor of the Western Roman Empire Merovech, king of the Salian Franks (approximate date) Palladius, first bishop of Ireland (approximate date) Saint Proterius, Patriarch of Alexandria Theodoret of Cyrrhus, bishop and theologian Valerian of Abbenza, bishop and saint (b. 377) Yazdegerd II, king of the Persian Empire References

Year 519 (DXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Iustinus and Cillica (or, less frequently, year 1272 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 519 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Britannia Cerdic becomes the first king of the Kingdom of Wessex (according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle). Europe The synagogues of Ravenna are burnt down in a riot; Theodoric the Great orders them to be rebuilt at Ravenna's expense. Asia Anjang becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo. By topic Religion March 28 – The Eastern and Western churches reconcile their differences, ending the Acacian Schism. Jacob of Serugh becomes bishop of Batnan (near modern Diyarbakir, Turkey). The Memoirs of Eminent Monks is compiled. In Ireland, the Diocese of Kildare is erected. Births Xuan Di, emperor of the Liang Dynasty (d. 562) Deaths Munjamyeong of Goguryeo, 21st king of Goguryeo References

Year 584 (DLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 584 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Europe September – King Chilperic I is stabbed to death while returning from a hunt near Chelles, after a 23-year reign over a territory extending from Aquitaine, to the northern seacoast of what later will be France. His wife Fredegund, who has paid for his assassination, seizes his wealth, flees to Paris with her son Chlothar II, and persuades the nobles to accept him as legitimate heir while she serves as regent, continuing her power struggles with Guntram, king of Burgundy, and her sister Brunhilda, queen mother of Austrasia. The Lombards re-establish a unified monarchy after a 10-year interregnum (Rule of the Dukes). Threatened by a Frankish invasion that the dukes have provoked, they elect Authari (son of Cleph) as their king and give him the capital of Pavia (Northern Italy). The Visigoths under King Liuvigild capture the city of Seville, after a siege of nearly 2 years. His rebellious son Hermenegild seeks refuge in a church at Córdoba, but is arrested and banished to Tarragona. His wife Inguld flees with her son to Africa. The Exarchate of Ravenna is founded, and organised into a group of duchies, mainly coastal cities on the Italian Peninsula. The civil and military head of these Byzantine territories is the exarch (governor) in Ravenna. The Slavs push south on the Balkan Peninsula — partly in conjunction with the Avars under their ruler (khagan) Bayan I — ravaging the cities Athens and Corinth, and threatening the Long Walls of Constantinople. King Eboric is deposed by his mother (second husband Andeca) who becomes the new ruler of the Kingdom of Galicia (Northern Spain) and the Suevi. Gundoald, illegitimate son of Chlothar I, tries to expend his territory from Brive-la-Gaillarde (Burgundy) and proclaims himself king (approximate date). Britain Battle of Fethanleigh: King Ceawlin of Wessex is defeated by the Britons. He ravages the surrounding countryside in revenge (approximate date). Asia Emperor Wéndi of the Sui Dynasty organises the Grand Canal. He builds ships for transportation and grain stores are located at strategic points. Births Amand, bishop and saint (approximate date) Chlothar II, king of the Franks (d. 629) Yang Zhao, prince of the Sui Dynasty (d. 606) Deaths April 15 – Ruadhán of Lorrha, Irish abbot and saint Chilperic I, king of Neustria (or Soissons) Deiniol, bishop of Bangor (Wales) Ingund, wife of Visigoth prince Hermenegild Maurus, Roman abbot and saint (b. 512) Approximate date – Bridei I, king of the Picts References

Year 503 (DIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Volusianus and Dixicrates (or, less frequently, year 1256 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 503 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events Byzantine Empire War with Sassanid Persia: Emperor Anastasius I sends a Byzantine army (52,000 men) to Armenia, but is defeated. The Romans attempt an unsuccessful siege of the Persian-held city Amida, on the Tigris. King Kavadh I invades Osroene, and lays siege to the city of Edessa (Northern Mesopotamia). May – Areobindus, Byzantine general (magister militum), is stationed as commander at Dara, with an army of 12,000 men to keep watch at the Persian stronghold of Nisibis (modern Turkey). Palestine Mundhir III, king of the Lakhmids (Arab Christians), raids Palaestina Salutaris and Arabia Petraea. He captures a large number of Romans. Europe King Ernakh, third son of Attila the Hun, dies after a 34-year reign. He is succeeded by his two sons (Utigur and Kutrigur), who share the power with the unified Bulgars. Births October 17 – Lý Nam Đế, first emperor of Vietnam (d. 548) December 2 – Xiao Gang, later Emperor Jianwen of Liang, emperor of the Chinese Liang dynasty (killed 551) Chen Baxian, later Emperor Wu of Chen, first emperor of the Chinese Chen dynasty (d. 559) Deaths Ernakh, king of the Huns References Bibliography