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The following events occurred in February 1933:
February 1, 1933 (Wednesday)
In his first speech as Chancellor of Germany, Adolf Hitler addressed the Reichstag and was broadcast nationwide on the radio. He declared that "Within four years, the German farmer must be raised from destitution. Within four years, unemployment must be completely overcome." By 1936, full employment had been achieved, at the expense of suppressing all political opposition.
Tiburcio Carías Andino took office as President of Honduras.
Born: Reynolds Price, American author, in Macon, North Carolina (d. 2011)
February 2, 1933 (Thursday)
A ceasefire agreement was signed in Nicaragua between rebel leader Augusto Sandino and President Juan Bautista Sacasa. The withdrawal of American troops the month before prompted the government to negotiate with the Sandinistas, who were granted amnesty, a tract of land in the Coco River valley, and the right to keep 100 armed men, in return for the demobilization of the other 1,800 rebels and the surrender of weapons.
Christine and Lea Papin, sisters who worked as servants for the Lancelin family at Le Mans in France, murdered their employer's wife and daughter. Their 1933 trial captured the nation's attention. Christine died in an asylum and Lea was released in 1941.
After a trial broadcast that had taken place on January 30, The Lone Ranger series began regular radio episodes, delivered 3 days a week until September 3, 1954.
Born: Tony Jay, British-American stage and voice actor, in London (d. 2006)
February 3, 1933 (Friday)
In a secret speech with Germany's senior Army and Navy commanders, Adolf Hitler outlined his plans to begin male conscription, to rearm Germany in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, and, eventually, to invade Eastern Europe to increase Germany's territory.
Seven members of a family in Tomahawk, Kentucky, strangled Mrs. Lucinda Mills, age 72, in what was described as a cult sacrifice ritual.
The musical comedy film Hallelujah, I'm a Bum starring Al Jolson and Madge Evans was released.
Born:
General Than Shwe, Prime Minister of Burma 1992-2003 and head of state 1992-2011, in Kyaukse
Paul Sarbanes, three-term U.S. Representative (1971–77), and five-term U.S. Senator for Maryland from 1977 to 2007, in Salisbury, Maryland. (d. 2020)
February 4, 1933 (Saturday)
With the approval of Germany's President Hindenburg, Adolf Hitler decreed the "Ordinance for the Protection of the German People", which allowed the police to ban any publications which were a threat to public order. Violators could be arrested and detained without a warrant for as long as three months.
Without consulting his minister, Japan's Emperor Hirohito approved Prince Kan'in's request to deploy troops in the Jehol province of China, on the condition that the armies were not to "advance beyond the great wall."
February 5, 1933 (Sunday)
After their pay had been cut by 15%, sailors on the Netherlands ship De Zeven Provinciën seized control of it in a mutiny that took place while most of the officers had gone ashore to an officers club at Olehleh in Sumatra. After Captain Henk Eikenboom returned to the port to find that the ship had been hijacked, he pursued in the ship Aldebaran. The next day, the mutineers announced that they would sail the ship to Surabaya and turn it over to the commander before arrival, adding "We do not intend force...We only want to protest against the unjust cutting of wages and the imprisonment of those who have already protested.". The Dutch Navy intercepted the ship on February 10 and sent the mutineers an ultimatum, giving them ten minutes to hoist a white flag of surrender. When the leaders refused, an airstrike was ordered and a bomb was dropped on the ship, killing 22 people on the deck. The ship then surrendered unconditionally.
Died: James Herman Banning, 32, African-American pilot, as a passenger in a plane crash in San Diego.
February 6, 1933 (Monday)
The 20th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified on January 23, was promulgated by the U.S. Secretary of State.
The coldest temperature for an inhabited area was recorded at the Siberian town of Oymyakon at -68 °C (or -90.4 °F).
Radio Athlone, a high-power Irish AM radio station that could be heard as far as southern England, went on the air for the first time as Radio Ath Luain.
"Home Means Nevada" was adopted as the official state song of the American state of Nevada.
Henry A. Wallace was asked by President-elect Roosevelt to serve as the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture. He hesitated for several days before agreeing to join the Cabinet.
Born:
Leslie Crowther, British TV comedian and game show host, in West Bridgford (d. 1996)
Walter E. Fauntroy, African-American Delegate to Congress from the District of Columbia, 1971-1991; in Washington, D.C.
February 7, 1933 (Tuesday)
Officers on the USS Ramapo measured a 112 foot high (34 meters) sea-wave in the Pacific Ocean, a record that has not been topped.
A claim upon Antarctica was made by Australia as part of an Order in Council. The government asserted dominion over most of the Antarctic continent between 45°E and 160°E, directly south of Australia.
The United States Senate voted 53-17 to fire its long-time sergeant at arms, David S. Barry, after he had written a magazine article that suggested that some of the Senators had taken bribes.
Died: Count Albert Apponyi, Hungary's chief delegate to the League of Nations, died at age 87 during a session of the body in Geneva.
February 8, 1933 (Wednesday)
The prototype of the Boeing 247, a twin-engine, all-aluminum airplane designed to be the first modern airliner, made its initial flight, piloted by Les Tower and copilot Louis Goldsmith.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt was formally declared the President-elect of the United States, and John Nance Garner the Vice-President elect, as the electoral college results were announced by Vice-President Charles Curtis at a joint session of Congress. As expected, the vote was 472 to 59 in favor of Roosevelt and Garner over President Hoover and Vice-President Curtis.
Adolf Hitler announced to his cabinet that he would pursue the goal of complete rearmament of the German people within five years, with every publicly sponsored employment program to be judged by whether it contributed to the Wehrmacht.
The coldest recorded temperature in Texas was logged at Seminole at -23 °F.
Born: Elly Ameling, Dutch soprano, in Rotterdam
February 9, 1933 (Thursday)
Record cold temperatures were set in the states of Montana (-66 °F at Yellowstone National Park's Riverside Ranger Station), Oregon (-54 °F at Ukiah), and Wyoming (-63 °F at Moran). The Montana reading was the lowest recorded temperature in United States history to that time. The record for the 48 U.S. states remained unbroken until January 20, 1954 in Montana (-70 °F), and, after the admission of Alaska, on January 23, 1971 (-80 °F).
The "Oxford Pledge" was approved by a 275-153 vote of the England's foremost debating society at the University of Oxford, a resolution stating "this House will in no circumstances fight for its King and Country." Coinciding with the ascendance of Adolf Hitler to the leadership of Germany, the pacifist resolution attracted worldwide publicity and outraged many Britons. Winston Churchill described the resolution as "an abject, squalid, shameless avowal". As one observer later noted, "Most of those who took part in this debate certainly fought for King and Country seven years later", after war began in 1939.
February 10, 1933 (Friday)
The New York City-based Postal Telegraph Company introduced the first singing telegram.
A gas storage tank at the German town of Neunkirchen, Saarland, exploded, killing 62 people and hospitalizing 160.
Primo Carnera knocked out Ernie Schaaf in the 13th round of a heavyweight boxing bout at New York's Madison Square Garden. Schaaf suffered an intracranial hemorrhage, developed a blood clot on his brain, and died during surgery four days later at age 24.
Ronald Reagan, age 22, began his first full-time job in radio, for station WOC in Davenport, Iowa. Four months later, Reagan was hired as a full-time sports announcer for WHO, a clear-channel station in Des Moines, where he became a local celebrity, and in 1937, his job took him to California where he became a movie star with Warner Brothers, followed by his entry into politics in 1966, and his election as President of the United States in 1980.
February 11, 1933 (Saturday)
What is now the Death Valley National Park was created by proclamation of outgoing U.S. President Herbert Hoover, who set aside the desert in southern California and a U.S. national monument. President Bill Clinton signed legislation in 1994 making Death Valley the largest national park in the continental United States.
February 12, 1933 (Sunday)
The first offense to fall under the new Federal Kidnapping Act took place in Denver, when wealthy stockbroker Charles Boettcher II was abducted from his home and held hostage by Verne Sankey and Gordon Alcorn. Boettcher was released after payment of a $60,000 ransom. His captors became the subject of a nationwide manhunt and were captured in 1934. Sankey committed suicide while waiting to be arraigned, and Alcorn was sentenced to life in prison.
Born:
Costa-Gavras (Constantinos Gavras), Greek-born film director and writer, in Heraea (Arcadia)#Loutra Iraias. <ref>"Costa-Gavras", in Encyclopaedia Britannica" , Vol. 5, p. 664 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1992)</ref>
Ivan Anikeyev, one of the original Soviet cosmonauts in 1960, who was dismissed from the program on April 17, 1963, before completing any space flights (d. 1992).
Died:
Henri Duparc, 85, French composer
Sir William Robertson, 73, British Chief of the Imperial General Staff during the First World War, and the only British Army soldier to rise from the rank of private to field marshal.
February 13, 1933 (Monday)
The "Warsaw Convention", formally the "Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to the International Carriage by Air", went into effect after receiving the necessary ratifications. The agreement had been signed in the Polish capital on October 12, 1929. It governed passenger rights in international air travel for 70 years, before being replaced by the Montreal Convention in 2003.
Outgoing U.S. President Herbert Hoover delivered his last major speech, sometimes referred to as his "farewell address", to the Republican Club of New York, at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel.
Born:
Kim Novak, American film actress (Vertigo), in Eagle Point, Oregon
Paul Biya, President of Cameroon since 1982; in Mvomeka'a.
February 14, 1933 (Tuesday)
With the impending failure of two of Detroit's largest banks, Michigan Governor William Comstock ordered all banks in the state to be closed for eight days, in what some economic historians argue to have caused a "domino effect" that caused other bank closures, while other historians theorize that the Michigan crisis was only one of many that would have occurred anyway. Although Nevada and Louisiana had previously declared temporary bank holidays, Michigan was the first large industrial state to have a bank closure, and other state governors ordered their own holidays. By March 3, banks in most of the 48 states had restricted withdrawals or closed entirely.
In France, astronomer Ernest Esclangon inaugurated the first telephone service for callers to learn the correct time, referred to as the "horloge parlante" ("talking clock"). Callers to the Paris Observatory received a recorded message telling them what the time would be at the sound of a tone.
Born: Madhubala (Mumtaz Jahan Begum Dehlavi), Indian film actress, in New Delhi (d. 1969).
February 15, 1933 (Wednesday)
In Miami, Florida, Giuseppe Zangara attempted to assassinate President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt, but instead fatally wounded Chicago Mayor Anton J. Cermak, and wounded other people. Shortly after 11:00 pm, Roosevelt had completed a speech at Bayfront Park and was being driven to his train in an open convertible. Zangara pushed his way through the crowd, stood on a folding chair to get a better view and was within 25 feet of Roosevelt when he began firing with a .32 caliber revolver. The chair was wobbly, and at least one bystander, Mrs. Lillian Cross, reportedly grabbed his arm, followed by another bystander, James Galloway, before Zangara was wrestled to the ground. Wounded in addition to Mayor Cermak were two women, a man, and Mr. Roosevelt's bodyguard, policeman William Sinnott. Cermak, who died on March 6, was reported to have told Roosevelt, "I am glad it was me instead of you." Zangara pleaded guilty to Cermak's murder and was put to death in the electric chair on March 20.
Died: Pat Sullivan, 46, Australian-born animator best known for Felix the Cat cartoons.
February 16, 1933 (Thursday)
The U.S. Senate approved, by a 63-23 vote, an altered version of the proposed repeal of the 18th Amendment and its prohibition against the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol. The original draft of the amendment had been written by U.S. Senator John J. Blaine of Wisconsin. Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson removed provisions that would have allowed states to ban the sale of alcohol and beer by bars, taverns and saloons. The amendment, approved by the House four days later, was the first, and thus far the only, amendment to the United States Constitution to be submitted to state conventions, rather than state legislatures, for ratification.
Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia signed a mutual defense treaty to formalize the Little Entente alliance.
Surya Sen, who fought against the British for an independent Bengali state, was captured in the Patiala district village of Gairala, after police were tipped off by an informant. Surya Sen was hanged on January 12, 1934 in Chittagong.
Born: William Maud Bryant, American winner of the Medal of Honor; in Cochran, Georgia (killed 1969).
Died: Archie Jackson, 23, Australian cricketer.
February 17, 1933 (Friday)
The first issue of News-Week magazine was published, after being launched by Thomas J.C. Martyn, a former foreign-news editor at Time magazine. With the October 4, 1937 issue, the magazine began using its current name, Newsweek. Printing of the magazine ceased in its 80th year, with the December 31, 2012 issue being the last hard copy, and the magazine being available only in digital format.
Nina Mae McKinney became the first black American to perform on television, appearing on a broadcast made by John Logie Baird in London.
Konrad Adenauer, who had been the Mayor of Cologne since 1917, declined to meet German Chancellor Adolf Hitler as the latter arrived at the local airport, and ordered all swastikas and Nazi symbols removed from city property. Hitler retaliated the next month by sending SS Troops to throw Adenauer from an office window. Adenauer evaded the troops and fled Cologne, hiding within Germany for three years, before being allowed to return home. He became the first Chancellor of West Germany in 1949, serving until 1963.
In the popular American comic strip Blondie, which had started on September 8, 1930, Blondie Boopadoop married Dagwood Bumstead, the son of a wealthy industrialist, who promptly disinherited him. Dagwood and Blondie Bumstead later had two children, Alexander and Cookie, while he worked for J.C. Dithers.
Born:
Bruce P. Crandall, American Medal of Honor recipient, in Olympia, Washington
Blanche Taylor Moore, American murderer, in Concord, North Carolina
Masakazu Konishi, Japanese neurobiologist, in Kyoto.
Died: Corinne Roosevelt, 71, sister of former President Theodore Roosevelt.
February 18, 1933 (Saturday)
With two weeks left in his term, President Herbert Hoover sent a ten-page, handwritten letter to President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt, misspelling the latter's name by addressing it to "President Elect Roosvelt".
Born:
Yoko Ono, Japanese-born singer and artist, who married John Lennon in 1969; she was born in Tokyo.
Sir Bobby Robson, manager of English national football soccer team 1982-90 (d. 2009).
Died: James J. Corbett, 66, American boxer and world heavyweight champion from 1892 to 1897.
February 19, 1933 (Sunday)
The prototype of the Vultee V-1 single-engine airliner made its first flight, at Glendale, California, piloted by Marshall Headle. Although the plane was faster than existing craft, only 24 production models were completed, mostly for American Airways (now American Airlines).
Died: Major General James Allen, 84, Chief Signal Officer of the U.S. Signal Corps, 1906-1913.
February 20, 1933 (Monday)
By a margin of 289-121, the U.S. House of Representatives approved submitting the proposed Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution, repealing the 18th Amendment's prohibition against the sale of alcohol, to the States for ratification.
Adolf Hitler and 20 to 25 industrialists held a secret meeting at the official residence of Hermann Göring, the President of the Reichstag, in Berlin. Its purpose was to raise funds for the election campaign of the Nazi Party.
Prime Minister Saitō Makoto of Japan convened a cabinet meeting at which it was decided to withdraw Japan from the League of Nations if a recommendation of the Lytton Report for Japan's withdrawal from Manchuria was adopted at the League's next meeting. Japan withdrew from the League four days later.
Died: Takiji Kobayashi, 29, Japanese author and Communist party activist, after being arrested and beaten to death by Japan's secret police, the Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu.
February 21, 1933 (Tuesday)
Hermann Göring, the new Nazi leader of Germany's largest state, Prussia, published a decree in the Party newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter, ordering the Prussian police to shoot any "enemies of the state", and providing for disciplinary action against any policeman who was "inappropriately considerate".
Six days after being expelled from the Prussian Academy of the Arts for his resistance to the Nazi regime, and fearing for his life, German novelist Heinrich Mann escaped to France.
Born:
Nina Simone, American singer, pianist and songwriter, as Eunice Waymon in Tryon, North Carolina (d. 2003)
Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve, American Sioux Indian children's author, on the Rosebud Indian Reservation in South Dakota.
February 22, 1933 (Wednesday)
Adolf Hitler authorized the formation of the first Nazi concentration camps (Konzentrationslager), where opponents of the regime were kept in "protective custody" (Schutzhaft'') until they could reform.
Hermann Göring appointed 55,000 members of the Nazi Party's stormtroopers as auxiliary policemen, elevating former thugs to official status.
Augusto Sandino's rebel army laid down its weapons at San Rafael del Norte, Jinotega. Although there were 1,800 rebels who demobilized, they turned in only 355 guns (including 16 automatic rifles and two machine guns) and 3,000 rounds of ammunition.
Frances Perkins was asked by President-elect Roosevelt to serve as his Secretary of Labor, becoming the first woman to ever serve in the Cabinet of the United States.
Young Corbett III (real name Raffaele Capabianca Giordano) won the world welterweight boxing championship over Jackie Fields (real name Jacob Finkelstein) in a bout in San Francisco. The Italian native lost the world title three months later.
Born: Katharine, Duchess of Kent, first member of British royal family to convert from the Church of England to the Roman Catholic Church; in Hovingham Hall.
Died: Michael Malloy, 59, American homeless man who survived at least six attempts on his life, was killed on the tenth attempt.
February 23, 1933 (Thursday)
From its stronghold in occupied Manchuria, Japan invaded China's Jehol Province with 30,000 troops and 1,000 from Manchukuo.
The Soviet Union banned foreign journalists from traveling anywhere outside Moscow.
W2XAB, Columbia Broadcasting System's only operating television station, was taken off the air as CBS cut more than $50,000 from its budget during the Great Depression. Programming resumed six years later to coincide with the opening of the 1939 New York World's Fair.
The Nazi regime issued a decree banning homosexuality and pornography throughout Germany.
Born: Lee Calhoun, African-American Olympic track star; gold medalist in 110 meter hurdles, 1956 and 1960; in Laurel, Mississippi (d. 1989).
February 24, 1933 (Friday)
The League of Nations voted 42-1 to condemn Japan's military occupation of Chinese territory in Manchuria. Japan was the lone dissenter, with Siam abstaining and 13 other nations absent. Following the vote, Yosuke Matsuoka led a walkout of the Japanese delegation.
Police in Berlin raided the headquarters of the Communist Party of Germany. The Nazi government announced that the raid had uncovered documents showing that the Communists intended to burn down government buildings, private businesses, and mansions.
Vladimir K. Zworykin presented his paper "On Electron Optics" at the annual meeting of the Optical Society of America, and outlined the principles that led to the development of the electron microscope.
Born:
Ali Mazrui, Kenyan historian, in Mombasa (d. 2014)
Judah Folkman, American cancer researcher, in Cleveland (d. 2008).
February 25, 1933 (Saturday)
Four days after turning 30 and becoming eligible to collect an inheritance of several million dollars, Tom Yawkey purchased the Boston Red Sox baseball team for $1,200,000. He owned the team for the rest of his life, dying July 9, 1976.
USS Ranger, the first ship to be designed as an aircraft carrier (rather than being modified to serve as a carrier) was launched from the shipyards at Newport News, Virginia. Outgoing First Lady Lou Henry Hoover christened the ship.
The name of Connecticut Agricultural College was changed to Connecticut State College.
February 26, 1933 (Sunday)
Ground was broken for the Golden Gate Bridge, starting at Crissy Field in San Francisco.
Born: Godfrey Cambridge, African-American actor and comedian, in New York City (d. 1976).
Died:
Spottiswoode Aitken, 64, Scottish-American silent film actor
Thomas Watt Gregory, 71, former U.S. Attorney General.
February 27, 1933 (Monday)
Six days before the March 5 national parliamentary elections, the Reichstag building in Berlin, was set on fire and heavily damaged. The blaze was discovered at 9:15 pm, and the first responders found more than 60 small fires that had been set throughout the building, with the largest in the chamber where the legislators met. Marinus Van der Lubbe, a 25-year-old Dutchman with a Communist background, was arrested at the scene and made a confession after being questioned by his Nazi captors. A former bodyguard for Sturmabteilung (SA) founder Ernst Röhm, alleged later that the Berlin SA leader, Karl Ernst, had led a group of his troopers into the building through a connecting passage, brought in incendiaries, and then waited for Van der Lubbe to arrive. "The whole truth about the Reichstag fire will probably never be known. Nearly all those who knew it are now dead, most of them slain by Hitler in the months that followed," historian William Shirer wrote in 1960. Van der Lubbe was executed on January 10, 1934. The fire was the pretext for the emergency orders the next day granting Hitler the power to rule by decree.
Born: Raymond Berry, American football star (1955–67), and Hall of Fame member; in Corpus Christi, Texas.
Died: Walter Hiers, 39, American silent film actor.
February 28, 1933 (Tuesday)
Hours after the Reichstag building had been set afire, Chancellor Adolf Hitler and his Cabinet of Ministers drew up an emergency decree for President Paul von Hindenburg to sign under Article 48 of the German constitution. "Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of the People and State" took effect immediately upon the President's signature "as a defensive measure against Communist acts of violence endangering the state". Besides suspending guarantees of "personal liberty", "free expression of opinion", "freedom of the press", "the right of assembly" and "the right of association", the decree invoked the death penalty for a wider variety of crimes, including "serious disturbance of the peace" by an armed individual. Hitler's Stormtroopers across Germany conducted mass arrests, including taking members of Parliament into custody.
The University of Kentucky Wildcats defeated the Mississippi State Bulldogs, 46-27, in Atlanta to win the first SEC Men's Basketball Tournament, Kentucky, with an overall record of 21-3, was later retroactively named the national college champion for 1932-33 by the Helms Athletic Foundation.
References
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Corby is a town in North Northamptonshire, England, located north-east of Northampton. From 1974 to 2021, the town served as the administrative headquarters of the Borough of Corby. At the 2011 Census, the built-up area had a population of 56,810, while the borough, which was abolished in 2021, had a population of 61,255.
Figures released in March 2010 revealed that Corby has the fastest growing population in both Northamptonshire and the whole of England. The town was at one time known locally as "Little Scotland" due to the large number of Scottish workers who came to Corby for its steelworks. Recently, Corby has undergone a large regeneration process with the opening of Corby railway station and Corby International Pool in 2009 and the Corby Cube in 2010. The Cube was home to the (former) Corby Borough Council offices and also houses a 450-seat theatre, a public library and other community amenities.
History
Early history
Mesolithic and Neolithic artefacts have been found in the area surrounding Corby and human remains dating to the Bronze Age were found in 1970 at Cowthick. The first evidence of permanent settlement comes from the 8th century when Danish invaders arrived and the settlement became known as "Kori's by" – Kori's settlement. The settlement was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as "Corbei". Corby's emblem, the raven, derives from an alternative meaning of this word. These Danish roots were recognised in the naming of the most southern of the town's housing estates, Danesholme, around which one of the Danish settlements was located.
Corby was granted the right to hold two annual fairs and a market by Henry III in 1226. In 1568 Corby was granted a charter by Elizabeth I that exempted local landowners from tolls (the fee paid by travellers to use the long-distance public roads), dues (an early form of income tax) and gave all men the right to refuse to serve in the local militia. A popular legend is that the Queen was hunting in Rockingham Forest when she (dependent on the legend) either fell from her horse or became trapped in a bog whilst riding. Upon being rescued by villagers from Corby she granted the charter in gratitude for her rescue. Another popular explanation is that it was granted as a favour to her alleged lover Sir Christopher Hatton.
Corby Pole Fair
The Corby Pole Fair is an event that has taken place every 20 years since 1862 in celebration of the charter. According to a newspaper report dated 14 June 1862 which focuses on the extravagances of the fair, the fugitive slave John Anderson was described as being educated in the Corby British School, giving the town an unusual link to slavery in the United States.
The next pole fair will be held on Friday, 3 June 2022, to coincide with The Queen's Platinum Jubilee celebrations.
From rural village to industrial town
The local area has been worked for iron ore since Roman times. An ironstone industry developed in the 19th century with the coming of the railways and the discovery of extensive ironstone beds. By 1910 an ironstone works had been established. In 1931 Corby was a small village with a population of around 1,500. It grew rapidly into a reasonably sized industrial town, when the owners of the ironstone works, the steel firm Stewarts & Lloyds, decided to build a large integrated ironstone and steel works on the site. The start of construction in 1934 drew workers from all over the country including many workers from the depressed west of Scotland and Irish labourers. The first steel was produced in October 1935 and for decades afterwards the steel works dominated the town. By 1939 the population had grown to around 12,000, at which time Corby was thought to be the largest "village" in the country, but it was at that point that Corby was re-designated an urban district (see the Local Government section below).
1940s and 1950s
During the Second World War the Corby steelworks were expected to be a target for German bombers but in the event there were only a few bombs dropped by solitary planes and there were no casualties. This may be because the whole area was blanketed in huge dense black, low-lying clouds created artificially by the intentional burning of oil and latex to hide the glowing Bessemer converter furnaces at the steelworks from German bomber crews. The only known remaining scars from German attacks can be found in the form of bullet holes visible on the front fascia of the old post office in Corby village (now known as Decades bar and restaurant). The Corby steelworks made a notable contribution to the war effort by manufacturing the steel tubes used in Operation Pluto (Pipe Line Under the Ocean) to supply fuel to Allied forces on the European continent.
In 1950, with a population of 18,000, Corby was designated a New Town with William Holford as its architect. By 1951, he prepared the development plan with a car oriented layout and many areas of open space and woodland. In 1952, Holford produced the town centre plan and in 1954 the layout for the first 500 houses. The town now underwent its second wave of expansion, mainly from Scotland. Corby is famous for its Scottish heritage based on decades of incoming steel workers and was for a time known locally as "Little Scotland".
Decline of the steel industry
In 1967 the British steel industry was nationalised and the Stewarts & Lloyds steel tube works at Corby became part of British Steel Corporation. The Government approved a ten-year development strategy with expenditure of £3,000 million from 1973 onwards, the objective of which was to convert BSC from a large number of small scale works, using largely obsolete equipment, to a far more compact organisation with highly competitive plant.
Steelmaking was to be concentrated in five main areas: South Wales, Sheffield, Scunthorpe, Teesside and Scotland, most of which are coastal sites with access to economic supplies of iron rich imported ores. It was not until 1975 that a closure programme was agreed after a 14-month review by Lord Beswick, the then Minister of State for Industry. Corby was not one of the Beswick Plants that were to close in the review. By this time BSC was plunging into loss and important parts of the investment programme was held back. The European Union, Davignon Plan, had also asked for Steel Capacity in Europe to be significantly reduced. In May 1979, the New Conservative Governments Minister, Sir Keith Joseph announced the closure of Corby Steelworks. By the end of 1981 over 5,000 jobs had been lost from British Steel in Corby, and further cuts took the total loss to 11,000 jobs, leading to an unemployment rate of over 30%. Steel tube making continued, however, initially being supplied with steel by rail from Teesside and later from South Wales.
The title track of Steeltown by Big Country is about the loss of jobs in Corby.
Redevelopment
Corby was designated as a new town in 1950. Most of the housing in the town has been built since this date. The first new street completed was Bessemer Grove, about the same time that the re-built blast furnace was lit. New industry was subsequently attracted to the town when the Thatcher government designated it as an Enterprise Zone. By 1991 unemployment had returned to the national average. The recovery of Corby was explained in 1990 by John Redwood, then a junior minister in the Department of Trade and Industry, as being a result of the establishment of the Enterprise Zone, the promotion of Corby by the Thatcher government, the work of private investors and the skills of the work force. Others believe the town's recovery was significantly assisted by its central location and substantial grants from the EU. The enterprise zone was promoted by the Corby Industrial Development Centre through a prospectus that parodied The Economist, titled The Ecorbyist; publication continued at least as late as 1994.
To the north of Corby, on the industrial estates, is a 350MW power station built in 1994; and the Rockingham Motor Speedway built in 2001.
Politics
The Corby constituency contains parts of traditionally Conservative East Northamptonshire that balance the traditionally Labour town of Corby leading to a marginal constituency that has gone to the party forming the UK Government at every general election since the creation of the constituency in 1983. At the 2005 general election, Labour won Corby with a majority of just over 1,000 votes. At the 2010 general election, the sitting Labour MP Phil Hope lost the seat to writer Louise Bagshawe, the Conservative Party candidate, who became Louise Mensch after her marriage the following year.
In 2012, Mensch resigned as an MP and the resulting by-election was won by Labour's Andy Sawford with a majority of 7,791 votes over the Conservatives. UKIP finished in third place whilst the Liberal Democrats finished in fourth place, losing their deposit. The by-election was of national and international media interest due to the constituency being a marginal seat. During the wait for the results announcement, "Corby" briefly trended worldwide on Twitter.
The Conservatives took back the Corby constituency from Labour in 2015, with Conservative Tom Pursglove defeating Labour's Andy Sawford by a majority of 2,412 votes.
In local politics, the now abolished Corby Borough Council was controlled by the Labour Party since 1979. In 2015, the council had 24 Labour representatives and 5 Conservatives.
On 8 December 2014, Northamptonshire Police began an investigation into financial dealings by Corby Borough Council. In July 2013, Conservative councillors Rob McKellar and David Sims handed the "suspicious" findings of an audit report to the police to see if a crime had been committed. The audit report examined four major projects, including the Corby Cube, the cost of which went from £35m to £47m.
In the 2016 referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union, Corby voted 64% in favour of leaving whilst only 36% voted to remain in the EU. The turnout was 74.1% with the leave vote winning with a majority of 9,141 votes. The constituency's Conservative MP at the time, Tom Pursglove, had also been in favour of the UK leaving the European Union being one of the founders of Grassroots Out, the pro-Brexit organisation largely supported by Conservative and UKIP politicians.
Corby used to have 15 wards at the time of the 2011 census however following a boundary change only 11 remained. Some entirely new wards were created in the change however the Beanfield, Central, Danesholme, Rowlett, Rural West, Stanion and Corby Village, Weldon and Gretton and Lodge Park wards remained in existence. On the 1 April 2021, the Corby Borough Council was abolished and the Town of Corby now has 4 wards in the Town Council which are Oakley, Corby West, Kingswood and Hazel Lees and Lloyds, and 5 wards in the Unitary Authority which includes the Town Wards as well as incorporating the surrounding parishes into Corby Rural.
In March 2018, following Northamptonshire County Council becoming insolvent, due to financial and cultural mismanagement by the cabinet and officers, the then Secretary of State for Local Government, Sajid Javid, sent commissioner Max Caller into the council, who recommended the county council and all district and borough councils in the county be abolished, and replaced by two unitary authorities, one covering the West, and one the North of the county. These proposals were approved in April 2019. It meant that the districts of Daventry, Northampton and South Northamptonshire were merged to form a new unitary authority called West Northamptonshire, whilst the second unitary authority North Northamptonshire consists of the former Corby, East Northamptonshire, Kettering and Wellingborough districts. These new authorities came into being on 1 April 2021. Elections for the new authorities were due to be held on 7 May 2020, but were delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and were instead held on 6 May 2021.
In the Local Elections on 6 May 2021, Corby returned 12 Labour Councillors and 3 Conservative Councillors across 5 wards, with the Conservatives only being elected in the Rural Ward. The newly created Corby Town Council returned 17 Labour Councillors across 4 Wards, which are all the seats on the Corby Town Council. The Leader of the Corby Town Council is Councillor Matt Keane, its Deputy Leader is Councillor Mark Pengelly, its first Town Council Mayor is Councillor Lawrence Ferguson and its first Town Council Deupty Mayor is Councillor Tafadzwa Chikoto.
City status bid
In 2012, Corby bid to gain city status as part of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee celebrations. However, it lost out to Perth, Chelmsford and St Asaph.
Elections
2003 Corby Borough Council election
2007 Corby Borough Council election
2012 Corby by-election
2015 Corby Borough Council election
Society and culture
It is recorded in 1851 that the accent spoken in the northern parts of Northamptonshire would be more recognisable as a "West Country dialect". Scottish migration to Corby has created a unique population in the borough. The link with Scotland is a strong feature of the area: according to the 2001 Census, there were 10,063 Scottish-born in the Corby Urban Area – 18.9% of the population. A further 1.3 per cent were born in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that a further third of the population are Scottish or of Scottish descent.
The Scottish heritage is cherished by many inhabitants. There are Scottish social and sporting clubs and there are many fervent supporters of the Rangers and Celtic football clubs (indeed, Corby was home to the largest Rangers Supporters' Club outside Glasgow and Northern Ireland until its closure in February 2013) as well as the Scottish National Team. Many shops sell Scottish foods and a supermarket even introduced Gaelic signs to their Corby store (but they have since removed them). An annual Highland Gathering featuring traditional Scottish sports, music and dancing is held in the town. Corby is the only town in England apart from London with two Church of Scotland churches. Local legend states that Corby sees the highest sales of the Scottish soft drink Irn-Bru of anywhere outside Scotland. Asda Corby is stated to sell 17 times more Irn-Bru than any other store in England. Its popularity is cemented by the fact that it is available for purchase in all bars, nightclubs and pubs in the area. In 2014, Corby held a mock referendum in the run up to the Scottish independence referendum. 576 votes were cast, with 162 voting for Scottish independence and 414 voting against.
The song Steeltown by Big Country (title track of the album) was written about the town of Corby, telling how many Scots went to work there, but found themselves unemployed when the steelworks declined. (Source: Melody Maker, 1984)
According to the 2001 Census 1.7% of the population are non-white and the average age of the population (37.2) is slightly lower than the average for England and Wales (38.6).
November 2010 saw the opening of the Corby Cube, a major development in the town centre. As well as new council chamber, registrar office, and public library, the Cube is home to a 450-seat theatre and 100 capacity studio theatre. A programme of live theatre, dance, music and standup comedy is complemented by a participation programme encouraging all parts of Corby community to get involved. Recently the theatre started screening films, twice a week and including current mainstream releases and the best in world, independent and art house cinema. A report in 2012 revealed that the Cube was built with dangerous design flaws and almost double its original estimated costs and a capacity of only half of what was planned.
A crater on Mars discovered in the late 1970s was named after Corby, in reference to a famous transcript of a conversation in June 1969 between the crew of the Apollo 11 mission and mission control, whereby world news was relayed to the crew, amongst it was the news that "in Corby, an Irishman named John Coyle won the World's Porridge Eating Championship by consuming 23 bowls of instant oatmeal in 10 minutes". The reply from Apollo 11: "I'd like to enter Aldrin in the porridge eating contest next time; he's on the 19th bowl. Roger."
Sport and leisure
Corby's main football team is Corby Town F.C., who play in the Southern League Division One Central. The Steelmen play at Steel Park and have an average home attendance of 431 in 2018/19. The town's other semi-professional football club are Stewarts & Lloyds Corby F.C., who play in the United Counties League. S&L play their home matches at Occupation Road.
Corby is also home to the Corby East Midlands International Swimming Pool which was built in 2009. It is also home to the Stewarts and Lloyds Rugby Football Club which despite the long closure of the steel industry maintains its proud heritage of its industrial roots. The club plays in the RFU's Midland South East 3 division.
Corby also has an athletics club for under-11s to over 60s. In the Youth Development League, the upper age group gained promotion to Midland East 1 and gained promotion in the Heart of England Athletics League. Jordan Spence is currently the senior captain of the athletics club.
Transport
Roads
The town is located along the A43, A427, A6003 and is from the A14 at Kettering. Corby lies within two hours' drive of four international airports: Birmingham, Luton, Stansted and East Midlands. Being a new town, Corby's road network is different from that of older towns. There are several dual carriageways, most of the principal roads have wide reservations and high speed limits and pedestrian crossings over them are often underpasses. However, Corby is only connected by dual carriageway to one neighbouring town, Kettering (the A6003). All other roads into the town are single carriageways. The three dual carriageways form an outer ring road around most of Corby, however it only encircles suburbs south of the town centre and a small amount of countryside.
Buses
Corby is served by six bus routes under the Corby Star brand name. Route X4 connects the town with Peterborough, Oundle, Weldon, Danesholme, Kettering, Isham, Wellingborough, Earls Barton, Northampton, It is also operated by Stagecoach Midlands. National Express coaches also provide long-distance connections to the north and Scotland. Plans to build a new bus station in Corby are being considered by the council following the closure of the old bus station in August 2002.
Rail
Following a number of years when the town had no railway station, a new facility opened on 23 February 2009. East Midlands Railway runs half-hourly services to London St Pancras via and . The route to London was converted to electric traction in May 2021. There is also a limited peak time service running north to , , and .
Employment and education
Employment
Since the 1980s the unemployment rate has returned to a level closer to the national average (2.7% in October 2005). Employment is biased towards manufacturing (36.8% compared with a regional average of 18.5%) and against public administration, health and education (10.0% compared with the regional average of 25.9%). Much of industry is concentrated in purpose-built industrial estates on the outskirts of the town. Fairline Boats were manufactured here. Weetabix Limited make Weetos in the north of the town. RS Components are based near Rockingham Speedway. Taste Original (formerly Puredrive), part of Zwanenberg Food Group UK has operated from Corby since 1988 making cooked meat snacking products. Amy's Kitchen has recently opened a factory here, and manufactured products for the UK market here.
2018 research by Sky News identified Corby as the town most threatened by job losses in the UK due to automation with 31% of employment subject to cliff-edge automation.
Demography
According to the 2001 Census the proportion of the working age population with degree-level qualifications (8.5%) is the lowest of all areas in England and Wales. 39.3% have no GCSE-equivalent qualifications at all. The borough of Corby has the highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the East Midlands, outside of the metropolitan boroughs (unitary authorities), although Lincoln is very similar.
According to the 2011 census, Corby had a population of 61,255 and was 85.0% White British, 9.1% Other White (not including White Irish and Irish Traveller), 1.4% mixed race, 1.4% Asian and 1.7% Black. Corby's least White British ward is Oakley Vale where 70.7% of the population are White British while Corby's least ethnically diverse ward is Rural West, where 95.6% of the population are White British. In 2011, 5567 people registered their ethnicity as 'Other White' or 9.1% of the population. This figure includes a large community of people from Poland and the Baltic States.
Schools
The Corby campus of Tresham Institute of Further and Higher Education provides a range of vocational courses for post-16 students and adult learners. The nearest universities are the University of Northampton, to the south and both the University of Leicester and De Montfort University in Leicester, to the west.
Brooke Weston Academy, was one of only fifteen CTCs in England, opened in 1990. Brooke Weston CTC consistently achieved examination results in the top 5% of English state schools, and has been a City Academy since September 2008.
Since 1990 several of Corby's other secondary schools have fared less well with a series of poor examination results and critical inspection reports leading to mergers and closures, the most recent being the closure of Our Lady and Pope John School in 2005. Currently there are five secondary schools in Corby: Brooke Weston Academy, Lodge Park Academy, Corby Business Academy, Kingswood Secondary Academy and the newly opened Corby Technical School which opened to students in an old unused primary school in September 2012 with the new building completed and opened in November 2013. Corby Business Academy has a special unit for children with severe special educational needs. All four schools have sixth forms for post-16 students.
Corby has 17 primary schools, of which two are Church of England schools, three are Roman Catholic and one for children with severe behavioural and emotional difficulties.
Regeneration and redevelopment
Corby has an Urban Regeneration Company - North Northants Development Company, which now covers the whole of North Northamptonshire rather than just Corby (it was previously known as Catalyst Corby). The company is working closely with Corby Borough Council, Land Securities (town centre owners), the East Midlands Development Agency and the Homes and Communities Agency to regenerate the town centre as part of the masterplan for the whole town. The population of Corby town is expected to double in the next 30 years through housing on large estates such as Prior's Hall, Little Stanion, Oakley Vale and Great Oakley.
In October 2007 Corby's new shopping precinct, Willow Place, opened. In addition Parkland Gateway, the Borough's £50m investment situated adjacent to Willow Place and including a new Olympic-sized swimming pool and civic hub (due for completion in November 2010), is being built following its approval in January 2007. Work began on the project in October 2007 and the Corby East Midlands International Pool was officially opened by Olympian Mark Foster in July 2009. Although the Evolution Corby project is currently on hold, limited aesthetic augmentation work within the town centre continues.
Corby town centre has recently gained a Wetherspoon Pub & Hotel called "The Saxon Crown". It is a refurbished 1960s Cooperative Store and its name refers to the history of the area: the village of Corby derives its name from Kori, a leader of Danish invaders who settled in a clearing in Rockingham Forest.
The local Conservative Party, who call themselves "Team Corby", have argued that further regeneration in Corby should be delivered through bringing visitors to the town to visit its numerous historic sites. They argue that a co-ordinated tourism programme will increase and diversify the population available for the leisure industry to market to, and thus result in more local leisure facilities being opened.
North Londonshire
Stephen Fry voiced an advertising campaign in London from 2010 to entice people to move to Corby and the surrounding area including Rushden, Kettering and Wellingborough. The North Northamptonshire Development Corporation's campaign uses newspaper and London Underground advertisements, and also local radio with North Northamptonshire, being dubbed 'North Londonshire', as the area is only an hour from London St Pancras by rail. The campaign was criticised by residents in the county proud of the Northamptonshire name.
Toxic waste contamination
In July 2009 Corby Borough Council was found liable for negligently exposing pregnant women to toxic waste during the reclamation of the former British Steel Corporation steelworks, causing birth defects to their children. The judge found in favour of 16 of the 18 claimants, the oldest of whom was 22 at the time of the ruling. The ruling was significant as it was the first in the world to find that airborne pollution could cause such birth defects
Geography
Corby is north-northwest of London, north east of Northampton, southeast of Leicester, east of Birmingham and west of Peterborough, its nearest city.
The built up area of Corby had a population of 56,810 in 2011 compared with 61,255 for the Borough of Corby. The urban area had an area of 20.5 km2 compared with 80.3 km2 for the larger borough. Corby is expanding rapidly, with the borough having a population of 53,400 in 2001 and increasing to 61,300 in 2011. The expansion has resulted in villages like Great Oakley and Weldon being absorbed into the town's urban area. However, the latter remains a parish, being separated from the rest of Corby by the A43.
Areas of Corby
Most of Corby's population live in the town itself, however in terms of area it is mostly rural. This list includes the villages within the borough but also districts of the urban area and modern housing developments. The borough of Corby is made up of 11 wards following a boundary change after the 2011 census.
Weldon
Danesholme
Kingswood
Rockingham
Corby Old Village
Gretton
Exeter
Cottingham
Snatchill
Middleton
Town Centre
Oakley Vale
Great Oakley
East Carlton
Hazelwood
Rowlett
Willowbrook
Stanion
Little Stanion
Beanfield
Lodge Park
Twin towns
Corby is twinned with:
Châtellerault, France
Velbert, Germany
Shijiazhuang, China
Arms
See also
Grade I listed buildings in Corby
Grade II* listed buildings in Corby
References
External links
Corby Town Council
Corby Local Shops News & Events
Corby Borough Council
BBC website about Corby
The English town that's truly Scottish (Scotsman.com)
Towns in Northamptonshire
North Northamptonshire
New towns in England
Ironworks and steelworks in England
Scottish diaspora
New towns started in the 1950s
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Wage slavery is a term used to describe a situation where a person's entire livelihood depends on wages or a salary, especially when the wages are low, conditions are poor, and the person has little to no realistic chances of upward mobility. The term is often used to criticise the exploitation of labour and social stratification, with the former seen primarily as unequal bargaining power between labour and capital, particularly when workers are paid comparatively low wages, such as in sweatshops, and the latter is described as a lack of workers' self-management, fulfilling job choices and leisure in an economy. The criticism of social stratification covers a wider range of employment choices bound by the pressures of a hierarchical society to perform otherwise unfulfilling work that deprives humans of their "species character" not only under threat of extreme poverty and starvation, but also of social stigma and status diminution. Historically, many socialist organisations and activists have espoused workers' self-management or worker cooperatives as possible alternatives to wage labour.
Similarities between wage labour and slavery were noted as early as Cicero in Ancient Rome, such as in De Officiis. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, thinkers such as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Karl Marx elaborated the comparison between wage labour and slavery, and engaged in critique of work while Luddites emphasised the dehumanisation brought about by machines. The introduction of wage labour in 18th-century Britain was met with resistance, giving rise to the principles of syndicalism and anarchism.
Before the American Civil War, Southern defenders of African American slavery invoked the concept of wage slavery to favourably compare the condition of their slaves to workers in the North. The United States abolished most forms of slavery after the Civil War, but labour union activists found the metaphor useful – according to historian Lawrence Glickman, in the Gilded Age "[r]eferences abounded in the labour press, and it is hard to find a speech by a labour leader without the phrase".
History
The view that working for wages is akin to slavery dates back to the ancient world. In ancient Rome, Cicero wrote that "the very wage [wage labourers] receive is a pledge of their slavery".
In 1763, the French journalist Simon Linguet published an influential description of wage slavery:
The view that wage work has substantial similarities with chattel slavery was actively put forward in the late 18th and 19th centuries by defenders of chattel slavery (most notably in the Southern states of the United States) and by opponents of capitalism (who were also critics of chattel slavery). Some defenders of slavery, mainly from the Southern slave states, argued that Northern workers were "free but in name – the slaves of endless toil" and that their slaves were better off. This contention has been partly corroborated by some modern studies that indicate slaves' material conditions in the 19th century were "better than what was typically available to free urban laborers at the time". In this period, Henry David Thoreau wrote that "[i]t is hard to have a Southern overseer; it is worse to have a Northern one; but worst of all when you are the slave-driver of yourself".
Abolitionists in the United States criticized the analogy as spurious. They argued that wage workers were "neither wronged nor oppressed". Abraham Lincoln and the Republicans argued that the condition of wage workers was different from slavery as long as laborers were likely to develop the opportunity to work for themselves, achieving self-employment. The abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass initially declared "now I am my own master", upon taking a paying job. However, later in life he concluded to the contrary, saying "experience demonstrates that there may be a slavery of wages only a little less galling and crushing in its effects than chattel slavery, and that this slavery of wages must go down with the other". Douglass went on to speak about these conditions as arising from the unequal bargaining power between the ownership/capitalist class and the non-ownership/laborer class within a compulsory monetary market: "No more crafty and effective devise for defrauding the southern laborers could be adopted than the one that substitutes orders upon shopkeepers for currency in payment of wages. It has the merit of a show of honesty, while it puts the laborer completely at the mercy of the land-owner and the shopkeeper".
Self-employment became less common as the artisan tradition slowly disappeared in the later part of the 19th century. In 1869, The New York Times described the system of wage labor as "a system of slavery as absolute if not as degrading as that which lately prevailed at the South". E. P. Thompson notes that for British workers at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, the "gap in status between a 'servant,' a hired wage-laborer subject to the orders and discipline of the master, and an artisan, who might 'come and go' as he pleased, was wide enough for men to shed blood rather than allow themselves to be pushed from one side to the other. And, in the value system of the community, those who resisted degradation were in the right". A "Member of the Builders' Union" in the 1830s argued that the trade unions "will not only strike for less work, and more wages, but will ultimately abolish wages, become their own masters and work for each other; labor and capital will no longer be separate but will be indissolubly joined together in the hands of workmen and work-women". This perspective inspired the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union of 1834 which had the "two-fold purpose of syndicalist unions – the protection of the workers under the existing system and the formation of the nuclei of the future society" when the unions "take over the whole industry of the country". "Research has shown", summarises William Lazonick, "that the 'free-born Englishman' of the eighteenth century – even those who, by force of circumstance, had to submit to agricultural wage labour – tenaciously resisted entry into the capitalist workshop".
The use of the term "wage slave" by labor organizations may originate from the labor protests of the Lowell mill girls in 1836. The imagery of wage slavery was widely used by labor organizations during the mid-19th century to object to the lack of workers' self-management. However, it was gradually replaced by the more neutral term "wage work" towards the end of the 19th century as labor organizations shifted their focus to raising wages.
Karl Marx described capitalist society as infringing on individual autonomy because it is based on a materialistic and commodified concept of the body and its liberty (i.e. as something that is sold, rented, or alienated in a class society). According to Friedrich Engels:
Similarities of wage work with slavery
Critics of wage work have drawn several similarities between wage work and slavery:
Since the chattel slave is property, his value to an owner is in some ways higher than that of a worker who may quit, be fired or replaced. The chattel slave's owner has made a greater investment in terms of the money paid for the slave. For this reason, in times of recession chattel slaves could not be fired like wage laborers. A "wage slave" could also be harmed at no (or less) cost. American chattel-slaves in the 19th century had improved their standard of living from the 18th century and – according to historians Fogel and Engerman – plantation records show that slaves worked less, were better fed and whipped only occasionally – their material conditions in the 19th century being "better than what was typically available to free urban laborers at the time". This was partially due to slave psychological strategies under an economic system different from capitalist wage-slavery. According to Mark Michael Smith of the Economic History Society, "although intrusive and oppressive, paternalism, the way masters employed it, and the methods slaves used to manipulate it, rendered slaveholders' attempts to institute capitalistic work regimens on their plantation ineffective and so allowed slaves to carve out a degree of autonomy".
Unlike a chattel slave, a wage laborer can (barring unemployment or lack of job offers) choose between employers, but those employers usually constitute a minority of owners in the population for which the wage laborer must work while attempts to implement workers' control on employers' businesses may be considered an act of theft or insubordination and thus be met with violence, imprisonment or other legal and social measures. The wage laborer's starkest choice is to work for an employer or to face poverty or starvation. If a chattel slave refuses to work, a number of punishments are also available; from beatings to food deprivation – although economically rational slave-owners practiced positive reinforcement to achieve best results and before losing their investment by killing an expensive slave.
Historically, the range of occupations and status positions held by chattel slaves has been nearly as broad as that held by free persons, indicating some similarities between chattel slavery and wage slavery as well.
Like chattel slavery, wage slavery does not stem from some immutable "human nature", but represents a "specific response to material and historical conditions" that "reproduce[s] the inhabitants, the social relations… the ideas… [and] the social form of daily life".
Similarities became blurred when proponents of wage labor won the American Civil War of 1861–1865, in which they competed for legitimacy with defenders of chattel slavery. Each side presented an over-positive assessment of their own system while denigrating the opponent.
According to American anarcho-syndicalist philosopher Noam Chomsky, workers themselves noticed the similarities between chattel and wage slavery. Chomsky noted that the 19th-century Lowell mill girls, without any reported knowledge of European Marxism or anarchism, condemned the "degradation and subordination" of the newly emerging industrial system and the "new spirit of the age: gain wealth, forgetting all but self", maintaining that "those who work in the mills should own them". They expressed their concerns in a protest song during their 1836 strike:
Defenses of both wage labor and chattel slavery in the literature have linked the subjection of man to man with the subjection of man to nature – arguing that hierarchy and a social system's particular relations of production represent human nature and are no more coercive than the reality of life itself. According to this narrative, any well-intentioned attempt to fundamentally change the status quo is naively utopian and will result in more oppressive conditions. Bosses in both of these long-lasting systems argued that their respective systems created a lot of wealth and prosperity. In some sense, both did create jobs, and their investment entailed risk. For example, slave-owners risked losing money by buying chattel slaves who later became ill or died; while bosses risked losing money by hiring workers (wage slaves) to make products that did not sell well on the market. Marginally, both chattel and wage slaves may become bosses; sometimes by working hard. The "rags to riches" story occasionally comes to pass in capitalism; the "slave to master" story occurred in places like colonial Brazil, where slaves could buy their own freedom and become business owners, self-employed, or slave-owners themselves. Thus critics of the concept of wage slavery do not regard social mobility, or the hard work and risk that it may entail, as a redeeming factor.
Anthropologist David Graeber has noted that historically the first wage-labor contracts we know about – whether in ancient Greece or Rome, or in the Malay or Swahili city-states in the Indian Ocean – were in fact contracts for the rental of chattel slaves (usually the owner would receive a share of the money and the slaves another, with which to maintain their living expenses). According to Graeber, such arrangements were quite common in New World slavery as well, whether in the United States or in Brazil. C. L. R. James (1901-1989) argued that most of the techniques of human organization employed on factory workers during the Industrial Revolution first developed on slave plantations.
Subsequent work "traces the innovations of modern management to the slave plantation".
Changes in the use of the term
Some North American labor groups decreased their usage of the term "wage slavery" as "wage work" became more common at the end of the 19th century as groups like the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor shifted to a more reformist, trade-union ideology instead of advocating worker's self-management. Much of the decline was caused by the rapid increase in manufacturing after the Industrial Revolution and the subsequent dominance of wage labor as a result. Other factors included immigration and demographic changes that led to ethnic tension amongst workers.
As Hallgrimsdottir and Benoit point out:
In more general English-language usage, the phrase "wage slavery" and its variants became more frequent in the 20th century.
Treatment in various economic systems
Some anti-capitalist thinkers claim that the elite maintain wage slavery and a divided working class through their influence over the media and entertainment industry, educational institutions, unjust laws, nationalist and corporate propaganda, pressures and incentives to internalize values serviceable to the power structure, state violence, fear of unemployment, and a historical legacy of exploitation and profit accumulation/transfer under prior systems, which shaped the development of economic theory. Adam Smith noted that employers often conspire together to keep wages low and have the upper hand in conflicts between workers and employers:
Capitalism
The concept of wage slavery could conceivably be traced back to pre-capitalist figures like Gerrard Winstanley from the radical Christian Diggers movement in England, who wrote in his 1649 pamphlet, The New Law of Righteousness, that there "shall be no buying or selling, no fairs nor markets, but the whole earth shall be a common treasury for every man" and "there shall be none Lord over others, but every one shall be a Lord of himself".
Aristotle stated that "the citizens must not live a mechanic or a mercantile life (for such a life is ignoble and inimical to virtue), nor yet must those who are to be citizens in the best state be tillers of the soil (for leisure is needed both for the development of virtue and for active participation in politics)", often paraphrased as "all paid jobs absorb and degrade the mind". Cicero wrote in 44 BC that "vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery". Somewhat similar criticisms have also been expressed by some proponents of liberalism, like Silvio Gesell and Thomas Paine; Henry George, who inspired the economic philosophy known as Georgism; and the Distributist school of thought within the Catholic Church.
To Karl Marx and anarchist thinkers like Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin, wage slavery was a class condition in place due to the existence of private property and the state. This class situation rested primarily on:
The existence of property not intended for active use;
The concentration of ownership in few hands;
The lack of direct access by workers to the means of production and consumption goods; and
The perpetuation of a reserve army of unemployed workers.
And secondarily on:
The waste of workers' efforts and resources on producing useless luxuries;
The waste of goods so that their price may remain high; and
The waste of all those who sit between the producer and consumer, taking their own shares at each stage without actually contributing to the production of goods, i.e. the middle man.
Fascism
Fascist economic policies were more hostile to independent trade unions than modern economies in Europe or the United States. Fascism was more widely accepted in the 1920s and 1930s, and foreign corporate investment (notably from the United States) in Germany increased after the fascists took power.
Fascism has been perceived by some notable critics, like Buenaventura Durruti, to be a last resort weapon of the privileged to ensure the maintenance of wage slavery:
Psychological effects
According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the psychological implications of wage slavery goes back to the Enlightenment era. In his 1791 book The Limits of State Action, classical liberal thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt explained how "whatever does not spring from a man's free choice, or is only the result of instruction and guidance, does not enter into his very nature; he does not perform it with truly human energies, but merely with mechanical exactness" and so when the laborer works under external control, "we may admire what he does, but we despise what he is". Because they explore human authority and obedience, both the Milgram and Stanford experiments have been found useful in the psychological study of wage-based workplace relations.
Self-identity problems and stress
According to research, modern work provides people with a sense of personal and social identity that is tied to:
The particular work role, even if unfulfilling; and
The social role it entails e.g. family bread-winning, friendship forming and so on.
Thus job loss entails the loss of this identity.
Erich Fromm argued that if a person perceives himself as being what he owns, then when that person loses (or even thinks of losing) what he "owns" (e.g. the good looks or sharp mind that allow him to sell his labor for high wages) a fear of loss may create anxiety and authoritarian tendencies because that person's sense of identity is threatened. In contrast, when a person's sense of self is based on what he experiences in a “state of being” with a less materialistic regard for what he once had and lost, or may lose, then less authoritarian tendencies prevail. In his view, the state of being flourishes under a worker-managed workplace and economy, whereas self-ownership entails a materialistic notion of self, created to rationalize the lack of worker control that would allow for a state of being.
Investigative journalist Robert Kuttner analyzed the work of public-health scholars Jeffrey Johnson and Ellen Hall about modern conditions of work and concludes that "to be in a life situation where one experiences relentless demands by others, over which one has relatively little control, is to be at risk of poor health, physically as well as mentally". Under wage labor, "a relatively small elite demands and gets empowerment, self-actualization, autonomy, and other work satisfaction that partially compensate for long hours" while "epidemiological data confirm that lower-paid, lower-status workers are more likely to experience the most clinically damaging forms of stress, in part because they have less control over their work".
Wage slavery and the educational system that precedes it "implies power held by the leader. Without power the leader is inept. The possession of power inevitably leads to corruption ... in spite of ... good intentions ... [Leadership means] power of initiative, this sense of responsibility, the self-respect which comes from expressed manhood, is taken from the men, and consolidated in the leader. The sum of their initiative, their responsibility, their self-respect becomes his ... [and the] order and system he maintains is based upon the suppression of the men, from being independent thinkers into being 'the men' ... In a word, he is compelled to become an autocrat and a foe to democracy". For the "leader", such marginalisation can be beneficial, for a leader "sees no need for any high level of intelligence in the rank and file, except to applaud his actions. Indeed such intelligence from his point of view, by breeding criticism and opposition, is an obstacle and causes confusion". Wage slavery "implies erosion of the human personality ... [because] some men submit to the will of others, arousing in these instincts which predispose them to cruelty and indifference in the face of the suffering of their fellows".
Psychological control
Higher wages
In 19th-century discussions of labor relations, it was normally assumed that the threat of starvation forced those without property to work for wages. Proponents of the view that modern forms of employment constitute wage slavery, even when workers appear to have a range of available alternatives, have attributed its perpetuation to a variety of social factors that maintain the hegemony of the employer class.
In an account of the Lowell mill girls, Harriet Hanson Robinson wrote that generously high wages were offered to overcome the degrading nature of the work:
In his book Disciplined Minds, Jeff Schmidt points out that professionals are trusted to run organizations in the interests of their employers. Because employers cannot be on hand to manage every decision, professionals are trained to "ensure that each and every detail of their work favors the right interests–or skewers the disfavored ones" in the absence of overt control:
Parecon (participatory economics) theory posits a social class "between labor and capital" of higher paid professionals such as "doctors, lawyers, engineers, managers and others" who monopolize empowering labor and constitute a class above wage laborers who do mostly "obedient, rote work".
Lower wages
The terms "employee" or "worker" have often been replaced by "associate". This plays up the allegedly voluntary nature of the interaction while playing down the subordinate status of the wage laborer as well as the worker-boss class distinction emphasized by labor movements. Billboards as well as television, Internet and newspaper advertisements consistently show low-wage workers with smiles on their faces, appearing happy.
Job interviews and other data on requirements for lower skilled workers in developed countries – particularly in the growing service sector – indicate that the more workers depend on low wages and the less skilled or desirable their job is, the more employers screen for workers without better employment options and expect them to feign unremunerative motivation. Such screening and feigning may not only contribute to the positive self-image of the employer as someone granting desirable employment, but also signal wage-dependence by indicating the employee's willingness to feign, which in turn may discourage the dissatisfaction normally associated with job-switching or union activity.
At the same time, employers in the service industry have justified unstable, part-time employment and low wages by playing down the importance of service jobs for the lives of the wage laborers (e.g. just temporary before finding something better, student summer jobs and the like).
In the early 20th century, "scientific methods of strikebreaking" were devised – employing a variety of tactics that emphasized how strikes undermined "harmony" and "Americanism".
Workers' self-management
Some social activists objecting to the market system or price system of wage working historically have considered syndicalism, worker cooperatives, workers' self-management and workers' control as possible alternatives to the current wage system.
Labor and government
The American philosopher John Dewey believed that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business". Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state.
Noam Chomsky has argued that political theory tends to blur the 'elite' function of government:
In this regard, Chomsky has used Bakunin's theories about an "instinct for freedom", the militant history of labor movements, Kropotkin's mutual aid evolutionary principle of survival and Marc Hauser's theories supporting an innate and universal moral faculty, to explain the incompatibility of oppression with certain aspects of human nature.
Influence on environmental degradation
Loyola University philosophy professor John Clark and libertarian socialist philosopher Murray Bookchin have criticized the system of wage labor for encouraging environmental destruction, arguing that a self-managed industrial society would better manage the environment. Like other anarchists, they attribute much of the Industrial Revolution's pollution to the "hierarchical" and "competitive" economic relations accompanying it.
Employment contracts
Some criticize wage slavery on strictly contractual grounds, e.g. David Ellerman and Carole Pateman, arguing that the employment contract is a legal fiction in that it treats human beings juridically as mere tools or inputs by abdicating responsibility and self-determination, which the critics argue are inalienable. As Ellerman points out, "[t]he employee is legally transformed from being a co-responsible partner to being only an input supplier sharing no legal responsibility for either the input liabilities [costs] or the produced outputs [revenue, profits] of the employer's business". Such contracts are inherently invalid "since the person remain[s] a de facto fully capacitated adult person with only the contractual role of a non-person" as it is impossible to physically transfer self-determination. As Pateman argues:
In a modern liberal capitalist society, the employment contract is enforced while the enslavement contract is not; the former being considered valid because of its consensual/non-coercive nature and the latter being considered inherently invalid, consensual or not. The noted economist Paul Samuelson described this discrepancy:
Some advocates of right-libertarianism, among them philosopher Robert Nozick, address this inconsistency in modern societies arguing that a consistently libertarian society would allow and regard as valid consensual/non-coercive enslavement contracts, rejecting the notion of inalienable rights:
Others like Murray Rothbard allow for the possibility of debt slavery, asserting that a lifetime labour contract can be broken so long as the slave pays appropriate damages:
Schools of economics
In the philosophy of mainstream, neoclassical economics, wage labor is seen as the voluntary sale of one's own time and efforts, just like a carpenter would sell a chair, or a farmer would sell wheat. It is considered neither an antagonistic nor abusive relationship and carries no particular moral implications.
Austrian economics argues that a person is not "free" unless they can sell their labor because otherwise that person has no self-ownership and will be owned by a "third party" of individuals.
Post-Keynesian economics perceives wage slavery as resulting from inequality of bargaining power between labor and capital, which exists when the economy does not "allow labor to organize and form a strong countervailing force".
The two main forms of socialist economics perceive wage slavery differently:
Libertarian socialism sees it as a lack of workers' self-management in the context of substituting state and capitalist control with political and economic decentralization and confederation.
State socialists view it as an injustice perpetrated by capitalists and solved through nationalization and social ownership of the means of production.
Criticism
Some abolitionists in the United States regarded the analogy of wage workers as wage slaves to be spurious. They believed that wage workers were "neither wronged nor oppressed". The abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass declared "Now I am my own master" when he took a paying job. Later in life, he concluded to the contrary "experience demonstrates that there may be a slavery of wages only a little less galling and crushing in its effects than chattel slavery, and that this slavery of wages must go down with the other". However, Abraham Lincoln and the Republicans "did not challenge the notion that those who spend their entire lives as wage laborers were comparable to slaves", though they argued that the condition was different, as long as laborers were likely to develop the opportunity to work for themselves in the future, achieving self-employment.
Some advocates of laissez-faire capitalism, among them philosopher Robert Nozick, have said that inalienable rights can be waived if done so voluntarily, saying "the comparable question about an individual is whether a free system will allow him to sell himself into slavery. I believe that it would".
Others such as the anarcho-capitalist Walter Block go further and maintain that all rights are in fact alienable, stating voluntary slavery and by extension wage slavery is legitimate.
See also
Critique of political economy
Forced labour
Refusal of work
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
Criticism of work
Ethically disputed working conditions
Marxist terminology
Socialism
Slavery
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The Cleveland Browns relocation controversy - colloquially called "The Move" by fans - was caused by the announcement from then-Browns owner Art Modell that he intended to move the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League from its long-time home of Cleveland to Baltimore during the 1995 NFL season.
Subsequent legal actions by the city of Cleveland and Browns season ticket holders led the NFL to broker a compromise that saw the Browns franchise, history, records, and intellectual property remain in Cleveland. In return, Modell was permitted to establish a new franchise in Baltimore, which was eventually named the Ravens.
Since it was deemed infeasible for the Browns to play the 1996 season in Cleveland under such circumstances, the franchise was officially deactivated by the NFL in February 1996 and Modell was allowed to transfer its football organization to the Ravens: thus, the Ravens are officially regarded by the NFL as an expansion team that began play in .
The NFL agreed to reactivate the Browns franchise no later than the 1999 season by way of expansion or moving a team from another city, provided the City of Cleveland constructed an NFL-caliber venue to replace the aging Cleveland Stadium. The city of Cleveland subsequently demolished Cleveland Stadium beginning in late 1996, and built a new stadium on the same site. In 1998, the NFL decided to re-establish the Browns by way of an expansion draft, and sold the Browns franchise to a new owner for $530 million. The re-activated Browns acquired players through this expansion draft and resumed play in 1999.
This compromise, which was unprecedented in North American professional sports at the time, has since been cited in franchise moves and agreements in other leagues, including ones in Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League.
Dissatisfaction with Cleveland Stadium
In 1975, knowing that Municipal Stadium was costing the city over $300,000 annually to operate, then-Browns owner Art Modell signed a 25-year lease in which he agreed to incur these expenses in exchange for: quasi-ownership of the stadium, a portion of his annual profits, and capital improvements to the stadium at his expense. Modell's new company, Stadium Corporation, paid the city annual rents of $150,000 for the first five years and $200,000 afterwards.
Modell had originally promised never to move the Browns. He had publicly criticized the Baltimore Colts' move to Indianapolis, and had testified in favor of the NFL in court cases where the league unsuccessfully tried to stop Al Davis from moving the Oakland Raiders to Los Angeles.
However, Modell refused to share the suite revenue with the Cleveland Indians, who also played at Cleveland Stadium, even though much of the revenues were generated during baseball games.
In 1990, the Indians convinced local government and voters to build a new ballpark and give the suite revenue to the baseball corporation. Modell, mistakenly believing that his revenues were not endangered, decided not to participate in the Gateway Project that built Jacobs Field for the Indians and Gund Arena for the Cleveland Cavaliers. Modell's assumptions proved incorrect, and Stadium Corporation's suite revenues declined sharply when the Indians moved to Jacobs Field in 1994. Soaring player salaries and deficits put additional financial pressure on the Browns' owner. Modell claimed to have lost $21 million between 1993 and 1994.
Announcing the move
Due to the massive and relatively consistent increase in the value of NFL franchises since the league's founding in 1920, the league has a long history of owners whose net worth is largely accounted for by the value of their football teams. Even today, many teams are owned by businesspeople (or their heirs) who, while relatively well-off by the standards of the time, founded or purchased a football team which has since appreciated in value at a far higher rate than whatever other business interests they might have originally been involved in.
However, even with those considerations in mind, Modell had always been one of the poorest owners in the NFL, despite his longstanding influence in league circles. He'd borrowed the bulk of the money he'd used to buy the Browns in 1961, and had spent most of the next 34 years in financial difficulty, especially as the costs of operating an NFL team escalated in tandem with the value of the league's franchises. This led Modell to take unorthodox measures to remain solvent, some of which were of questionable legality. For example, he tried to dump several bad loans onto the Browns, prompting one of his minority partners to take him to court. As early as 1983, Modell had come to believe that he would never be able to pay all of his debts before his deal with the city expired. The loss of revenue from the Indians thus hit Modell especially hard. After Modell realized how much revenue he lost from the Indians moving out of Cleveland Stadium, he requested an issue be placed on the ballot to provide $175 million in tax to refurbish the outmoded and declining Cleveland Stadium.
On December 12, 1994, Modell told his board that he didn't believe a referendum to raise the sin tax would pass, as the proceeds would have been used to either fund a renovated Municipal Stadium or a new stadium. Modell then informed them that if the referendum failed, he would be finished in Cleveland, and would have no choice but to move the Browns.
Entering the 1995 season, the Browns, coached by Bill Belichick, were coming off a playoff season in which the team finished 11–5 and advanced to the second round of the playoffs. Sports Illustrated predicted that the Browns would represent the AFC in Super Bowl XXX at the end of the season, and the team started 3–1, but they then lost their next three games.
While this was happening, Browns minority owner Al Lerner was privately prodding Modell to consider moving to Baltimore. He urged Modell to contact newly installed Maryland Stadium Authority chairman John Moag. Earlier in the year, the league had told Moag that Baltimore would get a team (either an expansion team or a relocated existing team) if a stadium were already in place.
Elected officials in Baltimore and Maryland were still smarting from the Colts moving to Indianapolis after the 1983 season, and refused to commit any money towards a new stadium unless the Stadium Authority secured a deal with a team. With this in mind, Moag made several calls to Modell that went ignored for much of 1995. Finally, in late July, Modell allowed Lerner to meet with Moag, provided that Lerner stress that Modell was not serious about moving. At that meeting, Moag laid out an offer in which the Browns would get the rights to a new, $220 million stadium if they moved to Baltimore. However, Moag told Lerner to take the offer back to Modell only if he was serious about considering a move.
Negotiations continued in secret until September, when Moag told Lerner that if the Browns were serious about moving, "you need to act and act now." A few days later, Lerner, Modell and Moag met at Lerner's Midtown Manhattan office. At that meeting, Moag presented a memorandum of understanding that was almost identical to what he'd offered the Cincinnati Bengals a few months earlier: a deal that ultimately led Cincinnati voters to pass a referendum that built what would become Paul Brown Stadium. Indeed, some paragraphs still referred to "Cincinnati" rather than "Cleveland." Modell still had some trepidation about the deal, but signed after Moag assured him that Baltimore fans would hail him as a hero.
Soon afterward, Modell told San Francisco 49ers president Carmen Policy that he was moving the Browns to Baltimore. Policy had been well aware that relations between Modell and Cleveland had become rather strained, and was secretly working with Pittsburgh Steelers owner Dan Rooney to keep the Browns in Cleveland. Policy urged Modell to sit down with NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue in hopes of resolving the situation, but Modell rejected it out of hand.
On November 6, 1995, with the team at 4–5, Modell announced in a press conference at Camden Yards that he had signed a deal to move the Browns to Baltimore for the 1996 season. Modell said he felt the city of Cleveland did not have the funding nor political will to build a first-class stadium. The very next day, on November 7, Cleveland voters overwhelmingly approved the aforementioned tax issue to remodel Cleveland Stadium.
Despite this, Modell ruled out a reversal of his decision, maintaining publicly that his relationship with Cleveland had been irrevocably severed. "The bridge is down, burned, disappeared", he said. "There's not even a canoe there for me." In truth, Modell had been brought to tears when he signed the memorandum of understanding in September: he had even told Moag that signing it was "the hardest thing I've ever done" and meant "the end of our life in Cleveland." Years later, longtime Browns general counsel Jim Bailey told The Athletic that Modell was "an emotional wreck" when he signed the memorandum.
Initial reaction
The City of Cleveland sued Modell, the Browns, Stadium Corp, the Maryland Stadium Authority, and the authority's director, John A. Moag Jr., in City of Cleveland v. Cleveland Browns, et al., Cuyahoga County Court of Common Pleas Case No. CV-95-297833, for breaching the Browns' lease, which required the team to play its home games at Cleveland Stadium for several years beyond 1995, filing an injunction to keep the Browns in the city until at least 1998. Several other lawsuits were filed by fans and ticket holders. The United States Congress even held hearings on the matter.
Actor/comedian Drew Carey returned to his hometown of Cleveland on November 26, 1995, to host "Fan Jam" in protest of the proposed move. A protest was held in Pittsburgh during the Browns' game there against the Pittsburgh Steelers, but ABC, the network broadcasting the game (and also the home of Carey's new sitcom that had just premiered), declined to cover or mention the protest. That game was one of the few instances that Steelers fans and Browns fans were supportive of each other, as fans in Pittsburgh felt that Modell was robbing their team of their long-standing rivalry with the Browns. Browns fans reacted with anger to the news, wearing hats and T-shirts that read "Muck Fodell".
On the field, the Browns stumbled to finish 5–11 after the announcement, ahead of only the expansion Jacksonville Jaguars, to whom they lost twice, in the AFC Central, becoming the first team in the NFL's modern era to lose twice to a first-year expansion team. Virtually all of the team's sponsors pulled their support, leaving Cleveland Stadium devoid of advertising during the team's final weeks. After the announcement, the team lost all their home games except the final, in which they defeated the Cincinnati Bengals 26–10. The game itself was blacked out on television locally on WKYC, but NBC did broadcast extensive pregame coverage from Cleveland.
Settlement
After extensive talks between the NFL, the Browns, and officials of the two cities, Cleveland accepted a legal settlement that would keep the Browns legacy in Cleveland.
While a number of parties had already expressed interest in acquiring the Browns by this point, it soon became clear that no viable owner would be ready to operate a football team on such short notice; even without that to consider, the NFL had insisted on the replacement of Cleveland Stadium, whereas the city had no other venue that met NFL requirements for even temporary use.
Thus, on February 9, 1996, the NFL announced that the Browns franchise would be 'deactivated' for three years, and that a new stadium would be built for a new Browns team, as either an expansion team or a team relocated from another city, that would begin play in 1999, while Modell would in turn then be granted a new franchise - the 31st NFL franchise - for Baltimore.
Because he was permitted to retain the current contracts of players and other football personnel, and had changed the name of his corporate entity from Cleveland Browns, Inc. to Baltimore Ravens, Inc., Modell is typically reckoned to have moved the football organization, but not the franchise itself. The settlement stipulated that the reactivated team for Cleveland would retain the Browns' name, colors, history, records, awards, and archives. The move was approved by league owners after a 25–2 vote, with three abstentions; the two "no" votes were from Ralph Wilson of Buffalo and Dan Rooney of Pittsburgh.
An additional stipulation was that in any future realignment plan, the Browns would be placed in a division with the Pittsburgh Steelers and Cincinnati Bengals due to long-standing rivalries with those two teams. Upon their reactivation in 1999, the Browns were placed back in the AFC Central with the Steelers and Bengals, as well as the Ravens, Titans, and Jaguars: this arrangement put teams from Baltimore, Cleveland and Pittsburgh in the same division for the first time in NFL history.
When the NFL realigned into divisions of four teams for the 2002 season, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Baltimore remained together in the new AFC North, while Tennessee, Jacksonville, Indianapolis (from the AFC East), and the expansion team, Houston Texans were placed in the new AFC South.
The only other active NFL team to temporarily suspend operations without merging with any other was Cleveland's previous NFL team, the Rams, during the 1943 season at the height of World War II.
Aftermath and legacy
The return of the NFL to Baltimore compelled the departure of the professional football team already in Baltimore at the time, the Grey Cup champion Baltimore Stallions of the Canadian Football League (CFL). Although they had drawn respectable fan support during their two seasons in Baltimore, Stallions owner Jim Speros knew his team could not compete with an NFL team and opted to establish a new franchise in Montreal. They subsequently assumed the name and history of the team that previously played in the city, the Alouettes, who had ceased operations just days before the start of the 1987 season.
Focus groups, a telephone survey, and a fan contest were all held to help select a new name for Modell's team. Starting with a list of over 100 possible names, the team's management reduced it to 17. From there, focus groups of a total of 200 Baltimore area residents reduced the list of names to six, and then a phone survey of 1000 people trimmed it down to three, Marauders, Americans, and Ravens. Finally, a fan contest drawing 33,288 voters picked "Ravens", a name that alludes to the famous poem, "The Raven", by Edgar Allan Poe, who spent the latter part of his life in Baltimore, and is buried there. The team also adopted purple and black as their team colors, a stark contrast to the brown and orange colors of the Browns. The former Colts Marching Band, which remained in Baltimore after the Colts moved to Indianapolis, was subsequently renamed the Baltimore's Marching Ravens. Along with the San Francisco 49ers, Buffalo Bills, Washington Commanders and the Minnesota Vikings, the Ravens are one of only five NFL teams with an official marching band.
Modell's move to Baltimore came amid an unprecedented flurry of similar threats — and actual moves — that fueled 12 new stadiums throughout the NFL. The Seahawks, Buccaneers, Bengals, Lions, Cardinals, and Bears used the threat of moving to coerce their respective cities to build new stadiums with public funds. Modell's team was one of four that actually moved between 1995 and 1997: Los Angeles lost both of its teams for the 1995 season, as the Raiders moved back to Oakland and the Rams moved east to St. Louis (the Rams would later move back to Los Angeles in 2016); and the Houston Oilers moved to Tennessee in 1997, where they became the Tennessee Titans two years later.
As with all other relocations, NFL football continued to air on local television in Cleveland due to the league's television contracts. During the three years the Browns suspended operations, the NFL ordered its broadcast partners to air games featuring the Browns' two biggest rivals, the Bengals and Steelers, on Cleveland's local stations. Two official secondary markets the Browns share with another team--Columbus and Youngstown--both primarily aired games from the teams the Browns shared those markets with, with Columbus airing Bengals games and Youngstown airing Steelers games. Erie, Pennsylvania, which is officially a secondary market for the Buffalo Bills but airs many Browns games due to Erie's close proximity to Cleveland, aired more Bills home games as well as Steelers games whenever it didn't come in conflict with the Bills away schedule.
After several NFL teams threatened to move to Cleveland to become the reactivated Browns (most notably the Tampa Bay Buccaneers), the NFL decided in 1998 to make the reactivated Browns an expansion team; while temporarily giving the league an odd number of teams (causing at least one team to be off in each of the 17 weeks of the NFL season from 1999–2001), this also eliminated any possibility of an existing franchise giving up its own identity for the Browns and thus prevented more lawsuits. In an ironic twist, Al Lerner—who helped Modell move to Baltimore—was granted ownership of the reactivated Browns; his son Randy took over ownership after Al's death in 2002 before selling the team to Pilot Flying J CEO Jimmy Haslam in 2012.
From its beginning, the odd number of teams and the ensuing awkward scheduling was considered a temporary arrangement pending the addition of a 32nd NFL franchise. Although Los Angeles was heavily favored, it was ultimately Houston that was awarded the league's 32nd team for the 2002 NFL season. The 2002 expansion led to a major re-alignment of the NFL into eight four-team divisions. The Jaguars and Titans joined the Texans in the new AFC South along with the Colts, Baltimore's former team, who moved from the AFC East. The Browns and Ravens' division was rebranded as the AFC North. Finally, to keep the conferences equal in size, the Seattle Seahawks (who had played their inaugural season in the National Football Conference) moved from the AFC West to the NFC West.
Following Houston's return to the NFL, Los Angeles became the favored destination for owners threatening to move their teams until the St. Louis Rams finally returned to Los Angeles for the 2016 season, followed by the San Diego Chargers (who had previously called L.A. home in the early days of the American Football League) one year later.
The reactivated Browns have had only three winning seasons since returning to the NFL in 1999, with records of 9–7 in 2002, 10–6 in 2007, and 11–5 in 2020, earning wild card berths in the playoffs in 2002 and 2020. Meanwhile, the Ravens have been more successful, reaching the playoffs 13 times since 2000 and winning Super Bowl XXXV and Super Bowl XLVII, to the dismay of Browns fans. Longtime placekicker Matt Stover was the last remaining Ravens player that played for the Modell-owned Browns—he departed the Ravens following the 2008 season when the team chose not to re-sign him, finishing his career with the Indianapolis Colts. General manager and former Browns tight end Ozzie Newsome (who was in a front-office role under Modell in Cleveland) remained with the Ravens until his retirement in 2018.
The move would also have an effect in Pittsburgh. Steelers owner Dan Rooney was one of two owners (alongside Ralph Wilson of the Bills) to oppose Modell's move to Baltimore because of a mutual respect for the team and the fans. Because of the move, the Browns–Steelers rivalry, arguably one of the most heated rivalries in the NFL, has somewhat cooled in Pittsburgh due to the new Browns' lack of success. The Steelers–Ravens rivalry is considered the spiritual successor by fans in Pittsburgh and is one of the most heated current rivalries in the NFL. Since returning to the NFL, the Browns and Steelers rivalry has been largely one-sided in favor of Pittsburgh; although the rivalry is not as intense in Pittsburgh, Browns fans still consider it their top rivalry despite the Browns' recent struggles against the Steelers. However, the rivalry began to heat up on the Pittsburgh side when the Browns defeated the Steelers 48-37 in the 2020 Wild Card playoff round.
Modell continued to struggle financially even after the move. Like several other owners who had acquired their teams prior to the AFL-NFL merger Modell's net worth by the end of his tenure was primarily derived from the appreciation of his team's value, and he had relatively little outside wealth to help underwrite his club's expenses. Because of such continual financial hardships, the NFL directed Modell to initiate the sale of his franchise. On March 27, 2000, NFL owners approved the sale of 49 percent of the Ravens to Steve Bisciotti. In the deal, Bisciotti had an option to purchase the remaining 51 percent for $325 million in 2004 from Art Modell. On April 8, 2004, the NFL approved Steve Bisciotti's purchase of the majority stake in the club.
Although Modell later retired and had relinquished control of the Ravens, he is still despised in Cleveland, not only for moving the Browns, but also for his firing of head coach Paul Brown (who eventually founded the future arch-rival Bengals in 1968) in 1963. Some consider the Browns' move and subsequent lawsuits as having cost Modell a spot in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which is in Canton, Ohio, 60 miles south of Cleveland and part of the Cleveland television market and Browns' territorial rights. Modell died in 2012, having never returned to Cleveland. The Browns were the only home team that did not acknowledge, much less commemorate, Modell's death the following Sunday. The team opted not to do so at the request of David Modell, who feared that the announcement would be met with anger by Browns fans still upset about the move.
Effect on teams in other sports leagues
Major League Baseball
The Minnesota Twins, when they signed their deal with Hennepin County, Minnesota for Target Field in 2006, agreed to a provision that was signed into law, allowing the state of Minnesota the right of first refusal to buy the team if it is ever sold. Also, it requires that the name, colors, World Series trophies, and history of the team remain in Minnesota if the Twins are ever moved out of the state. The deal is similar to what Modell agreed to with the city of Cleveland during the move.
Major League Soccer
In December 2005, the San Jose Earthquakes moved to Houston to become the Houston Dynamo. At the time, it was announced by the league that while players and staff would move with the team, the team name, colors, logo, and records (including two championship trophies) would stay in San Jose for when a new expansion team arrived. In 2008, the Earthquakes returned under the ownership of Lew Wolff.
The Browns move in 1995 had a direct effect on a proposed move of the Columbus Crew SC to Austin, Texas; the Modell Law, which was implemented in 1996, prohibits sports teams that benefited from public facilities or financial assistance from moving to another city without a six-month notice and an attempt to sell the team to a local ownership group. A lawsuit was filed by Ohio Attorney General Mike DeWine and the city of Columbus. Rather ironically, Cleveland Browns owner Jimmy and Dee Haslam, along with other investors, offered to buy the Columbus Crew in order to keep them in Columbus. The deal sold the operational rights of the Crew to the Haslams, while previous Crew owner Anthony Precourt kept his equity stake in MLS, and was granted ownership of a new franchise in Austin. The sale of the Crew to Haslam's ownership group was announced as agreed to on December 28, 2018, and was completed in January 2019. As part of the deal, the lawsuit against Precourt was dismissed that day; the Modell Law remains untested as a result.
National Hockey League
After the Quebec Nordiques moved to Denver in 1995 to become the Colorado Avalanche, the franchise's retired numbers, name, logos, and historical stats remained in Quebec City and are expected to be used by any future Quebec City NHL franchise that may be established or move there. Upon arrival at Denver, the Nordiques' retired numbers were placed back into circulation.
In 2011, a team took the name of a city's previous team (as the Baltimore Stallions did when the Ravens forced their move to Montreal). That saga began in 1996, when the Winnipeg Jets left Manitoba for Phoenix, Arizona, and become the Phoenix (later Arizona) Coyotes. Thirteen years later, the Coyotes went bankrupt and were taken over by the league. Winnipeg-based True North Sports & Entertainment offered to buy the team and return it to Winnipeg, where it presumably would have re-assumed the Jets' name and history. The NHL turned down that proposal — they were still looking for an owner to operate the franchise in Phoenix, whose municipal government had agreed to subsidize the team's financial losses — but said that moving the team back to Winnipeg was their preferred backup option. But when the Atlanta Thrashers came up for sale a year later, the league decided that there was no chance of finding an owner to operate a franchise in Georgia, so they arranged for True North to purchase the Atlanta franchise and move it to Winnipeg for the NHL season. The league decided to let True North and the new Jets use the identity of the old Winnipeg team, but not its history, which remained in Arizona with the Coyotes. The new Jets organization highlighted this change by quickly re-issuing the team's #9 jersey — retired by the old Jets in honor of superstar Bobby Hull — to forward Evander Kane, who had worn the number in Atlanta. While the new Jets were unable to reclaim the franchise records of the original franchise from 1972 to 1996, they did reclaim its logos and trademarks; since 2016, the current franchise honored the original incarnation by wearing throwback jerseys and pay tribute to its iconic players by establishing the Winnipeg Jets Hall of Fame.
National Basketball Association
The Seattle SuperSonics' move to Oklahoma City in 2008 included an agreement that the SuperSonics' name, logo, colors, and history would all be left in Seattle. This also includes banners and trophies, which would be displayed in a museum until such time as a new franchise (expansion or relocation) is brought to Seattle to be hung from the rafters of its arena. The original franchise, now known as the Oklahoma City Thunder, will continue to keep the SuperSonics records, championships, and retired numbers, until a new SuperSonics franchise is brought to Seattle: in effect, both the Thunder and a potential new SuperSonics franchise would share the original SuperSonics history.
Similar to the Winnipeg Jets scenario in the NHL, the NBA first entered Charlotte in in the form of the Charlotte Hornets. That team moved to New Orleans after the , retaining the Hornets name. The league returned to Charlotte for the with a new team, the Charlotte Bobcats, and after the New Orleans franchise changed its name to the Pelicans following the , the Bobcats announced that they would reclaim the Hornets name effective with the . When the name change from Bobcats to Hornets became official in May 2014, it announced that the Hornets, Pelicans, and the NBA had reached an agreement that all history and records of the original Charlotte Hornets would be transferred to the revived Hornets: thus, the Hornets are now considered to have been established in 1988, suspended operations in 2002, and resumed play in 2004 (as the Bobcats, and changing their name back to the Hornets in 2014), while the Pelicans are now considered a 2002 expansion team.
In the middle of the 2016-17 NBA season, the Detroit Pistons organized a deal to move the team out of The Palace of Auburn Hills and into the new Little Caesars Arena in Downtown Detroit, which was to open the following season: the deal was successful, and the Pistons moved into the arena the following season. When they moved back downtown, Palace Sports and Entertainment (the organization that owns the Pistons) made an agreement similar to the Supersonic's deal: if the team were ever to move out of Detroit, the team's name, colors, history, and records, including the team's NBA championship trophies, would remain in Detroit. This also includes all records and history of the Piston's former WNBA affiliate, the Detroit Shock (now the Dallas Wings), whose three WNBA trophies and all other records were already in possession of the Pistons at the time of the move to Detroit.
See also
Relocation of professional sports teams
Cleveland sports curse
Browns–Ravens rivalry
History of the Cleveland Browns
History of the Baltimore Ravens
References
Further reading
External links
Inside the Browns deal. A Los Angeles Times article on the Cleveland Browns' move.
on The NFL on NBC pregame show.
National Football League controversies
Cleveland Browns
Baltimore Ravens
National Football League franchise relocations
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The automotive industry crisis of 2008–2010 formed part of the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the resulting Great Recession. The crisis affected European and Asian automobile manufacturers, but it was primarily felt in the American automobile manufacturing industry. The downturn also affected Canada by virtue of the Automotive Products Trade Agreement.
The automotive industry was weakened by a substantial increase in the prices of automotive fuels linked to the 2003–2008 energy crisis which discouraged purchases of sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and pickup trucks which have low fuel economy. The popularity and relatively high profit margins of these vehicles had encouraged the American "Big Three" automakers, General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler to make them their primary focus. With fewer fuel-efficient models to offer to consumers, sales began to slide. By 2008, the situation had turned critical as the financial crisis of 2007–2008 placed pressure on the prices of raw materials.
Car companies from Asia, Europe, North America, and elsewhere have implemented creative marketing strategies to entice reluctant consumers as most experienced double-digit percentage declines in sales. Major manufacturers, including the Big Three and Toyota offered substantial discounts across their product lineups. The Big Three faced criticism for their mix of available vehicle types offered, which faced criticism for being ill-suited to a climate of rising fuel prices. North American consumers turned to smaller, cheaper, more fuel-efficient imports from Japan and Europe.
Asia
China
In 2008, the Chinese government reduced automotive taxes in order to spur flagging sales.
In 2008, a plug-in hybrid version of the BYD F3 compact sedan was introduced, the world's first production model plug-in hybrid car.
In January 2009, Chinese auto-manufacturer Chery reported unprecedented monthly sales. (See also Automobile industry in China)
India
Citing falling production numbers, the State Bank of India reduced interest rates on automotive loans in February 2009.
For the first few months of 2009, Tata Motors conducted a widespread marketing campaign heralding the debut of the Tata Nano. Billed as "the people's car", the manufacturer hopes the low cost will encourage customers to purchase the vehicle despite the ongoing credit crisis.
Japan
With high gas prices and a weak US economy in the summer of 2008, Toyota reported a double-digit decline in sales for the month of June, similar to figures reported by the Detroit Big Three. For Toyota, these were attributed mainly to slow sales of its Tundra pickup, as well as shortages of its fuel-efficient vehicles such as the Prius, Corolla and Yaris. In response, the company has announced plans to idle its truck plants, while shifting production at other facilities to manufacture in-demand vehicles. On December 22, 2008, Toyota declared that it expected the first time loss in 70 years in its core vehicle-making business. Loss of $1.7 billion, in its group operating revenue, would be its first operating loss since 1938 (Company was founded in 1937). Toyota saw its sales drop 33.9 percent and Honda Motor by 31.6 percent.
On 5 December 2008 Honda Motor Company announced that it would be exiting Formula One race with immediate effect due to the 2008 economic crisis and are looking to sell the team. Honda has predicted that there may be reductions among part-time and contract staff. Upper management bonuses would also be reassessed and directors in the company will take a 10 percent pay cut effective January 2009.
Nissan, another leading Japanese car manufacturer, announced that it also would be slashing production and will reduce its output by 80,000 vehicles in the first few months of 2009.
In December 2008, Suzuki, Japan's fourth biggest car manufacturer, announced that it will cut production in Japan by about 30,000 units due to falling demand. The company is expected to face its first profit drop in eight years for financial year ending in March 2009.
On 16 December 2008, Fuji Heavy Industries, Japan's largest transport equipment manufacturer and the maker of Subaru brand cars, announced that it would exiting World Rally Championship at the end of the 2008 championship, "this sudden decision was in response to the widespread economic downturn that is affecting the entire automotive industry", and came one day after competitor Suzuki exited the sport.
Reported in Bloomberg on December 23, 2008, that Mitsubishi Motors is to widen production cuts on falling demand. The Japanese maker of Outlander sport-utility vehicles, will scrap the night shifts at two domestic factories as the deepening global recession saps auto demand. The carmaker will halt the night shift at its Mizushima plant, excluding the minicar line. Nighttime work at the Okazaki factory will stop from February 2. The cuts are part of Mitsubishi's move to reduce planned output by 110,000 vehicles in the year ending March because of tumbling sales in Japan, the U.S. and Europe. Japan's vehicle sales may fall to the lowest in 31 years in 2009, according to the country's automobile manufacturers association. Mitsubishi will also halt production of passenger cars on every Friday next month at the Mizushima factory in western Japan. The Okazaki plant in central Japan will close every Saturday in January and for another five days.
Toyota, on December 22, 2008, slashed profit forecasts amid a sales slump. The Japanese automaker, often held up with Honda as a success story for the rest of the auto industry to follow, said it expected a slim profit margin of US$555 million for the year ending in March 2009. Toyota had originally been projecting a massive profit of $13.9 billion for that period. Their sales in the United States were down 34 per cent and were down 34 per cent in Europe as well. They expected a loss which would be the equivalent of about $2 billion (CDN)." Toyota President Katsuaki Watanabe said the impact on the company from the struggling global economy has been "faster, wider and deeper than expected." "The change that has hit the world economy is of a critical scale that comes once in a hundred years," Watanabe said, speaking in Nagoya.
Facing its first loss in nearly sixty years, Toyota sought loans from the Japanese government.
On November 4, 2009, Toyota announced its immediate withdrawal from Formula One, ending the team's involvement in the sport after eight seasons. See also 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls.
South Korea
South Korean automakers have been generally much more profitable than their US and Japanese counterparts, recording strong growth even in depressed markets such as the United States. Despite a global economic slowdown, Hyundai-Kia successfully managed to overtake Honda Motor in 2008 as the world's 5th largest automaker, climbing eight rankings in less than a decade. Hyundai-Kia continued its rapid success in 2009, when only a year after overtaking Honda, it surpassed Ford Motor as the world's 4th largest automaker.
Hyundai-Kia's continued success was unusual at a time when most automakers saw their sales falling sharply, with leading automaker GM even filing for bankruptcy. Hyundai-Kia took significant advantage of the prolonged automotive crisis by producing affordable yet high quality and well designed vehicles. Rapid globalization has seen state of the art factories being built in several countries including Slovakia, the United States and China. The manufacturing facilities have been geared-up to build products that are designed and engineered for local markets. The Kia Cee'd is a leading example, being designed, developed and engineered in Germany and built in Slovakia.
Unlike others, this crisis turned into an opportunity for many South Korean automakers. Korean automaker Hyundai offered customers who have lost their jobs to return a new-car purchase for a refund. The continued growth and success is attributable to the country's fuel-efficient and well-equipped, yet affordable cars with generous warranties, such as the Kia Picanto, Kia Cee'd and Hyundai i30, which attracted global consumers at a time of severe economic recession, rapidly rising oil prices and increasing environmental concerns. South Korean automakers therefore had a competitive advantage against expensive luxury vehicles and SUVs from US, Japanese and German automakers.
During the fourth quarter of 2008 to the first quarter of 2009, which was the height of this automotive crisis, the extremely weak South Korean won, especially against the US dollar and Japanese yen, significantly boosted the price competitiveness of South Korean exports in key markets. Another factor that helped maintain this momentum was an increasingly improving brand awareness, attributable to the introduction of the country's own luxury vehicles such as the Hyundai Genesis and Hyundai Genesis Coupe, which received highly positive awards in the press and reviews. Hyundai's brand grew by 9% in 2008, surpassing Porsche and Ferrari, while it used the Super Bowl football broadcast, the world's most expensive commercial air time, to promote the Hyundai brand in the United States.
Nonetheless, South Korean automakers were not completely immune to this automotive crisis and in December 2008 Hyundai Motor Company had begun reducing production at plants in the U.S., China, Slovakia, India and Turkey because of sluggish demand. The company missed an earlier projection of 4.8 million units for 2008 and announced a freeze of wages for administrative workers and shortened factory operations as demand weakened amid the financial crisis of 2007–2008.
South Korea's fourth largest automaker, SsangYong Motor, owned by the Chinese automobile manufacturer SAIC (Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation), is the worst affected company in this crisis as it manufactures mainly heavy petroleum consuming SUVs. The carmaker recorded its fourth straight quarterly losses by the end of 2008 with red ink of $20.8 million in the third quarter. Also during the July to September period, sales dropped 63 percent to 3,835 vehicles. Its production lines have been idle since December 17 as part of efforts to reduce its inventory. The automaker has halted production twice previously this year. In December 2008, SAIC gave an ultimatum to the SsangYong union to accept its restructuring plan or face the parent company's withdrawal, which, if implemented, would mean certain bankruptcy. A 70% share of SsangYong was acquired by India's Mahindra & Mahindra Limited in February 2011.
However, the South Korean Ministry of Knowledge Economy said that there will be no liquidity provision at the government level for five automakers - Hyundai, Kia, GM Daewoo, Samsung Renault and Ssangyong."We have no plans to inject liquidity into the carmakers," a ministry official said. "It has been repeatedly made clear."
Taiwan
As part of Luxgen global expansion, the first overseas sale was made in Oman in 2010, with a plan to focus on the Middle East, Latin America, Central America and South America, Russia, mainland China and Southeast Asia car markets.
Europe
In Europe where car sales had also drastically decreased, consideration was being given to financial support for the automotive industry, particularly in France, Germany and Italy. German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier and Jean-Claude Juncker, Luxembourg's Prime Minister and head of the Eurogroup of single currency nations, discussed the possibility of a common rescue package to be agreed by all the EU member states.
After 6 years of decline, in February 2014 car registration for a year increased to 894,730 vehicles and for subsequent 6 months the sales increased as expected with the price cuts and economic revival.
France
On November 20, 2008, French automobile manufacturer PSA Peugeot Citroen predicted sales volumes would fall by at least 10% in 2009, following a 17% drop in the current quarter. As a result, it planned to cut 2,700 jobs. On 11 February 2009, PSA announced it would cut 11,000 jobs worldwide. However, none of these are expected to be in France.
Renault announced a net profit for 2008 of 599 million euros for the 2008 financial year. This was a 78% drop in profits from the 2007 financial year. European sales fell 4% and worldwide sales 7%, forcing Renault to abandon their 2009 growth targets. This however made Renault one of the few car makers to return a profit. Renault consistently struggled to return profits in the 1990s.
France/Germany
On November 24, 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy and German Chancellor Angela Merkel agreed to support the crisis-stricken automobile industry in France and Germany. Detailed plans would be announced shortly.
Italy
On December 16, 2008 Fiat in Italy announced that it will extend its temporary plant closures in Italy by a month; the Pomigliano d'Arco, the main plant for its Alfa Romeo cars will be shut for four weeks. However, on February 20, 2009, reacting to actions by the Italian government to stimulate the automotive sector, Fiat said its plant closures would be curtailed. The company also forecast that sales in Europe will drop by 14 percent in 2009.
On January 20, 2009 the company announced that it had entered into an agreement, subject to regulatory approvals, to acquire 35% of Chrysler. Fiat's 35% stake in Chrysler would not involve a conventional sale of shares, but would be achieved in return for allowing Chrysler to utilise some of Fiat's fuel efficient technologies (Chrysler's February submission to the U.S. government included a commitment to produce nine Fiat-derived vehicles over a four-year period starting in 2010, including four hybrid-electric and battery-electric models). Chrysler would be accorded access to Fiat's sales outlets in Europe, while in reciprocation Fiat will also gain access to Chrysler's dealership network in the U.S., where it is predicted smaller models such as the Fiat Grande Punto may be successful. In the past, Fiat has had trouble gaining a foothold in the American markets, whilst Chrysler has never held a strong market share in Europe since it sold its UK based Rootes Group and France based Simca to PSA Peugeot Citroen in the 1980s.
On January 22, 2009, Fiat announced a 19% drop in revenues in the last three months of 2008. Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi said the government would meet to discuss the issue.
Russia
Russia's automotive industry was hit hard by the Late 2000s recession, which started from United States. Production of passenger cars dropped from 1,470,000 units in 2008 to just 597,000 units in 2009. Lorry production fell from 256,000 to 91,000 in the same period.
In late 2008, the Russian government introduced protectionistic measures, worth $5 billion, to improve the situation in the industry. This included $2 billion's worth of bailouts for troubled companies and $3 billion credits to buyers of Russian cars. Prime minister Vladimir Putin described the move as vital in order to save jobs. The tariffs for imported foreign cars and trucks were increased to a minimum 50% and 100%, respectively. The tariffs are linked to engine size of the vehicle. The increased duties led to protests in Russian cities, most notably in Vladivostok, as the import of Japanese cars is an important sector of the city's economy.
The most efficient anti-crisis measure executed by the Russian government was the introduction of a car scrappage scheme in March 2010. Under the scheme, buyers of new cars can receive a subsidy which is 600,000 rubles ($20,000) at maximum. Sales of Russia's largest carmaker Avtovaz doubled in the second quarter of 2010 as a result, and the company returned to profit.
Spain
Spanish automobile manufacturer SEAT (a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group) cut production at its Martorell plant by 5% on 7 October 2008, due to a fall in general sales. This affected 750 employees and continued until July 2009. SEAT is still continuing to install solar panels in its Martorell plant near Barcelona.
Sweden
On December 11, 2008, the Swedish government provided its troubled auto makers, Volvo and Saab, with support amounting to SEK 28 billion (3.5 billion USD). The two companies had requested assistance, faced with the financial difficulties of their U.S. owners Ford and General Motors. The plan consists of a maximum of SEK 20 billion in credit guarantees, and up to SEK 5 billion in rescue loans. On 18 February 2009 General Motors warned Saab may fail within ten days, should the Swedish government not intervene. On 20 February, an administrator was appointed to restructure Saab and assist in it becoming independent of its troubled parent General Motors. General Motors have confirmed their intention to sell their Swedish subsidiary, Saab. Of Sweden's 9 million population, 140,000 work in the car industry and they account for 15% of exports.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, Jaguar Land Rover, now owned by Tata Motors, was seeking a $1.5 billion loan from the government to cope with the credit crisis.
On 22 December 2008, Tata declared that it would inject "tens of millions" of pounds into the company it had acquired from Ford Motor Corporation in early 2008. British Prime Minister Gordon Brown also stated the intention to help out car industry in U.K.
On 8 January 2009, Nissan UK announced it was to shed 1200 jobs from its Washington, Tyne and Wear factory in North East England. This announcement was made, despite the plant recently being hailed as the most efficient in Europe.
General Motors UK subsidiary Vauxhall Motors, whose brand is the second most popular in the UK has two bases in the UK, a factory in Ellesmere Port, Cheshire and their headquarters and design and development centre in Luton, Bedfordshire. It is as yet unknown whether these plants will be affected by the GM cutbacks. The group along with their sister subsidiary, Opel of Germany, was supposed to be sold in their majority to Magna International, an Austro-Canadian company who supply many parts to large car companies, but General Motors cancelled the transaction.
UK bus manufacturer Optare received an order from Arriva in November 2008 for the manufacture of 53 buses in a contract worth over £6million, securing 500 jobs at the company's Assembly factory in Cross Gates, Leeds, West Yorkshire and the parts centre in Cumbernauld, North Lanarkshire.
UK Van and commercial vehicle manufacturer LDV Group asked the UK government for a £30 million bridging loan to facilitate a management buyout of the group. On the same day this was refused. LDV has since said it has a viable future and intends to become the first volume producer of electric vans should the management buyout take place. Production at LDV's factory in Birmingham, West Midlands (where it employed 850 staff) has been suspended since December 2008 due to falling demand. Eventually, no buyout materialised and LDV was declared defunct on 15 October 2009.
Along with several other countries, the UK government launched a scrappage incentive scheme in order to support the crisis stricken industry. Cars registered prior to 31 July 1999, later extended to 29 February 2000, were eligible to be scrap in exchange for a discount of £2000 on a new car, half of which was provided by the government and the other half by the dealer. The scheme came to an end on 31 March 2010.
North America
Canada
The Canadian auto industry was closely linked to the U.S., due to the Automotive Products Trade Agreement and, later, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and experienced similar difficulties.
United States
The crisis in the United States is mainly defined by the government rescue of both General Motors and Chrysler. Ford secured a line of credit in case they require a bridging loan in the near future. Car sales declined in the United States, affecting both US based and foreign car manufacturers. The bridging loans led to greater scrutiny of the U.S. automotive industry in addition to criticism of their product range, product quality, high labour wages, job bank programs. The government-backed rescue of the American auto industry gained the support of 37% of Americans in 2009 according to a CNN/Opinion Research Corporation poll, and it gained the support of 56% of Americans in 2012 according to a Pew Research Center poll. Chrysler was forced into bankruptcy in April 2009 and GM in May.
While the "Big Three" U.S. market share declined from 70% in 1998 to 53% in 2008, global volume increased particularly in Asia and Europe. The U.S. auto industry was profitable in every year since 1955, except those years following U.S. recessions and involvement in wars. U.S. auto industry profits suffered from 1971-73 during the Vietnam War, during the recession in the late 1970s which impacted auto industry profits from 1981–83, during and after the Gulf War when industry profits declined from 1991–93, and during the Iraq War from 2001–03 and 2006-09. During these periods the companies incurred much legacy debt.
Facing financial losses, the Big Three have idled many factories and drastically reduced employment levels. GM spun off many of its employees in certain divisions into independent companies, including American Axle in 1994 and Delphi in 1999. Ford spun off Visteon in 2000. The spin-offs and other parts makers have shared Detroit's downturns, as have the U.S.-owned plants in Canada. Altogether the parts makers employ 416,000 people in the U.S. and Canada. General Motors alone is estimated to have lost $51 billion in the three years before the start of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. GM is set to reacquire factories from its Delphi subsidiary during its Chapter 11 restructuring.
The 2005 Harbour Report estimated that Toyota's lead in benefits cost advantage amounted to $350 US to $500 US per vehicle over North American manufacturers. The United Auto Workers agreed to a two-tier wage in recent 2007 negotiations, something which the Canadian Auto Workers has so far refused. Jared Bernstein, the chief economist of Vice President Joe Biden, noted in an interview with WWJ-AM in Detroit that most of the 2007 contract concessions apply only to new hires, while older workers "still benefit from contracts that were signed a long time ago." However, only 30% of parts used by the Big Three employ union labor, with 70% sourced from non-union labor.
Delphi, which was spun off from GM in 1999, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy after the UAW refused to cut their wages and GM is expected to be liable for a $7 billion shortfall.
In order to improve profits, the Detroit automakers made agreements with unions to reduce wages while making pension and health care commitments. GM, for instance, at one time picked up the entire cost of funding health insurance premiums of its employees, their survivors and GM retirees, as the U.S. did not have a universal health care system. With most of these plans chronically underfunded in the late 1990s, the companies have tried to provide retirement packages to older workers, and made agreements with the UAW to transfer pension obligations to an independent trust. Nonetheless, non-unionized Japanese automakers, with their younger American workforces (and far fewer American retirees) will continue to enjoy a cost advantage.
Despite the history of their marques, many long running cars have been discontinued or relegated to fleet sales, as GM, Ford and DaimlerChrysler shifted away resources from midsize and compact cars to lead the "SUV Craze". Since the late 1990s, over half of their profits have come from light trucks and SUVs, while they often could not break even on compact cars unless the buyer chose options. Ron Harbour, in releasing the Oliver Wyman’s 2008 Harbour Report, stated that many small “econoboxes” of the past acted as loss leaders, but were designed to bring customers to the brand in the hopes they would stay loyal and move up to more profitable models. The report estimated that an automaker needed to sell ten small cars to make the same profit as one big vehicle, and that they had to produce small and mid-size cars profitably to succeed, something that the Detroit three have not yet done. SUV sales peaked in 1999 but have not returned to that level ever since, due to higher gas prices.
In the case of Chrysler Corporation, compact and mid-sized vehicles such as the Dodge Neon, Dodge Stratus and Chrysler Cirrus were produced profitably during the 1990s concurrently with more profitable larger vehicles. However, following the DaimlerChrysler merger in 1998, there was a major cost-cutting operation at the company. The result was the lowering of benchmarked standards for Chrysler to aim at. This directly led to the following in Chrysler's case. There was realignment of the Chrysler Group model range with those of GM and Ford (i.e. a skew towards larger vehicles).
The Detroit Big Three had been slower to bring new vehicles to the market compared with foreign competitors. The Big Three have battled initial quality perceptions in spite of reports showing improvements.
Falling sales resulted in the Big Three's plants operating below capacity. GM's plants were operating at 85% in November 2005, well below the plants of its Asian competitors, and was only maintained by relying on cash incentives and subsidized leases. Rebates, employee pricing, and 0% financing boosted sales but drained the automaker's cash reserves. The subprime mortgage crisis and high oil prices of 2008 caused the popularity of once best-selling trucks and SUVs to plummet. Automakers were forced to continue offering heavy incentives to help clear excess inventory. Due to the declining residual value of their vehicles, Chrysler and GM stopped offering leases on most of their vehicles in 2008.
In September 2008, the Big Three asked for $50 billion to pay for health care expenses and avoid bankruptcy and ensuing layoffs, and Congress worked out a $25 billion loan. By December, President Bush had agreed to an emergency bailout of $17.4 billion to be distributed by the next administration in January and February. In early 2009, the prospect of avoiding bankruptcy by General Motors and Chrysler continued to wane as new financial information about the scale of the 2008 losses came in. Ultimately, poor management and business practices forced Chrysler and General Motors into bankruptcy. Chrysler filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on May 1, 2009 followed by General Motors a month later.
On June 2, General Motors announced the sale of the Hummer brand of off-road vehicles to Sichuan Tengzhong Heavy Industrial Machinery Company Ltd., a machinery company in western China, a deal which later fell through. Later, GM announced that it was ending production of its Hummer, Saturn and Pontiac lines effective at the end of the 2009 model year.
Effects of environmental expectations and changing product demand
Environmental politics and related concerns regarding carbon emissions have heightened sensitivity to gas mileage standards and environmental protection worldwide. In a 2007 edition of his book An Inconvenient Truth, Al Gore criticized the Big Three. "They keep trying to sell large, inefficient gas-guzzlers even though fewer and fewer people are buying them." For example, Japan requires autos to achieve of gasoline and China requires . The European Union requires by 2012. By comparison, U.S. autos are required to achieve only presently. Other nations have adopted standards that are increasing mpg requirements in the future. When California raised its own standards, the auto companies sued.
The Big Three received funding for a $25 billion government loan during October 2008 to help them re-tool their factories to meet new fuel-efficiency standards of at least by 2020. The $25 billion in loans from the Department of Energy to the auto manufacturers were actually authorized by Congress early this year but not funded. Automakers could use these loans to "equip or establish facilities to produce ‘advanced technology vehicles’ that would meet certain emissions and fuel economy standards; component suppliers could borrow funds to retool or build facilities to produce parts for such vehicles."
Effect of 2008 oil price shock and economic crisis
In 2008, a series of damaging blows drove the Big Three to the verge of bankruptcy. The Big Three had in recent years manufactured SUVs and large pickups, which were much more profitable than smaller, fuel-efficient cars. Manufacturers made 15% to 20% profit margin on an SUV, compared to 3% or less on a car. When gasoline prices rose above $4 per gallon in 2008, Americans stopped buying the big vehicles and Big Three sales and profitability plummeted.
The financial crisis of 2007–2008 played a role, as GM was unable to obtain credit to buy Chrysler. Sales fell further as consumer credit tightened and it became much harder for people with average or poor credit to obtain a bank loan to buy a car. During 2007, nearly 2 million new U.S. cars were purchased with funds from home equity loans. Such funding was considerably less available in 2008. In addition, stock prices fell as shareholders worried about bankruptcy; GM's shares fell below 1946 levels. Furthermore, the instability of the job market and individual consumers' finances discourages consumers who already have a working vehicle from taking on a new loan and payments, which affected almost all major manufacturers.
The annual capacity of the industry is 17 million cars; sales in 2008 dropped to an annual rate of only 10 million vehicles made in the U.S. and Canada. All the automakers and their vast supplier network account for 2.3% of the U.S. economic output, down from 3.1% in 2006 and as much as 5% in the 1990s. Some 20% of the entire national manufacturing sector is still tied to the automobile industry. The transplants can make a profit when sales are at least 12 million; the Big Three when sales are at least 15 million.
By December 19, 2008, oil prices had fallen to $33.87 per barrel, but the automobile crisis continued.
See also
Corporate welfare
Lemon socialism
Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry
Too big to fail
Effects of the 2008–10 automotive industry crisis on the United States
Effects of the 2008–10 automotive industry crisis on Canada
References
External links
CAR industry news.
Auto Industry Financing and Restructuring Act.
Capitalism and the auto crisis.
Toyota losses highlight global auto collapse.
GM closes plants in Wisconsin and Ohio.
Crisis grips German auto industry.
Thousands of jobs threatened in Swedish auto industry.
European auto industry in crisis.
February 2009 Restructuring Plans: General Motors Chrysler
Automotive industry
2000s economic history
History of the automobile
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One on One is an American sitcom that aired on UPN from September 3, 2001, to May 15, 2006. The series stars Flex Alexander as a single sportscaster, who becomes a full-time father when his ex-wife decides to accept a job out of the country and his teenage daughter Breanna (Kyla Pratt) moves in with him. The series was set in Baltimore for the first four seasons before changing settings to Los Angeles for the final season. The series was a joint production of the Greenblatt/Janollari Studio and Daddy's Girl Productions in association with Paramount Network Television.
The series featured guest appearances from numerous celebrities and athletes, including Lil' Zane, Chris Brown, Brave from RichGirl, TLC, Lil' Romeo, Eve, Lloyd, Floetry, Angie Stone, Mario, Omarion, Brandy, Solange Knowles, Nina Sky, Marques Houston, Smokey Robinson, Kim Fields, Avant, Jennifer Freeman, Danny Erskine, Lil' Kim, Bobby V, Claudia Jordan, Ruben Studdard, and Lisa Leslie, among others. The show was cancelled months before The WB and UPN merged to form The CW. The cancellation was blamed on Dawn Ostroff's decision on completely changing the show for season 5 in order to cater to a different audience rather than the audience the show had built over the years with great ratings – this change led the decline in ratings in the fifth season and UPN's decision not to renew for a season 6.
The show would also have a spin-off series Cuts, which follows Flex's younger brother Kevin Barnes running the local barbershop/day spa with a spoiled brat named Tiffany Sherwood after her father Jack Sherwood purchased the shop. The show premiered as a mid-season replacement during the 2004–2005 television season. The show lasted for only two seasons and was also canceled when UPN and The WB merged to form The CW.
Synopsis
The show focuses the lives of Flex Washington (Alexander) and his teenage daughter Breanna Barnes (Pratt). The series begins with Breanna wanting to stay with her father, Flex, whom Breanna used to see only two weeks a year. When he blew out his knee during an NBA game, Flex had his communications degree to fall back on (which he revealed in a later episode, he tried three times to get due to failing the class twice) and became a sportscaster. Flex works for the fictional WYNX-TV in Baltimore resides in the ultimate bachelor pad, and lives the life of luxury. He is a ladies' man who wants to be both a responsible parent and a best friend to Breanna. Flex is very protective of his daughter, especially with boys. He has only had a few serious relationships, one of which was Breanna's mother Nicole Barnes (Tichina Arnold), whom he impregnated at the age of 18. When Nicole takes a job in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, Nicole allows Breanna to live with Flex.
Flex's best friend and Breanna's godfather, Duane Odell Knox (Kelly Perine), is a used-car salesman who lives across the hall from Flex and Breanna and is a constant presence in their lives for better or worse. Duane's way with women is the exact opposite of Flex's, in which Duane usually repels women. The women he does date, however, are somewhat unusual. His only serious girlfriend during the series was Candy (Shondrella Avery), whom he dated for two years before getting engaged and later breaking up.
Breanna's best friend is Spirit Jones (Sicily Sewell) with whom she creates some mischief. Her other best friend, Arnaz Ballard (Robert Ri'chard), is the object of her on-again, off-again affection. The two were just friends, but Breanna became jealous of Arnaz's old girlfriend, Ginger (Khanya Mkhize). Arnaz became jealous when, in season 2, Breanna began dating Josh (Josh Henderson). The two finally became a couple in the latter part of the series. They break up during the third season and move on to date other people, though they know they still love each other. The series ends with Arnaz chasing after Michelle (Brandy Norwood), D-Mack's sister, with whom he has fallen in love while Breanna is shown in bed with D-Mack (Ray J).
Episodes
Cast and characters
Main
Flex Alexander as Flexter Alexander "Flex" Barnes Washington (seasons 1–4; recurring season 5) – Flex was born to Richard and Eunice Barnes and is the oldest of three children. In high school, Flex met Nicole, who became his first serious girlfriend. Before that, Flex had a reputation with women that caused many fathers in his neighborhood to dislike him. At age 18, Flex got Nicole pregnant as a senior in high school and they got married. She gave birth to a baby daughter named Breanna when they were 19 years old. A year later, Flex and Nicole went their separate ways when Flex pursued a career in the NBA playing for the Los Angeles Clippers, New York Knicks and Orlando Magic. During a game, however, he blew out his knee and was sidelined. Luckily, he had a communications degree to fall back on (which he admitted he tried to get twice) and became a sportscaster in Baltimore for television station WYNX News 3. After his daughter stays over for two weeks, Nicole springs the news that she got a job in Nova Scotia and wants to take Breanna with her. Flex unwittingly volunteers to take care of Breanna, though it may hamper his bachelor lifestyle. After his divorce from Nicole, Flex had taken on a player persona and even had a 30-day rule, vowing not to date a woman for more than days and run the risk of their connection becoming a romantic relationship. He broke that rule when he dated Natalie, Breanna's art teacher. However, they broke up a year into their romance because she wanted to be a good stepmom to Breanna rather than have children of her own. A year later, Flex began dating Danielle, a psychotherapist who initially did not want to date him because Flex and Brianna were her clients. Flex and Danielle eventually began dating and later became engaged. Around the same time, his show The Flex Files became syndicated. In season 5, the show's premise was revamped and Flex was phased out of the series, but he appeared occasionally as a recurring character. He would fly out to California to visit Breanna and to also make sure Arnaz was not trying to have sex with her.
Kyla Pratt as Breanna Latrice Barnes – Breanna is the daughter of Flex Washington and Nicole Barnes, born when the two were 19. When Breanna finds out that her mother Nicole got a job in Nova Scotia, Breanna comes up with the idea to have Flex take care of her. During her stay with Flex, her best friend Spirit and she joined the cheerleading squad, which she initially would have never thought to try out for until the head cheerleader taunts her and tries everything she can to keep her from joining. Breanna has had several crushes, including Arnaz, one of her two best friends, who became an on-again/off-again love interest during the series, and in whom she did not show any romantic interest until the end of the first season. Breanna dated Josh, a handsome but dimwitted boy, who became part of a love triangle between Breanna, Josh, and Arnaz. Eventually, Breanna and Arnaz became a couple, only to break up when Josh and Arnaz' ex-girlfriend Ginger came up with a plan to break the two up, in which Breanna caught Ginger kissing Arnaz. During the third season, Arnaz and Breanna seemed to be on the way to getting back together until he revealed he was not a virgin one night when Breanna wanted to lose her virginity to Arnaz to stay popular with the cheerleaders (she did not go through with it after she found out). Then, Breanna decided to remain a virgin until she was ready to have sex, even if it was not until she was married. Breanna also kind of went out with a boy from her school, Nyghtmare, whose real name was Clayton. He was smart, but had a reputation as a bad boy. When Breanna found out, she said something that almost leads to a kiss. Flex saw them and prevented Breanna from seeing him. Nightmare explained to Breanna's father what was going on, and she could see him again, but he came in before Arnaz could tell her his feelings for her. In the next episode, he was not there; they just had an attraction to each other. By the fourth season, Breanna and Arnaz finally became a couple, but Breanna had to endure jealousy when Charlie, a French girl, joined Arnaz's band as the lead singer. Nothing happened between Arnaz and Charlie, because his heart was with Breanna. In the season 4 finale, Breanna and Arnaz broke up after Nicole came up with a plot to keep Breanna from making the same mistakes that she made with Flex when they were her age, after Breanna announced she was going to live with Arnaz, and Flex tried to convince Arnaz to let Breanna go to California to attend the California Institute of the Arts. Arnaz ran onto the plane that Breanna was taking to California to tell her he could not live without her. They eventually went to California, where they moved in with four other roommates: Cash, D-Mack, Lisa, and Sara. They broke up again when Arnaz and their roommate D-Mack's sister began getting closer. She began dating Calvin, a manager at McDonald's, only to break up because he thought that her heart was still with Arnaz. Breanna tells Arnaz she still loves him. She is later seen in bed with D-Mack at the end of the last episode (part 2), to whom she loses her virginity. Breanna is the only character to appear in every episode of the series.
Robert Ri'chard as Arnaz Leroy Ballard – Arnaz is an aspiring rock musician and was born to a Caucasian father and an African-American mother, who left his mother and owns a crab restaurant (this is seen when Arnaz's parents are shown later in the series, but this contradicted a reference in the first-season episode "The Case of the Almost Broken Heart", in which Breanna stated that Arnaz's father was Caucasian and his mother was of mixed African-American, Jamaican, and Chinese descent). Arnaz had his own rock band called Zanra (which is his name spelled in backwards). Arnaz had a massive crush on Breanna when they met, and would stop at nothing to impress her. Towards the end of season 1, however, as he got her attention, his attention turned to Ginger, who became Breanna's rival. After Ginger and he broke up, Arnaz attempted to get Breanna back, but Breanna was dating Josh at the time. One Christmas, Breanna was given a half-heart pendant by Arnaz, who kept half of the pendant to show he would always keep Breanna close to his heart. In the season 4 premiere, Arnaz, Breanna, and Spirit ran off to New York to pursue their dreams (Breanna acting, Arnaz playing guitar, and Spirit designing). After three years of a "will they or won't they" situation between them, Arnaz and Breanna became a couple in the fourth season. A year later, Arnaz and Breanna's relationship hit the skids when their roommate D-Mack's sister Michelle (Brandy Norwood) visited, and eventually, Arnaz and Michelle became close friends. One night, the two fell asleep on the couch, Michelle was fully dressed and Arnaz is wearing pants but no shirt. Breanna and their roommates, Sara, D-Mack, Lisa, and Cash, walked in after returning from a party in Mexico and saw them. Though they had never done anything intimate, Breanna and Arnaz broke up. Eventually, Michelle and Arnaz did get together, but they went their separate ways after Michelle realized Arnaz's heart was still with Breanna. He thought differently, so he stole Breanna's car (with permission) and chased Michelle to the mountains. However, since the series did not make it to the sixth season, whether Breanna and Arnaz would eventually get back together remained undetermined.
Sicily as Cloteal "Spirit" Freedom Jones (seasons 1–4) – Spirit is the daughter of Leilani and Cooper Jones, former Black hippies who run an incense shop. Spirit knew Arnaz since they were young children and became best friends with Breanna. Spirit has an quirky fashion sense, which has given her the distinction of being the "Black Blossom Russo." In one episode, Spirit was revealed to have once kissed Arnaz in a game of spin the bottle. The secret angered Breanna because she liked Arnaz, but the two friends apologized for the situation, as Breanna explained that Spirit was one of her few true friends. A running gag in the series is how Spirit never has a boyfriend. This changed in the fourth season when Spirit began dating A-Train (Lloyd), Arnaz's rival in a battle of the bands' contest. Their relationship strained Arnaz and hers for a while, but eventually, they mended fences. She did not appear in the final season. The character of Spirit is claimed to be the influence of the character of Dijonay Jones from Disney's The Proud Family in which Kyla Pratt (Breanna) voices the main character, Penny Proud.
Kelly Perine as Duane Odell Knox (seasons 1–4) – Duane is a used-car salesman for Big Sal's Used Cars, who lived up to the stereotype that car salesmen cheat their customers. As he says in the episode "Playing Possum", he "eats sleaze for breakfast and washes it down with a tall glass of dishonesty." Duane was Flex's best friend since they were children. Duane had lived in his mother's basement well into his 30s, eventually moving into an apartment across the hall from Flex. He had an on-again/off-again relationship with Candace Taylor (known as Candy), a manicurist at Flex's father's barbershop Phatheadz. They first broke up after Duane lied to her about losing his job at Big Sal's. They later became engaged, but eventually broke off the engagement. When Duane found out he had a serious health issue (high cholesterol), he needed to contact his father, since his high cholesterol might be hereditary. He met his father, Vaughn Odell Knox (Smokey Robinson) after months of searching for him. Not long after, Vaughn asked Duane for a kidney, which turned out to be for Duane's half-brother Dwayne (Orlando Brown). After losing his car-salesman job, he started his own business, D's Dubs and Subs, which was a cross between a sandwich shop and a custom auto part shop. Throughout the series, Duane always wore a hat, because, when they were children, Flex's brother Kevin made a mistake while practicing his barbering skills on Duane, which in pain; this was revealed in the episode "Phatheadz". The character was written out of the series for season 5.
Camille Mana as Lisa Sanchez (season 5) – The character of Lisa Sanchez was introduced at the beginning of season 5. Lisa is one of the four roommates with whom Breanna and Arnaz live when they move to California. Other than her roommates, she is somewhat overlooked by people, such as D-Mack's sister Michelle (Brandy Norwood), who is not remember her at all, though she lived with D-Mack. Lisa has had a long-standing crush on D-Mack, though he takes without interest in her. She eventually dates Benjamin, the handsome, nerdy manager of the BLOG, a restaurant hangout where Arnaz works.
Jonathan Chase as Cash Bagan (season 5) – Cash is another of Breanna and Arnaz's roommates. Cash considers himself a filmmaker but works as a paparazzo to make money. Since the apartment has only two bedrooms, Arnaz is initially alarmed at the idea of sharing a room with Cash and D-Mack, but before long, the three become friends. Throughout the season, Cash chases women, and while he unlucky as he would like to be, he is more successful in his endeavors than D-Mack or Arnaz. At the end of one episode, in an amusing mirror of roommate Sara's usual behavior, Cash uses his toned body to entice a female hotel manager out of making them pay their bill.
Ray J as Darrell "D-Mack" McGinty (season 5) – The character of Darrell McGinty, nicknamed "D-Mack", was introduced as one of the four roommates. D-Mack has a hip-hop persona, although his lifestyle as a Malibu rich kid comes out at times. He used his sister Michelle McGinty (Brandy Norwood) to become close to Arnaz, so he could date Breanna, but without success. He becomes upset to find out his sister and Arnaz are going behind everyone's back sneaking around together. Meanwhile, Michelle leaves Arnaz. He leaves, going after her to the mountains, leaving D-Mack and Breanna as the only ones left in the house. He questions her about being free, then unexpectedly kisses her. Later, Sara comes back to find them sleeping together in Breanna's bed. She panics, then leaves. The season is left with them together in bed.
Nicole Paggi as Sara Crawford (season 5) – Sara is also one of the roommates and is the sexpot girl-next-door of the house. Sara is considered a white gold digger, and dreams of being a trophy wife since she grew up in a trailer park in Iowa. In the last episode, she dated Andrew, whom she met while Lisa and she accompanied Breanna to a clinic to get information on contraceptives (Breanna was prepared to have sex with Arnaz just to keep him from straying from her, but she did not), but his need to get to know Sara before having sex with her tired her to the point where she gave up on him. Her passiveness turned him on, but the next night, Sara caught Andrew with another woman.
Recurring
Ron Canada as Richard, Flex's father (seasons 1–4)
Joan Pringle as Eunice, Flex's mother (seasons 1–3)
Marques Houston as Kevin, Flex's younger brother, who later runs the family's barbershop (season 3–5)
Reagan Gomez-Preston as Bernadette, Flex's younger sister (season 2)
Tamala Jones as Tanya, an old girlfriend of Flex's (seasons 1–4)
Tichina Arnold as Nicole, Flex's ex-wife and Breanna's mother (seasons 1–4)
Holly Robinson Peete as Stacy Morgan, Flex's boss (season 1)
Jenny McCarthy as Holly Spears, Flex's co-host (season 3)
Khanya Mkhize as Ginger, Breanna's rival and Arnaz's former girlfriend (seasons 1–3)
Omar Gooding as Malik, a barber at Phatheadz (seasons 2–3)
Rashaan Nall as Walt, a barber at Phatheadz (seasons 2–4)
Laz Alonso as Manny, a barber at Phatheadz (seasons 2–3)
Shondrella as Candy, a nail stylist at Phatheadz and love interest for Duane (seasons 2–4)
Melissa De Sousa as Natalie Odessa, Breanna's teacher who later dates Flex (seasons 2–3)
Josh Henderson as Josh McEntire, Breanna's new love interest after her break-up with Arnaz (seasons 2–3)
Kim Coles as Leilani Jones, Spirit's mother (seasons 2–4)
Edward "Grapevine" Fordham, Jr. as Ace Fields, a new barber at Phatheadz and later an intern on the Flex Files (seasons 2–4).
Saskia Garel as Danielle, Flex's best friend and therapist, later girlfriend, then wife (season 4; guest season 5)
Lloyd as A-Train (season 4)
Kel Mitchell as Manny Sellers, the former child actor and Breanna's landlord (season 5)
Ernie Grunwald as Benjamin (season 5)
Brandy Norwood as Michelle, D-Mack's sister (season 5)
Notable guest stars
Season 1
Laila Ali (as herself) - S1E5, "My Life as a Dog"
Duane Martin (as Elliott) – S1E8, "Phantom Menace"
Alfonso Ribeiro (as Lenny) – S1E16, "Me & My Shadow"
Season 2
Clifton Powell (as Coach Guillory) – S2E2, "I Believe I Can Fly"
Larry Thomas (actor) (Akhmad) – S2E6, "Give me Some Credit"
Big Show (Miles) – S2E10, "Is It Safe"
Season 3
Angie Stone (as herself) – S3E14, "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad Hip Hop World"
Anthony Hamilton (as himself) – S3E12, "Dream Seller"
Avant (as himself) – S3E14, "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad Hip Hop World"
Eve (as a waitress)– S3E14, "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad Hip Hop World"
Floetry (as themselves) – S3E14, "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad Hip Hop World"
Lil' Romeo (as Eric) – S3E10, "Spy Games"
Omarion (as Nyghtmare) – S3E13, "East Meets East Coast"
Orlando Brown (actor) (as Dewane) – S3E16, "He's Not Heavy, He's My Half-Brother"
Ruben Studdard (as himself) – S3E15, "The Catch"
Solange Knowles (as Charlotte) – S3E15, "The Catch"
Smokey Robinson (as Vaughn Odell Knox) – season 3
Edwin C. Morrow (as Johnny Bullbank) – season 3
Brenda Song (as Asoniti) – S3E8, "Keeping It
Ashlie Brillault (as Regina) – S3E8, "Keeping It"
Season 4
Charlie Murphy (as Larry Eldredge) - S4E5, "Rock the Vote"
Nina Sky (as themselves) – S4E8, "Daddy's Home"
Chingy (as Taz) – S4E19, "Glug, Glug"
Season 5
Chris Brown (as himself) – S5E17, "Recipe for Disaster"
Bobby V (as himself) – S5E10, "Waiting for Huffman"
Tessie Santiago (as Hannah) – S5E22, "I Love LA Part 2"
Theme song and opening sequence
The show's theme song "Living One on One", was written and performed by Shanice (wife of the show's star Flex Alexander) and Tonex with music composed by Jonathan Wolff and Becky Kneubuhl (who composed the scene-change music for the first season). The theme song was slightly shortened and remixed by Detail and Ray J for the show's fifth season. A truncated version of the theme removed of all lyrics except the words "One on One", was used as a closing theme, heard only in syndicated airings.
The opening titles for the first three seasons featured the cast playing basketball on an outdoor court (though it also showed some characters doing other things at that same setting, e.g., Spirit checking out a boy who walks past her, and Arnaz playing the guitar only to be interrupted by a basketball bouncing in his direction that fell out of Duane's hand and he chases him). The fourth-season opening titles featured the cast in a dressing room getting ready for a night on the town, the end of the sequence featured a pan shot of the cast wearing different outfits in the mirror from what they are wearing at the beginning of the pan shot. The opening sequences for the first four seasons included a closeup shot of Flex, Breanna, and Arnaz before cutting back to a shot of the entire cast. The final season's opening titles featured the main cast (Breanna, Arnaz, and new characters D-Mack, Sara, Cash, and Lisa) at different places at the Venice Beach Boardwalk, before meeting back at the beach house to take a picture together.
Nielsen ratings
Syndication
One On One began airing in syndication in September 2006, CBS Paramount Domestic Television also held the distribution rights to the series for the first year of its syndication run. CBS Television Distribution has been the series distributor since September 2007.
In the United States, One on One was broadcast on various local television stations (mostly Fox, The WB, and UPN) affiliates from September 2006 to September 2009. The series originally began airing on The N in October 2006, when the channel was a timeshare service of Noggin, then carried over when The N took over the channel space of Nick GAS on December 31, 2007 and ran until October 2008; it rejoined the channel's lineup on September 14, 2009, and was moved to the rebranded TeenNick on September 28, 2009, and aired in two-hour blocks in the morning and late-night hours before being removed from TeenNick's lineup in 2013. The series began airing on BET in 2009, airing in two one-hour blocks (one weekday mornings and one in the afternoon), as well as Saturday broadcasts.
Formerly, Bounce TV and TV One both air the series. The series joined Netflix on October 15, 2020.
International broadcast
In overseas, One on One is broadcast in Canada on BET and local affiliates; on Nine Network in Australia; on SABC1 in South Africa and in the Middle East on the Paramount Comedy Channel in the Middle East (however, the fifth season has yet to be aired in its entirety on Paramount Comedy). The series is broadcast across the African continent on Sony Entertainment Channel via the South African cable network DSTV.
Awards and nominations
BET Comedy Awards
2005 – Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series – Ken Whittingham, Brian K. Roberts, Maynard C. Virgil I, Chip Fields & Mary Lou Belli (Nominated)
2005 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
2004 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
Image Awards
2005 – Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
2004 – Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
2004 – Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series – Kyla Pratt (Nominated)
2003 – Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
2003 – Outstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)
Prism Awards
2005 – TV Comedy Series Episode for episode "No More Wire Hangers" (Won)
References
External links
2001 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
2000s American black sitcoms
English-language television shows
Television shows set in Baltimore
Television series by CBS Studios
UPN original programming
Television shows set in Los Angeles
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In ballistics, the ballistic coefficient (BC, C) of a body is a measure of its ability to overcome air resistance in flight. It is inversely proportional to the negative acceleration: a high number indicates a low negative acceleration—the drag on the body is small in proportion to its mass. BC can be expressed with the units kilograms per square meter (kg/m2) or pounds (mass) per square inch (lb/in2) (where 1 lb/in2 corresponds to ).
Formulas
General
where:
Cb,Physics, ballistic coefficient as used in physics and engineering
m, mass
A, cross-sectional area
Cd, drag coefficient
, density
, characteristic body length
Ballistics
The formula for calculating the ballistic coefficient for small and large arms projectiles only is as follows:
where:
Cb,Projectile, ballistic coefficient as used in point mass trajectory from the Siacci method (less than 20 degrees).
m, mass of bullet
d, measured cross section (diameter) of projectile
i, coefficient of form
The coefficient of form, i, can be derived by 6 methods and applied differently depending on the trajectory models used: G model, Beugless/Coxe; 3 Sky Screen; 4 Sky Screen; target zeroing; Doppler radar.
Here are several methods to compute i or Cd:
where:
or
A drag coefficient can also be calculated mathematically:
where:
Cd, drag coefficient.
, density of the projectile.
v, projectile velocity at range.
π (pi) = 3.14159…
d, measured cross section (diameter) of projectile
or
From standard physics as applied to "G" models:
where:
i, coefficient of form.
CG, drag coefficient of 1.00 from any "G" model, reference drawing, projectile.
Cp, drag coefficient of the actual test projectile at range.
Commercial use
This formula is for calculating the ballistic coefficient within the small arms shooting community, but is redundant with Cb,Projectile:
where:
Cb,Smallarms, ballistic coefficient
SD, sectional density
i, coefficient of form (form factor)
History
Background
In 1537, Niccolò Tartaglia performed test firing to determine the maximum angle and range for a shot. His conclusion was near 45 degrees. He noted that the shot trajectory was continuously curved.
In 1636, Galileo Galilei published results in "Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences". He found that a falling body had a constant acceleration. This allowed Galileo to show that a bullet's trajectory was a curve.
Circa 1665, Sir Isaac Newton derived the law of air resistance. Newton's experiments on drag were through air and fluids. He showed that drag on shot increases proportionately with the density of the air (or the fluid), cross sectional area, and the square of the speed. Newton's experiments were only at low velocities to about .
In 1718, John Keill challenged the Continental Mathematica, "To find the curve that a projectile may describe in the air, on behalf of the simplest assumption of gravity, and the density of the medium uniform, on the other hand, in the duplicate ratio of the velocity of the resistance". This challenge supposes that air resistance increases exponentially to the velocity of a projectile. Keill gave no solution for his challenge. Johann Bernoulli took up this challenge and soon thereafter solved the problem and air resistance varied as "any power" of velocity; known as the Bernoulli equation. This is the precursor to the concept of the "standard projectile".
In 1742, Benjamin Robins invented the ballistic pendulum. This was a simple mechanical device that could measure a projectile's velocity. Robins reported muzzle velocities ranging from to . In his book published that same year "New Principles of Gunnery", he uses numerical integration from Euler's method and found that air resistance varies as the square of the velocity, but insisted that it changes at the speed of sound.
In 1753, Leonhard Euler showed how theoretical trajectories might be calculated using his method as applied to the Bernoulli equation, but only for resistance varying as the square of the velocity.
In 1844, the Electro-ballistic chronograph was invented and by 1867 the electro-ballistic chronograph was accurate to within one ten millionth of a second.
Test firing
Many countries and their militaries carried out test firings from the mid eighteenth century on using large ordnance to determine the drag characteristics of each individual projectile. These individual test firings were logged and reported in extensive ballistics tables.
Of the test firing, most notably were: Francis Bashforth at Woolwich Marshes & Shoeburyness, England (1864-1889) with velocities to and M. Krupp (1865–1880) of Friedrich Krupp AG at Meppen, Germany, Friedrich Krupp AG continued these test firings to 1930; to a lesser extent General Nikolai V. Mayevski, then a Colonel (1868–1869) at St. Petersburg, Russia; the Commission d'Experience de Gâvre (1873 to 1889) at Le Gâvre, France with velocities to and The British Royal Artillery (1904–1906).
The test projectiles (shot) used, vary from spherical, spheroidal, ogival; being hollow, solid and cored in design with the elongated ogival-headed projectiles having 1, 1½, 2 and 3 caliber radii. These projectiles varied in size from, at to at
Methods and the standard projectile
Many militaries up until the 1860s used calculus to compute the projectile trajectory. The numerical computations necessary to calculate just a single trajectory was lengthy, tedious and done by hand. So, investigations to develop a theoretical drag model began. The investigations led to a major simplification in the experimental treatment of drag. This was the concept of a "standard projectile". The ballistic tables are made up for a factitious projectile being defined as: "a factitious weight and with a specific shape and specific dimensions in a ratio of calibers." This simplifies calculation for the ballistic coefficient of a standard model projectile, which could mathematically move through the standard atmosphere with the same ability as any actual projectile could move through the actual atmosphere.
The Bashforth method
In 1870, Bashforth publishes a report containing his ballistic tables. Bashforth found that the drag of his test projectiles varied with the square of velocity (v2) from to and with the cube of velocity (v3) from to . As of his 1880 report, he found that drag varied by v6 from to . Bashforth used rifled guns of , , and ; smooth-bore guns of similar caliber for firing spherical shot and howitzers propelled elongated projectiles having an ogival-head of 1½ caliber radius.
Bashforth uses b as the variable for ballistic coefficient. When b is equal to or less than v2, then b is equal to P for the drag of a projectile. It would be found that air does not deflect off the front of a projectile in the same direction, when there are of differing shapes. This prompted the introduction of a second factor to b, the coefficient of form (i). This is particularly true at high velocities, greater than . Hence, Bashforth introduced the "undetermined multiplier" of any power called the k factor that compensate for this unknown effects of drag above ; k > i. Bashforth then integrated k and i as K.
Although Bashforth did not conceive the "restricted zone", he showed mathematically there were 5 restricted zones. Bashforth did not propose a standard projectile, but was well aware of the concept.
Mayevski–Siacci method
In 1872, Mayevski published his report Trité Balistique Extérieure, which included the Mayevski model. Using his ballistic tables along with Bashforth's tables from the 1870 report, Mayevski created an analytical math formula that calculated the air resistances of a projectile in terms of log A and the value n. Although Mayevski's math used a differing approach than Bashforth, the resulting calculation of air resistance was the same. Mayevski proposed the restricted zone concept and found there to be six restricted zones for projectiles.
Circa 1886, Mayevski published the results from a discussion of experiments made by M. Krupp (1880). Though the ogival-headed projectiles used varied greatly in caliber, they had essentially the same proportions as the standard projectile, being mostly 3 caliber in length, with an ogive of 2 calibers radius. Giving the standard projectile dimensionally as and .
In 1880, Colonel Francesco Siacci published his work "Balistica". Siacci found as did those who came before him that the resistance and density of the air becomes greater and greater as a projectile displaced the air at higher and higher velocities.
Siacci's method was for flat-fire trajectories with angles of departure of less than 20 degrees. He found that the angle of departure is sufficiently small to allow for air density to remain the same and was able to reduce the ballistics tables to easily tabulated quadrants giving distance, time, inclination and altitude of the projectile. Using Bashforth's k and Mayevski's tables, Siacci created a four-zone model. Siacci used Mayevski's standard projectile. From this method and standard projectile, Siacci formulated a shortcut.
Siacci found that within a low-velocity restricted zone, projectiles of similar shape, and velocity in the same air density behave similarly; or . Siacci used the variable for ballistic coefficient. Meaning, air density is the generally the same for flat-fire trajectories, thus sectional density is equal to the ballistic coefficient and air density can be dropped. Then as the velocity rises to Bashforth's for high velocity when requires the introduction of . Following within today's currently used ballistic trajectory tables for an average ballistic coefficient: would equal equals as .
Siacci wrote that within any restricted zone, C being the same for two or more projectiles, the trajectories differences will be minor. Therefore, C agrees with an average curve, and this average curve applies for all projectiles. Therefore, a single trajectory can be computed for the standard projectile without having to resort to tedious calculus methods, and then a trajectory for any actual bullet with known C can be computed from the standard trajectory with just simple algebra.
The ballistic tables
The aforementioned ballistics tables are generally: functions, air density, projectile time at range, range, degree of projectile departure, weight and diameter to facilitate the calculation of ballistic formulae. These formulae produce the projectile velocity at range, drag and trajectories. The modern day commercially published ballistic tables or software computed ballistics tables for small arms, sporting ammunition are exterior ballistic, trajectory tables.
The 1870 Bashforth tables were to . Mayevski, using his tables, supplemented by the Bashforth tables (to 6 restricted zones) and the Krupp tables. Mayevski conceived a 7th restricted zone and extended the Bashforth tables to . Mayevski converted Bashforth's data from Imperial units of measure to metric units of measure (now in SI units of measure). In 1884, James Ingalls published his tables in the U.S. Army Artillery Circular M using the Mayevski tables. Ingalls extended Mayevski's ballistics tables to within an 8th restricted zone, but still with the same n value (1.55) as Mayevski's 7th restricted zone. Ingalls, converted Mayevski's results back to Imperial units. The British Royal Artillery results were very similar to those of Mayevski's and extended their tables to within the 8th restricted zone changing the n value from 1.55 to 1.67. These ballistic tables were published in 1909 and almost identical to those of Ingalls. In 1971 the Sierra Bullet company calculated their ballistic tables to 9 restricted zones but only within .
The G model
In 1881, the Commission d'Experience de Gâvre did a comprehensive survey of data available from their tests as well as other countries. After adopting a standard atmospheric condition for the drag data the Gavre drag function was adopted. This drag function was known as the Gavre function and the standard projectile adopted was the Type 1 projectile. Thereafter, the Type 1 standard projectile was renamed by Ballistics Section of Aberdeen Proving Grounds in Maryland, USA as G1 after the Commission d'Experience de Gâvre. For practical purposes the subscript 1 in G1 is generally written in normal font size as G1.
The general form for the calculations of trajectory adopted for the G model is the Siacci method. The standard model projectile is a "fictitious projectile" used as the mathematical basis for the calculation of actual projectile's trajectory when an initial velocity is known. The G1 model projectile adopted is in dimensionless measures of 2 caliber radius ogival-head and 3.28 caliber in length. By calculation this leaves the body length 1.96 caliber and head, 1.32 caliber long.
Over the years there has been some confusion as to adopted size, weight and radius ogival-head of the G1 standard projectile. This misconception may be explained by Colonel Ingalls in the 1886 publication, Exterior Ballistics in the Plan Fire; page 15, In the following tables the first and second columns give the velocities and corresponding resistance, in pounds, to an elongated one inch in diameter and having an ogival head of one and a half calibers. They were deduced from Bashforth's experiments by Professor A. G. Greenhill, and are taken from his papers published in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution, No 2, Vol. XIII. Further it is discussed that said projectile's weight was one pound.
For the purposes of mathematical convenience for any standard projectile (G) the C is 1.00. Where as the projectile's sectional density (SD) is dimensionless with a mass of 1 divided by the square of the diameter of 1 caliber equaling an SD of 1. Then the standard projectile is assigned a coefficient of form of 1. Following that . C, as a general rule, within flat-fire trajectory, is carried out to 2 decimal points. C is commonly found within commercial publications to be carried out to 3 decimal points as few sporting, small arms projectiles rise to the level of 1.00 for a ballistic coefficient.
When using the Siacci method for different G models, the formula used to compute the trajectories is the same. What differs is retardation factors found through testing of actual projectiles that are similar in shape to the standard project reference. This creates slightly different set of retardation factors between differing G models. When the correct G model retardation factors are applied within the Siacci mathematical formula for the same G model C, a corrected trajectory can be calculated for any G model.
Another method of determining trajectory and ballistic coefficient was developed and published by Wallace H. Coxe and Edgar Beugless of DuPont in 1936. This method is by shape comparison an logarithmic scale as drawn on 10 charts. The method estimates the ballistic coefficient related to the drag model of the Ingalls tables. When matching an actual projectile against the drawn caliber radii of Chart No. 1, it will provide i and by using Chart No. 2, C can be quickly calculated. Coxe and Beugless used the variable C for ballistic coefficient.
The Siacci method was abandoned by the end of the World War I for artillery fire. But the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps continued using the Siacci method into the middle of the 20th century for direct (flat-fire) tank gunnery. The development of the electromechanical analog computer contributed to the calculation of aerial bombing trajectories during World War II. After World War II the advent of the silicon semiconductor based digital computer made it possible to create trajectories for the guided missiles/bombs, intercontinental ballistic missiles and space vehicles.
Between World War I and II the U.S. Army Ballistics research laboratories at Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland, USA developed the standard models for G2, G5, G6. In 1965, Winchester Western published a set of ballistics tables for G1, G5, G6 and GL. In 1971 Sierra Bullet Company retested all their bullets and concluded that the G5 model was not the best model for their boat tail bullets and started using the G1 model. This was fortunate, as the entire commercial sporting and firearms industries had based their calculations on the G1 model. The G1 model and Mayevski/Siacci Method continue to be the industry standard today. This benefit allows for comparison of all ballistic tables for trajectory within the commercial sporting and firearms industry.
In recent years there have been vast advancements in the calculation of flat-fire trajectories with the advent of Doppler radar and the personal computer and handheld computing devices. Also, the newer methodology proposed by Dr. Arthur Pejsa and the use of the G7 model used by Mr. Bryan Litz, ballistic engineer for Berger Bullets, LLC for calculating boat tailed spitzer rifle bullet trajectories and 6 Dof model based software have improved the prediction of flat-fire trajectories.
Differing mathematical models and bullet ballistic coefficients
Most ballistic mathematical models and hence tables or software take for granted that one specific drag function correctly describes the drag and hence the flight characteristics of a bullet related to its ballistic coefficient. Those models do not differentiate between wadcutter, flat-based, spitzer, boat-tail, very-low-drag, etc. bullet types or shapes. They assume one invariable drag function as indicated by the published BC. Several different drag curve models optimized for several standard projectile shapes are available, however.
The resulting drag curve models for several standard projectile shapes or types are referred to as:
G1 or Ingalls (flatbase with 2 caliber (blunt) nose ogive - by far the most popular)
G2 (Aberdeen J projectile)
G5 (short 7.5° boat-tail, 6.19 calibers long tangent ogive)
G6 (flatbase, 6 calibers long secant ogive)
G7 (long 7.5° boat-tail, 10 calibers secant ogive, preferred by some manufacturers for very-low-drag bullets)
G8 (flatbase, 10 calibers long secant ogive)
GL (blunt lead nose)
Since these standard projectile shapes differ significantly the Gx BC will also differ significantly from the Gy BC for an identical bullet. To illustrate this the bullet manufacturer Berger has published the G1 and G7 BCs for most of their target, tactical, varmint and hunting bullets. Other bullet manufacturers like Lapua and Nosler also published the G1 and G7 BCs for most of their target bullets. How much a projectile deviates from the applied reference projectile is mathematically expressed by the form factor (i). The applied reference projectile shape always has a form factor (i) of exactly 1. When a particular projectile has a sub 1 form factor (i) this indicates that the particular projectile exhibits lower drag than the applied reference projectile shape. A form factor (i) greater than 1 indicates the particular projectile exhibits more drag than the applied reference projectile shape. In general the G1 model yields comparatively high BC values and is often used by the sporting ammunition industry.
The transient nature of bullet ballistic coefficients
Variations in BC claims for exactly the same projectiles can be explained by differences in the ambient air density used to compute specific values or differing range-speed measurements on which the stated G1 BC averages are based. Also, the BC changes during a projectile's flight, and stated BCs are always averages for particular range-speed regimes. Further explanation about the variable nature of a projectile's G1 BC during flight can be found at the external ballistics article. The external ballistics article implies that knowing how a BC was determined is almost as important as knowing the stated BC value itself.
For the precise establishment of BCs (or perhaps the scientifically better expressed drag coefficients), Doppler radar-measurements are required. The normal shooting or aerodynamics enthusiast, however, has no access to such expensive professional measurement devices. Weibel 1000e or Infinition BR-1001 Doppler radars are used by governments, professional ballisticians, defense forces, and a few ammunition manufacturers to obtain exact real-world data on the flight behavior of projectiles of interest.
Doppler radar measurement results for a lathe turned monolithic solid .50 BMG very-low-drag bullet (Lost River J40 , monolithic solid bullet / twist rate 1:) look like this:
The initial rise in the BC value is attributed to a projectile's always present yaw and precession out of the bore. The test results were obtained from many shots, not just a single shot. The bullet was assigned 1.062 lb/in2 (746.7 kg/m2) for its BC number by the bullet's manufacturer, Lost River Ballistic Technologies.
Measurements on other bullets can give totally different results. How different speed regimes affect several 8.6 mm (.338 in calibre) rifle bullets made by the Finnish ammunition manufacturer Lapua can be seen in the .338 Lapua Magnum product brochure which states Doppler radar established BC data.
General trends
Sporting bullets, with a calibre d ranging from , have C in the range 0.12 lb/in2 to slightly over 1.00 lb/in2 (84 kg/m2 to 703 kg/m2). Those bullets with the higher BCs are the most aerodynamic, and those with low BCs are the least. Very-low-drag bullets with C ≥ 1.10 lb/in2 (over 773 kg/m2) can be designed and produced on CNC precision lathes out of mono-metal rods, but they often have to be fired from custom made full bore rifles with special barrels.
Ammunition makers often offer several bullet weights and types for a given cartridge. Heavy-for-caliber pointed (spitzer) bullets with a boattail design have BCs at the higher end of the normal range, whereas lighter bullets with square tails and blunt noses have lower BCs. The 6 mm and 6.5 mm cartridges are probably the most well known for having high BCs and are often used in long range target matches of – . The 6 and 6.5 have relatively light recoil compared to high BC bullets of greater caliber and tend to be shot by the winner in matches where accuracy is key. Examples include the 6mm PPC, 6mm Norma BR, 6×47mm SM, 6.5×55mm Swedish Mauser, 6.5×47mm Lapua, 6.5 Creedmoor, 6.5 Grendel, .260 Remington, and the 6.5-284. The 6.5 mm is also a popular hunting caliber in Europe.
In the United States, hunting cartridges such as the .25-06 Remington (a 6.35 mm caliber), the .270 Winchester (a 6.8 mm caliber), and the .284 Winchester (a 7 mm caliber) are used when high BCs and moderate recoil are desired. The .30-06 Springfield and .308 Winchester cartridges also offer several high-BC loads, although the bullet weights are on the heavy side.
In the larger caliber category, the .338 Lapua Magnum and the .50 BMG are popular with very high BC bullets for shooting beyond 1,000 meters. Newer chamberings in the larger caliber category are the .375 and .408 Cheyenne Tactical and the .416 Barrett.
Information sources
For many years, bullet manufacturers were the main source of ballistic coefficients for use in trajectory calculations. However, in the past decade or so, it has been shown that ballistic coefficient measurements by independent parties can often be more accurate than manufacturer specifications. Since ballistic coefficients depend on the specific firearm and other conditions that vary, it is notable that methods have been developed for individual users to measure their own ballistic coefficients.
Satellites and reentry vehicles
Satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO) with high ballistic coefficients experience smaller perturbations to their orbits due to atmospheric drag.
The ballistic coefficient of an atmospheric reentry vehicle has a significant effect on its behavior. A very high ballistic coefficient vehicle would lose velocity very slowly and would impact the Earth's surface at higher speeds. In contrast, a low ballistic coefficient would reach subsonic speeds before reaching the ground.
In general, reentry vehicles that carry human beings back to Earth from space have high drag and a correspondingly low ballistic coefficient. Vehicles that carry nuclear weapons launched by an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), by contrast, have a high ballistic coefficient, which enables them to travel rapidly from space to a target on land. That makes the weapon less affected by crosswinds or other weather phenomena, and harder to track, intercept, or otherwise defend against.
See also
External ballistics - The behavior of a projectile in flight.
Trajectory of a projectile
References
External links
Aerospace Corporation Definition
Chuck Hawks Article on Ballistic Coefficient
Ballistic Coefficient Tables
Exterior Ballistics.com
How do bullets fly? The ballistic coefficient (bc) by Ruprecht Nennstiel, Wiesbaden, Germany
Ballistic Coefficients - Explained
Ballistic calculators
Projectiles
Aerodynamics
Ballistics
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Nicholas Zammit (1815–1899) was a Maltese medical doctor, an architect, an artistic designer, and a major philosopher. His area of specialisation in philosophy was chiefly ethics. Throughout his philosophical career he did not adhere to just one intellectual position. Roughly two-thirds into his life, Zammit passed from a liberal way of thinking to a conservative one. This does not mean that there are no carry-overs, developments, or continuations between the two phases, or that Zammit himself acknowledged such a division. Notwithstanding, the development suggests that an analysis of Zammit's works will reveal different attitudes, dispositions, emphasis, and conclusions of the two periods.
Life
Beginnings
Zammit was born at Siggiewi, Malta, on 29 November 1815, from John Nicholas Zammit and Vicenza née Vella. He seems to have hailed from a well-established family, for he was given a good education, superior to that of other children in those days.
Later, Zammit entered the Royal University of Malta, at Valletta, to study medicine as a main subject. His subsidiary studies included Latin and Italian literature, philosophy, and architecture. All of these were subjects which Zammit continued to interest himself in throughout his life.
An incident which occurred in 1835 suggests that, as a university student, he was somewhat rowdy. Together with some of his classmates, he behaved badly, showed disrespect to some of his professors, and went as far as disrupting a graduation ceremony. The naughty lads were taken before the university council for a de moribus (literally, concerning behaviour) hearing. The council decided to expel Zammit and two of his pals from the university. However, subsequently, the punishment was commuted to one year postponement of their final exams. This suspension was upheld during the years 1838–39.
Zammit finished his university studies and won his colours as Doctor of Medicine in June 1839 at 23 years of age.
Liberal Phase (1838–1876)
First Writings
During the suspension year at the Royal University of Malta, Zammit might have composed and published a short tract entitled Pensieri Liberi di un Idiota sull'Interesse Mercantile ("Free Thoughts by an Idiot on the Interest in Merchandise").
During that same year (1838), up till around 1846, Zammit began contributing with some writings in Italian in Il Portafoglio Maltese (The Maltese Portfolio), a weekly paper issued by Paolo Sciortino.
Six years later, in 1845, Zammit left his home-town, Siggiewi, and went to live at the capital city of Malta, Valletta, the political and social centre of the island. During that same year, he began to contribute some articles in L'Unione (The Union). This was a weekly paper issued by an Italian political refugee, Luigi Zuppetta, and edited by Enrico Naudi. The paper had been begun to be produced that same year (for the duration of just twelve months), and supported Maltese popular representation in government.
The following year, in 1846, Zammit probably began contributing also in the other papers, such as Giahan (Jahan), a satirical weekly in Maltese edited by Richard Taylor.
During that same year, Zammit himself began issuing successively a three papers in Italian. The first, the fortnightly Il Foglio del Popolo (The People's Sheet), was begun on 27 June 1846. The second, issued for the first time on 1 August 1846, was called La Rivista (The Magazine), and was published monthly. The third, which was issued every ten days, was entitled La Fiammetta (The Little Torch), and was published for the first time on 9 September 1946.
Between 1848 and 1849, Zuppetta was also instrumental in issuing another weekly paper in Italian, Il Precursore (The Precursor), which was edited by Salvatore Cumbo, a Catholic priest. Zammit seems to have contributed some writings also to this paper.
All of these works must be considered to be the first writings of Zammit's liberal intellectual phase.
Zammit's Liberalism
Zammit showed a favourable disposition towards his contemporary times and ideas. Nevertheless, not without reservation. For instance, in spite of his attachment to people like Zuppetta – who was a member of Young Italy and an acquaintance of Giuseppe Mazzini – Zammit did not share these Italian refugees' anticlericalism. Nor did he think that any eventual opposition to the Church could help the Maltese cause to attain popular representation in government.
Zammit was la liberal Catholic. Like so many of his contemporaries, in mid-1846, at the time of the ascension to the Holy See of Pope Pius IX, which was seen as a choice in favour of liberalism, Zammit was overjoyed. Initially the pope did not disappoint him. He granted a general political amnesty, began an administrative, legal and financial reform of the Roman Curia, and relaxed Church censure. This looked promising enough. In 1848, the pope went as far as issuing a new constitution which took the unprecedented step of establishing a two-chamber parliament for the papal states.
Lashing out at conservatives, Zammit proudly wore the pope's reforms like a feature in his cap. He mercilessly criticised the British colonial government in Malta, and was all out in favour of Italian unification (as the pope himself had been at the time). Zammit had no two minds that liberalism was 'the principle by which every free society should breath'.
With the 1848 revolutions throughout Europe, Pope Pius IX suddenly made a volte-face, vehemently opposing the Italian cause, and retracting most of the steps he had taken during the previous two years. Such a turnaround left people like Zammit in the cold. However, he still retained a strong belief in the Idea of Progress, political and social as much industrial, technological, scientific and artistic. Zammit wholeheartedly shared most of his contemporaries' enthusiasm for growth, development and advancement.
Zammit believed that liberalism – this champion of freedom and free enterprise – was by far the best tool to usher the forward stride of Progress.
Partnership with the British
Though somewhat disappointed with the pope, Zammit never succumbed to any anticlerical sentiments. Alternatively, he concentrated more on giving a push to the propitious wagon of Progress by beginning a long and close association with the British authorities in Malta. This was around 1849, when the British administration granted a Maltese elected popular representation in the council of government. To people with Zammit's frame of mind, this was enough to endorse British colonial rule.
On its part, government showed itself acquiescent to this new-found affection. In 1849, Zammit was appointed Assistant Superintendent and senior medical doctor of the local civil prisons at Corradino, Paola. He occupied this position for five years, up till 1854. During the same period, Zammit was also appointed Senior Supervisor of Aqueducts all over the Maltese islands.
Zammit's work with the British government included important projects which were intended to improve Malta's water supply and also the overall drainage system.
Teaching Career and more Publications
In the meantime, Zammit was also engaged with academic endeavours. Apart from lecturing at the Royal University of Malta at Valletta, he actively participated in meetings of intellectuals, artists or craftsmen. In 1864, for instance, he was chosen to be the first Deputy President of the Society for Sciences and Letters. Zammit's talk on the launching of the society was later published as Per l'Apertura della Società Maltese di Scienze e Lettere ("Opening of the Society for Sciences and Letters").
At the university, he lectured on philosophy, but also on other related subjects, such as art, architectural design, and technology.
In 1852, the same year in which – at 37 years of age – he married Melita Schranz (the sister of the renowned painter John Schranz) at the church of St. Paul's Shipwreck, Valletta, Zammit composed a work in Italian entitled Primo Sviluppo e Primi Progressi dell'Umana Cognizione ("The Basic Development and Early Development of Human Knowledge").
Through the next twenty years, while keeping up with his medical, academic, artistic, and social life, Zammit published a string of publications which dealt with a number of topics (all reviewed below). In some way or another, all of them have some interest for the study of philosophy. For each publication sort of reveals a little bit more of Zammit's intellectual life and curiosity.
Some of these publications are religious in a social, and perhaps even anthropological, kind of way. These include Memorie del Centenario del Naufragio di San Paolo Apostolo ("Recollections of the Centenary of the Shipwreck of St. Paul Apostle"; 1858), Divota Novena ("Holy Novena"; 1868), and Il Transito Glorioso ("The Glorious Death"; 1872).
Other writings deal with industry, engineering and technological matters with a pronounced emphasis on social life and the environment, writings like Richerche Idrauliche ("Hydraulic Investigations"; 1855), Esposizione di Industria Maltese ("An Exposition of Maltese Industry"; 1864), Malte et son Industrie ("Malta and its Industries"1867), and Drenaggio ("The Drainage System"; 1875).
Some others are of an artistic nature, such as Angelica o La Sposa della Mosta ("Angelica or The Mosta Spouse"; 1861), and the periodical L'Arte ("Art"; 1862–66).
Finally, La Fenice ("The Phoenician") was another periodical which Zammit issued (1872–76), dealing with current affairs.
Conservative Phase (1876–1899)
Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy
In 1875, at the age of sixty, Zammit was appointed professor to hold the chair of philosophy at the Royal University of Malta. The promotion came into effect at the beginning of the following year. He succeeded the Italian, Nicola Crescimanno (1803–1885), a judge and philosopher who had fled to Malta to escape persecution after the unification of Italy, and who had been Dean since 1872.
This employment seems to have sealed Zammit's definitive abandonment of his liberal views. Of course, this did not come abruptly. Various writings from the liberal phase attest to budding doubts and almost imperceptible shifts of positions. Nevertheless, it appears that it was only now that the swing – for a swing it was, considering his early and latter intellectual positions – seemed to set wholly in place.
Zammit's work as Dean was characterised by a thorough commitment to his academic and intellectual responsibilities. Though the prevailing system taught there was the Thomistic one, Zammit sought to widen the horizon of studies to include an intelligent concern with contemporary issues, such as those related to technology, empirical sciences and art.
Zammit's Conservatism
During this latter intellectual phase, Zammit's liberalism gave way to a more pessimistic, unadventurous and polemical approach to modern ideas and events. Religion became more and more important in his writings. His attitude towards most modern philosopher became markedly negative and apologetic.
There seem to be a number of reasons to explain why Zammit's liberal period could not last. One might mention the definitive opposition of the Catholic Church, and particularly Pope Pius IX, to all types of liberalism. It would surely have been a rather delicate affair in those times for someone to try to reconcile liberalism and allegiance to the Church, especially in ultra-conservative Malta.
Besides, in Maltese society there was no class which vied for liberal reforms. The Church was satisfied with the status quo. The higher classes wanted a share of power for themselves, not universal franchise. The reforms reluctantly brought about by the British colonial government were piecemeal and only dictated by necessity. They were on the whole disinclined to share power with the locals.
The rest of the population was made up mostly of peasants who lacked an essential condition for class consciousness, that is, a basic sense of common interest and shared opposition to other groups. The lack of class consciousness on the part of the peasants could be seen in their resistance to reforms abrogating the wheat tax, through which they were subjected to an unfair payment of tax, suggested by the Royal Commissioner, F.W. Rowsell, in 1877. On the contrary, the peasants supported the richer members of society who stood to lose by the suggested reforms.
Zammit's alliance with the establishment is underlined by his occupation of the chair of philosophy at the university. To be elected to such a position, the approval of both the British authorities and the local ecclesiastical hierarchy was needed.
Academic and Intellectual Work
At the Royal University of Malta, Zammit was very much appreciated, and even loved, by the students. Of course, most of these hailed from the middle-upper and upper classes, and Zammit seems to have felt a sense of deep responsibility in guiding them to conserve those values which safeguarded the current social system. The main interest to which he draws his students' attention seems to have been the improvement of the current way of doing things, both politically and socially, rather than perceiving its unfairness and inequalities or, much less, changing it.
This can be seen in Zammit's writings such as Prolusione al Corso di Filosofija ("Inauguration of the Philosophy Course"; 1877), All'Occasione del Conferimento della Laurea ("For the Graduation Ceremony"; 1877), Al Rinnovamento del Corso Accademico di Filosofija 1879–82 ("For the Renewal of the Academic Course in Philosophy 1879–82"; 1879), Dio e la Suola ("God and Learning"; 1881), Dio e la Vita ("God and Life"; 1883), In Morte del Prof. Arciprete Antonio Albanese D.D. ("On the Death of Prof. Archpriest Antonio Albanese D.D."; 1885), and Alla Classe di Filosofia ("To the Philosophy Class"; 1886). Most, if not all, of these have a decidedly paternalistic attitude very congruous with the times, and bear to Zammit's positive abandonment of any liberal sentiments.
Whereas formerly Zammit had been very critical towards aristocrats, now he seemed to be propane in seeing them as the moral bulwark of society. This can be seen in writings such as La Contessa Maria Sonia Sciberras Bologna ("The Countess Maria Sonia Sciberras Bologna"; 1878), All'Occasione della Solenne Apertura del Conservatorio Vincenzo Bugeja ("On the Occasion of the Official Opening of the Vincenzo Bugeja Charitable Institution"; 1880), Di Francesco Saverio Schembri ("About Francesco Saverio Schembri"; 1880), and Il Conservatorio Vincenzo Bugeja ("The Vincenzo Bugeja Charitable Institution"; 1883).
In matters of religion, Zammit could not have become more conventional. In Ai Funerali di Pio IX ("For the Funeral of Pius IX"; 1878) he excused the pope for his failures. Moreover, when it came to religion Zammit seems to have chosen of take a within-the-walls stance, preferring now to look too much to the philosophical possibility that opposing views might have a point after all. In 1883, at his home-town, Siggiewi, Zammit founded the St. Nicholas Philharmonic Society.
Decline and death
After all his vicissitudes, it appears that Zammit did not seem to want to leave the world without giving voice to his beliefs and concerns. This he did in his final writing – and the magnum opus of his conservative intellectual phase – which he named Pensieri d'un Retrogrado ("Reflections of Old Hand"1888).
After published this tome, Zammit retained his post at the Royal University of Malta for two more years, up till 1890. He now had seventy-five years of age, and had been Dean for the last fifteen of those. Zammit was succeeded by Francis Bonnici.
On his retirement, as a sign of gratitude the British government granted Zammit an annual pension of a hundred pounds (considerable for those days). He spent his last years in relative withdrawal at his residence at Sliema, Malta.
He died at home on 29 July 1899 at the age of 83. His funeral procession began at Sliema and proceeded to Siggiewi, where he had been born, and laid to rest at the cemetery there. A journalist who was at the funeral later commented that, considering the stature of the deceased, 'too few people, walking silently, accompanied the coffin'.
Writings
Zammit's writings are more or less all relevant for the study and appreciation of his philosophy. The major ones, of course, take pride of place. Nevertheless, all the others should not be discarded, as they offer glimpses, something quite important, into the mind and personality of the philosopher.
Major writings
Per l'Apertura della Società Maltese di Scienze e Lettere ("Opening of the Society for Sciences and Letters"; 1864). – Printed at the Albion Press, Malta, and containing 35 pages, this little tract might stand as a typical composition relative to Zammit's liberal phase. The work reproduces the talk which Zammit gave at the launching of the said society on 22 October 1864. In the address, Zammit gave a positive account of the arts and sciences of his times. Art and science were responsible for the qualitative improvement man experienced in modern times, he states. Zammit pointed out to the need that science should always be considered in connection with industry. He stressed that academia should not be just intellectual clubs, but should also give a positive contribution to society. In the discourse, on can find a lot of empiricist and utilitarian innuendoes.
British influence emerges in Zammit's expressed admiration towards the British political and economic systems and way of life. In politics, Zammit favoured an empiricist 'down to earth' approach, rather than any hazy political idealism or utopianism. He showed an empiricist dislike of theory, possessing a favourable disposition towards men of action.
In positivist fashion, Zammit attributed Britain's dominant economic and political position to its industries.
Zammit also regarded favourably French intellectuals. Together with their British counterparts, they are labelled 'enlightened' because, Zammit insists, they helped man in his technological and intellectual progress.
In his discourse, Zammit also talked in upbeat terms about popular democracy. Arts and sciences, he says, should have a popular and democratic function. Zammit stated that one of the aims of literature is to prepare people for plebiscite. It is clear that his liberal assumptions led him to believe in the people's ability to make good, rational judgements, thus maintaining the possibility of improving social and political situations. He claimed that literature should be a connecting link between people and their intellectuals, rather than something reserved to some elite.
With regards to the thinkers mentioned in the talk, Aristotle has none of the respect he shall later enjoy in Zammit's conservative phase, as can be seen, for instance, in Pensieri d'un Retrogrado. Indeed, Aristotle's legacy is considered as a grudge. Science could only develop, Zammit maintains, by freeing itself from it.
Zammit was also for the reconciliation of religion and science. In this respect, it is also important to note that in this talk religion does not feature as much as it does in his later, conservative works.
Pensieri d'un Retrogrado ("Reflections of an Old Hand"; 1888) – Published by Tipografia Industriale of Giovanni Muscat, Malta, the book contains 425 pages of packed text. The composition represents the height of Zammit's thought relative to his conservative intellectual phase. St. Augustine takes pride of place when it comes to the intellectual sources of the work, calling for a revival of his philosophical approach.
In the book, Zammit deals with some 125 different themes divided in five groups of a more or less philosophical, moral, social, scientific/literary, and Christian nature.
In the introduction, Zammit states that arrivati a conclusioni impossibili, rigettate le tradizioni della verità non si può più che fermarsi, che retrocedere per progredire. Rinnegare il passato per un presente che non lo vale ed un futuro che minaccia, accettare una luce che acceca è una stoltezza nella civiltà ('having come to impossible conclusions, refusing the traditions of truth, it cannot be otherwise that we stop, that we retreat in order to advance. Refusing the past for a worthless present and a threatening future, embracing a blinding light, is madness for society). The book, Zammit declares, ci ricordi modestamente i nostri errori, le nostre speranze e i nostri destini' (modestly reminds us of our errors, our hopes, and out destinies).
Zammit demonstrates an uncommon intensity throughout the work. He writes with conviction and persuasiveness, almost provocation. Nevertheless, the book, though formally complex, lacks unity. It seems that the various parts were put together sporadically. Sometimes there is no attempt at giving them some kind of amalgamated unified form. Nevertheless, the work as a whole is staggering. It deals with natural philosophy, metaphysics, the decadent nature of modern humans, the passions, and so many other themes.
Despite its depth, in general the work contains little philosophical originality. Its uniqueness seems to lie in its transitory nature; in upholding and advocating, that is, a change from a scholastic way of looking at philosophy and the world to the perspective championed by St. Augustine.
Nevertheless, the main thrust of Zammit's book is destructive. In line with other early and mid-19th century Christian apologists, he might indeed be called 'irrational'. Not because he denies man's rational nature or capacities, but rather because he denies any claim that rationality may provide a sufficient explanation of humans' ability to arrive at theoretical or moral heights through his own rational powers.
Still, Zammit's work has characteristics which differentiate him from that of other 19th century apologists and draws him nearer to the neo-Scholastic way of thinking.
All writings in chronological order
It would be a mistake to study Zammit by reading just one single publication of his, namely the Pensieri d'un Retrogrado, as is commonly done. This will only provide a distorted view of the man's philosophy. Furthermore, even if it represents his thought during the final part of his life, it surely excludes his whole liberal phase completely. The list below includes all known works by Zammit. It should serve at least as an indication of the historically broad spread of his writings.
1838 – Pensieri Liberi di un Idiota sull'Interesse Mercantile (Free Thoughts by an Idiot on the Interest in Merchandise) – Attributed 1838–46 – Various contributions to Il Portafoglio Maltese (The Maltese Portafolio)
1845–46 – Various contributions to L'Unione (The Union)
1846–48 – Various contributions to Giahan (Jahan)
1846 – Il Foglio del Popolo (The People's Sheet)
1846–48 – La Rivista (The Magazine)
1846 –La Fiammetta (The Little Torch)
1848–49 – Various contributions to Il Precursore (The Precursor)
1852 – Primo Sviluppo e Primi Progressi dell'Umana Cognizione (The Basic Development and Early Development of Human Knowledge).
1855 – Richerche Idrauliche (Hydraulic Investigations)
1858 – Memorie del Centenario del Naufragio di San Paolo Apostolo (Recollections of the Centenary of the Shipwreck of St. Paul Apostle)
1861 – Angelica o La Sposa della Mosta (Angelica or The Mosta Spouse)
1862–66 – L'Arte (Art)
1864 – Esposizione di Industria Maltese (An Exposition of Maltese Industry)
1864 – Per l'Apertura della Società Maltese di Scienze e Lettere (Opening of the Society for Sciences and Letters)
1867 – Malte et son Industrie (Malta and its Industries)
1868 – Divota Novena (Holy Novena)
1872 – Il Transito Glorioso (The Glorious Death)
1872–76 – La Fenice (The Phoenician)
1875 – Drenaggio (The Drainage System)
1877 – Prolusione al Corso di Filosofija (Inauguration of the Philosophy Course)
1877 – All'Occasione del Conferimento della Laurea (For the Graduation Ceremony)
1879 – Al Rinnovamento del Corso Accademico di Filosofija 1879–82 (For the Renewal of the Academic Course in Philosophy 1879–82)
1878 – La Contessa Maria Sonia Sciberras Bologna (The Countess Maria Sonia Sciberras Bologna)
1878 – Ai Funerali di Pio IX (For the Funeral of Pius IX)
1880 – All'Occasione della Selonne Apertura del Conservatorio Vincenzo Bugeja (On the Occasion of the Official Opening of the Vincenzo Bugeja Charitable Institution)
1880 – Di Francesco Saverio Schembri (About Francesco Saverio Schembri)
1881 – Dio e la Suola (God and Learning)
1883 – Il Conservatorio Vincenzo Bugeja (The Vincenzo Bugeja Charitable Institution;)
1883 – Dio e la Vita (God and Life)
1885 – In Morte del Prof. Arciprete Antonio Albanese D.D. (On the Death of Prof. Archpriest Antonio Albanese D.D.)
1886 – Alla Classe di Filosofia (To the Philosophy Class)
1888 – Pensieri d'un Retrogrado (Reflections of an Old-Hand)
Works of structural engineering and artistic design
Zammit was very much involved with commissions of design. Invariably, these were contracted by religious circles. Though some of them entailed relatively small, minor embellishments and adornments, others, such as the architectonic assignments, comprised large tasks.
Churches
All of the following churches are situated in Malta. It is as yet unknown whether Zammit was ever commissioned to work on other churches abroad.
Façade of the church of St. Catherine, Zurrieq (1861)
Naves and portico of the church of St. Nicholas, Siggiewi (1862)
Structural alterations to the church of Our Lady of Graces, Zabbar (1875)
Façade of the church of St. Publius, Floriana (1885)
Façade of the church of St. Paul Shipwreck, Valletta (1886)
Restoration of the church of St. Peter, Marsaxlokk
Plan and design for the church of Our Lady of Victories, Naxxar – UnimplementedMemorialsUnfortunately, a complete and detailed list of the following is as yet unavailable. Plan and design of various memorial or funerary chapels at the Addolorata Cemetery, Paola, Malta.
Artistic designRegrettably, this list here is almost certainly not exhaustive. The frontal for the major altar, the canopy, the ceiling decorations, the floor adornment, and all the festive liturgical paraphernalia at the church of the Immaculate Conception, Cospicua
The festive pillar for the statue of Pope Pius IX, Cospicua
The floor adornment at the church of St. Catherine of Alexandria, Zejtun
The canopy, the festive liturgical paraphernalia, and the choir stalls at the church of St. George, Qormi
The main canopy at the cathedral of the archbishop, Mdina
The frontal for the major altar, and various items of the festive liturgical paraphernalia at the church of St. Nicholas, Siggiewi
The triumphal arch for St. Paul's Street, Valletta, for the XVIII centenary of St. Paul's Shipwreck (1858) – Not in use any more The coat of arms of various villages, towns and cities around Malta and Gozo– most still in use today by the local councils of Malta Good Friday catafalque at the church of the Franciscans, Valletta (1870)
The pulpit for the church of St. Michael, Mqabba
Appreciation
Within philosophical circles, Zammit has been sometimes taken lightly. This has been mainly due to the fact that most are only acquainted to his Pensieri d'un Retrogrado. Indeed, reading this work without any or scant knowledge of the rest of his literary output cannot but thoroughly distort Zammit's philosophical output and significance. Both'' his liberal and conservative phases must be taken into consideration to form a balanced and holistic view of his philosophy.
To date, a methodical and comprehensive appreciation of Zammit's philosophy has still not been done. Though the research and studies of Jimmy Xerri and Michael Grech come close, they might still have lacked a consideration of Zammit's philosophy in its entirety.
Most certainly, Zammit is not a philosopher to be discarded. His broad knowledge, together with his curiosity and perplexities, not only make his works interesting and intriguing, but they also can still engage contemporary philosophers in avid and profitable discussions.
References
Sources
See also
Philosophy in Malta
19th-century Maltese philosophers
1815 births
1899 deaths
People from Siġġiewi
19th-century Maltese architects
University of Malta faculty
Alumni of the University of Malta
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The BMD-1 is a Soviet airborne amphibious tracked infantry fighting vehicle, which was introduced in 1969 and first seen by the West in 1970. BMD stands for Boyevaya Mashina Desanta (Боевая Машина Десанта, which literally translates to "Combat Vehicle of the Airborne"). It can be dropped by parachute and although it resembles the BMP-1 it is in fact much smaller. The BMD-1 was used as an IFV by the Soviet Army's airborne divisions. An improved variant of the BMD-1 was developed, the BMD-2. The BMD-1 also provided a basis for the BTR-D airborne multi-purpose tracked APC.
Development
In the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the army was instructed to consider putting more emphasis on means to project power outside of the normal sphere of Soviet influence. As a result, there was a major effort to develop the VDV (Soviet airborne forces) as a rapid deployment force. Soviet studies of airborne operations had shown that lightly armed paratroops were unable to deal with armoured forces. Also, in the early 1960s, the BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicle was being developed. Before the BMP-1 entered service in 1966, the Soviet Army high command decided to equip the newly created airborne divisions with similar vehicles.
The use of Antonov An-12 aircraft at the time of the BMD development allowed the transport of only light armoured vehicles for an airborne drop that weighed less than seven tons. Because the existing BMP-1 weighed 13 tonnes, it was effectively ruled out of being considered for the VDV service.
The task of designing the BMD fell to the Volgograd Tractor Factory, which had produced an unsuccessful competitor to the Ob'yekt 764 that eventually became the BMP-1 – the Ob'yekt 914. The BMD design, Ob'yekt 915, was basically a trimmed down version of the Ob'yekt 914 – smaller, lighter aluminium armour, while retaining the 73 mm 2A28 "Grom" low pressure smoothbore short-recoil semi-automatic gun. The compromise made is the extremely cramped crew compartment.
Development started in 1965 and trials began in 1967. A limited production began in 1968. After operational trials, it was commissioned on 14 April 1969 and serial production started in 1970, although the vehicle weighed 500 kg more than what the requirements stated (7.5 tonnes and 13.3 tonnes when loaded with equipment).
Starting from 1977 a new modernized vehicle received a designation BMD-1P following adoption of the new 9P135M-1 ATGM launcher instead of 9S428 ATGM launcher, firing the 9M113 Konkurs (AT-5 Spandrel) and 9M111M Fagot or 9M111-2 (standard load: two 9M113 and one 9M111M missiles). Most of older BMD-1s were subsequently modernized this way.
In 1983, based on the combat experience in Afghanistan, a decision was made to produce a new variant of the BMD with a weapon capable of engaging targets such as those faced by the airborne troops in that conflict. This resulted in "Ob'yekt 916", which later became the BMD-2.
A lengthened BMD-1 chassis served as the basis for the BTR-D airborne multi-purpose tracked APC, which itself served as a basis for many specialized airborne vehicles.
Description
Overview
The BMD-1 can be thought of as a BMP intended for airborne troops. The vehicle therefore must be lighter and smaller in order to meet airdrop weight requirements (the BMD-1 is secured to a pallet and parachute-dropped from cargo planes).
The BMD-1 has an unconventional layout for an IFV. From the front to the back of the vehicle, the compartments are located in the following formation: steering, fighting, troop and engine. This is because the BMD-1 is based on Ob'yekt 914, which in turn is based on the PT-76 amphibious light tank (refer Prototypes section in the BMP-1 article for details). This meant that transported troops had to mount and dismount the vehicle via the roof hatches, which made them an easy target on the battlefield when these actions were performed.
Crew
The crew consist of four soldiers: driver, commander, gunner and bow machine gunner, two of which (commander and machine gunner) are included in the number of soldiers carried. The driver's station is located centrally in the front of the vehicle and has a hatch that is opened by raising it and rotating it to the right. The driver is provided with three periscope vision blocks, which allow him to view the outer environment when his hatch is closed. The center one can be replaced with a night vision device for use in night and bad visibility conditions or with an extended periscope for swimming with the trim vane erected. The commander's station is on the driver's left. It is provided with a hatch, one periscope vision block, an outer environment observation device and an R-123 radio set for communications. He also fires the left bow machine gun. The right one is operated by a bow machine gun gunner, who sits to the right of the driver. The gunner's station is located on the left side of the turret, like in the BMP-1, and has the same equipment (see Gunner's station section in BMP-1 article for details).
Turret
The BMD-1 has the same turret as the BMP-1.
Armament
The vehicle is armed with a 73 mm 2A28 Grom gun and a 7.62 mm PKT coaxial tank machine gun. Mounted on the mantlet is the 9S428 ATGM launcher capable of firing 9M14 Malyutka (NATO: AT-3A Sagger A) and 9M14M Malyutka-M (NATO: AT-3B Sagger B) ATGMs (for which the vehicle carries two ATGMs in the turret). There are also two 7.62 mm PKT machine guns in fixed mounts, one in each corner of the bow.
Mobility
Maneuverability
The vehicle is powered by a 5D-20 6-cylinder 4-stroke V-shaped liquid-cooled 15.9-liter diesel engine, which develops 270 hp (201 kW) at 2,600 revolutions per minute. The engine drives a manual gearbox with five forward and one reverse gear.
The BMD-1 has a maximum road speed of 80 kilometers per hour, reducing to around 45 kilometers per hour off-road and 10 kilometers per hour while swimming.
The BMD-1 can climb vertical obstacles, cross trenches and 30% side slopes. It can climb 60% gradients. The BMD-1 has a ground pressure of 0.57 kg/cm².
The 230 mm wide track is driven at the rear and passes over five small evenly spaced road wheels suspended on independent torsion bars. On each side there is an idler wheel at the front, a rear drive sprocket and four track-return rollers. The independent suspension combines a hydraulic system for altering the ground clearance and maintaining the track tension with pneumatic springs, which enables the ground clearance to be altered from 100 mm to 450 mm. Alterable ground clearance allows easier transportation in an airplane.
Amphibious ability
The BMD-1 is fully amphibious, it can swim after switching on the two electric bilge pumps, erecting the two-piece trim vane which improves vehicle's stability and displacement in water and prevents the water from flooding the bow of the tank and switching the driver's periscope for a swimming periscope that enables the driver to see over the trim vane. When not in use the trim vane is placed in its laying position in the front of the bow under the barrel of the main gun and serves as additional armour. There is also a manual bilge pump for emergency use. The bilge pumps keep the vehicle afloat even if it is hit, damaged or leaks. In water it is propelled by two hydrojets, one in each side of the hull, with the entrance under the hull and exits at the rear of the hull. The rear exits have lids that can be fully or partially closed, redirecting the water stream to the forward-directed exits at the sides of the hull, thus enabling the vehicle to turn or float reverse, for example, to go left, the left water-jet is covered, to go right, the right water-jet is covered and to make a 180° turn the left water-jet sucks in water and the right water-jet pushes it out.
Air-drop techniques
The vehicle can be transported by An-12, An-22, Il-76, An-124 airplanes and Mi-6 and Mi-26 helicopters.
The BMD was originally dropped under the MKS-350-9 multi-canopy parachute with a descending speed between 15 m/s and 20 m/s. The intention was to drop the vehicle without the crew. This proved to be very problematic, since the crew frequently landed at a considerable distance from the vehicle and often had trouble finding it. Also, the vehicle itself could easily land in a location from which it couldn't be extracted (either because of a lack of suitable equipment or because of the location being virtually inaccessible). Several experiments were done in the 1970s in order to find a way to circumvent these limitations, including dropping the BMD with the two key crew members, the driver and gunner, seated inside the vehicle during the descent. The first such test took place on 23 January 1976 with Lieutenant-Colonel Leonid Shcherbakov and Major , and the concept was proved to be valid in a subsequent series of tests.
A rocket parachute, the PRSM-915, was developed to ensure the vehicle's safe landing. To use the parachute, the BMD is first packed onto a special pallet before takeoff. To drop the BMD, a drogue chute is released that initially drags the BMD out of the Il-76 transport plane. Once clear of the plane a single large main chute opens. The deployment of the main chute triggers the deployment of four long rods which hang beneath the pallet. As soon as the rods touch the ground a retrorocket fires, slowing the BMD to a descending speed between 6 m/s and 7 m/s and giving it a relatively soft landing. This system entered service in 1975 and allows a BMD to be relatively safely parachuted with both the driver and the gunner.
An alternative radio location system also exists. Each crew member is given a radio receiver locked onto a transponder in its particular BMD, allowing each BMD crewman to quickly locate his respective vehicle after the airdrop.
Armour protection
The BMD-1's armour is made of ABT-101 an alloy composed of 91% Aluminum, 6% Zinc and 3% Magnesium. The BMD-2 on the other-hand is composed of ABT-102, which 94% Aluminum, 4% Zinc and 2% Magnesium.
Armour thickness is 23 mm at 42° on the front of the turret, 19 mm at 36° on the sides of the turret, 13 mm at 30° on the rear of the turret, 6 mm on the top of the turret, 15 mm on the front of the hull and 10 mm on the rest of the hull. The hull's front armour has two sections: upper and lower. The upper section is angled at 78° while the lower one is angled at 50°. It is resistant to small arms fire and shrapnel.
Troop compartment
Many compromises had to be made to the design in order to save the necessary weight, not least to crew comfort. The BMD-1 has an extremely cramped interior space, which is much smaller than that found in the BMP-1 and BMP-2 IFVs. It can carry five infantrymen, comprising vehicle's commander, bow machine gunner and three soldiers seated behind a turret.
Nevertheless, it is equipped with periscope vision blocks on the sides and rear of the vehicle. There are only three firing ports, one on each side of the hull and one in the rear. As standard, the vehicle carries the following weapons inside the troop compartment: an RPG-7 or RPG-16 shoulder-launched anti-tank rocket propelled grenade launcher, which is to be operated by two soldiers, RPKS light machine gun and five AKMS assault rifles. It also carries portable launchers for 9M14M Malyutka missiles (9M111/9M113 missiles in BMD-1P).
Equipment
The vehicle has electric and manual bilge pumps, Gpk-S9 gyro-compass, engine pre-heater, TDA smoke-generating equipment, FTP-100M NBC system, R-123 transceiver, R-124 intercom and a centralized methyl bromide fire extinguishing system, the same as the one fitted to other former Soviet armoured vehicles.
Service history
The BMD-1 entered serial production in 1968. It was produced by Volgograd Tractor Plant. Two airborne regiments of each airborne division were equipped with BMD-1 IFVs. Overall, each division operated 220 BMD-1 IFVs. It was displayed publicly for the first time during the Dvina exercise in the USSR in 1970. The BMD-1 was showcased for the second time during the Moscow Red Square parade in November 1973. Western governments originally classified the BMD-1 as a light tank before its true nature was known. Because of its small crew, the introduction of the BMD led to a reduction in the number of soldiers in an airborne battalion, from 610 to 316 men. The firepower of the BMD also meant that some of the battalion's integral fire support could be done away with. In 1973, the BMD-1 completely replaced the ASU-57 airborne assault guns in the Soviet airborne forces, increasing the firepower and maneuverability of the airborne division. Since 1977 a number of Soviet BMD-1 IFVs underwent a modernization to BMD-1P standard.
Ogaden War
In 1978, a force of 70 Cuban Army BMD-1s and ASU-57s fighting on behalf of the Ethiopian government was airlifted by Mi-6 helicopters behind the lines of Somali forces holding the town of Jijiiga. This attack formed a pincer with a conventional Cuban armored push and routed the Somali forces in Ogaden.
Soviet–Afghan War
It was widely used by airborne units during Soviet–Afghan War. During the initial Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, BMD-1s of the Soviet 103rd Guards Airborne Division and 345th Separate Parachute Regiment were airlanded by IL-76 transports into Kabul airport and Bagram Airfield, enabling the rapid seizure of critical cities and facilities throughout Afghanistan. The 56th Air Assault Brigade executed a similar capture of Kunduz. For the remainder of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan through 1989, airborne forces under the 40th Army used BMD-1s as infantry fighting vehicles for transportation and fire support in operations against the mujahideen.
BMD-1 IFVs were not suited for fighting in the hot mountain regions of Afghanistan, as they were originally developed to provide airborne units with an IFV to give them a chance in engagements with enemy armour and allow them to operate in Nuclear-Biological-Chemical (NBC) warfare conditions. In Afghanistan, the main enemies were not AFVs but land mines and ambushes prepared by skillful Afghan Mujahideen armed with light anti-tank weapons, which meant that the BMD-1's anti-tank firepower was useless. Many BMD-1 IFVs fell victim to Mujahideen attacks and, especially, antitank landmines like quite a lot of Soviet light AFVs sent there. The Soviet Army lost 1,317 APCs and IFVs of all types during nine years of war in Afghanistan.
Iraq
In 1990, BMD-1 IFVs were used by the Iraqi Army during the First Gulf War. They were used for a second time during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Former Yugoslavia
BMD-1 and BMD-1PK IFVs are used by the Russian airborne units in KFOR. BMD-1 IFVs were used by Russian airborne units in SFOR.
2008 Georgia–Russia War
During the Russo-Georgian War, BMD-1s of the 104th Airborne Assault Regiment of the 76th Guards Air Assault Division advanced into South Ossetia and successfully engaged Georgian Army troops and vehicles. However, the BMDs visual and sighting equipment was criticized as being primitive.
2014 Ukraine Donbass Conflict
During the War in Donbass in 2014 in Eastern Ukraine, BMD-1s were used both by mechanized units of the Ukrainian Army and in smaller number by the separatists of the Donetsk People's Republic. It was claimed that a BMD-1 was one of the six armored vehicles in Separatist forces defending Sloviansk when it was besieged.
Other conflicts
1975–2002 Angolan Civil War
1982–1988 Iran–Iraq War
1989-1992 Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)
1999–2009 Second Chechen War
Present service
As of now, BMD-1 and vehicles based on it are used by the following units of Russian Airborne Troops or are stationed in following bases (this list does not include BTR-D APCs and BTR-D variants):
76th Guards Air Assault Division (CDO) from Pskov, which is part of Leningrad Military District (210 BMD vehicles as of 2000), the subunits of this division include 104th airborne regiment from Pskov (51 BMD-1) and 234th airborne regiment from Pskov (98 BMD-1).
98th Guards Airborne Division from Ivanovo (220 BMD vehicles as of 2000), the subunits of this division include 217th Guards Airborne Regiment from Ivanovo (109 BMD-1) and 331st airborne regiment from Kostroma (102 BMD-1).
106th Guards Airborne Division from Tula, which is a part of the Moscow Military District (306 BMD as of 2000), the subunits of this division include 51st airborne regiment from Tula (93 BMD-1) and 137th airborne regiment from Ryazan (10 BMD-1).
7th Guards Airborne Mountain Division CDO from Novorossyysk (190 BMD and BMP vehicles as of 2000), the subunits of this division include 108th Guards Air Assault Regiment from Novorossyysk (70 BMD-1) and 743rd commandos battalion from Novorossyysk (6 BMD-1).
31st Separate Airborne Brigade from Ul'yanovsk, which is a part of the Volga-Ural Military District (26 BMD-1 as of 2000).
Ryazan Higher Airborne Command School (51 BMD-1).
99th Internal Troops division from Rostov, Persianovka, which is a part of the North Caucasus Military District (4 BMD-1 and 33 BMD-1 IFVs in the Cherkmen regiment).
81st tank repair plant from Armavir (Krasnodar) (1 BMD-1).
BMD's replacement
The Russian military was considering replacing the BMD series altogether with the GAZ-3937. This very lightweight wheeled armoured personnel carrier that incorporates plastic and carbon fibre in its construction, as well as aluminum. The GAZ-3937 can be air-dropped like the BMD, but is considerably lighter and less expensive to manufacture. Since the GAZ-3937 lacks the armor protection, cross-country mobility, and heavy armament of the BMD series, and is armed only with a 7.62 mm PKM machine gun in front of the commander's hatch, the BMD-4 (an upgraded BMD-3) has been selected for the future use of the Russian airborne and naval infantry. The BMD-4 uses the same 100 mm main gun with 30 mm autocannon and 7.62 mm medium machine gun turret on an improved, larger hull raising overall weight to the 15-ton class. The waterjet swim propulsion systems of the BMD-3/4 are strong enough to enable ship-to-shore transport, resulting in Russian naval infantry use.
Variants
Former USSR
BMD – First production model.
BMD-1 (Ob'yekt 915) – Final production model. It has a dome-shaped NBC filter intake on the right hand side of the center of the hull roof.
BMD-1K (K stands for komandirskaya – command) – Command variant fitted with R-126 and R-107 transceivers, two Clothes Rail antennas and a generator box. It's sometimes called BMD-K./>
BMD-1P – BMD-1 modernization with its 9S428 ATGM launcher replaced by pintle-mounted 9P135M-1 ATGM launcher capable of firing 9M113 "Konkurs" (AT-5 Spandrel), 9M113M "Konkurs-M" (AT-5B Spandrel B), 9M111 "Fagot" (AT-4 Spigot) and 9M111-2 "Fagot" (AT-4B Spigot B) ATGMs. Entered service in 1977.
BMD-1PK (K stands for komandirskaya – command) – Command variant of BMD-1P. It is fitted with an additional R-123M radio set, a generator, the GPK-59 gyroscopic compass, the PRKhR radiation and chemical reconnaissance unit and two attachable tables. The machine gun mounted in the left corner of the bow of the hull has been eliminated as well as one of the seats. The crew consists of 6 men. The ammo load was reduced by one 9M113 "Konkurs" (AT-5 Spandrel) ATGM and 250 7.62 mm machine gun rounds.
BMD-1M – BMD-1 with smoke grenade launchers on the rear of the turret, improved ventilation and road wheels.
BMD-1 with its 73 mm 2A28 "Grom" main gun replaced by 30 mm autocannon.
BMD-1 with its 73 mm 2A28 "Grom" main gun replaced by 30 mm AGS-17 "Plamya" automatic grenade launcher.
BMD-1 converted into a mortar carrier.
BMD-1 with turret mounted 2B9 Vasilek mortar.
BMD-1 converted into a self-propelled multiple rocket launcher. The armament was removed and replaced by a vision device. Fitted on top of the turret is a small box-type launcher for 12×80 mm rockets.
BMD-2 (Object 916) – BMD-1 variant with a new one-man turret armed with stabilized 30 mm 2A42 multi-purpose autocannon and 7.62 mm PKT coaxial tank machine gun (mounted on the right hand side of the main gun). The vehicle carries 300 rounds for the main gun (180 AP and 120 HE) and 2,940 rounds for the machine gun. The gun has a maximum elevation of 75° and can be used to fire at air targets. The turret is also armed with pintle-mounted 9P135M launcher, on the right hand side of the roof of the turret, with semi-automatic control capable of firing SACLOS guided 9M113 "Konkurs" (AT-5 Spandrel) and 9M113M "Konkurs-M" (AT-5B Spandrel B) ATGMs. The new turret seats the gunner on the left hand side of the main gun. On top of the turret there's one single piece circular hatch opening to the front. Located in front of the said hatch is the gunner's sight which is the same one as the one used in BMP-2. Another gunner's sight is located on the left hand side of the main gun and moves in vertical planes along with it. It is a high angle of fire sight used when the gunner is aiming at air targets. The vehicle also has additional periscopes that provide it with vision on the sides. A white searchlight is mounted in front of the turret. The amount of bow mounted tank machine guns decreased from two to one. The right hand side bow mounted machine gun was preserved. NATO gave it the designation BMD M1981/1.
BTR-D (Object 925) (bronyetransportyor) – Lengthened variant (with 6 rather than 5 road wheels), slightly up-armoured at the front. The BTR-D has no turret, but is armed with two bow-mounted machine guns PKB and can be fitted with pintle-mounted automatic grenade launchers (AGS-17, AGS-30 or AGS-57) and/or machine guns (PKM, 6P41, "Utyos" or "Kord"). Entered service in 1974 and can carry 10 passengers. Combat weight: 8.5 tons.
2S2 Fialka (Object 924) – Prototype airborne self-propelled gun designed by I. V. Gabalov.
Belarus
BMD-1 fitted with 2A42 Cobra overhead mount modular one-man turret.
Russia
BMD-1 modernization fitted with TKB-799 "Kliver" one-man weapons station developed by Tula Instrument Engineering Design Bureau (KBP). It is armed with a missile pod, a 30 mm 2A72 multipurpose autocannon (it can be used against both ground targets and air targets) and a 7.62 mm PKTM coaxial general purpose machine gun. The missile pod is mounted on the right side of the weapons station and normally holds four 9M133 Kornet (AT-14 Spriggan) or 9M133F "Kornet" ATGMs with laser jam-resistant fire control system but these can be removed and replaced by a pod of 9K38 Igla (SA-18 Grouse) surface-to-air missiles. It carries 300 rounds for the main gun, 2000 rounds for PKTM machine gun and 4 ATGMs. It also has a modern computerized fire control system with two-plane stabilizer, 1K13-2 telescopic sight with distance measurement/thermal/laser channels and ballistic calculator with external sensors.
Operators
Current operators
–
– 10
– 41
– 124 in 1995, 154 in 2000, 2003 and 2005.
– 200 in service as of 1998.
– 44 BMD-1 9 BTR-D and also 9 2S9.
– About 105 in active service and more than 2,400 in storage.
– 61 in 1995, 2000 and 2005.
– 110 in 1995, 120 in 2000 and 2005.
Former operators
Cuba – Left to Angolan forces free of pay.
Iraq – 10 ordered in 1980 and delivered in 1981. All destroyed or scrapped.
– Passed on to successor states.
See also
BMP Development
BMD-2
BMD-3
BTR-D
BMP-1
BMP-2
BMP-3
List of AFVs
VDV
2A28 Grom
Notes
References
Hull, A.W., Markov, D.R., Zaloga, S.J. (1999). Soviet/Russian Armor and Artillery Design Practices 1945 to Present. Darlington Productions. .
External links
DishModels.ru: Walkaround of BMD-1 in Saratov
DishModels.ru: Walkaround of BMD-2 in Saratov
Tracked infantry fighting vehicles
Fire support vehicles
Infantry fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union
Airborne fighting vehicles
Infantry fighting vehicles of the Cold War
Volgograd Tractor Plant products
Military vehicles introduced in the 1960s
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The Holocaust in Latvia refers to the crimes against humanity committed by Nazi Germany and collaborators victimizing Jews during the occupation of Latvia. From 1941 to 1944, around 70,000 Jews were murdered, approximately three-quarters of the pre-war total of 93,000. In addition, thousands of German and Austrian Jews were deported to the Riga Ghetto.
German occupation
The German army crossed the Soviet frontier early morning on Sunday, 22 June 1941, on a broad front from the Baltic Sea to Hungary. The Germans advanced through Lithuania towards Daugavpils and other strategic points in Latvia. The Nazi police state included an organisation called the Security Service (German: Sicherheitsdienst), generally referred to as the SD, and its headquarters in Berlin was known as the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA).
The SD in Latvia
In advance of the invasion, the SD had organised four Einsatzgruppen, mobile death squads. The Einsatzgruppen name ("special assignment units") was a euphemism, as their real purpose was to kill large numbers of people whom the Nazis regarded as "undesirable". These included Communists, Gypsies, the mentally ill, homosexuals and, especially, Jews. The Einsatzgruppen followed closely behind the German invasion forces and established a presence in Latvia within days, and sometimes hours, of the occupation of a given area of the country by the German Wehrmacht.
The SD in Latvia can be distinguished in photographs and descriptions by their uniforms. The full black of the Nazi SS was seldom worn; instead, the usual attire was the grey Wehrmacht uniform with black accents. They wore the SD patch on the left sleeve, a yellowish shirt, and the Death's Head (Totenkopf) symbol on their caps. The SD ranks were identical to the SS. The SD did not wear the SS lightning rune symbol on their right collar tabs but replaced it with either the Totenkopf or the letters "SD".
The SD first established its power in Latvia through Einsatzgruppe A, which was subdivided into units called Einsatzkommandos 1a, 1b, 2 and 3. As the front line moved further east, Einsatzgruppe A moved out of Latvia, remaining in the country only a few weeks, after which its functions were taken over by the "resident" SD, under the authority of the Kommandant der Sicherheitspolizei un SD, generally referred to by the German initials of KdS. The KdS took orders both from RSHA in Berlin and from another official called the Befehlshaber (commander) der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, or BdS. Both the KdS and the BdS were subordinate to another official called the Ranking (or Higher) SS and Police Commander (Höherer SS-und Polizeiführer), or HPSSF. The lines of authority were overlapping and ambiguous. The eastern part of Latvia, including Daugavpils and the Latgale region, was assigned to Einsatzkommandos 1b (EK 1b) and 3 (EK 3). EK 1b had about 50 to 60 men and was commanded by Erich Ehrlinger.
Murders commence with Nazi invasion
In Latvia, the Holocaust started on the night of 23 to 24 June 1941, when in the Grobiņa cemetery an SD detachment killed six local Jews, including the town pharmacist. On the following days 35 Jews were exterminated in Durbe, Priekule and Asīte. On June 29 the Nazi invaders started forming the first Latvian SD auxiliary unit in Jelgava. Mārtiņš Vagulāns, member of the Pērkonkrusts organisation, was chosen to head it. In the summer of 1941, 300 men in the unit took part in the murder of about 2000 Jews in Jelgava and other places in Zemgale. The killing was supervised by the officers of the German SD Rudolf Batz and Alfred Becu, who involved the SS people of the Einsatzgruppe in the action. The main Jelgava Synagogue was burnt down through their joint effort. After the invasion of Riga, Walter Stahlecker, assisted by the members of Pērkonkrusts and other local collaborationists, organised the pogrom of Jews in the capital of Latvia. Viktors Arājs, aged 31 at the time, a possible former member of Pērkonkrusts and a member of a student fraternity, was appointed direct executor of the action. He was an idle eternal student who was supported by his wife, a rich shop owner, who was ten years older than he was. Arājs had worked in the Latvian Police for a certain period of time. He stood out with his power-hungry and extreme thinking. The man was well fed, well dressed, and "with his student's hat proudly cocked on one ear".
Arajs Kommando formed
On 2 July Viktors Arājs started to form his armed unit of men who were responding to the appeal of Pērkonkrusts to take arms and to clear Latvia of Jews and communists. In the beginning, the unit mainly included members of different student fraternities. In 1941 altogether about 300 men had applied. The closest assistants of Viktors Arājs included Konstantīns Kaķis, Alfrēds Dikmanis, Boris Kinsler and Herberts Cukurs. On the night of July 3, Arājs Kommando started arresting, beating and robbing the Riga Jews. On 4 July, the choral synagogue at Gogoļa Street was burnt, and thereafter, the synagogues at Maskavas and Stabu Streets. Many Jews were killed during those days, including the refugees from Lithuania. In carts and blue buses, the men of Arajs Kommando went to different places in Courland, Zemgale and Vidzeme, killing thousands of Jews there.
These killings were supposed to serve as an example to other anti-Semitic supporters of the Nazi invaders. Individual Latvian Selbstschutz units were also involved in the mass murder of Jews. In the district of Ilūkste, for instance, Jews were killed by the Selbstschutz death unit of commander Oskars Baltmanis, which consisted of 20 cold-blooded murderers. All killings were supervised by the officers of the German SS and SD. In July 1941, the mass killing of Riga Jews took place in the Biķernieku Forest. About 4,000 people died there. The executions were headed by Sturmbannführers (majors) H. Barth, R. Batz, and the newly appointed chief of the Riga SD Rudolf Lange.
Massacres
As stated by the Latvian historian Andrievs Ezergailis, this was the beginning of "the greatest criminal act in the history of Latvia". From July 1941 the Jews of Latvia were also humiliated in different ways and deprived of the rights that were enjoyed by the other citizens of Latvia. Jews were strictly forbidden to leave their homes in the evening, at night and in the morning. They were allotted lower food rations, they could only shop in some special stores, and they had to wear the mark of recognition – the yellow Star of David on their clothes. It was forbidden for them to attend places where public events took place, including cinemas, athletic fields and parks. They were not allowed to use trains and trams, to go to bath-houses, use pavements, attend libraries and museums or to go to schools, and they had to hand over bicycles and radios. Jewish doctors were only allowed to advise and treat Jews, and they were forbidden to run pharmacies. Maximum norms for furniture, clothes and linen were also soon introduced for Jews. All articles above the norm were subject to confiscation for the needs of the Reich. All jewelry, securities, gold and silver coins had to be surrendered on demand. Anti-Semitism thus became the source of enrichment of Nazi officials and their local collaborators who confiscated Jewish property. The extermination of Jews suited them since nobody would remain alive to demand the return of stolen items.
Liepāja
In Liepāja the first mass killing of Jews took place on July 3 and 4, when about 400 people were shot dead, and on July 8 when 300 Jews were killed. The German group of SD and policemen did the shooting, while the members of Latvian Selbstschutz convoyed victims to the killing site. On July 13, the destroying of the sizeable choral synagogue of Liepāja began. The Scripture rolls were spread on the Ugunsdzēsēju Square, and the Jews were forced to march across their sacred things, with watchers merrily laughing at the amusing scene. The above operations took place under the direct leadership of Erhard Grauel, commander of the Einsatzgruppe's Sonderkommando.
Ventspils
After that, Grauel went to Ventspils. The killings were jointly carried out by German Ordnungspolizei and the men of the local Selbstschutz. On July 16-July 18, 300 people were shot dead in the Kaziņu Forest. In July–August, the remaining 700 Jews from town were shot dead, while the Jews of the region were killed in the autumn. The shooting was carried out by German, Latvian and Estonian SD men who had arrived by ship. Soon a poster appeared on the Kuldīga-Ventspils highway, which said that Ventspils was Judenfrei (free of Jews).
Daugavpils
In Daugavpils the murder of Jews was initially commanded by Erich Ehrlinger, chief of Einsatzkommando 1b. By July 11 they had killed about 1,150 people. Ehrlinger's work was continued by Joachim Hamann, who was liable for the killing of 9012 Jews in the city and in southern Latgale. The chief of the local auxiliary police Roberts Blūzmanis had rendered active assistance by ensuring the moving of the Jews to the Grīva ghetto and transporting them to the killing places.
Rēzekne
In Rēzekne killings were carried out by a German SD group, which was helped by Selbstschutz men and Arajs Kommando. About 2,500 people were murdered. By October 1941, altogether about 35,000 Latvian Jews were killed.
There are two known instances of people rescuing Jews in Rēzekne – Old Believer Ulita Varushkyna who at the plea of his parents took in their two-year-old son Mordechai Tager that she later adopted, and the Polish Matusevich family that hid Haim Israelit and his nephew Yakov for three years. Both Varushkyna and the Matusevich family have been awarded the title Righteous Among the Nations for their actions.
Varakļāni
Varakļāni, a relatively small town, had about 540 remaining Jews when the Germans gained control. They were shot into graves they were forced to dig on August 4, 1941. The fate of this small town is similar to many other towns, documented by JewishGen and others.
Jungfernhof concentration camp
Confinement
Riga Ghetto
On July 27, 1941, State Commissar (Reichskommissar) Hinrich Lohse (earlier Gauleiter of Schleswig-Holstein), ruler of the Baltic lands and Belarus or Ostland as the territory was called by the invaders – made his guidelines on Jewish question public. Jews, in his opinion, had to be used as a cheap labour force by paying them minimum wages or by providing them with a minimum food ration – with whatever may be left over after supplying the indigenous Aryan population. In order to govern the Jews they had to be moved to special areas where ghettos would be arranged and they would be forbidden to leave the area. Walter Stahlecker protested against the idea of Hinrich Lohse and demanded that the extermination of the Jews be continued. Berlin, however, passed the power to the civil administration of occupation force and it did things its own way. The area of the Latgale suburbs in Riga was chosen for the Riga Ghetto. It was mainly inhabited by poor people: Jews, Russians and Belarusians. The ghetto bordered on Maskavas, Vitebskas, Ebreju (Jewish), Līksnas, Lauvas, Lazdonas, Lielā Kalnu, Katoļu, Jēkabpils and Lāčplēša Streets. About 7,000 non-Jews were moved from there to other flats in Riga. More than 23,000 Riga Jews were ordered to move to the territory of the ghetto. There now were more than 29,000 inmates in the ghetto, including those who had already previously resided there. The Jewish Council was formed within the ghetto, which was assigned the task of regulating social life. The Jewish police force for the maintenance of order formed there. It consisted of 80 men armed with sticks and rubber truncheons. The ghetto was enclosed by a barbed-wire fence. Wooden barriers (logs) were placed on the main streets at the entrance, and the Latvian police were stationed as guards there. Jews were allowed to leave the ghetto only in work columns and in the accompaniment of guards. Individual Jewish specialists could come and go by displaying a special yellow ID. Leaving independently was severely punished.
In the ghetto, the Jews were very crowded: 3-4 square metres were allotted per person. There was also high poverty, as food rations were given only to those who worked, i.e. to about half of the ghetto inmates. They had to maintain their 5,652 children and 8,300 elderly and disabled people. The ghetto only had 16 groceries, a pharmacy and a laundry, and a hospital was arranged, which was headed by Professor Vladimir Mintz, a surgeon. The Council of the ghetto was situated in the former Jewish school building at 141 Lāčplēša Street. The historian Marģers Vestermanis writes: "The members of the Jewish Council, including the lawyers D. Elyashev, M. Mintz and Iliya Yevelson, and their volunteer assistants did all they could to somehow relieve general suffering." Jewish policemen, too, tried to somehow protect their fellowmen. The inmates strived to preserve themselves, and there was even an illusion of survival. A resistance group was formed that bought weapons.
Daugavpils ghetto
The Daugavpils Ghetto was set up in Grīva at the end of July, 1941, when all surviving Jews in the city were moved there. Jews from other towns and villages of Latgale and even Vidzeme were also brought there. Altogether the ghetto had about 15,000 prisoners. The engineer Misha Movshenson ran the Council of the ghetto. His father had headed the city of Daugavpils in 1918 during the previous period of German occupation.
Gypsy Holocaust in Latvia
Less is known about the Holocaust of the Romani people (called "Gypsy" in English and Ziguener in German) than for other groups. Most of the available information about the persecution of the Gypsies in Nazi-occupied eastern Europe comes from Latvia. According to Latvia's 1935 census, 3,839 Gypsies lived in the country, the largest population of any of the Baltic States. Many of them did not travel about the country, but lived settled, or "sedentary" lives.
On December 4, 1941, Hinrich Lohse issued a decree which stated:
Although Lohse's name was on the order, it was actually issued at the behest of Bruno Jedicke, the Ordnungspolizei chief in the Baltic States. Jedicke in turn was subordinate to Friedrich Jeckeln, the senior SS man in the Baltic States and Belarus.
Gypsies were also forbidden to live along the coast. Historian Lewy believes this restriction may have occasioned the first large killing of Gypsies in Latvia. On December 5, 1941, the Latvian police in Liepāja arrested 103 Gypsies (24 men, 31 women, and 48 children). Of these people, the Latvian police turned over 100 to the custody of the German police chief Fritz Dietrich "for follow up" (zu weiteren Veranlassung), a Nazi euphemism for murder. On December 5, 1941, all 100 were all killed near Frauenburg.
On January 12, 1942, Jedicke distributed Lohse's order of December 4, 1941, ordering his subordinates that in all cases, they were to make sure to implement the necessary "follow up." By May 18, 1942, the German police and SS commander in Liepāja indicated in a log that over a previous unspecified period, 174 Gypsies had been killed by shooting. The German policy on Gypsies varied. In general, it seemed that wandering or "itinerate" Gypsies (vagabundierende Zigeuner) were targeted, as opposed to the non-wandering, or "sedentary" population. Thus, on May 21, 1942, the SS commander in Liepāja police and SS commander recorded the execution of 16 itinerate Gypsies from the Hasenputh district. The documentation, however, does not always distinguish between different Gypsy groups, thus on April 24, 1942, EK A reported having killed 1,272 people, including 71 Gypsies, with no further description. In addition, the Nazi policy shifted back and forth as to how the Gypsies were to be treated, and the treatment of any particular group of Gypsies did not necessarily reflect what might appear to have been the official policy of the moment.
Like the Jews, the killing of the Gypsies proceeded through Latvia's smaller towns, and with the aid of Latvians. The Arajs Kommando was reported to have killed many Gypsies between July and September 1941. In April 1942, 50 Gypsies, mostly women and small children, were assembled at the jail in Valmiera, then taken out and shot. Other massacres were reported at Bauska and Tukums.
It is not known how many of Latvia's Romani people were killed by the Nazis and their Latvian collaborators. Professor Ezergailis estimated that one-half of the Gypsy population was killed, but there will probably never be a more definite number.
Justice
Some of the Rumbula murderers were captured after the fact.
Hinrich Lohse was a member of a Nazi class that "was to receive surprisingly light treatment" at the Nuremberg trials. In Lohse's case, apparently because the British authorities believed him to have been innocent of the Nazi crimes in the Baltic states, he was handed over to a West German "denazification" court. Sentenced to the maximum of 10 years, Lohse was released early in 1951 "on the familiar grounds of ill health."[Died 1964]
Viktors Arājs was charged in a British court with war crimes, but was released in 1948, and afterwards hid out in West Germany for many years; although he was still a wanted war criminal, he found work as a driver for a British military unit in the western occupation zone.<ref name = Bloxham_01>Bloxham, Genocide on Trial, at pages 197-199</ref> Eventually Arājs was caught, and, in 1979, tried and convicted of murder in a West German court.Schneider, Unfinished RoadDied 1988
Friedrich Jahnke, a Nazi policeman who had been instrumental in setting up the Riga Ghetto and organizing the march out to the pits, was likewise apprehended and tried in West Germany in the 1970s.
Herberts Cukurs escaped to South America, where he was later murdered. It is said that he was assassinated by Mossad agents, who attracted him from Brazil to Uruguay under a fake intention of starting an aviation business, after it was found out that he would not stand trial for his alleged participation in the Holocaust.
Eduard Strauch, SS Lieutenant Colonel, commanded a subunit of the Rumbula killers called "Einsatzkommando 2.". Despite an effort to sham mental illness, he was convicted by the Nuremberg Military Tribunal in the Einsatzgruppen trial for having a key role in the Rumbula and a number of other mass murders in Eastern Europe. On April 9, 1948, Presiding judge Michael Musmanno pronounced the tribunal's sentence on Strauch: "Defendant EDUARD STRAUCH, on the counts of the indictment on which you have been convicted, the Tribunal sentences you to death by hanging." Unlike his co-defendants Otto Ohlendorf and Paul Blobel, Strauch did not hang. Instead, he was handed over to authorities in Belgium, where he had committed other crimes, for trial. He died in Belgian custody on September 11, 1955.
Friedrich Jeckeln came into Soviet custody after the war. He was interrogated, tried, convicted and hanged in Riga on February 3, 1946. Against popular misconception, the execution did not happen in the territory of the former Riga ghetto, but in Victory Square (Uzvaras laukums).
Fritz Dietrich (Nazi) was tried in the Dachau Trials and hanged in 1948 for killing POWS
Historiography and memorials
Soviet period
During the Second World War, the Soviet Union again occupied Latvia, this time from 1944 to 1991. It did not suit Soviet purposes to memorialize the Rumbula site or to acknowledge that the victims were Jewish. Until 1960 nothing was done to preserve or memorialize the killing grounds. In 1961 young Jews from Riga searched for the site and found charred bones and other evidence of the murders. In 1962 the Soviets staged an officially sanctioned memorial service at Bikernieki (another murder site) which made no mention of the Jews but spoke only of "Nazi victims". In 1963 groups of young Jews from Riga came out to Rumbula weekly and cleaned up and restored the site using shovels, wheelbarrows and other hand tools. The site has been marked by a series of makeshift memorials over the years. Throughout the Soviet domination of Latvia the Soviets refused to allow any memorial which would specifically identify the victims as Jews.
The Soviet Union suppressed research into and memorials of the Holocaust in Latvia until 1991, when Soviet rule over Latvia ended. In one case a memorial at Rumbula of which the authorities did not approve was simply hauled away in the middle of the night, with no explanation given. Occasional references were made to the Holocaust in literature during the Soviet era. A folkloric figure called "žīdu šāvējs" (Jew shooter) turned up in stories on occasion. The poet Ojārs Vācietis often referred to the Holocaust in his work, including in particular his well-regarded poem "Rumbula", written in the early 1960s.
One notable survivor of the Latvian Holocaust was Michael Genchik, who escaped from Latvia and joined the Red Army, where he served for 30 years. His family was killed at Rumbula. Many years later he recalled:
In later years the officials held memorial services every year in November or December. There were speeches reminding of the atrocities of the Nazis. But saying kaddish was forbidden. Once after the official part of the meeting, Jews tried to say Kaddish and tell a little about the ghetto, but the police didn't permit to do so. Until 1972, when I retired from the army, I did my best to keep the place neat.
Independent Latvia
In Latvia, Holocaust scholarship could only be resumed once Soviet rule had ended. Much of the post-1991 work was devoted to identification of the victims. This was complicated by the passage of time and the loss of some records and the concealment of others by the NKVD and its successor agencies of the Soviet secret police.
On November 29, 2002, sixty-one years after the murders, the highest officials of the Republic of Latvia, together with representatives of the Latvian Jewish community, foreign ambassadors, and others attended a memorial dedication at the Rumbula massacre site. The President and the Prime Minister of the Republic walked to the forest from where the Riga ghetto had been. Once they arrived, President Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga addressed the gathering:
See also
Segodnya (Riga)
Sonderaktion 1005
Konrāds Kalējs
The Holocaust in Lithuania
The Holocaust in Estonia
Notes
References
Historiographical
Anders, Edward, and Dubrovskis, Juris, "Who Died in the Holocaust? Recovering Names from Official Records", Holocaust and Genocide Studies 17.1 (2003) 114-138
Angrick, Andrej, and Klein, Peter, Die "Endlösung" in Riga., (English: The Final Solution in Riga), Darmstadt 2006,
Bloxham, Donald, Genocide on Trial; war crimes trials and the formation of Holocaust History and Memory, Oxford University Press, New York NY 2001
Browning, Christopher, and Matthäus, Jürgen, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE 2004
Dribins, Leo, Gūtmanis, Armands, and Vestermanis, Marģers, "Latvia's Jewish Community: History, Trajedy, Revival", Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Latvia
Edelheit, Abraham J. and Edelheit, Hershel, History of the Holocaust : A Handbook and Dictionary, Westview Press, Boulder, CO 1994
Eksteins, Modris, Walking Since Daybreak: A story of Eastern Europe, World War II, and the Heart of our Century, Houghton Mifflin, Boston 1999
Ezergailis, Andrew, The Holocaust in Latvia 1941-1944—The Missing Center, Historical Institute of Latvia (in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) Riga 1996
Ezergailis, Andrew, "Latvia", in The World Reacts to the Holocaust, Wyman, David S., and Rosenzveig, Charles H., Eds., at pages 354-388, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1996
Fleming, Gerald, Hitler and the Final Solution, Berkeley : University of California Press, Berkeley,1994
Friedländer, Saul, The years of extermination : Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, New York, NY 2007
Hancock, Ian, "Genocide of the Roma in the Holocaust", Excerpted from Charny, Israel, W., Encyclopedia of Genocide (1997)
Hilberg, Raul, The Destruction of the European Jews (3d Ed.) Yale University Press, New Haven, CT 2003.
Kaufmann, Max, Die Vernichtung des Judens Lettlands (The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia), Munich, 1947, English translation by Laimdota Mazzarins available on-line as Churbn Lettland -- The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia (all references in this article are to page numbers in the on-line edition)
Klee, Ernst, Dressen, Willi, and Riess, Volker, eds., The Good Old Days: The Holocaust as seen by its Perpetrators and Bystanders, (English translation) MacMillan Free Press, NY 1991
Latvia Institute, The Holocaust in German-Occupied Latvia
Lewy, Guenter, The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies, Oxford University Press 2000
Lumans, Valdis O., Latvia in World War II, New York : Fordham University Press, 2006
Michelson, Frida, I Survived Rumbuli, Holocaust Library, New York, NY 1979
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia, Holocaust Remembrance - Rumbula Memorial Site Unveiled, December 2002
Niewyk, Donald L., and Nicosia, Francis R., The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, New York : Columbia University Press, 2003
Reitlinger, Gerald, The SS—Alibi of a Nation, at 186, 282, Viking Press, New York, 1957 (Da Capo reprint 1989)
Roseman, Mark, The Wannsee Conference and the Final Solution—A Reassessment, Holt, New York, 2002
Rubenstein, Richard L., and Roth, John K., Approaches to Auschwitz, page 179, Louisville, Ky. : Westminster John Knox Press, 2003.
Scheffler, Wolfgang, "Zur Geschichte der Deportation jüdischer Bürger nach Riga 1941/1942", Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge e.V. – 23.05.2000
Schneider, Gertrude, ed., The Unfinished Road: Jewish Survivors of Latvia Look Back, Praeger Publishers (1991)
Smith, Lyn, Remembering: Voices of the Holocaust, Carroll & Graf, New York 2005
Winter, Alfred, "Rumbula Viewed From The Riga Ghetto" from The Ghetto of Riga and Continuance - A Survivor's Memoir 1998
War crimes trials and evidence
Bräutigam, Otto, Memorandum dated 18 Dec. 1941, "Jewish Question re correspondence of 15 Nov. 1941" translated and reprinted in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality, OCCPAC: Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Exhibit 3666-PS, Volume VII, pages 978-995, USGPO, Washington DC 1946 ("Red Series")
Jeckeln, Friedrich, excerpts from minutes of interrogation, 14 December 1945 (Maj. Zwetajew, interrogator, Sgt. Suur, interpreter), pages 8–13, from the Historical State Archives, as reprinted in Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution, at pages 95–100 (Portions of the Jeckeln interrogation are also available online at the Nizkor website).
Stahlecker, Franz W., "Comprehensive Report of Einsatzgruppe A Operations up to 15 October 1941", Exhibit L-180, translated in part and reprinted in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality, OCCPAC: Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Volume VII, pages 978–995, USGPO, Washington DC 1946 ("Red Series")
Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, Nuernberg, October 1946 - April 1949, Volume IV, ("Green Series) (the "Einsatzgruppen case") also available at Mazel library (well indexed HTML version)
External links
The Death of the Jewish Community of Kraslava
Holocaust in the Baltics, a site by Professor Dovid Katz of the Vilnius Yiddish Institute at Vilnius University
Propagandistic German video showing the entrance of the Wehrmacht in Riga.
Mārtiņš Ķibilds (27 July 2018). The Jews of Valdemārpils – killed and then forgotten. Public Broadcasting of Latvia.
Latvia
Latvia
Military history of Latvia during World War II
Latvia
Eastern Front (World War II)
Generalbezirk Lettland
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The Sixth Doctor is an incarnation of the Doctor, the protagonist of the BBC science fiction television series Doctor Who. He is portrayed by Colin Baker. Although his televisual time on the series was comparatively brief and turbulent, Baker has continued as the Sixth Doctor in Big Finish's range of original Doctor Who audio adventures. Within the series' narrative, the Doctor is a centuries-old alien Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey who travels in time and space in the TARDIS, frequently with companions. At the end of life, the Doctor regenerates; as a result, the physical appearance and personality of the Doctor changes. Baker portrays the sixth such incarnation, an arrogant, flamboyant character in brightly coloured, mismatched clothes whose brash, often patronising personality set him apart from all his previous incarnations.
The Sixth Doctor appeared in three seasons. His appearance in the first of these was at the end of the final episode of The Caves of Androzani which featured the regeneration from the Fifth Doctor and thereafter in the following serial The Twin Dilemma, the end of that season. The Sixth Doctor's era was marked by the decision of the BBC controller Michael Grade to put the series on an 18-month "hiatus" between seasons 22 and 23, with only one new Doctor Who story, Slipback, made on radio during the hiatus, broadcast as 6 parts (at 10 minutes each) on BBC Radio 4 from 25 July to 8 August 1985, as part of a children's magazine show called Pirate Radio Four. Colin Baker had been signed up for four years, as the previous actor Peter Davison had left after only three years. Due to his decidedly short screen time, the Sixth Doctor appeared with only two companions, most notably the American college student Peri Brown (Nicola Bryant), before being briefly joined by Mel Bush (Bonnie Langford), a computer technician from his future he had yet to actually meet during his trial.
Prior to its postponement, season 23 was well advanced with episodes already drafted and in at least one case distributed to cast and production. Alongside "The Nightmare Fair", "The Ultimate Evil", "Mission to Magnus", "Yellow Fever and How to Cure It", the remaining stories were still under development in a 25-minute episode format after the season was postponed. These were all dropped with the reconception of the season in mid 1985 in favour of the 14-episode story arc The Trial of a Time Lord. The Sixth Doctor also appeared in the special Dimensions in Time. There are also novels and audio plays featuring the Sixth Doctor, and the character has been visually referenced several times in the revived 2000s production of the show.
More so than any other canonical incarnation, aside from the Eighth Doctor, the Sixth Doctor has been heavily expanded upon in expanded universe media, most notably in audio stories produced by Big Finish Productions. In The Marian Conspiracy (2000), a new companion was introduced - Dr. Evelyn Smythe, a middle-aged history lecturer on the verge of compulsory retirement whose sharp tongue and unwillingness to tolerate the Doctor's attitude steadily taught him to rein in his more unkind tendencies. Due to this influence, the Sixth Doctor evolved into a more compassionate and likable character. In addition, beginning with the webcast Real Time (2003), his costume was revised into a monochromatic blue variant, displayed on many audio stories' covers since then.
Biography
The sixth Doctor's regeneration was initially unstable, and he nearly strangled Peri before he came to his senses. Realising what he had nearly done, he initially considered going into a hermit-like existence on the planet Titan 3, only to be caught up in events on the planet Jocanda, after which he resumed his travels (The Twin Dilemma). He encountered many old foes including the Master, Daleks, Cybermen and Sontarans, and even shared an adventure with his own second incarnation in The Two Doctors. He also faced a renegade female Time Lord scientist, the Rani, who was conducting experiments on humans using the Luddite riots as a cover.
Later, the Doctor and Peri landed on the devastated planet Ravolox, which they discovered was actually Earth, moved across space with devastating consequences. Before they could discover the reason for this disaster, the TARDIS landed on Thoros Beta. What actually happened here is unclear, but initial accounts suggest that Peri was killed after being cruelly used as a test subject in brain transplant experiments and the Doctor was pulled out of time to a Time Lord space station where he was put on trial for the second time by his own race, the Time Lords. In reality the trial was a cover-up organised by the High Council. A race from Andromeda had stolen Time Lord secrets and hidden on Earth, so to protect themselves the Time Lords had moved Earth through space, burning the surface in a massive fireball and leaving it as Ravolox. The prosecutor at that trial, the Valeyard, turned out to be a possible future evil incarnation of the Doctor himself who was out to steal his remaining lives. He had also edited the Matrix recordings of the Doctor's travels; in reality Peri had survived events on Thoros Beta. The events of the trial tangled the Doctor's timeline slightly, as he left in the company of Mel, whom he technically had not yet met.
When the TARDIS is attacked by the Rani, the Sixth Doctor was somehow injured and regenerated into the Seventh Doctor; the exact cause of the regeneration, however, has never been revealed on-screen.
Beyond the trial and before the regeneration in spin-off media
Doctor Who was put on hiatus for 18 months following The Trial of a Time Lord, and Colin Baker was asked to return for a single story which would have led to an event precipitating the Doctor's regeneration. As he declined to do so, there were limits as to what could be done on screen for the purposes of transitioning to a new Doctor when the series resumed with Time and the Rani and there were other unresolved questions, such as when and how the Doctor and Mel actually met. Attempts have been made by various authors to fill in these narrative gaps.
The Virgin Missing Adventures novel Time of Your Life states that the Doctor went into a self-imposed exile to avoid becoming the Valeyard. He was lured back into travelling by the Time Lords, and recruited Grant Markham as a companion. Although now travelling again, he attempted to avoid meeting Mel and recruited other companions, with the audios depicting a range of companions including history lecturer Evelyn Smythe, "Edwardian adventuress" Charley Pollard (a former companion of the Eighth Doctor who is rescued by the Sixth as part of a temporal paradox), supermarket check-out girl Flip Jackson, and WREN code-breaker Constance Clarke. The novel The Shadow in the Glass also depicts the Doctor working with his old friend Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart to thwart a conspiracy to unleash a Fourth Reich led by the secret son of Adolf Hitler. The Doctor eventually encounters Mel accidentally during the events of the BBC Books novel Business Unusual and accepts his fate once she stows away in the TARDIS.
Pip and Jane Baker's novelisation of Time and the Rani provides the first relatively brief attempt to explain the Doctor's regeneration (specifically, that it was triggered by "tumultuous buffeting" as the Rani attacked the TARDIS). The Virgin New Adventures series suggests that the Seventh Doctor somehow deliberately killed the Sixth, because he could not become the masterplanner and manipulator that his next incarnation became, due to his fear of becoming the Valeyard. The BBC Books Past Doctor Adventures novel Spiral Scratch proposes that the Sixth Doctor died as a result of his chronal energy being drained in a confrontation with a powerful pan-dimensional entity before being snared by the Rani's beam. The unofficial, for-charity-published, novel Time's Champion by Craig Hinton and Chris McKeon consigns the events of Spiral Scratch to an alternate timeline, and makes the Sixth Doctor the eponymous Time's Champion, to save Mel from the clutches of the Time Lord God, Death. In these events, the Doctor, through the TARDIS' telepathic circuits, forces his own regeneration and then travels towards Lakertya, setting up the events of Time and the Rani.
In 2015, Big Finish Productions released The Sixth Doctor: The Last Adventure, an audio drama depicting the events leading up to the Sixth Doctor's death and regeneration. According to this account, after a series of encounters with the Valeyard over the course of his life depicting the Valeyard regaining his energy after their last battle, the Sixth Doctor is essentially 'replaced' by the Valeyard, who had planted parasitic creatures in the TARDIS's telepathic circuits that formed a link with the Doctor over the course of his life, trapping the last fragments of the Doctor's personality in the Matrix. Faced with the prospect that the Valeyard, who has already replaced the Doctor's timeline so that even Mel believes he has always been the Doctor, will go on to do the same thing to every other Time Lord in history, the Sixth Doctor sends a message from the Matrix to his own past self, diverting the younger Doctor to travel to the planet Lakertya shortly before the Valeyard originally took over his timeline. As a result, the younger Doctor is exposed to radiation that is deadly to Time Lords, with his death and subsequent regeneration into the Seventh Doctor killing the parasites, stopping the Valeyard from succeeding with his plan as the regeneration 'kills' the link the parasites had created to the Doctor, but also setting up the events of Time and the Rani.
Costume
Colin Baker wished to dress his Doctor in black velvet, to reflect his character's darker personality. Producer John Nathan-Turner, however, opted for a deliberately "totally tasteless" costume with clashing colours. Designer Pat Godfrey made several attempts which were considered not tasteless enough before Nathan-Turner finally accepted the last one as sufficiently garish. Colin Baker later described the outfit as "an explosion in a rainbow factory".
The Sixth Doctor wears a scarlet plaid frock coat, with green patchwork, and yellow and pink lapels over a white shirt with crimson question marks embroidered in the collar (a feature of the programme since 1980), a waistcoat with a fob watch, a large tie, yellow trousers with black stripes, and emerald green ankle boots with royal orange spats. There were many variants on the waistcoat and tie, the earliest being the knitted brown waistcoat and turquoise cravat. The waistcoat was changed to burgundy check, and in the following story a new crimson cravat with cream polka dots appeared. The "future" version of the Sixth Doctor seen aboard the Hyperion III (The Trial of a Time Lord) wore a stripey waistcoat and a yellow cravat, speckled with black stars. Baker added a cat badge to the ensemble. During Baker's run in the stage play Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure, the original frock coat was replaced by a similar one with a scarlet, blue and purple colour scheme.
More recently, a royal blue version of the original costume has been used in spin-off media. First used in the webcast Real Time, due to the limited availability of colours in the type of animation used, it has appeared subsequently on covers of audio dramas from Big Finish Productions. In the Big Finish audio Criss-Cross, the Doctor is depicted on the cover as wearing a brown-and-scarlet tweed jacket and waistcoat with a blue-and-white striped shirt, along with a navy blue bow tie with crimson spots, while acting undercover in Bletchley Park in 1944 after the TARDIS is rendered inoperable by a strange signal. The Doctor dons this attire again, referring to it as his 'Bletchley Tweeds', when visiting Russia in 1947 in the audio Quicksilver.
Other appearances
The Sixth Doctor's image appears among other incarnations in the revival series episodes "The Next Doctor" (2008) and "The Eleventh Hour" (2010). He also appears in "The Day of the Doctor" (2013) using archived footage.
"A Fix with Sontarans", a segment of the children's television programme Jim'll Fix It.
In Top Gear (Season 2, Episode 8), the Sixth Doctor's TARDIS appears on the test track, distracting a Cyberman trying to set a lap time in a Honda Civic. The Doctor sets a lap time of 1:43.
Webcasts
Real Time
Novels
Target Books Missing Episodes
The Nightmare Fair by Graham Williams
The Ultimate Evil by Wally K. Daly
Mission to Magnus by Philip Martin
Virgin New Adventures
Head Games by Steve Lyons (Manifestation of the Sixth Doctor's persona attacks the Seventh Doctor)
Virgin Missing Adventures
State of Change by Christopher Bulis (temporal disruptions in the pocket dimension the TARDIS arrives in cause the Doctor to regress through his previous five bodies, and he spends some time allowing the persona of the Third Doctor to take control)
Time of Your Life by Steve Lyons
Millennial Rites by Craig Hinton (dimensional instabilities cause the Doctor to briefly transform into the Valeyard)
Killing Ground by Steve Lyons
Burning Heart by Dave Stone
Past Doctor Adventures
Business Unusual by Gary Russell
Mission: Impractical by David A. McIntee
Players by Terrance Dicks (Also features a flashback to the Second Doctor)
Grave Matter by Justin Richards
The Quantum Archangel by Craig Hinton (Also features a brief appearance by an alternate version of the Third Doctor)
The Shadow in the Glass by Justin Richards and Stephen Cole
Instruments of Darkness by Gary Russell
Palace of the Red Sun by Christopher Bulis
Blue Box by Kate Orman
Synthespians™ by Craig Hinton
Spiral Scratch by Gary Russell (Ends in the Sixth Doctor's regeneration)
Eighth Doctor Adventures
The Eight Doctors by Terrance Dicks
Seen in the TARDIS mirror in Camera Obscura
Make Your Own Adventure
Search for the Doctor by Dave Martin
Crisis in Space by Michael Holt
Time's Champion
In 2008, an unofficial Doctor Who novel Time's Champion was published, written by Chris McKeon and the late Craig Hinton. All proceeds went to the British Heart Foundation.
Telos Doctor Who novellas
Shell Shock by Simon A Forward
Short stories
"Brief Encounter: A Wee Deoch an..?" by Colin Baker (Doctor Who Magazine Winter Special 1991)
Penguin Fiftieth Anniversary eBook novellas
Something Borrowed by Richelle Mead
Comics
The Sixth Doctor was featured in a number of acclaimed comic strips drawn by John Ridgway. These featured visuals and storylines of a whimsical fantasy nature, similar to Alice in Wonderland. The Sixth Doctor was somewhat calmer and more restrained than on television. All of these comic strips appeared in Doctor Who magazine in the 1980s. Colin Baker himself wrote a comic book special called The Age of Chaos in which the Sixth Doctor and Frobisher visit an older version of Peri.
Doctor Who Magazine
The Shape-Shifter
Voyager
Polly the Glot
Once upon a Time Lord
War-Game
Fun-House
Kane's Story / Abel's Story / Warriors' Story / Frobisher's Story
Exodus / Revelation / Genesis
Nature of the Beast
Time Bomb
Salad Daze
Changes
Profit of Doom
The Gift
The World Shapers
Emperor of the Daleks
Up Above the Gods
Classic Comic Special
The Age of Chaos
IDW Comics
The Forgotten
Prisoners of Time
Video games
Doctor Who and the Mines of Terror
Destiny of the Doctors
Lego Dimensions
Audio dramas
Sixth Doctor audio plays
Gallifrey: Disassembled (Alternate Sixth Doctor)
The Sirens of Time (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (1999)
Whispers of Terror (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri Brown) (1999)
The Marian Conspiracy (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn Smythe) (2000)
The Spectre of Lanyon Moor (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Evelyn & Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart) (2000)
The Apocalypse Element (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Evelyn & Romana II) (2000)
The Holy Terror (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Frobisher) (2000)
Bloodtide (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2001)
Project: Twilight (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2001)
The One Doctor (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel Bush) (2001)
Excelis Rising (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2002)
...Ish (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2002)
The Sandman (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2002)
The Maltese Penguin (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Frobisher) (2002)
Jubilee (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2003)
Doctor Who and the Pirates (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2003)
Project: Lazarus (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2003)
Davros (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2003)
Zagerus (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2003)
The Wormery (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2003)
Arrangements For War (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2004)
Medicinal Purposes (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2004)
Her Final Flight (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2004)
The Juggernauts (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel) (2005)
Catch 1782 (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel) (2005)
Thicker Than Water (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Evelyn & Mel) (2005)
Pier Pressure (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel) (2006)
The Nowhere Place (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2006)
The Reaping (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2006)
Year of the Pig (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2006)
I.D & Urgent Calls (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2007)
The Wishing Beast (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel) (2007)
100 (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2007)
The Condemned (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley Pollard) (2008)
Assassins in the Limelight (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Evelyn) (2008)
The Doomwood Curse (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley) (2008)
Brotherhood of the Daleks (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley) (2008)
The Raincloud Man (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley) (2008)
Patient Zero (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley) (2009)
Paper Cuts (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley) (2009)
Blue Forgotten Planet (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley) (2009)
The Nightmare Fair (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2009)
Return of the Krotons (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley) (2009)
Mission To Magnus (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2009)
Levithan (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2010)
The Hollows of Time (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2010)
Paradise 5 (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2010)
Point of Entry (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2010)
City of Spires (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Jamie McCrimmon) (2010)
Night's Black Agents (An Adventure related by the Character Jamie) (2010)
The Song of Megaptera (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2010)
The Wreck of the Titan (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Jamie) (2010)
The Macros (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2010)
Legend of the Cybermen (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Jamie & Zoe Herriot) (2010)
A Town Called Fortune (An Adventure related by the Character Evelyn) (2010)
The Four Doctors (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2010)
Peri and the Piscon Paradox (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2011)
The Crimes of Thomas Brewster (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Evelyn & Thomas Brewster) (2011)
The Feast of Axos (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Evelyn & Brewster) (2011)
Industrial Evolution (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Evelyn & Brewste) (2011)
Recorded Time and Other Stories (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2011)
Beyond the Ultimate Adventure (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2011)
The Curse of Davros (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Flip Jackson) (2012)
The Fourth Wall (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Flip) (2012)
Wirrn Isle (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Flip) (2012)
The Guardians of Prophercy (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2012)
Power Play (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Peri & Victoria Waterfield) (2012)
The First Sontarans (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2012)
Voyage to Venus (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Jago & Litefoot) (2012)
The Acheron Pulse (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2012)
Voyage to the New World (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Jago & Litefoot) (2012)
The Wrong Doctors (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel) (2013)
Spaceport Fear (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel) (2013)
The Seeds of War (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel) (2013)
Trouble in Paradise (An Adventure related by the Character Peri) (2013)
The Light of the End (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2013)
1963: The Space Race (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2013)
Antidote to Olivion (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Flip) (2014)
The Brood of Erys (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Flip) (2014)
Scavenger (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Flip) (2014)
Breaking Bubbles and Other Stories (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2014)
The Worlds of Doctor Who (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2014)
The Widow's Assassin (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2014)
Masters of Earth (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2014)
The Rani Elite (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Peri) (2014)
Trial of the Valeyard (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2014)
Last of the Cybermen (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor, Jamie & Zoe) (2015)
The Sixth Doctor: The Last Adventure (2015)
The End of the Line (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Connstance Clarke) (2015)
The Red House (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Charley) (2015)
Stage Fright (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Flip) (2015)
The Brink of Death (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Mel) (2015)
Criss-Cross (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Constance) (2015)
Planet of the Rani (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Constance) (2015)
Shield of the Jotunn (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Constance) (2015)
Vampire of the Mind (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2016)
Judoon in Chains (An Adventure related by the Character the 6th Doctor) (2016)
Order of the Daleks (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Constance) (2016)
Absolute Power (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Constance) (2016)
Quicksilver (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Constance & Flip) (2016)
Vortex Ice/Cortex Fire (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor & Flip) (2017)
The Carrionite Curse (An Adventure related by the character the 6th Doctor (2017)
The Behemoth (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Constance & Flip) (2017)
The Middle (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Constance & Flip) (2017)
Static (An Adventure related by the Characters the 6th Doctor, Constance & Flip) (2017)
Short Trips audios
The Wings of a Butterfly
The Doctor's Coat
Seven to One
Murmurs of Earth
To Cut a Blade of Grass
See also
History of Doctor Who – Sixth Doctor
References
Bibliography
External links
The Sixth Doctor on the BBC's Doctor Who website
Sixth Doctor Gallery
Sixth Doctor's first season theme music QuickTime file
Trial of a Time Lord theme music QuickTime file
Sixth Doctor first title sequence
Sixth Doctor second title sequence
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06
Male characters in television
Television characters introduced in 1984
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San Francisco Opera (SFO) is an American opera company founded in 1923 by Gaetano Merola (1881–1953) based in San Francisco, California.
History
Gaetano Merola (1923–1953)
The first performance given by San Francisco Opera was La bohème, with Queena Mario and Giovanni Martinelli, on 26 September 1923, in the city's Civic Auditorium and conducted by Merola, whose involvement in opera in the San Francisco Bay Area had been ongoing since his first visit in 1906.
Merola initially organized the company with a trial season at Stanford University for 1922, convinced that the city could support an opera company and not depend upon visiting troupes, which had been coming to the San Francisco since Gold Rush days. In fact, Merola's initial visits to the city were as conductor of some of these troupes—the first in 1909 with the International Opera Company of Montreal. Continued visits for the next decade convinced him that a San Francisco company was viable, and in 1921 he returned to live in the city under the patronage of Mrs. Oliver Stine.
By the fall of 1921 he was planning his first season, which was presented at Stanford University's football stadium on 3 June 1922 with a star-studded group of singers, including Giovanni Martinelli in Pagliacci, followed by Carmen and Faust. While it was a popular and critical triumph, the five-day season was not a financial success. It was clear to Merola that a more solid financial base was needed, so he set about fund raising for a season of opera to be presented at the Civic Auditorium in the fall of 1923. Appealing to more than the city's elite, Merola raised 2441 contributions of $50 each from many "founding members".
After the opening of La bohème, the first 1923/24 season included productions of Andrea Chénier (with Beniamino Gigli), Mefistofele (again with Gigli), Tosca (with Giuseppe De Luca and Martinelli, and Verdi's Rigoletto (with Queena Mario, De Luca and Gigli). An international opera season had been launched, and the ones that followed it covered a broad range of mostly Italian operas, many being presented only once or twice in seasons lasting no more than two months, sometimes only the month of September.
During the nine years following the opening season, the San Francisco War Memorial Opera House was conceived. The building was designed by Arthur Brown Jr., the architect who also created San Francisco's Coit Tower and City Hall.
The company inaugurated the new opera house with a performance of Tosca on 15 October 1932 with Claudia Muzio in the title role. Characteristic of the following thirty of Merola's years as general director was the fact (as noted by Chatfield-Taylor) that "the great singers of the world came regularly to San Francisco, often performing several roles in deference to the short season and long travel time across the country."
Other characteristics of his tenure were the opportunities given to young American singers in spite of the absence of a formal training program at that time, and also regular tours by the SFO to Los Angeles between 1937 and 1965, which expanded the season into November. However, until well after Merola's death, the main San Francisco season rarely extended beyond late October. He died while conducting an open-air concert at Stern Grove on 30 August 1953.
Edwin MacArthur led the San Francisco Opera Orchestra in several 78-rpm recordings for RCA Victor in the late 1930s, including performances by soprano Kirsten Flagstad. Some of these were later reissued by RCA on LP and CD.
Short versions of all the works in the season were broadcast on about 30 California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho and British Columbia radio stations, starting about 1941.
Kurt Herbert Adler (1953–1981)
Kurt Herbert Adler (1905–1988) came to the United States in 1938 after early experience and training in many aspects of music and theatre in Austria, Germany, and Italy. For five years, he worked to build the chorus of the Chicago Opera Company. Merola heard of him and, over the telephone, invited him to San Francisco opera in 1943 as chorus director.
Adler was often regarded as a difficult, sometimes tyrannical person to work for. However, as Chatfield-Taylor notes, "singers, conductors, directors, and designers came back season after season. They came back because Adler made the SFO an internationally respected company that ran at a high level of professionalism and offered them interesting things to do in a warm and supportive atmosphere." Among those who were offered new and exciting challenges were Geraint Evans, the Welsh baritone, Leontyne Price, and Luciano Pavarotti.
He took on more and more administrative details as Merola's health and energy diminished, but Adler was not the board's natural choice to replace Merola at the time of his death in 1953. After three months of acting as artistic director, and with the assistance of its president, Robert Watt Miller, Adler was confirmed as general director.
Adler's aims
Adler's aims in taking over the company were several. One was to expand the season which in Merola's time ran from the Friday after Labor Day until early November (when the Metropolitan Opera's season began) in order to capitalize on the availability of singers by presenting up to fourteen operas with two or three performances each. Eventually, as seen in the 1961 SFO season, eleven operas were given five or six performances each on average while the season ran to late November.
Another aim was to present new talent and, for this, he was tireless in seeking out up-and-coming new singers, whether American or European, by attending performances in both major and minor opera houses. He heard Leontyne Price on the radio, and offered her a role in Dialogues of the Carmelites in 1957, thus providing her with her first performance on a major operatic stage. A short time later in the same season, she was to step into the role of Aida at short notice to replace Antonietta Stella, a role which gave her long-lived international acclaim.
Adler developed a strong professional relationship with Birgit Nilsson. Nilsson made her US-debut in San Francisco in 1956. She returned with few exceptions every season for 26 years and made her last appearance in the house in 1982.
Thirdly, a characteristic of the Adler years was his interest in developing stronger connections to opera stage directors in an attempt to strengthen the dramatic and theatrical elements of the works. In this, he was greatly supported by his long relationship with Jean-Pierre Ponnelle, the often-controversial stage director and designer who began his association with SFO in 1957.
Merola Opera Program
Several innovations undertaken by Adler included the Merola Opera Program (named after the first general director). It began during the 1954/55 Season and was given its current name in 1957. The program now annually offers approximately 23 gifted singers, four apprentice coaches, and one apprentice stage director the rare opportunity of studying, coaching, and participating in master classes with established professionals for eleven weeks during the summer. Many went on to international careers, among them Carol Vaness and Thomas Hampson.
Opera in the Park
Another innovation was "Opera in the Park" which, since 1971, has been an annual free concert in Golden Gate Park on the Sunday following opening night of the Fall Season. It traditionally features artists from the opening weekend in full concert with the San Francisco Opera Orchestra. The event is open to the public and draws some 30,000 listeners. The concert is presented in conjunction with the non-profit San Francisco Parks Trust and the San Francisco Chronicle Charities.
Success of the company
By the 1970s, the company was highly successful and offered audiences the "cream of the crop" of internationally known singers, but, with Adler often bringing in unknowns to make their American debuts or the surprise of well-known singers replacing ailing ones, there were some exciting nights at the opera. These included Plácido Domingo flying with no notice from New York City to San Francisco – albeit three hours after curtain time – to replace the ailing Carlo Cossutta on the opening night of Otello and the last-minute substitution by Leontyne Price for Margaret Price in the role of Aida.
From 1971 to 1979, San Francisco station KKHI broadcast the regular Friday night performances of the opera on AM and FM (in multiplex stereo with quadraphonic encoding). The broadcasts were hosted by several well-known announcers, including Scott Beach and Fred Cherry.
In the summer of 1972, the San Francisco Opera began its 50th anniversary celebrations with a special free concert in Sigmund Stern Grove. Adler conducted most of the program, which featured performances by many of the surviving singers who had appeared with the company during its history. The legendary tenor Lauritz Melchior conducted the orchestra, rather than sing, in a performance of the famous Radetsky March by Johann Strauss I; it was possibly his last public appearance. One of the highlights of the afternoon program was a moving performance of the love duet from Madama Butterfly with soprano Licia Albanese and tenor Frederick Jagel.
Adler retired on 15 December 1981.
Terence McEwen (1982–1988)
Following Adler's retirement announcement in June 1979, Terence A. McEwen (1929–1998) was Adler's hand-picked successor. Growing up in the Montreal area of Canada, McEwen learned to love opera at an early age, listened to the Met broadcasts, and at age 14, made a trip to New York one winter break to hear several of his favorite operas, which included Bidu Sayão and Jussi Björling in Rigoletto. As a singer, Sayão was forever to remain his passion, one which was accentuated by seeing her in Manon performances in Montreal.
His passion for opera in general led him to visit the Royal Opera House in London and a lowly paid job with Decca Records in that city. Moving up the ranks in the 1950s, he landed in New York in 1959 and for the next 20 years made London Records, Decca's classical arm, the most significant classical label in the United States.
After being approached by Adler regarding the San Francisco opera job, he moved to the city in 1980 and involved himself totally in learning the running of an opera company. In January 1982 McEwen was running the SFO.
Given his expertise and background in understanding opera and the wonders of the human voice, it is not surprising that his approach in his early years was away from the theatrical side and more focused on singers. With his Ring Cycle which began in the Summer 1983 and Fall 1984 seasons — and which was presented in its entirety in June 1985 – McEwen demonstrated where his priorities lay: they were focused on hiring the best singers in the world.
As a reaction to the economic climate of the times, in 1982 McEwen, created the "San Francisco Opera Center" to oversee and combine the operation and administration of the numerous affiliate educational and training programs. Providing a coordinated sequence of performance and study opportunities for young artists, the San Francisco Opera Center included the "Merola Opera Program", "Adler Fellowship Program", "Showcase Series", "Brown Bag Opera", "Opera Center Singers", "Schwabacher Recitals", and various Education Programs. By introducing his young singers to the great voices of the past, inviting them to rehearsals, and giving tickets to current productions McEwen hoped to create rounded performers who could appear in the regular Fall season.
Among his successes in this regard was the mezzo-soprano Dolora Zajick from Nevada. By "hand holding" her through the various stages of training, he prepared her for the role of Azucena in Il trovatore for the summer 1986 season to great acclaim.
During the 1983 fall season, the student/family matinee performances of La traviata were presented with supertitles. These are English translations of the libretto projected over the proscenium simultaneously with the action on stage. The overwhelmingly favorable response prompted the company to introduce the practice in increasing numbers of performances in subsequent seasons. Supertitles are now used for all San Francisco Opera productions and SFO also rents its supertitles internationally to other opera companies.
In 1986, Sir John Pritchard was appointed music director, and served until 1989.
On 8 February 1988, McEwen announced his resignation. The following day his mentor, Kurt Herbert Adler, died.
Lotfi Mansouri (1988–2001)
Lotfi Mansouri (born 1929) was already a known quantity when Terry McEwen announced his retirement. Then head of the Canadian Opera Company in Toronto, Mansouri had received an education in medicine in Los Angeles, but gave it all up upon becoming fixated on opera, first as a young tenor with UCLA's Opera Workshop, and then with opera in general.
As early as 1962, with Mansouri having found work as director in Los Angeles followed by his becoming resident stage director at the Zürich Opera, Adler came to see him at work and he was offered six operas to direct in the 1963 season. By the time he became general director, he had directed 60 operas for SFO and many others elsewhere.
By 1975 he was director of the Canadian Opera Company where, in 1983, he had introduced the revolutionary supertitles. Mansouri's feelings on the effects of titling was that the audience would be more engaged in the performance. This was a momentous change in the world of opera.
Mansouri introduced many new operas to the SFO repertory. These included more Russian operas with the highlight being Valery Gergiev's conducting of Prokofiev's War and Peace and a firm link established with the Kirov Opera. Also, there was Rossini's Guillaume Tell and Verdi's I vespri siciliani which followed.
One of Mansouri's triumphs was the overseeing of the reconstruction and renovation of the opera house following the October 1989 earthquake. After closing at the end of the 1995 Fall season for "a 21-month, US$88.5 million renovation, San Francisco's War Memorial Opera House reopened on 5 September 1997 with a gala concert celebrating this occasion, as well the 75th anniversary of the San Francisco Opera. Fittingly, the concert featured operatic greats of the past, present and future. The project included repairs of damage caused by the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, improvements for the audience and performers, seismic strengthening and a general cleanup that left the 65-year-old Opera House gleaming."
Donald Runnicles was named music director and principal conductor of SFO in 1990, and assumed the posts in 1992.
In November 1992, Mansouri introduced "Pacific Visions", an ambitious program designed to maintain the vitality of the opera repertoire through new commissions and the presentation of unusual repertoire. It was launched with the commissioning of the following operas:
The Dangerous Liaisons, composed by Conrad Susa to a libretto by Philip Littell, had its world premiere during the 1994 fall season and was the subject of a nationwide TV broadcast. The cast featured Renée Fleming, Frederica von Stade, and Thomas Hampson.
Harvey Milk, composer Stewart Wallace to a libretto by Michael Korie. It was performed in 1996 as a joint commission and co-production of the SFO, Houston Grand Opera, and New York City Opera. The cast featured Raymond Very as Dan White, Robert Orth as Harvey Milk and Gidon Sachs as Mayor Moscone.
A Streetcar Named Desire, composed by André Previn to a libretto by Philip Littell, after the play by Tennessee Williams. The work had its premiere during the 1998–99 fall season. The cast included Renée Fleming as Blanche DuBois and Elizabeth Futral as Stella, baritone Rod Gilfry as Stanley Kowalski and tenor Anthony Dean Griffey as Mitch.
Dead Man Walking, composed by Jake Heggie from a libretto by Terrence McNally after the book by Sister Helen Prejean, received its premiere in October 2000. The cast included Susan Graham as Sister Helen Prejean, John Packard as Joe; and Frederica von Stade as Mrs. Patrick de Rocher.
The Death of Klinghoffer(a co-commission between San Francisco Opera, Brussels' La Monnaie, the Opera de Lyon, the Los Angeles Festival, the Glyndebourne Festival and the Booklyn Academy of Music), composed by John Adams in 1992. The cast included Janice Felty in 3 roles, James Maddalena as The Captain, and Thomas Hammons as the First Officer.
Summing up his years at the SFO, the San Francisco Chronicle noted: "He's never been interested in the succès d'estime, the daring intellectual or theatrical coup that dazzles culture mavens but leaves the general public alienated or bewildered. For Mansouri, a success that doesn't put fannies in the seats is no success at all."
Towards the end of the 2001 season, Mansouri announced his retirement after fourteen seasons with SFO and 50 years in opera.
Pamela Rosenberg (2001–2005)
's first connection with the San Francisco Opera was as a standee while attending the University of California, Berkeley. She returned to SFO with a background of operatic productions in Germany and, specifically, as head of the Stuttgart Opera.
In January 2001, Rosenberg announced her first artistic initiative for San Francisco Opera, "Animating Opera", a multi-year plan of interwoven themes and series. These included "Seminal Works of Modern Times", "The Faust Project", "Composer Portrait: Janáček/Berlioz", "Women Outside of Society: Laws Unto Themselves", "Metamorphosis: From Fairy Tales to Nightmares", and "Outsiders or Pioneers?: The Nature of the Human Condition".
Incorporated within the production programming of "Animating Opera" was the America staged premiere of Messiaen's Saint-François d'Assise, Virgil Thomson's The Mother of Us All, as well as a commission for a new work by John Adams and Peter Sellars entitled Doctor Atomic, which premiered on 1 October 2005. Other operas new to the SFO's repertoire during her directorship include Busoni's Doktor Faust, Ligeti's Le Grand Macabre and Janáček's The Cunning Little Vixen.
After much controversy surrounding her management of the SFO, which included deficits created after the "dot-com" collapse in 2000 and the effects of September 11 on arts attendance, she announced in 2004 that she would not renew her contract with the company when it ended in late 2005.
As noted by Steven Winn in the San Francisco Chronicle in December 2005, "Productions were scuttled or postponed in the face of a $7.7 million deficit. Ambitious programming initiatives and plans for a second, smaller performance venue went by the wayside. Company-wide cuts pared 14 percent from the company's $67 million budget in 2003."
He continued: "Embattled by financial woes and trying labor negotiations, Rosenberg was routinely blamed for problems that were largely beyond her control. Her taste for new and unusual operas and a European-honed aesthetic that favored brash and even radical reinterpretations of the classics, the thinking went, drove away audiences and donors and ran up costs in the company's hour of greatest need."
Rosenberg returned to Germany to work with Sir Simon Rattle and the Berlin Philharmonic as its Intendantin. From 2004 to 2007, Keith Cerny served as the chief financial officer of the San Francisco Opera.
David Gockley (2006–2016)
After 33 years of directing the Houston Grand Opera, David Gockley became the SFO's General Director on 1 January 2006. As part of an announcement of the 2006/2007 season and the future of the company on 11 January, Gockley noted that "this season we debut a new visual identity and logo in keeping with a new artistic philosophy. I believe that it speaks of glamour, sophistication, tradition and innovation all things that infuse our plans for the future of San Francisco Opera."
In May 2011 it was announced that Gockley's contract was to be extended through SFO's 2015–16 season. In October 2014 it was announced that Gockley would be stepping down from his post at the end of the 2015/16 season. His replacement was announced to be Matthew Shilvock in September 2015.
Innovations announced
As part of his future plans, Gockley stated "I want nothing less than to have the greatest stars of the opera world perform here regularly. You can expect in coming seasons to hear Renée Fleming, Anna Netrebko, Thomas Hampson, Dmitri Hvorostovsky, Marcello Giordani, Ramón Vargas, Marcelo Álvarez, Juan Diego Flórez, Ben Heppner, Natalie Dessay, and Angela Gheorghiu, among many others. We will have a world premiere for you in 2007, and the Wagner lovers among you will be happy to hear that we expect to commence a Ring Cycle in 2008."
Ring Cycle
San Francisco Opera and Washington National Opera began a co-production of a new Ring Cycle in 2006 directed by Francesca Zambello. The production used imagery from various eras of American history and had a feminist and environmentalist viewpoint. SFO presented Das Rheingold in June 2008, Die Walküre in June 2010, and three complete Ring cycles in June 2011. The complete cycles in June 2011 were conducted by Donald Runnicles and featured cycle role debuts of Mark Delavan (Wotan) and Nina Stemme (Brünnhilde) as well as Jay Hunter Morris (making his role debut in the title role of Siegfried) and (making his role debut as Siegfried in Götterdämmerung.
Technological innovations
In May 2006 Gockley oversaw SFO's first simulcast, a live broadcast of a mainstage performance of Madama Butterfly to San Francisco's Civic Center Plaza for a crowd of 8,000. Subsequent simulcasts have been presented at Stanford University's Frost Amphitheater, four theaters in Northern California, and San Francisco's AT&T Park. SFO's has simulcast nine operas to AT&T Park since 2007 that have collectively drawn more than 165,000 opera fans.
The technology for the simulcasts and other innovations like OperaVision—a series of screens located throughout the War Memorial Opera House that project close-up shots of the action on stage—is made possible through SFO's Koret-Taube Media Suite. Completed in 2007, The Koret-Taube Media Suite is the first permanent high-definition broadcast-standard video production facility installed in any American opera house according to the company's website.
In 2007, San Francisco Opera returned to regular broadcasts of its productions on national and international radio., and in December the Opera announced the presentation of four operas in movie theaters across the United States. Following the initial presentation of the four operas in movie theaters in 2008, San Francisco Opera used these four titles to create its Grand Opera Cinema Series, making these titles available to be presented by performing arts centers, theaters, and universities. Since 2008 the company has added eight additional operas to the Grand Opera Cinema Series, and they have been presented by KQED-TV with hosts Rita Moreno and Joan Chen.
Music directors and conductors under Gockley
In September 2006, it was announced and reported that by mutual agreement with Gockley, Donald Runnicles would conclude his tenure as music director in 2009. However, he has maintained an association with SFO and conducted the 2010/11 production of Der Ring des Nibelungen as well as 2015's Les Troyens.
On 9 January 2007, SFO announced its third music director would be the Italian conductor Nicola Luisotti, beginning with the 2009/10 season, for an initial contract of 5 years. Luisotti made his SFO debut in 2005 with La forza del destino, and returned in 2008 to conduct La bohème prior to assuming the role of music director. In SFO's September 2009 program magazine, David Gockley announced that bringing on Luisotti as the company's music director was a large part of his goal to "reinvigorate the core Italian repertory that is San Francisco Opera's birthright." Gockley also stated that Luisotti would conduct three to four productions each season, including one non-Italian opera; since 2009 these non-Italian operas have included Salome, Lohengrin, and Carmen.
In January 2009, Gockley announced the reappointment of Patrick Summers as principal guest conductor and named Giuseppe Finzi as the company's new assistant music director. Finzi was named as SFO's resident conductor in 2011.
Programming
The company secured composer John Adams' Nixon in China for their 2011/12 season.
San Francisco Opera has presented several world premieres under David Gockley's tenure. So far these include Philip Glass and Christopher Hampton's Appomattox in 2007; Stewart Wallace and Amy Tan's The Bonesetter's Daughter in 2008; and Christopher Theofanidis and Donna Di Novelli's Heart of a Soldier in 2011. In 2013, the company presented three world premieres: Nolan Gasser and Carey Harrison's The Secret Garden, based on the children's book by Frances Hodgson Burnett (and staged in conjunction with UC Berkeley's Cal Performances); Mark Adamo's The Gospel of Mary Magdalene; and Tobias Picker and J. D. McClatchy's Dolores Claiborne, based on the novel by Stephen King. In the summer of 2015 the world premiere of La Ciociara by Marco Tutino and Luca Rossi, based on novel of the same name by Alberto Moravia, took place.
San Francisco Opera's recent commissions include Dream of the Red Chamber by Bright Sheng and David Henry Hwang in the fall of 2016, based on the work of the same name by 18th-century Qing Dynasty writer Cao Xueqin.
Wilsey Center for Opera
In order to consolidate its various office and work spaces scattered throughout San Francisco, SFO took over the fourth floor of the War Memorial and Performing Arts Center in February 2016, following the completion of the building's $156-million seismic retrofit and renovation. To accomplish this, the company started a campaign to name various locations of the new space after donors in 2011. San Francisco philanthropist Dede Wilsey pledged a $5-million gift, and the entire facility was named the Diane B. Wilsey Center for Opera. Designed by San Francisco architectural firm Mark Cavagnero Associates, the center provides additional office space as well as costume storage; two multipurpose rooms for rehearsals, board meetings, and social events; and a 299-seat performance venue.
References
Notes
Sources
Chatfield-Taylor, Joan, San Francisco Opera: The First Seventy-Five Years, San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997
External links
San Francisco Opera official website
San Francisco Opera Performance Archive
Bud Cary San Francisco opera collection. Collection guide, California State Library, California History Room.
California opera companies
Culture of San Francisco
Musical groups established in 1923
1923 establishments in California
Entertainment companies based in California
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Orono Por Muang Ubon (; born January 14, 1973 in Ubon Ratchathani) is a Thai former Muay Thai fighter.
Biography and career
Orono started Muay Thai at 10 in the Kiatkamchai camp. At 15 he joined the Por Muang Ubon gym in his native Ubon Ratchathani Province to start his Bangkok career, training alongside other notable fighters such as Nungubon Sitlerchai and Nuengtrakarn Por Muang Ubon. His ring name was given to him by a trainer who thought he had a similar face as the boxing champion Rafael Orono who came to compete for a world title in Thailand in 1983 and 1985.
Orono rapidly made a name for himself in Bangkok, fighting for the Songchai promotion. He was recognized for his southpaw style and ability to endure punishment. This style led him to put on very entertaining fights, some of them awarded "Fight of the Year" by Muay Thai institutions such as the Lumpinee Stadium or the Sports Writer Association of Thailand. The latter also designated him as "Fighter of the year" in 1994.
In the early 2010s Orono became a trainer at various Muay Thai camps including 13 Coins Resort. He kept taking fights until 2017.
Titles and honours
Lumpinee Stadium
1994 Lumpinee Stadium (135 lbs) champion
1998 Fight of the year (vs. Sakmongkol Sithchuchok)
International World MuayThai
IWM Junior Welterweight Champion
Sports Writers Association of Thailand
1994 Fighter of the year
1995 Fight of the year (vs. Pairot Vor.Walapon)
1998 Fight of the year (vs. Sakmongkol Sithchuchok)
Fight record
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 2017-12-22 ||Loss ||align=left| Erhan Gungor || Muay Xtreme ||Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 3|| 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 2017-08-11 || Win ||align=left| Rotnarong Daopadriew || Lumpinee Stadium ||Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5|| 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 2013-09-12 || Loss ||align=left| Behzad Rafigh Doust || Siam Sport TV (13 Coins Stadium ) ||Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5||3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 2013-07-09 || Win ||align=left| Vlad Malko || ||Thailand || TKO (Knees & Elbow) || 4||
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2013-05-12 || Loss ||align=left| Danny Edwards || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 2009-12-05 || Loss ||align=left| Djimé Coulibaly || King's Birthday || Bangkok, Thailand || KO || 4 ||
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2007- || Loss ||align=left| Soren Monkongtong || Channel 7 Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2007-02-02 || Loss||align=left| Kit Sitpholek || Thepprasit Stadium || Pattaya, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2005-09-09 || Loss ||align=left| Ryuji Goto || Xplosion 11: Night Of Champions || Hong Kong || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#cfc"
| 2004- || Win ||align=left| Ying Yai || || Thailand || KO || ||
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2002-08-19 || Loss ||align=left| Farid Villaume || Queen's Birthday event || Sukhothai Province, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2002-04-13 || Loss ||align=left| Jean-Charles Skarbowsky || Songkran : New year Celebration || Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#c5d2ea"
| 2002-03-04 || Draw ||align=left| Jean-Charles Skarbowsky || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2002-01-00 || Loss ||align=left| Jean-Charles Skarbowsky || || Udon Thani, Thailand || TKO (Ref stop) || 3 ||
|- bgcolor="#cfc"
| 2001-05-20 || Win||align=left| Ryuji Goto || MAJKF || Tokyo, Japan || Decision (Majority) || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2001-04-01 || Loss ||align=left| Duan Esarn Kiatsarika || Ngamwongwan Mall || Nonthaburi, Thailand || Decision|| 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#cfc"
| ? || Win ||align=left| Rodtang War.Tweekeat || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 2000-12-05 || Loss ||align=left| John Wayne Parr || Thai King's Birthday Event "Kings Cup" || Sanam Luang, Thailand || Decision (unanimous) || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2000-10-14 || Loss||align=left| Suriya Sor.Ploenchit || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#cfc"
| 2000-09-24 || Win||align=left| Kunihide Anose|| NJKF Millenium Wars 8 || Tokyo, Japan || Decision (Unanimous) || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2000- || Loss ||align=left| Morad Sari || || Las Vegas, USA || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2000- || Loss||align=left| Kaolan Kaovichit || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#cfc"
| 2000-01-29 || Win ||align=left| Stéphane Nikiéma || NJKF Millenium Wars 1 || Tokyo, Japan || Decision (Split) || 5 ||3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- bgcolor="#cfc"
| 1999-12-05 || Win ||align=left| Morad Sari || King's Birthday || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1999-|| Loss||align=left| Somchai Sor.Nantana || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1999-01-02 || Win ||align=left| Therdkiat Kiatrungroj || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#cfc"
| 1998-12-05 || Win ||align=left| Hassan Kassrioui || King's Birthday || Bangkok, Thailand || KO (knees to the body)||3 ||
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1998-10-24|| Win ||align=left| Somchai Sor.Nantana || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1998-08-28 || Loss ||align=left| Sakmongkol Sithchuchok || Wan Songchai Promotions || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1998-07-19 || Loss ||align=left| Sakmongkol Sithchuchok || ITV || Chachoengsao, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#c5d2ea;"
| 1998-06-27 || Draw ||align=left| Sakmongkol Sithchuchok || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1998-05-02|| Win ||align=left| Dejpitak Sityodtong || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1998-03-21 || Loss ||align=left| Sakmongkol Sithchuchok || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1998-03-03 || Win ||align=left| Angkarndej Por.Paoin || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 1998-||Loss ||align=left| Dany Bill || || Paris, France || Decision (Unanimous) || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 1997-12-05 ||Loss ||align=left| Dany Bill || King's Birthday || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision (Unanimous) || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1997-10-11|| Win ||align=left| Kongpatapee Sor Sumalee || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1997-|| Loss ||align=left| Kaoponglek Luksurathum || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO (Doctor Stoppage)|| 4 ||
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1997-07-|| Win ||align=left| Nuathoranee Thongracha || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1997-07-06 || Win ||align=left| John Wayne Parr || Chachoengsao || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO (doctor stoppage) || 2 ||
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 1997-04-20 || Loss ||align=left| Hassan Ettaki || || Amsterdam, Netherlands || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| ? || Loss ||align=left| Rayen Simson || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#c5d2ea;"
| 1996-10-11 || Draw||align=left| Sangtiennoi Sor.Rungroj || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| ?|| Win ||align=left| Saenchai Kiatworawut|| Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1996- || Loss ||align=left| Therdkiat Sitthepitak || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#cfc"
| ? || Win ||align=left| Coban Lookchaomaesaitong || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1995-04-28|| Win ||align=left| Pairot Wor.Wolapon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || KO (throw) || 4 ||
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1995-04-08 || Win ||align=left| Ramon Dekkers || || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1995-03-28 || Win||align=left| Jongsanan Fairtex || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1995-02-28 || Win ||align=left| Namkabuan Nongkeepahuyuth || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1995-01-31 || Loss ||align=left| Therdkiat Sitthepitak || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1994-12-24 || Win||align=left| Pairot Wor.Wolapon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="background:#c5d2ea;"
| 1994-10-24|| No Contest ||align=left| Pairot Wor.Wolapon || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || || 5 ||3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| ? || Loss ||align=left| Namphon Nongkee Pahuyuth || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1994-07-02|| Win ||align=left| Sangtiennoi Sor.Rungroj || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO (Shoulder dislocation)|| 3 ||
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1994-06-11 || Win||align=left| Pairot Wor.Wolapon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1994-03-14 || Win ||align=left| Jaroenthong Kiatbanchong || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision|| 5 ||3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1994-02-15 || Win||align=left| Cherry Sor Wanich || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#;"
| 1994-01-07 || ||align=left| Wanlop Sor.Theptong || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || || ||
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1993-12-23 || Loss ||align=left| Namphon Nongkee Pahuyuth || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1993-10-30 || Loss||align=left| Petchdam Sityodthong || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1993-?|| Win|| align=left| Prabseuklek Sitnarong || Sanam Luang || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1993-08-31|| Loss ||align=left| Sangtiennoi Sor.Rungroj || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1993-07-27|| Win|| align=left| Sangtiennoi Sor.Rungroj || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1993-06-25|| Loss ||align=left| Chodchoy Shuchokchai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1993-05-04|| Loss|| align=left| Den Muangsurin || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1993-04-22|| Loss ||align=left| Chodchoy Shuchokchai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1993-04-06 || Loss ||align=left| Pairot Wor.Wolapon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| ? || Win|| align=left| Panomrunglek Chor.Sawat || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1993-01-08 || Loss ||align=left| Cherry Sor Wanich || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| ? || Win|| align=left| Den Muangsurin || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1992-|| Win|| align=left| Jirasak Por Pongsawang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1992-10-23 || Loss ||align=left| Chandet Sor Prantalay || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1992-09-25 || Loss ||align=left| Chanchai Sor Tamarangsri || || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1992-07-21 || Loss ||align=left| Sakmongkol Sithchuchok || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1992-04-26 || Win ||align=left| Ramon Dekkers || || Samut Prakan, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1992-02-21 || Loss ||align=left| Cherry Sor Wanich || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 ||3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1992-01-21|| Win|| align=left| Jirasak Por Pongsawang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1991-12-27 || Win ||align=left| Prabphairi Phrabrama || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1991-09-24 || Loss ||align=left| Dejsak Sakpradu || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 1991-04-27|| Loss ||align=left| Tanooin Chor.Cheuchart ||Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 1991-03-05|| Loss ||align=left| Samransak Muangsurin ||Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 1991-01-21|| Loss ||align=left| Rittichai Lookchaomaesaitong ||Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1990 || Win ||align=left| Michael Liewfat || || England || KO (Left Elbow) ||3 ||
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1990-11-20 || Win||align=left| Panphet Muagnsurin || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1990-10-12 || Loss ||align=left| Langsuan Panyuthaphum || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 ||3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1990-09-25 || Win ||align=left| Kompayak Singmanee || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1990-08-31 || Win ||align=left| Paruhatlek Sitchunthong || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1990-08- || Win||align=left| Pongsiri Por Ruamrudee || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1990-07-20 || Win||align=left| Duangsompong Tor.Sitthichai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1990-05-15 || Loss ||align=left| Chandet Sor Prantalay || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1990-04-24 || Win ||align=left| Pornnimit Muanglopburi || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1990-03-30 || Win||align=left| Pornsak Muagnsurin || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1989-09-18 || Loss ||align=left| Krirkchai Sor.Kettalingchan || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1989-06-13 || Loss||align=left| Sakmongkol Sithchuchok || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1989-05-15 || Win||align=left| Sakmongkol Sithchuchok || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1989-03-28 || Loss||align=left| Playchumphon Sor Prantalay || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1989-03-04 || Win ||align=left| Tukatathong Por Pongsawang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1989-02-17 || Win ||align=left| Pichai Wor.Walapon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
| colspan=9 | Legend:
References
1973 births
Living people
Orono Por Muang Ubon
Orono Por Muang Ubon
Muay Thai trainers
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Leninism is a political ideology developed by Russian Marxist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin that proposes the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat led by a revolutionary vanguard party, as the political prelude to the establishment of communism. The function of the Leninist vanguard party is to provide the working classes with the political consciousness (education and organisation) and revolutionary leadership necessary to depose capitalism in the Russian Empire (1721–1917). Leninist revolutionary leadership is based upon The Communist Manifesto (1848) identifying the communist party as "the most advanced and resolute section of the working class parties of every country; that section which pushes forward all others." As the vanguard party, the Bolsheviks viewed history through the theoretical framework of dialectical materialism, which sanctioned political commitment to the successful overthrow of capitalism, and then to instituting socialism; and, as the revolutionary national government, to realize the socio-economic transition by all means.
In the aftermath of the October Revolution (1917), Leninism was the dominant version of Marxism in Russia and the basis of Soviet Democracy, the rule of directly elected soviets. In establishing the socialist mode of production in Bolshevik Russia—with the Decree on Land (1917), war communism (1918–1921), and the New Economic Policy (1921–1928)—the revolutionary régime suppressed most political opposition, including Marxists who opposed Lenin's actions, the anarchists and the Mensheviks, factions of the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. The Russian Civil War (1917–1922), which included the seventeen-army Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War (1917–1925), and left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks (1918–1924) were the external and internal wars which transformed Bolshevik Russia into the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR), the core republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
As revolutionary praxis, Leninism originally was neither a proper philosophy nor a discrete political theory. Leninism comprises politico-economic developments of orthodox Marxism and Lenin's interpretations of Marxism, which function as a pragmatic synthesis for practical application to the actual conditions (political, social, economic) of the post-emancipation agrarian society of Imperial Russia in the early 20th century. As a political-science term, Lenin's theory of proletarian revolution entered common usage at the fifth congress of the Communist International (1924), when Grigory Zinoviev applied the term Leninism to denote "vanguard-party revolution." The term Leninism was accepted as part of CPSU's vocabulary and doctrine around 1922, and in January 1923, despite objections from Lenin, it entered the public vocabulary.
Historical background
In the 19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848) in which they called for the political unification of the European working classes in order to achieve communist revolution; and proposed that, because the socio-economic organization of Communism was of a higher form than that of capitalism, a workers' revolution first would occur in the industrialised countries. In Germany, Marxist social democracy was the political perspective of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, inspiring Russian Marxists, such as Lenin.
In the early 20th century, the socio-economic backwardness of Imperial Russia (1721–1917) — combined and uneven economic development – facilitated rapid and intensive industrialisation, which produced a united, working-class proletariat in a predominantly agrarian society. Moreover, because the industrialisation was financed mostly with foreign capital, Imperial Russia did not possess a revolutionary bourgeoisie with political and economic influence upon the workers and the peasants, as had been the case in the French Revolution (1789–1799), in the 18th century. Although Russia's political economy was agrarian and semi-feudal, the task of democratic revolution fell to the urban, industrial working class as the only social class capable of effecting land reform and democratization, in view that the Russian bourgeoisie would suppress any revolution.
In the April Theses (1917), the political strategy of the October Revolution (7–8 November 1917), Lenin proposed that the Russian revolution was not an isolated national event, but a fundamentally international event – the first socialist revolution in the world. Lenin's practical application of Marxism and proletarian revolution to the social, political, and economic conditions of agrarian Russia motivated and impelled the "revolutionary nationalism of the poor" to depose the absolute monarchy of the three-hundred-year dynasty of the House of Romanov (1613–1917), as tsars of Russia.
Imperialism
In Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) Lenin's economic analyses indicated that capitalism would transform into a global financial system, by which industrialised countries exported financial capital to their colonies and so realise the exploitation of labour of the natives and the exploitation of the natural resources of their countries. That such superexploitation allows wealthy countries to maintain a domestic labour aristocracy with a slightly higher standard of living than the majority of workers, and so ensure peaceful labour–capital relations in the capitalist homeland. Therefore, a proletarian revolution of workers and peasants could not occur in capitalist countries whilst the imperialist global-finance system remained in place. The first proletarian revolution would have to occur in an under-developed country, such as Imperial Russia, which was the politically weakest country in the capitalist global-finance system in the early 20th century. In the United States of Europe Slogan (1915), Lenin wrote:
In Left-Wing Communism: An Infantile Disorder (1920), Lenin wrote:
Leninist praxis
Vanguard party
In Chapter II, "Proletarians and Communists", of The Communist Manifesto (1848), Marx and Engels present the communist party as the political vanguard solely qualified to lead the proletariat in revolution:
The revolutionary purpose of the Leninist vanguard party is to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat with the support of the working class. The Communist Party would lead the popular deposition of the Tsarist government and then transfer power of government to the working class; that change of ruling class—from the bourgeoisie to the proletariat—makes possible the establishment of socialism. In What Is To Be Done? (1902), Lenin said that a revolutionary vanguard party, recruited from the working class, should lead the political campaign, because only in that way would the proletariat successfully realise their revolution; unlike the economic campaign of trade-union-struggle advocated by other socialist political parties and the anarcho-syndicalists. Like Marx, Lenin distinguished between the aspects of a revolution, the "economic campaign" (labour strikes for increased wages and work concessions) that featured diffused plural leadership; and the "political campaign" (socialist changes to society), which required the decisive, revolutionary leadership of the Bolshevik vanguard party.
Democratic centralism
Based upon the First International (IWA, International Workingmen's Association, 1864–1876), Lenin organised the Bolsheviks as a democratically centralised vanguard party, wherein free political-speech was recognised legitimate until policy consensus; afterwards, every member of the Party was expected to abide the agreed policy. Democratic debate was Bolshevik practice, even after Lenin banned factions among the Party in 1921. Despite being a guiding political influence, Lenin did not exercise absolute power, and continually debated to have his points of view accepted as a course of revolutionary action. In Freedom to Criticise and Unity of Action (1905), Lenin said:
Proletarian revolution
Before the October Revolution, despite supporting moderate political reform—including Bolsheviks elected to the Duma, when opportune—Lenin said that capitalism could only be overthrown with proletarian revolution, not with gradual reforms—from within (Fabianism) and from without (social democracy)—which would fail because the bourgeoisie's control of the means of production determined the nature of political power in Russia. As epitomised in the slogan "For a Democratic Dictatorship of the Proletariat and Peasantry," a proletarian revolution in underdeveloped Russia required a united proletariat (peasants and industrial workers) in order to successfully assume power of government in the cities. Moreover, owing to the middle-class aspirations of much of the peasantry, Leon Trotsky said that proletarian leadership of the revolution would ensure truly socialist and democratic socio-economic change.
Dictatorship of the proletariat
In Bolshevik Russia, government by direct democracy was realised and effected by the soviets (elected councils of workers) which Lenin said was the "democratic dictatorship of the proletariat" postulated in orthodox Marxism. The soviets comprised representative committees from the factories and the trade unions, but excluded the capitalist social class to ensure the establishment of a proletarian government, by and for the working class and the peasants. Concerning the political disenfranchisement of the capitalist social-class in Bolshevik Russia, Lenin said that "depriving the exploiters of the franchise is a purely Russian question, and not a question of the dictatorship of the proletariat, in general.… In which countries…democracy for the exploiters will be, in one or another form, restricted…is a question of the specific national features of this or that capitalism." In chapter five of The State and Revolution (1917), Lenin describes the dictatorship of the proletariat as:
Concerning the disenfranchisement from democracy of the capitalist social class, Lenin said: "Democracy for the vast majority of the people, and suppression by force, i.e. exclusion from democracy, of the exploiters and oppressors of the people—this is the change democracy undergoes during the transition from capitalism to communism." The dictatorship of the proletariat was effected with soviet constitutionalism, a form of government opposite to the dictatorship of capital (privately owned means of production) practised in bourgeois democracies. Under soviet constitutionalism, the Leninist vanguard party would be one of many political parties competing for election to government power. Nevertheless, because of the Russian Civil War (1917–1924) and the anti-Bolshevik terrorism of opposing political parties aiding the White Armies' counter-revolution, the Bolshevik government banned all other political parties, which left the Leninist vanguard party as the sole, political party in Russia. Lenin said that such political suppression was not philosophically inherent to the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Economics
The Bolshevik government nationalised industry and established a foreign-trade monopoly to allow the productive co-ordination of the national economy, and so prevent Russian national industries from competing against each other. To feed the populaces of town and country, Lenin instituted War Communism (1918–1921) as a necessary condition – adequate supplies of food and weapons—for fighting the Russian Civil War. In March 1921, the New Economic Policy (NEP, 1921–1929) allowed limited, local capitalism (private commerce and internal free-trade) and replaced grain requisitions with an agricultural tax managed by state banks. The NEP meant to resolve food-shortage riots by the peasantry and allowed limited private enterprise; the profit motive that encouraged farmers to produce the crops required to feed town and country; and to economically re-establish the urban working class, who had lost many workers to fight the counter-revolutionary Civil War. The NEP nationalisation of the economy then would facilitate the industrialisation of Russia, politically strengthen the working class, and raise the standards of living for all Russians. Lenin said that the appearance of new socialist states was necessary to strengthening Russia's economy in the establishment of Russian socialism. Lenin's socio-economic perspective was supported by the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Italian insurrection and general strikes of 1920, and worker wage-riots in the UK, France, and the US.
National self-determination
In recognising and accepting nationalism among oppressed peoples, Lenin advocated their national right to self-determination, and so opposed Russian chauvinism, because such ethnocentrism was a cultural obstacle to establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat in every territory of the deposed Russian Empire (1721–1917). In The Right of Nations to Self-determination (1914), Lenin said:
The socialist internationalism of Marxism and Bolshevism is based upon class struggle and a peoples' transcending nationalism, ethnocentrism, and religion—the intellectual obstacles to progressive class consciousness—which are the cultural status quo that the capitalist ruling class manipulates in order to politically divide the working classes and the peasant classes. To overcome that barrier to establishing socialism, Lenin said that acknowledging nationalism, as a peoples' right of self-determination and right of secession, naturally would allow socialist states to transcend the political limitations of nationalism to form a federation. In The Question of Nationalities, or 'Autonomisation''' (1923), Lenin said:
Socialist culture
The role of the Leninist vanguard party was to politically educate the workers and peasants to dispel the societal false consciousness of religion and nationalism that constitute the cultural status quo taught by the bourgeoisie to the proletariat to facilitate their economic exploitation of peasant and worker. Influenced by Lenin, the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party stated that the development of the socialist workers' culture should not be "hamstrung from above" and opposed the Proletkult (1917–1925) organisational control of the national culture.
Leninism after 1924
Stalinism
In post-Revolutionary Russia, Stalinism (socialism in one country) and Trotskyism (permanent world revolution) were the principal philosophies of communism that claimed legitimate ideological descent from Leninism, thus within the Communist Party, each ideological faction denied the political legitimacy of the opposing faction. Until shortly before his death, Lenin countered Stalin's disproportionate political influence in the Communist Party and in the bureaucracy of the Soviet government, partly because of abuses he had committed against the populace of Georgia and partly because the autocratic Stalin had accumulated administrative power disproportionate to his office of General Secretary of the Communist Party.
The counter-action against Stalin aligned with Lenin's advocacy of the right of self-determination for the national and ethnic groups of the deposed Tsarist Empire. Lenin warned the Party that Stalin has "unlimited authority concentrated in his hands, and I am not sure whether he will always be capable of using that authority with sufficient caution", and formed a faction with Leon Trotsky to remove Stalin as the General Secretary of the Communist Party.Lenin, V.I. 1923-24 "Last Testament" Letters to the Congress, in Lenin Collected Works, Volume 36 pp. 593–611. Available online at Marxists.org. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
To that end followed proposals reducing the administrative powers of party posts in order to reduce bureaucratic influence upon the policies of the Communist Party. Lenin advised Trotsky to emphasise Stalin's recent bureaucratic alignment in such matters (e.g. undermining the anti-bureaucratic workers' and peasants' Inspection) and argued to depose Stalin as General Secretary. Despite advice to refuse "any rotten compromise," Trotsky did not heed Lenin's advice and General Secretary Stalin retained power over the Communist Party and the bureaucracy of the Soviet government.
Trotskyism
After Lenin's death (21 January 1924), Trotsky ideologically battled the influence of Stalin, who formed ruling blocs within the Russian Communist Party (with Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, then with Nikolai Bukharin and then by himself) and so determined soviet government policy from 1924 onwards. The ruling blocs continually denied Stalin's opponents the right to organise as an opposition faction within the party—thus the reinstatement of democratic centralism and free speech within the Communist Party were key arguments of Trotsky's Left Opposition and the later Joint Opposition.
In the course of instituting government policy, Stalin promoted the doctrine of socialism in one country (adopted 1925), wherein the Soviet Union would establish socialism upon Russia's economic foundations (and support socialist revolutions elsewhere). Conversely, Trotsky held that socialism in one country would economically constrain the industrial development of the Soviet Union and thus required assistance from the new socialist countries in the developed world—which was essential for maintaining soviet democracy—in 1924 much undermined by the Russian Civil War of White Army counter-revolution. Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution proposed that socialist revolutions in underdeveloped countries would go further towards dismantling feudal régimes and establish socialist democracies that would not pass through a capitalist stage of development and government. Hence, revolutionary workers should politically ally with peasant political organisations, but not with capitalist political parties. In contrast, Stalin and allies proposed that alliances with capitalist political parties were essential to realising a revolution where communists were too few. Said Stalinist practice failed, especially in the Northern Expedition portion of the Chinese Revolution (1926–1928), which resulted in the right-wing Kuomintang's massacre of the Chinese Communist Party. Despite the failure, Stalin's policy of mixed-ideology political alliances nonetheless became Comintern policy.
Until exiled from Russia in 1929, Trotsky developed and led the Left Opposition (and the later Joint Opposition) with members of the Workers' Opposition, the Decembrists and (later) the Zinovievists. Trotskyism predominated the politics of the Left Opposition, which demanded the restoration of soviet democracy, the expansion of democratic centralism in the Communist Party, national industrialisation, international permanent revolution and socialist internationalism. The Trotskyist demands countered Stalin's political dominance of the Communist Party, which was officially characterised by the "cult of Lenin", the rejection of permanent revolution, and advocated the doctrine of socialism in one country. The Stalinist economic policy vacillated between appeasing the capitalist interests of the kulak in the countryside and destroying them as a social class. Initially, the Stalinists also rejected the national industrialisation of Russia, but then pursued it in full, sometimes brutally. In both cases, the Left Opposition denounced the regressive nature of Stalin's policy towards the wealthy kulak social class and the brutality of forced industrialisation. Trotsky described Stalinist vacillation as a symptom of the undemocratic nature of a ruling bureaucracy.
During the 1920s and the 1930s, Stalin fought and defeated the political influence of Trotsky and the Trotskyists in Russia, by means of slander, antisemitism, and censorship, expulsions, exile (internal and external), and imprisonment. The anti–Trotsky campaign culminated in the executions (official and unofficial) of the Moscow Trials (1936–1938), which were part of the Great Purge of Old Bolsheviks who had led the Revolution).Rogovin, Vadim Z. Stalin's Terror of 1937-1938: Political Genocide in the USSR. (2009) translated to English by Frederick S. Choate, from the Russian-language Party of the Executed by Vadim Z. Rogovin.
Analysis
Some historians such as Richard Pipes consider Stalinism as the natural consequence of Leninism, that Stalin "faithfully implemented Lenin's domestic and foreign policy programs." Robert Service notes that "institutionally and ideologically Lenin laid the foundations for a Stalin [...] but the passage from Leninism to the worse terrors of Stalinism was not smooth and inevitable." Historian and Stalin biographer Edvard Radzinsky believes that Stalin was a real follower of Lenin, exactly as he claimed himself. Proponents of continuity cite a variety of contributory factors, in that it was Lenin, rather than Stalin, whose civil war measures introduced the Red Terror with its hostage-taking and internment camps; that it was Lenin who developed the infamous Article 58 and who established the autocratic system within the Russian Communist Party. Proponents also note that Lenin put a ban on factions within the party and introduced the one-party state in 1921, a move that enabled Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin's death and cite Felix Dzerzhinsky, who exclaimed during the Bolshevik struggle against opponents in the Russian Civil War: "We stand for organized terror—this should be frankly stated."
Opponents of this view include revisionist historians and a number of post-Cold War and otherwise dissident Soviet historians including Roy Medvedev, who argues that "one could list the various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin", but that "in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with Lenin's clear instructions, but in defiance of them." In doing so, some historians have tried to distance Stalinism from Leninism in order to undermine the totalitarian view that the negative facets of Stalin were inherent in communism from the start. Critics of this kind include anti-Stalinist communists such as Leon Trotsky, who pointed out that Lenin attempted to persuade the Russian Communist Party to remove Stalin from his post as its General Secretary. Lenin's Testament, the document which contained this order, was suppressed after Lenin's death. In his biography of Trotsky, British historian Isaac Deutscher says that, on being faced with the evidence, "only the blind and the deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism."
A similar analysis is present in more recent works such as those of Graeme Gill, who argues that "[Stalinism was] not a natural flow-on of earlier developments; [it formed a] sharp break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors." However, Gill notes that "difficulties with the use of the term reflect problems with the concept of Stalinism itself. The major difficulty is a lack of agreement about what should constitute Stalinism." Revisionist historians such as Sheila Fitzpatrick have criticized the focus upon the upper levels of society and the use of Cold War concepts such as totalitarianism which have obscured the reality of the system.
As a form of Marxism, revolutionary Leninism was much criticised as an undemocratic interpretation of socialism. In The Nationalities Question in the Russian Revolution (1918), Rosa Luxemburg criticised the Bolsheviks for the suppression of the All Russian Constituent Assembly (January 1918); the partitioning of the feudal estates to the peasant communes; and the right of self-determination of every national people of the Russias. That the strategic (geopolitical) mistakes of the Bolsheviks would create great dangers for the Russian Revolution such as the bureaucratisation that would arise to administrate the oversized country that was Bolshevik Russia. In defense of the expedient revolutionary practice, in 'Left-Wing' Communism: An Infantile Disorder (1920) Lenin dismissed the political and ideological complaints of the anti-Bolshevik critics, who claimed ideologically correct stances that were to the political left of Lenin. In Marxist philosophy, left communism is a range of political perspectives that are left-wing among communists. Left communism criticizes the ideology that the Bolshevik Party practised as the revolutionary vanguard. Ideologically, left communists present their perspectives and approaches as authentic Marxism and thus more oriented to the proletariat than the Leninism of the Communist International at their first (1919) and second (1920) congresses. Proponents of left communism include Amadeo Bordiga, Herman Gorter, Paul Mattick, Sylvia Pankhurst, Antonie Pannekoek and Otto Rühle.
Historically, the Dutch–German communist left has been most critical of Lenin and Leninism,Pannekoek, Anton. 1938. Lenin As Philosopher. yet the Italian communist left remained Leninist. Bordiga said: "All this work of demolishing opportunism and 'deviationism' (Lenin: What Is To Be Done?) is today the basis of party activity. The party follows revolutionary tradition and experiences in this work during these periods of revolutionary reflux and the proliferation of opportunist theories, which had as their violent and inflexible opponents Marx, Engels, Lenin, and the Italian Left." In The Lenin Legend (1935), Paul Mattick said that the council communist tradition, begun by the Dutch-German leftists, also is critical of Leninism. Contemporary left-communist organisations, such as the Internationalist Communist Tendency and the International Communist Current, view Lenin as an important and influential theorist, but remain critical of Leninism as political praxis for proletarian revolution."Lenin's Legacy". Nonetheless, the Bordigism of the International Communist Party abide Bordiga's strict Leninism. Ideologically aligned with the Dutch–German left, among the ideologists of contemporary communisation, the theorist Gilles Dauvé criticised Leninism as a "by-product of Kautskyism." In The Soviet Union Versus Socialism (1986), Noam Chomsky said that Stalinism was the logical development of Leninism and not an ideological deviation from Lenin's policies, which resulted in collectivisation enforced with a police state. In light of the tenets of socialism, Leninism was a right-wing deviation of Marxism.
The vanguard-party revolution of Leninism became the ideological basis of the communist parties comprised by the socialist political spectrum. In the People's Republic of China, the Chinese Communist Party organised themselves with Maoism (the Thought of Mao Zedong), socialism with Chinese characteristics. In Singapore, the People's Action Party (PAP) featured internal democracy and initiated single-party dominance in the government and politics of Singapore. In the event, the practical application of Maoism to the socio-economic conditions of Third World countries produced revolutionary vanguard parties, such as the Communist Party of Peru – Red Fatherland.
See also
Anti-Leninism
"He who does not work neither shall he eat"
National delimitation in the Soviet Union
Yellow socialism
References
Further reading
Selected works by Vladimir Lenin
The Development of Capitalism in Russia, 1899.
What Is To Be Done? Burning Questions of Our Movement, 1902.
The Three Sources and Three Component Parts of Marxism, 1913.
The Right of Nations to Self-Determination, 1914.
Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, 1917.
The State and Revolution, 1917.
The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution (The "April Theses"), 1917.
"Left-Wing" Childishness and the Petty Bourgois Mentality, 1918.
Left-Wing Communism: an Infantile Disorder, 1920.
"Last Testament" Letters to the Congress, 1923–1924.
Histories
Isaac Deutscher. The Prophet Armed: Trotsky 1879–1921, 1954.
Isaac Deutscher. The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky 1921–1929, 1959.
Moshe Lewin. Lenin's Last Struggle, 1969.
Edward Hallett Carr. The Russian Revolution From Lenin to Stalin: 1917–1929'', 1979.
Other authors
External links
Works by Vladimir Lenin
What Is To Be Done?.
Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism.
The State and Revolution.
"The Lenin Archive".
"First Conference of the Communist International".
Other thematic links
"Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy".
"An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky".
Rosa Luxemburg. "Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy".
Karl Korsch. "Lenin's Philosophy".
"Cyber Leninism".
"Leninist Ebooks".
Anton Pannekoek. "Lenin as a Philosopher".
Paul Mattick. "The Lenin Legend".
Eponymous political ideologies
Marxist schools of thought
Theories of history
Types of socialism
Vladimir Lenin
Far-left politics
Authoritarianism
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Chief Buffalo (Ojibwe: Ke-che-waish-ke/Gichi-weshkiinh – "Great-renewer" or Peezhickee/Bizhiki – "Buffalo"; also French, Le Boeuf) (1759? – September 7, 1855) was a major Ojibwa leader, born at La Pointe in Lake Superior's Apostle Islands, in what is now northern Wisconsin, USA.
Recognized as the principal chief of the Lake Superior Chippewa (Ojibwa) for nearly a half-century until his death in 1855, he led his nation into a treaty relationship with the United States Government. He signed treaties in 1825, 1826, 1837, 1842, 1847, and 1854. He was instrumental in resisting the United States' efforts to remove the Ojibwa to western areas and secured permanent Indian reservations for his people near Lake Superior in what is now Wisconsin.
Background
Political structure of the Lake Superior Ojibwa
Kechewaishke was born around 1759 at La Pointe on Madeline Island (Mooningwanekaaning) in the Shagawamikong region. Now part of Wisconsin, La Pointe was a key Ojibwa village and trading center for the empire of New France, which was fighting the Seven Years' War against Great Britain at the time of Kechewaishke's birth. Throughout the 18th century, the Ojibwa spread out from La Pointe into lands conquered from the Dakota people, and settled several village sites. These bands in the western Lake Superior and Mississippi River regions regarded La Pointe as their "ancient capital" and spiritual center. It had also become a center of trade.
Traditional Ojibwa government and society centers around kinship clans, each symbolized by animal doodem. Each doodem had a traditional responsibility within the tribe. Kechewaishke, or Buffalo as he was known to Europeans, belonged to the Loon clan.
The Loon Clan was said to have been rising in prominence in the mid-18th-century due to the efforts of Andaigweos (Ojibwe: Aandegwiiyaas, "Crow's Meat"), Kechewaishke's grandfather. Andaigweos was born in the Shagawamikong region, son to a man described as "a Canadian Indian" (i.e. a Saulteaux from Sault Ste. Marie, a key Ojibwa village at Lake Superior's eastern end). At the time of first French contact in the mid-17th century, men of the Crane doodem held the positions of hereditary peace chiefs of Ojibwa communities at both Sault Ste. Marie and La Pointe. Andaigweos was a skilled orator and favorite of the French officials and voyageurs. In that period, leaders of the Cranes were concerned more with internal matters. By the 19th century, it was Kechewaishke's clan, the Loons, that was recognized as the principal chiefs at La Pointe.
Although the Loons were afforded respect as principal peace chiefs, this status was not permanent. The Cranes, led in Kechewaishke's time by his sub-chief Tagwagane, maintained that they were the hereditary chiefs. They said the Loons' status as spokesmen hinged upon recognition by the Cranes. A chief's power in Ojibwa society was based on persuasion and consensus, holding only as long as the community of elders, including the women, chose to respect and follow the chief's lead.
Personal life
Sources conflict as to the identity of Kechewaishke's father, who may also have been named Andaigweos. He appears to have been a descendant or relative of the famous war chief Waubojeeg. When he was about 10, Kechewaishke and his parents moved from La Pointe to the vicinity of what is now Buffalo, New York, and lived there until about he was about 12. The family relocated to the Mackinac Island area for a while before returning to La Pointe. In his youth, Kechewaishke was admired as a skilled hunter and athlete.
Like many Anishinaabe people, Kechewaishke was also known by another Ojibwa name, Peshickee (Bizhiki: "the Buffalo"). This has caused confusion in records of his life, in part because both names were very similar to those of other prominent contemporaries. Bizhiki was the name of a chief from the St. Croix Band, and also of a warrior of the Pillager Chippewa Band (Beshekee). Additionally, a leading member of the Caribou doodem and a son of Waubojeeg, in the Sault Ste. Marie area, was known by the name Waishikey (Weshki). Scholars have mistakenly attributed aspects of the lives of all three of these men to Kechewaishke.
Kechewaishke had five wives and numerous children, many of whom became prominent Ojibwa leaders in the reservation era. He practiced the Midewiwin religion, but converted to Roman Catholicism on his deathbed.
Views on international relations
Few details of Kechewaishke's early life are known.He appears to have been favored by British traders and decorated by British authorities, but few Ojibwa from Lake Superior fought in the American Revolution or the War of 1812, and there is no record of his participation.
When Tecumseh's War broke out, Kechewaishke and a number of other young warriors from the La Pointe area abandoned the Midewiwin for a time to follow the teachings of the Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa. While en route to Prophetstown to join the attack on the Americans, they were stopped by Michel Cadotte, the respected Métis fur trader from La Pointe. Cadotte convinced Kechewaishke and the others that it would be fruitless to fight the Americans.
After that incident, Kechewaishke is recorded as using only peaceful tactics in his relations with the United States, though he often opposed US Indian policy. He also drew a contrast between himself and his contemporaries Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay and Hole in the Day, two Ojibwa chiefs from present-day Minnesota, who carried out a long war against the Dakota Sioux people.
Although Armstrong records Kechewaishke winning a large victory over the Dakota in the 1842 Battle of the Brule, 20th-century historians have cast doubt on his account. That year Kechewaishke was recorded as saying he "never took a scalp in his life, though he had taken prisoners whom he fed and well-treated." Overall, he seems to have supported efforts at peace between the Ojibwa and Dakota.
Kechewaishke not only inherited the status afforded his family, but also had skills praised in his grandfather Andaigweos. Noted for his abilities in hunting and battle, he was recognized as chief by his people because of his speaking and oratorical skills, which were highly valued in his culture. By the time the Ojibwa of Wisconsin and Minnesota started treaty negotiations with the US Government, Kechewaishke was recognized as one of the primary spokesmen for all the bands, not just for the Ojibwa from La Pointe.
Treaties of 1825 and 1826
In 1825, Kechewaishke was one of 41 Ojibwa leaders to sign the First Treaty of Prairie du Chien, with his name recorded as "Gitspee Waishkee" or La Boeuf. He is listed third after Shingabawossin, who was recognized as head of the Crane doodem at Sault Ste. Marie, and therefore of the whole Ojibwa nation, which was a loose confederacy of bands. Second in the list was chief "Gitspee Jiuaba". The treaty, which the US Government advanced as a pretext to end hostilities between the Dakota and their neighbors, required all American Indian tribes and bands in and around Wisconsin and Iowa to delineate where their territories began and ended. Although the treaty did not state this goal, the US used information it acquired to negotiate to gain Indian lands and remove the nations westward.
A year later, the US and Ojibwa signed the Treaty of Fond du Lac at a meeting at Lake Superior's western edge. The signatories were listed by band, and Kechewaishke, recorded as Peezhickee, signed as the first chief from La Pointe. The treaty, mainly dealing with mineral rights for Ojibwa lands in what is now Michigan, had little immediate effect but foreshadowed future treaties. Kechewaishke did not speak on the copper issue. He praised the US officials for their ability to keep their young people under their control, and asked for whiskey to accomplish the same ends among the younger members of his band. When the agent presented him with a silver medal as a symbol of his chieftainship, Kechewaishke said that his power was based in his clan and reputation, and not from anything received from the U.S. government.
Shortly after the treaties were signed, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, acting in his capacity as US Indian agent, visited La Pointe. He reprimanded Kechewaishke for not stopping the continuing sporadic warfare between the Ojibwa and Dakota. Kechewaishke replied that he was unable to stop the young men of Lac Courte Oreilles, St. Croix, Lac du Flambeau or other bands beyond La Pointe from fighting the Dakota. Historians take this to mean that while he was regarded as the head spokesman of the Ojibwa in Wisconsin, he could not control the day-to-day affairs of all the bands, which were highly decentralized, particularly with respect to warfare. Kechewaishke also said that, unlike the British before the War of 1812, the U.S. government had not done enough to maintain peace among the tribes.
Treaties of 1837 and 1842
In the next decades, there was pressure from Americans who wanted to exploit the mineral and timber resources of Ojibwa country, and the US government sought to acquire control of the territory through treaties. The Treaties of 1837 and 1842 covered La Pointe and territories held by other bands over which Kechewaishke held considerable influence. In both treaties, Americans recognized his position as the principal chief of all the Lake Superior Ojibwa.
"Pine Tree" treaty
In the Treaty of St. Peters (1837), the government sought the pine timber resources on Ojibwa lands. It intended to float the harvested timber southwest into the Mississippi River. The negotiations took place at Fort Snelling, near present-day Minneapolis. The delegations from Minnesota and the St. Croix area arrived first and began discussions on July 20. The assembled chiefs awaited Kechewaishke's judgment before deciding to approve the treaty. Despite the impatience of the territorial governor, Henry Dodge, the negotiations were delayed for five days as the assembled bands waited for Kechewaishke to arrive. While other chiefs spoke about the terms of mineral rights and annuity amounts, Kechewaishke discussed treatment of mixed-blood traders, saying:
Once the terms were agreed to, Kechewaishke marked and was recorded as Pe-zhe-ke, head of the La Pointe delegation. Although he and the other Lake Superior chiefs signed, they were said to be quieter than the Mississippi Chippewa chiefs during the negotiations. Historian Satz says this symbolized disagreement rather than acceptance of the terms of the treaty. Lyman Warren, a trader and interpreter from La Pointe, later complained that the Pillagers (bands from present-day Minnesota) had been bribed into selling the lands rightfully belonging to the Wisconsin bands.
Kechewaishke expressed his misgivings over the treaty negotiations in a letter to Governor Dodge, writing:
"The Indians acted like children; they tried to cheat each other and got cheated themselves. When it comes my turn to sell my land, I do not think I shall give it up as they did." Regarding possible future land cessions, he said: "Father I speak for my people, not for myself. I am an old man. My fire is almost out—there is but little smoke. When I sit in my wigwam & smoke my pipe, I think of what has past and what is to come, and it makes my heart shake. When business comes before us, we will try and act like Chiefs. If any thing is to be done, it had better be done straight."
"Copper" treaty
Five years later, Kechewaishke was presented with the Treaty of La Pointe covering his lands. Acting Superintendent of Indian Affairs Henry Stuart, who was promoting development of the Lake Superior copper industry, led the negotiations for the US government. No record of the negotiations was made. But materials written by missionaries, traders, and the Ojibwa through their agent indicated that Stuart used bullying and outright deception to force the Ojibwa to accept the terms.
Kechewaishke signed and was recorded as Gichi waishkey, 1st chief of La Pointe. Writing in 1855, Morse describes Kechewaishke's "voice so potent at the treaty of '42." But three months after the treaty, Kechewaishke dictated a letter to the government in Washington D.C., saying he was "ashamed" of the way the treaty was conducted. He said that Stuart had refused to listen to any of the Ojibwa's objections, and asked to add a provision to ensure permanent Ojibwa reservations in Wisconsin.
The interpretation of the 1837 and 1842 treaties remains ambiguous, as the US government claimed the Ojibwa ceded title to the lands, and the Ojibwa claimed they ceded only resource rights. The government had said that the Ojibwa lands were unsuitable for farming and white settlement. The Ojibwa did obtain annuity payments to be paid each year at La Pointe, and reserved the right to hunt, fish, gather, and move across any lands outlined in the treaties. They obtained the promise that the nation would not be removed across the Mississippi River unless they somehow "misbehaved."
Threats of removal
In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the government to remove any Indian nations east of the Mississippi River to the western side and offer land in exchange. As northern Wisconsin was not then under pressure for development by white settlers, as occurred in the Southeast, the Ojibwa were not among the first targets of the act. They watched closely as the government used the territorial claims defined by tribes in 1825 to force numerous tribes in Indiana, southern Michigan and southern Wisconsin to move west to Kansas, Iowa, Minnesota, and Indian Territory, present-day Oklahoma. These included the Odawa and Potawatomi, two Anishinaabe tribes closely related to and allied with the Ojibwa.
In 1848, Wisconsin achieved statehood; Indian nations were under increased pressure for removal and marginalization. Corrupt US Indian agents controlled annuity payments, sometimes underpaying tribes, and took authority not granted them by the bands. They allowed white settlers to move onto Ojibwa lands and refused the Ojibwa the rights reserved by treaties. The Ojibwa complained to Jackson about the mistreatment and broken promises, but politicians were more apt to listen to western land speculators, who saw possibilities for profit in removing the Ojibwa to Minnesota.
Even with the treaties of 1837 and 1842, leaders worried about Ojibwa removal. Kechewaishke kept in constant contact with the other bands to ensure the Ojibwa upheld their obligations. He sent runners to all the bands to report back on any conduct that could construed as grounds for removal. Nothing was reported. But President Zachary Taylor signed the removal order on February 6, 1850, under corrupt circumstances, claiming to be protecting the Ojibwa from "injurious" whites. The Wisconsin legislature resisted the order and put aside plans for removal. Alexander Ramsey, the territorial governor of Minnesota, and Indian sub-agent John Watrous conspired on a plan to force the Ojibwa to Minnesota anyway, as the two men stood to gain personal economic and political benefits from removal.
Sandy Lake Tragedy
To force the Ojibwa to comply, Watrous announced he would pay future annuities only at Sandy Lake, Minnesota, instead of La Pointe, where they had been paid previously. This change resulted in the Sandy Lake Tragedy, when hundreds of Ojibwa starved or died of exposure in Minnesota and on the journey home because the promised annuity supplies were late, contaminated or inadequate.
In a later letter, Kechewaishke described the conditions:
Back in La Pointe, Kechewaishke took several actions to forestall and prevent removal. He and other leaders petitioned the US government for the next two years to no avail. They did win considerable sympathy from whites who learned of the debacle in Sandy Lake. Newspapers throughout the Lake Superior region ran editorials condemning the removal effort. Kechewaishke sent two of his sons to St. Paul, where they obtained a portion of the annuities still owed.
Ramsey and Watrous continued to work to remove the Ojibwa to Sandy Lake. Watrous said they considered Sandy Lake a "graveyard," but he still tried to move all the bands to Fond du Lac. Young Ojibwa men in Wisconsin were outraged at these developments and the threat of violent revolt grew. Kechewaishke called on the services of his well-spoken sub-chief Oshoga, and son-in-law Benjamin G. Armstrong, a literate white interpreter married to his daughter. He drew up a petition that the 92-year-old Kechewaishke personally delivered to the president in Washington.
Trip to Washington
After spring thaw in 1852, Kechewaishke, Oshaga, Armstrong, and four others set out from La Pointe for Washington, D.C. by birchbark canoe. Along the way, they stopped in towns and mining camps along the Michigan shore of Lake Superior, securing hundreds of signatures in support of their cause. At Sault Ste. Marie, they were held by the US Indian agent, who told them that no unauthorized Ojibwa delegations could go to Washington and they had to turn back. The men pleaded the urgency of their case and traveled to Detroit by steamship. There another Indian agent tried to stop them. Once allowed to proceed, they sailed through Lake Erie to Buffalo, New York and then on to Albany and New York City.
In New York City, the Ojibwa attracted attention, gaining publicity and money for their cause. But in Washington, they were turned away by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and told they should never have come in the first place. Luckily, they drew the attention of the Whig Congressman Briggs from New York, who had a meeting with President Millard Fillmore scheduled for the next day. He invited the Ojibwa to come with him to see Fillmore. At the meeting, Kechewaishke rose first. He performed the pipe ceremony with a pipe made especially for the occasion. He had Oshaga speak for more than an hour about the broken treaty promises and the disastrous attempt at removal. Fillmore agreed to consider the issues. The next day, he announced that the removal order would be canceled, the payment of annuities would be returned to La Pointe, and another treaty would set up permanent reservations for the Ojibwa in Wisconsin.
The delegation traveled back to Wisconsin by rail, spreading the good news to the various Ojibwa bands as they went. Kechewaishke also announced that all tribal representatives should gather at La Pointe for payments the next summer (1853), and he would reveal the specifics of the agreement.
1854 Treaty and Buffalo estate
As Fillmore promised, treaty commissioners arrived in La Pointe in 1854 to conclude a final treaty. Recalling the experiences of 1837 and 1842, Ojibwa leaders sought to control the negotiations in 1854. Ambiguity in those treaties had been partially to blame for ensuing problems, so Kechewaishke insisted he would accept no interpreter other than Armstrong, his adopted son. The Ojibwa insisted on a guarantee of the right to hunt, fish, and gather on all the ceded territory, and on the establishment on several reservations across western Upper Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and northeastern Minnesota. In his mid-nineties and in failing health, Kechewaishke directed the negotiations but left most of the speaking to other chiefs. He entrusted Armstrong with the details of the written version.
The reservations in Wisconsin were named the Lac Courte Oreilles Indian Reservation, and Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation. The La Pointe Band was given a reservation at Bad River around the Band's traditional wild ricing grounds on Lake Superior's south shore, and some reserved land for fishing grounds at Madeline Island's eastern tip. In Minnesota, the reservations for the Fond du Lac and the Grand Portage bands were established, with pending negotiations promised for the Bois Forte Band. In Michigan, reservations for the Lac Vieux Desert, Ontonagon and L'Anse bands were established. The St. Croix and Sokaogon bands left the negotiations in protest and were excluded from the agreement.
A small tract of land was also set aside for Kechewaishke and his family at Buffalo Bay on the mainland across from Madeline Island at a place called Miskwaabikong (red rocks or cliffs). Many of the Catholic and mixed-blooded members of the La Pointe Band elected to settle there around Kechewaishke rather than at Bad River. In 1855, this settlement at the "Buffalo Estate" was acknowledged; it was extended by executive order into what is now the Red Cliff Indian Reservation.
Death and legacy
Kechewaishke was too ill to participate in the speeches at the time of the annuity payments in summer 1855. Tensions continued, as the Ojibwa accused US officials of corruption, members of the American Fur Company threatened violence, and infighting erupted among the Ojibwa bands. Morse records that these conflicts worsened Kechewaishke's condition. He died of heart disease on September 7, 1855, at La Pointe. Members of his band blamed his death on the government officials' conduct.
Kechewaishke was described as "head and the chief of the Chippewa Nation" and a man respected "for his rare integrity, wisdom in council, power as an orator, and magnanimity as a warrior." In his final hours he requested that his tobacco pouch and pipe be carried to Washington, D.C., and given to the government. His funeral was conducted in military fashion, with volleys fired at intervals in his honor.
Kechewaishke is regarded a hero of the Lake Superior Ojibwa. Those at Red Cliff also remember him as a founding figure of the community. His life is celebrated during commemorations of the treaty signings and the Sandy Lake Tragedy. He is buried in the La Pointe Indian Cemetery, near the deep, cold waters of Ojibwe Gichigami (Lake Superior), the "great freshwater-sea of the Ojibwa." His descendants, many going by the surname "Buffalo," are widespread in Red Cliff and Bad River.
Beginning in 1983, during treaty conflicts known as the Wisconsin Walleye War, Kechewaishke's name was frequently invoked as one who refused to give up his homeland and tribal sovereignty.
See also
Chief Oshkosh
Beautifying Bird
Biauswah
John Okemos
Walter Bresette
Notes
References
Armstrong, Benjamin. (1891) Early Life Among the Indians: Reminiscences from the life of Benjamin G. Armstrong. T.P. Wentworth Ashland, WI: Wentworth.
Diedrich, Mark. (1999) Ojibway Chiefs: Portraits of Anishinaabe Leadership.
Ely, Edmund F. (2012). The Ojibwe Journals of Edmund F. Ely, 1833-1849. University of Nebraska Press
Holzhueter, John O. 1973. Chief Buffalo and Other Wisconsin-Related Art in the National Capitol, Wisconsin Magazine of History 56: 4, p. 284-88.
Holzhueter, John O. 1986. Madeline Island & the Chequamegon Region. Madison: The State Historical Society of Wisconsin. pp. 49–50.
Loew, Patty. (2001). Indian Nations of Wisconsin: Histories of Endurance and Renewal. Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society Press.
Morse, Richard E. (1855). "The Chippewas of Lake Superior" in Wisconsin Historical Society Collections, v. III, Madison, 1904. pp. 365–369.
Satz, Ronald N. (1997). Chippewa Treaty Rights: The Reserved Rights of Wisconsin's Chippewa Indians in Historical Perspective. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Satz, Ronald N., Anthony G. Gulig, and Richard St. Germaine. (1991). Classroom Activities on Chippewa Treaty Rights. Madison: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe. (1834). Narrative of an Expedition Through the Upper Mississippi to Itasca Lake. New York: Harper.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe. (1851). The American Indians: Their History, Condition and Prospects, from Original Notes and Manuscripts. Buffalo: Derby.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe. (1851). Personal Memories of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo, and Co.
Warren, William W. (1851). History of the Ojibways Based Upon Traditions and Oral Statements. Minneapolis: Minnesota Historical Society.
"Death of Buffalo Chief," Superior Chronicle [Superior, Wis.], October 23, 1855.
External links
Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
U.S. Senate Website: Art & History, Sculpture, Be sheekee, or Buffalo.
Wisconsin Historical Society.
Chief Buffalo's Petition to the President
Chief Buffalo's biography at the United States Government Printing Office
Image of Grave of Bez Hike - Chief of the Chippewas at Minnesota Historical Society
The Chief Buffalo Mural Project
Chief Buffalo's Diplomacy and The Debate Over Ojibwe Removal
Chief Buffalo and Benjamin Armstrong
1759 births
1855 deaths
Ojibwe people
Native American leaders
People from La Pointe, Wisconsin
Native American history of Wisconsin
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Ewing Township is a township in Mercer County, New Jersey, United States. The township is within the New York metropolitan area as defined by the United States Census Bureau. It also directly borders the Philadelphia metropolitan area and is part of the Federal Communications Commission's Philadelphia Designated Market Area. As of the 2010 United States Census, the township's population was 35,790, reflecting an increase of 83 (+0.2%) from the 35,707 counted in the 2000 Census, which had increased by 1,522 (+4.5%) from the 34,185 counted in the 1990 Census.
History
The earliest inhabitants of present-day Ewing Township in the historic era were Lenni Lenape Native Americans, who lived along the banks of the Delaware River. Their pre-colonial subsistence activities in the area included hunting, fishing, pottery-making, and simple farming. European settlers, mostly from the British Isles, began to colonize the area in 1699. One of the earliest European settlers was William Green, and his 1717 farmhouse still stands on the campus of The College of New Jersey.
The area that is now Ewing Township was part of Hopewell Township in what was a very large Burlington County at the beginning of the 18th century. In 1714 Hopewell was removed from Burlington County and added to Hunterdon County. By 1719, the area which was to become Ewing Township had been removed from Hopewell Township and added to the newly created Trenton Township. Portions of Trenton Township were incorporated as Ewing Township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 22, 1834, posthumously honoring Charles Ewing for his work as Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court. The township became part of the newly created Mercer County on February 22, 1838. After incorporation, Ewing Township received additional territory taken from Lawrence Township and the city of Trenton in 1858. In 1894 the city of Trenton took back some of that territory, annexing more in 1900.
When Ewing Township was incorporated in the 19th century, it was primarily farmland with a handful of scattered hamlets, including Carleton (now known as Ewing), Cross Keys (now known as Ewingville), Birmingham (now known as West Trenton) and Greensburg (now known as Wilburtha). Since the beginning of the 20th century, the township has developed as a suburb of Trenton. The sections near the city border are distinctly urban, but most of the township is suburban residential development. The main commercial district extends along North Olden Avenue Extension (County Route 622), originally constructed to connect north Trenton residences with the now-closed General Motors Inland Fisher Guide Plant. Ewing Township today is the location of The College of New Jersey, the Community Blood Council of New Jersey, New Jersey State Police headquarters, the Jones Farm State Correction Institute, the Trenton Psychiatric Hospital, the New Jersey Department of Transportation headquarters, the Maria H. Katzenbach School for the Deaf and Trenton-Mercer Airport.
From 1953 until 1997 Ewing was the home of Naval Air Warfare Center Trenton, encompassing on Parkway Avenue. It was used by the United States Navy as a jet engine test facility until its closure based on the recommendations of the 1993 Base Closure and Realignment Commission. Nearly 700 civilian positions were eliminated, most of which were relocated to other facilities in Maryland and Tennessee. The base's Marine operations were transferred to Fort Dix, which has since become Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst. A charity to end homelessness acquired the base at no cost in October 2013 in a process involving the United States Department of Defense, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, Mercer County and Ewing Township.
The first location of an industrial robot used to replace human workers was at Ewing's Inland Fisher Guide Plant in 1961, a facility that operated in the township for 1938 to 1998, after which the plant was demolished and targeted for redevelopment.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 15.56 square miles (40.29 km2), including 15.21 square miles (39.38 km2) of land and 0.35 square miles (0.90 km2) of water (2.24%).
The highest elevation in Ewing Township is AMSL just east of Interstate 95 and just west of Trenton-Mercer Airport, while the lowest point is just below AMSL along the Delaware River near the border with Trenton.
The largest body of water completely within the township is Lake Sylva, a man-made lake that was created in the 1920s when an earthen dam was constructed across the Shabakunk Creek. The lake is located on the campus of The College of New Jersey. Watercourses in Ewing include the Delaware River along its western boundary and the Shabakunk Creek in the eastern and central portions of the township.
Within the township are a number of distinct neighborhoods. These include Agasote, Altura, Arbor Walk, Braeburn Heights, Briarcrest, Briarwood, Cambridge Hall, Churchill Green, Delaware Rise, Ewing, Ewing Park, Ewingville, Fernwood, Ferry Road Manor, Fleetwood Village, Glendale, Green Curve Heights, Hampton Hills, Heath Manor, Hickory Hill Estates, Hillwood Lakes, Hillwood Manor, Mountainview, Parkway Village, Prospect Heights, Prospect Park, Scudders Falls, Shabakunk Hills, Sherbrooke Manor, Somerset, Spring Meadows, Spring Valley, Village on the Green, Weber Park, West Trenton, Whitewood Estates, Wilburtha and Wynnewood Manor. Some of these existed before suburbanization, while others came into existence with the suburban development of the township in the 20th century.
The township borders the municipalities of Hopewell Township, Lawrence Township, Trenton in Mercer County; and Lower Makefield Township, Upper Makefield Township and Yardley in Bucks County across the Delaware River in Pennsylvania.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Ewing Township, New Jersey has a hot-summer, wet all year, humid continental climate (Dfa). Dfa climates are characterized by at least one month having an average mean temperature ≤ 32.0 °F (≤ 0.0 °C), at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ 50.0 °F (≥ 10.0 °C), at least one month with an average mean temperature ≥ 71.6 °F (≥ 22.0 °C), and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. During the summer months, episodes of extreme heat and humidity can occur with heat index values ≥ 100 °F (≥ 38 °C). On average, the wettest month of the year is July which corresponds with the annual peak in thunderstorm activity. During the winter months, episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < 0 °F (< -18 °C). The plant hardiness zone at the Ewing Township Municipal Court is 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 0.2 °F (-17.7 °C). The average seasonal (November–April) snowfall total is and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity.
Ecology
According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Ewing Township, New Jersey would have an Appalachian Oak (104) vegetation type with an Eastern Hardwood Forest (25) vegetation form.
Demographics
Census 2010
The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $69,716 (with a margin of error of +/- $2,668) and the median family income was $86,875 (+/- $4,312). Males had a median income of $56,308 (+/- $6,003) versus $52,313 (+/- $1,887) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $30,489 (+/- $1,527). About 4.7% of families and 10.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.3% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.
Census 2000
As of the 2000 United States Census there were 35,707 people, 12,551 households, and 8,208 families residing in the township. The population density was 2,328.6 people per square mile (899.3/km2). There were 12,924 housing units at an average density of 842.8 per square mile (325.5/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 69.02% White, 24.82% African American, 0.15% Native American, 2.27% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 1.83% from other races, and 1.84% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.44% of the population.
There were 12,551 households, out of which 25.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.7% were married couples living together, 12.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.6% were non-families. 27.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.00.
In the township the population was spread out, with 18.0% under the age of 18, 17.3% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 22.1% from 45 to 64, and 15.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.0 males.
The median income for a household in the township was $57,274, and the median income for a family was $67,618. Males had a median income of $44,531 versus $35,844 for females. The per capita income for the township was $24,268. About 3.3% of families and 6.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.4% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over.
Economy
In May 2013, Church and Dwight relocated its corporate headquarters from Princeton to Ewing.
In mid–2013, Celator Pharmaceuticals established an office presence in Ewing.
Government
Local government
Ewing Township is governed under the Faulkner Act, formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law, within the Mayor-Council plan 2 form of New Jersey municipal government, as implemented as of January 1, 1995, based on the recommendations of a Charter Study Commission. The township is one of 71 municipalities (of the 565) statewide governed under this form. The township's governing body is comprised of the Mayor and the five-member Township Council, all of whom are elected by the voters at-large to four-year terms of office on a staggered basis. with either three seats up for election or two seats and the mayoral seat up together in even-numbered years as part of the November general election.
, the Mayor of Ewing Township is Democrat Bert H. Steinmann, whose term of office ends December 31, 2022. Members of the Ewing Township Council are Council President Jennifer L. Keyes-Maloney (D, 2020), Vice President David P. Schroth (D, 2020), Kevin Baxter (D, 2020), Sarah Steward (D, 2022) and Kathy Culliton Wollert (D, 2022).
Federal, state and county representation
Ewing Township is located in the 12th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 15th state legislative district.
The New Jersey Juvenile Justice Commission has its headquarters in the township.
Politics
As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 21,714 registered voters in Ewing Township, of which 9,358 (43.1%) were registered as Democrats, 3,256 (15.0%) were registered as Republicans and 9,087 (41.8%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 13 voters registered to other parties.
In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 73.0% of the vote (11,910 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 25.8% (4,218 votes), and other candidates with 1.2% (190 votes), among the 17,947 ballots cast by the township's 23,230 registered voters (1,629 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 77.3%. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 70.0% of the vote (11,911 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 28.1% (4,787 votes) and other candidates with 1.2% (200 votes), among the 17,021 ballots cast by the township's 22,913 registered voters, for a turnout of 74.3%. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 62.0% of the vote (10,091 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 34.7% (5,653 votes) and other candidates with 0.6% (135 votes), among the 16,284 ballots cast by the township's 22,019 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 74.0.
In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Democrat Barbara Buono received 53.7% of the vote (5,279 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 44.7% (4,395 votes), and other candidates with 1.7% (163 votes), among the 10,070 ballots cast by the township's 22,876 registered voters (233 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 44.0%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 59.4% of the vote (6,529 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 34.1% (3,751 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 4.7% (520 votes) and other candidates with 0.7% (81 votes), among the 10,989 ballots cast by the township's 22,263 registered voters, yielding a 49.4% turnout.
Education
The Ewing Public Schools serves students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. As of the 2017–18 school year, the district, comprised of five schools, had an enrollment of 3,625 students and 338.7 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 10.7:1. Schools in the district (with 2017-18 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are
W. L. Antheil Elementary School (708 students; in grades PreK-5),
Francis Lore Elementary School (580; K-5),
Parkway Elementary School (424; K-5),
Gilmore J. Fisher Middle School (747; 6-8) and
Ewing High School (1,118; 9-12).
A court case filed in 1946 challenged a policy of the Ewing Public Schools under which the district provided bus transportation to students living in the districts who attended private parochial schools. In Everson v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled for the first time that state and local government were subject to the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, but that it had not been violated in this instance.
The Ewing Public Education Foundation, established in 1995, is an independent, not-for-profit citizen's organization whose mission is to mobilize community support, concern, commitment and resources to help improve the quality of education in Ewing Township. EPEF provides grants to Ewing Township Schools for innovative educational programs through fund-raising activities, and corporate and institutional sponsorship. The Foundation also seeks to match corporate and organizational donors with teachers to fund additional projects of mutual interest. These programs enhance the educational experience without the use of additional taxpayer dollars.
Eighth grade students from all of Mercer County are eligible to apply to attend the high school programs offered by the Mercer County Technical Schools, a county-wide vocational school district that offers full-time career and technical education at its Health Sciences Academy, STEM Academy and Academy of Culinary Arts, with no tuition charged to students for attendance. The Thomas J. Rubino Academy (formerly Mercer County Alternative High School) is one of Mercer County's only alternative schools, offering an alternative educational program for students who have struggled in the traditional school environment, featuring smaller classes, mentoring and counseling.
The Marie H. Katzenbach School for the Deaf opened in Trenton in 1883 and was there until 1923, when it moved to West Trenton. serves 175 hearing-impaired students on a campus covering that was opened in West Trenton in 1926. The school was established in Ewing through the efforts of Marie Hilson Katzenbach and was renamed in her honor in 1965.
Incarnation-St. James Catholic School (formerly Incarnation School), constructed in 1955, is a Pre-K to 8th grade parish school administered by The Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary and overseen by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trenton. The school added a parish center in 2003, which includes a gym, locker rooms, offices, meeting rooms, boiler room, and a kitchenette to be used to the benefit of its students, faculty, and staff. In 2006, the Incarnation School and parish combined with the St. James School and parish.
The Villa Victoria Academy is a private Catholic school in Ewing Township, christened as a private academy in 1933, and operated by the Religious Teachers Filippini. This single-gender school offers an education to young women from sixth to twelfth grade.
The College of New Jersey (formerly Trenton State College) is located on a campus covering within the township.
Transportation
Ewing Township is traversed by multiple main roadways, as well as by a passenger rail line and is the location of an airport.
Roads and highways
, the township had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Mercer County, by the New Jersey Department of Transportation, which also has its headquarters in Ewing, and by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission.
Interstate 295 (the Scudder Falls Freeway and Bridge) crosses the northwestern section of the township. It is a , 4-6 lane divided freeway facility. Originally part of Interstate 95, it was constructed as a four-lane facility in the 1960s, and widened to six lanes in the 1990s, with the exception of the Scudder Falls Bridge over the Delaware River. It connects south with Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and connects north to U.S. 1, where Interstate 295 curves south. From there, travelers use U.S. 1 or Interstate 195 and the New Jersey Turnpike to reach the next major destination northwards, New York City. The Ewing portion of Interstate 95 was redesignated as Interstate 295 in March 2018 ahead of a direct interchange between Interstate 95 in Pennsylvania and the Pennsylvania Turnpike being completed, re-routing Interstate 95 onto the New Jersey Turnpike at Exit 6 (in Mansfield Township).
U.S. Route 206 (Princeton Avenue) skirts the southeastern section of the township. It is a , undivided four-lane roadway. Although part of US 206, it is actually maintained by the Mercer County Department of Transportation as part of County Route 583, which runs as a concurrency with US 206. US 206 also connects south to Trenton, as well as north to Princeton and Somerville.
Route 29 (Daniel Bray Highway and River Road) extends north–south along the western edge of the township, along the Delaware River. The southern section, Daniel Bray Highway, is a 55 mph (90 km/h), divided four-lane facility with at-grade intersections and traffic lights, and was constructed in the 1950s. The northern section, River Road, is a 45 mph (70 km/h), undivided two-lane facility whose construction as a state highway dates from the 1930s. NJ 29 connects southwards to Trenton, and northwards to Lambertville and Frenchtown. The entire section of Route 29 in Ewing is designated the Delaware River Scenic Byway, a National Scenic Byway. Route 175 serves as a frontage road along the divided portion of Route 29.
Route 31 (Pennington Road) extends north–south towards the eastern side of the township. It is a 35-45 mph (60–70 km/h), undivided four-lane facility whose construction as a state highway also dates to the 1930s. It once also carried a trolley line, but it has long since been removed. It was once proposed to be bypassed by a freeway, but this plan has since been cancelled. NJ 31 also connects south to Trenton, and connects north to Pennington, Flemington and Clinton.
Public transportation
The West Trenton Station is at the terminus of SEPTA's West Trenton Line. This commuter rail facility mainly serves commuter traffic to and from Philadelphia. NJ Transit has proposed a new West Trenton Line of its own, that would stretch for from the West Trenton Station to a connection with the Raritan Valley Line at Bridgewater Township, and from there to Newark Penn Station in Newark.
Ewing Township is the site of the Trenton-Mercer Airport (TTN), which first opened in 1929 and is one of three commercial airports in the state. The airport has 100,000 takeoffs and landings annually, and is served by Frontier Airlines, which offers nonstop service to and from 10 different locations nationwide.
Ewing Township is also traversed by the Delaware and Raritan Canal near the Delaware River. Originally important to commerce and trade, the advent of railroads caused the canal's commercial demise. The strip of land along the canal is currently part of the Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park.
NJ Transit provides service between the township and Trenton on the 601, 607, 608 and 609, 624 routes.
Points of interest
The William Greene Farmhouse was the home of Judge William Greene, who was born in the 1600s in England and died in 1722 in Hunterdon County, New Jersey. The William Green House is on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places and the New Jersey Register of Historic Places.
Delaware and Raritan Canal - Runs along the eastern bank of the Delaware River in western Ewing Township.
Washington Victory Trail - Documents the trail taken by George Washington's army during the American Revolution on December 26, 1776. This led to a successful surprise attack on the Hessian troops occupying Trenton, New Jersey. Victory trail begins in nearby Washington Crossing State Park, enters Ewing Township at Jacobs Creek Road (where George Washington's and his horse almost fell into the creek) and continues along Bear Tavern Road. General Sullivan's route follows Grand Avenue and Sullivan Way to Trenton. General Greene's route follows Parkway Avenue to Trenton.
Ewing Presbyterian Church is an historic building dated 1867 and set within the American Revolution era Ewing Church Cemetery. It is the fourth church to be built in the cemetery grounds. The current church building has been under threat of demolition after several engineering studies found the roof trusses are buckling and beyond the point of cost effective repair. Numerous preservation groups say that the structural problems are much easier to resolve than the studies claim. Various organizations have endeavored to raise funds to secure the stability of the original church structure.
Ewing Church Cemetery is one of the oldest cemeteries in the area, having served the Ewing community for 300 years. It is home to the burial places of hundreds of veterans from The Revolutionary War to the Vietnam War. The grounds span over 50 acres and also include a mausoleum.
Our Lady of Good Counsel Church, located on W. Upper Ferry Road, is a Roman Catholic church built in the early 1960s to meet the growing needs of the rapidly expanding township. Its architecture is similar to Saint Paul's Church in Princeton. The Church is a major worship center for the Catholic community in what is called the West Trenton section of the township.
Louis Kahn's Trenton Bath House was an early work of the influential mid-twentieth century architect, made for the Trenton Jewish Community Center (now the Ewing Senior & Community Center).
The offices and studios of radio station WKXW, "New Jersey 101.5", are located in Ewing.
Notable people
People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Ewing Township include:
Pierre Bernard, graphic designer and comedian for Late Night with Conan O'Brien on which he hosts the segment "Pierre Bernard's Recliner of Rage".
Peggy Blackford (born 1942), American Ambassador to Guinea-Bissau from 1995 until relations were suspended in June 1998.
Hollis Copeland (born 1955), former basketball player with the New York Knicks.
Steve Garrison (born 1986), Major League Baseball relief pitcher who played for the New York Yankees.
Janis Hirsch (born c. 1950) is a comedy writer best known for producing and writing for television series.
Wayne Krenchicki (1954-2018), former MLB third baseman.
William M. Lanning (1849-1912), Republican Party politician who represented New Jersey's 4th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1903 to 1904.
Dick LaRossa (born 1946), politician who served two terms in the New Jersey Senate, from 1994 to 2000, where he represented the 15th Legislative District.
Davon Reed (born 1995), basketball player for the Sioux Falls SkyForce.
Glenn K. Rieth (born 1957), former Adjutant General of New Jersey (2002-2011).
Henry Rowan (1923-2015), engineer and philanthropist, for whom Rowan University was renamed, after he made a $100 million donation to the school.
Albert C. Wagner (1911-1987), director of the New Jersey Department of Corrections from 1966 to 1973.
Bonnie Watson Coleman (born 1945), politician, who has served as the U.S. representative for New Jersey's 12th congressional district since 2015. She is the first black woman in Congress from New Jersey.
References
External links
1834 establishments in New Jersey
Faulkner Act (mayor–council)
Populated places established in 1834
Townships in Mercer County, New Jersey
New Jersey populated places on the Delaware River
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Matamela Cyril Ramaphosa (born 17 November 1952) is a South African businessman and politician who, since 2018, has served as the fifth democratically elected president of South Africa, as well as president of the African National Congress (ANC) since 2017. Previously an anti-apartheid activist, trade union leader and businessman, Ramaphosa served as secretary general to ANC President Nelson Mandela, deputy president to President Jacob Zuma, and chairman of the National Planning Commission from 2014 to 2018.
He has been called a skillful negotiator and strategist who acted as the ANC's Chief Negotiator during South Africa's transition to democracy. Ramaphosa built up the biggest and most powerful trade union in the country, the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM). He played a crucial role, with Roelf Meyer of the National Party, during the negotiations to bring about a peaceful end to apartheid and steer the country towards its first fully democratic elections in April 1994. Ramaphosa was Nelson Mandela's choice for future president. Ramaphosa is well known as a businessman, and his estimated net worth is over R6.4 billion ($450 million) as of 2018, with 31 properties and previously-held notable ownership in companies such as McDonald's South Africa, chair of the board for MTN and member of the board for Lonmin.
Ramaphosa served as the Deputy President of South Africa from 2014 to 2018. He was later elected President of the African National Congress (ANC) at the ANC National Conference in December 2017. Ramaphosa is the former Chairman of the National Planning Commission, which is responsible for strategic planning for the future of the country, with the goal of rallying South Africa "around a common set of objectives and priorities to drive development over the longer term". In 2018 he became President of South Africa without a general election, after Jacob Zuma resigned. Ramaphosa was re-elected president by the National Assembly to his first full term in May 2019 following the ANC's victory in the 2019 South African general election. Ramaphosa served as Chairperson of the African Union from 2020 to 2021.
Despite his credentials as an important proponent of his country's peaceful transition to democracy, he has also been criticised for the conduct of his business interests, although he has never been indicted for illegal activity in any of these controversies. Controversial business dealings include his joint venture with Glencore and allegations of benefitting illegally from coal deals with Eskom which he has staunchly denied, during which Glencore was in the public spotlight for its tendentious business activities involving Tony Blair in the Middle East; his son, Andile Ramaphosa, has also been found to have accepted payments totalling R2 million from Bosasa, the security company implicated in corruption and state capture by the Zondo commission; and his employment on the board of directors of Lonmin while taking an active stance when the Marikana Massacre took place on Lonmin's Marikana premises. On 15 August 2012 he called for action against the Marikana miners' strike, which he called "dastardly criminal" conduct that needed "concomitant action" to be taken. He later admitted and regretted his involvement in the act and said that it could have been avoided if contingency plans had been made prior to the labour strike.
Early life
Ramaphosa was born in Soweto, Johannesburg, on 17 November 1952, to Venda parents. He is the second of the three children to Erdmuth and retired policeman Samuel Ramaphosa. He attended Tshilidzi Primary School and Sekano Ntoane High School in Soweto. In 1971, he matriculated from Mphaphuli High School in Sibasa, Venda where he was elected head of the Student Christian Movement. He subsequently registered to study law at the University of the North (Turfloop) in Limpopo Province in 1972.
While at university, Ramaphosa became involved in student politics and joined the South African Students Organisation (SASO) and the Black People's Convention (BPC). This resulted in him being detained in solitary confinement for eleven months in 1974 under Section 6 of the Terrorism Act, 1967, for organising pro-Frelimo rallies. In 1976 he was detained again, following the unrest in Soweto, and held for six months at John Vorster Square under the Terrorism Act. After his release, he became a law clerk for a Johannesburg firm of attorneys and continued with his legal studies through correspondence with the University of South Africa (UNISA), where he obtained his B. Proc. Degree in 1981.
Political activist and trade union leader
After completing his legal qualifications and obtaining his degree, Ramaphosa joined the Council of Unions of South Africa (CUSA) as an advisor in the legal department. In 1982, CUSA requested that Ramaphosa start a union for mineworkers; this new union was launched in the same year and was named the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM). Ramaphosa was arrested in Lebowa, on the charge of organising or planning to take part in a meeting in Namakgale which had been banned by the local magistrate.
Fight against apartheid
In August 1982, CUSA resolved to form the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM), and in December Ramaphosa became its first secretary. Ramaphosa was the conference organiser in the preparations leading to the formation of the Congress of the South African Trade Union (COSATU). He delivered a keynote address at Cosatu's launch rally in Durban in December 1985. In March 1986, he was part of COSATU's delegation which met the African National Congress in Lusaka, Zambia.
Ramaphosa was elected as the first General Secretary of the union, a position he held until he resigned in June 1991, following his election as Secretary-General of the African National Congress (ANC). Under his leadership, union membership grew from 6,000 in 1982 to 300,000 in 1992, giving it control of nearly half of the total black workforce in the South African mining industry. As general secretary, he, James Motlatsi (President of NUM), and Elijah Barayi (Vice-President of NUM) also led the mineworkers in one of the biggest strikes ever in South African history.
In December 1988, Ramaphosa and other prominent members of the Soweto community met Soweto's Mayor to discuss the rent boycott crisis.
In January 1990, Ramaphosa accompanied released ANC political prisoners to Lusaka, Zambia. Ramaphosa served as chairman of the National Reception committee, which coordinated arrangements for the release of Nelson Mandela and subsequent welcome rallies within South Africa and became a member of the international Mandela Reception Committee. He was elected General-Secretary of the ANC in a conference held in Durban in July 1991. Ramaphosa was a visiting Professor of Law at Stanford University in the United States in October 1991.
In 1985, the NUM broke away from CUSA and helped to establish the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU). When COSATU joined forces with the United Democratic Front (UDF) political movement against the National Party government of P. W. Botha, Ramaphosa took a leading role in what became known as the Mass Democratic Movement (MDM).
When Nelson Mandela was released from prison, Ramaphosa was on the National Reception Committee.
Secretary-General of the ANC
Subsequent to his election as Secretary-General of the African National Congress in 1991, he became head of the negotiation team of the ANC in negotiating the end of apartheid with the National Party government. Following the first fully democratic elections in 1994, Ramaphosa became a member of parliament; he was elected the chairperson of its Constitutional Assembly on 24 May 1994 and played a central role in the government of national unity.
In 2000, he was appointed to the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning as an arms inspector, responsible for supervising the decommissioning of Provisional IRA armaments.
After he lost the race to become President of South Africa to Thabo Mbeki, he resigned from his political positions in January 1997 and moved to the private sector, where he became a director of New Africa Investments Limited. He came in first place in the 1997 election to the ANC's National Executive Committee.
While not a member of the South African Communist Party (SACP), Ramaphosa has claimed that he is a committed socialist.
The media continually speculated on Ramaphosa joining the race for the presidency of the ANC in 2007, before the 2009 South African presidential election. However, he stated that he is not interested in the presidency. On 2 September 2007, The Sunday Times reported that Ramaphosa was in the election race, but by that evening he had released a statement once again holding back on any commitment.
In December 2007, he was again elected to the ANC National Executive Committee, this time in 30th place with 1,910 votes.
On 20 May 2012, prominent Afrikaner ANC member Derek Hanekom asked Ramaphosa to run for President of the ANC, stating that "We need leaders of comrade Cyril's calibre. I know Cyril is very good at business, but I really wish he would put all his money in a trust and step up for a higher and more senior position". Although it was unknown whether or not Ramaphosa will run for President of the ANC, he attempted to quieten the speculation by responding to Hanekom's comment by stating "You can't read anything [into what he said]. He was joking".
He officially became a candidate for the Deputy Presidency on 17 December 2012 and entered the race with the strong backing of the Zuma camp. On 18 December 2012, he was elected as Deputy President of the ANC. Cyril Ramaphosa received 3,018 votes, while Mathews Phosa received 470 votes and Tokyo Sexwale received 463 votes.
Deputy President of South Africa (2014–2018)
Ramaphosa was appointed Deputy President by Jacob Zuma on 25 May 2014 and sworn into office by Chief Justice Mogoeng Mogoeng the following day. Following his appointment, Ramaphosa was made Leader of Government Business in the National Assembly in terms of section 91(4) of the Constitution. His responsibilities included: The affairs of the national executive in Parliament; the programming of parliamentary business initiated by the national executive, within the time allocated for that purpose and ensuring that Cabinet members attend to their parliamentary responsibilities.
On 3 June 2014, President Jacob Zuma announced that Ramaphosa would be appointed as Chairman of the National Planning Commission, with Minister in the Presidency for Planning, Jeff Radebe serving as the commission's deputy chairman.
In July 2014, Ramaphosa called for unity in the country, following calls by Julius Malema to scrap the singing of the Afrikaans portion of the national anthem. Ramaphosa said: "We are about building a nation and we must extend a hand of friendship, a hand of continued reconciliation to those who feel that the national anthem does not represent them any longer, and it can happen on both sides".
Foreign relations
Vietnam and Singapore
Ramaphosa went on a two-day working visit to both Vietnam and Singapore. Ramaphosa said that South Africa and Vietnam needed to expand trade. The two countries have also agreed to co-operate further on education. Both working visits were undertaken to consolidate existing bilateral political, economic and trade relations between South Africa and the two countries.
The visit to Singapore provided the South African delegation, led by Ramaphosa, to learn from the Singapore model of economic success and the role of state-owned enterprises and economic growth and national developmental objectives of the country.
Bilateral trade has grown significantly with Singapore being South Africa's second-largest trading partner in the ASEAN region; by 2014 bilateral trade amounted to R28.9 billion compared to R23.5 billion in 2015.
Davos
In January 2018, it was announced that president Jacob Zuma would not be leading the South African delegation to the World Economic Forum for the second time, the South African Government announced that Cyril Ramaphosa would be leading the delegation consisting of several South African cabinet officials to promote investment and business in the country.
Stance on corruption
In November 2016, while speaking at the Limpopo Provincial Summit, Ramaphosa said that corruption was at the root of the country's economic ailments. He stated that the South African Government and business community had to find a way to combat corruption, although he didn't mention it by name. He suggested the summit should look at addressing quality and depth of leaders within the public and private sectors by adhering to the National Development Plan.
In the lead up to the 53rd ANC National Conference he spoke of the need to remove corruption from the ANC itself. In his first speech to the Conference as ANC leader he pledged to stamp out corruption.
President of the ANC
Ramaphosa has long been considered a potential presidential candidate and ran in the 1997 ANC Presidential election, losing to Thabo Mbeki.
Ramaphosa announced that he would seek the ANC Presidency in 2017, with his second run for president. Ramaphosa launched his campaign slogan as #CR17 Siyavuma.
By August 2017, Ramaphosa had received the endorsement of the trade union COSATU, the National Union of Mineworkers as well as the Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, and Gauteng provincial ANC leadership. Individuals who also stepped forward to support Ramaphosa include education minister Angie Motshekga, Cosatu's president Sdumo Dlamini, former finance minister Pravin Gordhan and former KwaZulu-Natal Premier Senzo Mchunu.
On 18 December 2017, Ramaphosa was elected the president of the ANC at the party's 54th Elective Conference, defeating his rival Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, ex-wife of President Zuma, by 2,440 votes to 2,261.
On 5 May 2021, a letter by suspended party secretary-general, Ace Magashule, was leaked in which Magashule suspends Ramaphosa as ANC president. The reason for the suspension is related to accusations of irregularities in his party election campaign in 2017. However, Gwede Mantashe, national chairperson, indicated that the suspension is invalid, as Magashule was himself suspended at the time of writing the letter
Presidency (2018–present)
Following President Jacob Zuma's resignation in February 2018, Ramaphosa was elected unopposed as President of South Africa by the National Assembly on 15 February 2018. Ramaphosa took his oath of office in the presidential guesthouse, Tuynhuys, by Chief Justice Mogoeng Mogoeng.
Markets rallied strongly the day after Ramaphosa assumed the presidency with stocks rising and the rand reaching its firmest since early 2015. Government bonds also increased in strength.
On 16 February 2018, Ramaphosa gave his first State of the Nation Address as the President of South Africa, the first time in a democratic South Africa where the President delivered his State of the Nation Address without a Deputy President. Ramaphosa emphasised the need to grow the economy of South Africa, increase tourism and youth employment, as well as reduce the size of the Cabinet. In this speech, Ramaphosa also focused on the importance of keeping Mandela's legacy alive.
Ramaphosa's speech was met with mostly positive reviews from opposition parties saying that his speech was positive and that it would bring about change, but that they would hold him accountable.
On 17 February 2018, Ramaphosa, as commander in chief of the South African National Defence Force, attended the Armed Forces Inter-Faith Service at the Mittah Seperepere Convention Centre in Kimberley and made his first public speech as the President of South Africa.
On 26 February 2018, Ramaphosa, who had inherited Jacob Zuma's cabinet, reshuffled cabinet for the first time removing many of the cabinet members who had been controversial through the Zuma era and who had close links to the Gupta family. Ramaphosa also named the deputy president of the African National Congress and the Premier of Mpumalanga, David Mabuza, as the country's Deputy President.
Ramaphosa made his first international trip as the President of South Africa on 2 March 2018 to the Republic of Angola and met with President João Lourenço as the chair of the SADC.
On 8 May 2019, the African National Congress led by President Ramaphosa won 57.50% of the vote in the 2019 South African general election. Ramaphosa was subsequently elected unopposed to his first full term as president by the National Assembly on 22 May 2019. As Ramaphosa had previously been elected as president to fill the vacancy left by the resignation of his predecessor, he is constitutionally eligible to serve two full terms.
On 19 July 2019, the Public Protector, Busisiwe Mkhwebane, released a report in which she claimed that Ramaphosa had intentionally misled the Parliament of South Africa over the controversial Bosasa donations to his CR17 ANC presidential campaign. COPE Leader Mosiuoa Lekota called for Ramaphosa to be impeached while DA Leader Mmusi Maimane proposed the establishment of an ad hoc committee to effectively investigate these allegations. Ramaphosa briefed the nation on 21 July 2019 and described the report as "fundamentally flawed" and called for a judicial review of Mkhwebane's findings.
At the 2020 AU summit, Ramaphosa expressed support for the African Continental Free Trade Area and described it as a major driver for reigniting industrialization and paving the way for Africa's integration into the global market. Ramaphosa also stated that the free trade agreement will make Africa a player of considerable weight and scale in the global market as well.
At the 2020 AU Summit, Ramaphosa also expressed support for closing the gender gap and ending gender inequality.
His government responded to the 2021 South African unrest, the deadliest riots since Apartheid.
Domestic policy
Since Ramaphosa became president he has made land reform and the economy his main priorities, as well as dealing with the outbreak of listeriosis which has claimed the lives of over 100 since the start of 2018.
In February 2018, South Africa's parliament voted 241–83 to begin amending the "property clause" in the constitution to allow the expropriation of land without compensation.
On 19 March 2018, Ramaphosa suspended Tom Moyane as the Commissioner of the South African Revenue Service after Moyane had refused to step down.
Under his leadership, the African National Congress has pushed for a constitutional amendment allowing the government to confiscate farms owned by White South Africans. He has said that the state having the power to seize property for no compensation will encourage economic growth. In a time when the Rand is at a two-year low, economists have been doubtful over the possibility of this policy being successful.
On 14 August 2018, Ramaphosa appointed Dr. Silas Ramaite as the Acting National Director of Public Prosecutions (NDPP) following the ruling by the Constitutional Court that Director Shawn Abrahams had been appointed unlawfully by the former President, Jacob Zuma.
South Africa made world headlines because of attacks against foreign nationals within the borders of the country, with many South Africans blaming foreign nationals for the country's socio-economic issues.
On 10 June 2021, Ramaphosa announced that his government would raise the threshold for the amount of electricity that private companies could produce without a license - from 1 Megawatt to 100 Megwatts. The decision was taken in order to respond to the increasing challenges faced by the country during the ongoing energy crisis, and to give "oomph" in Ramaphosa's words, to South Africa's economic recovery.
On 11 February, 2022, Ramaphosa announces that his government will formalise the South African cannabis industry, seeking to grow both production and exports.
Initiatives
Ramaphosa launched the Youth Employment Service (YES) initiative as a means to employ one million youth and giving them more experience in the working field, with the South African Government even introducing the Employment Tax Incentive, which would reduce employer's costs when hiring youth.
On 14 August 2018, President Ramaphosa addressed the launch of the Sanitation Appropriate For Education (SAFE) initiative in Pretoria to respond to the sanitary challenges facing the country's poorest schools.
Foreign policy
Ramaphosa made his first international trip as President of South Africa to the Republic of Angola and met with President João Lourenço in his capacity as chairperson of the SADC to talk about peace and defence.
On 20 March 2018, Ramaphosa made a trip to Kigali, Rwanda along with Foreign Minister Lindiwe Sisulu, and met with President Paul Kagame and spoke about restoring relations between South Africa and Rwanda, later participating as panelists on the African Continental Free Trade Area Business Forum (ACFTABF) ahead of the 10th African Union Extraordinary Summit. The following day, Ramaphosa signed the Kigali Declaration on the establishment of the ACFTABF at the 10th African Union Extraordinary Summit.
Ramaphosa hosted the 11th BRICS summit for 25–27 July 2018, at the Sandton Convention Centre in Johannesburg.
In January 2019, Ramaphosa congratulated Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro following his second inauguration.
On 10 May 2021, Ramaphosa said that the ANC condemned "in the strongest possible terms" the potential evictions of Palestinian families from their homes in Israeli-occupied East Jerusalem and the "brutal attacks on Palestinian protesters" at Al-Aqsa Mosque.
Coronavirus response
Ramaphosa has been internationally praised for his response to the COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa with the BBC commenting that, in this regard, "Ramaphosa has emerged as a formidable leader - composed, compassionate, but seized by the urgency of the moment." In October 2020, Ramaphosa began a period of self-isolation after a guest at a dinner party he attended tested positive for coronavirus.
On 12 December 2021, Minister in the Presidency, Mondli Gungubele announced that Ramaphosa had tested positive for COVID-19, and Deputy President, David Mabuza would take over "all responsibilities" for the following week.
Political philanthropy
Ramaphosa publicly declared in South Africa on 24 May 2018 that he would be donating half of his salary (R3.6 million annually) to charity in honour of late former South African president Nelson Mandela. He said the gesture was aimed at encouraging the wealthy to dedicate some of their pay to help build the nation. The donation was set to be managed by the Nelson Mandela Foundation (NMF).
Business career
Among other positions, he was an executive chairman of Shanduka Group, a company he founded. Shanduka Group has investments in the resources sector, energy sector, real estate, banking, insurance, and telecoms (SEACOM). He was also a chairman of Bidvest, and MTN. His other non-executive directorships include Macsteel Holdings, Alexander Forbes and Standard Bank. In March 2007, he was appointed Non-Executive joint Chairman of Mondi, a leading international paper and packaging group, when the company demerged from Anglo American plc. In July 2013, he retired from the board of SABMiller plc.
He is one of South Africa's richest men, with an estimated wealth of R6.4 billion ($450 million).
In 2011, Ramaphosa paid for a 20-year master franchise agreement to run 145 McDonald's restaurants in South Africa. Shortly after the 2014 general election, Ramaphosa announced that he was going to disinvest from Shanduka to fulfil his new responsibilities as Deputy President without the possibility of conflict of interest. McDonald's South Africa announced that there would be a process underway to replace Ramaphosa as the current development licensee of the fast-food chain operation in South Africa.
In 2014, after Ramaphosa became Deputy President of South Africa, the Register of Members' Interests, tabled in Parliament, revealed his wealth. Over and above the more than R76 million he had accumulated in the company shares, the documents showed that he owned 30 properties in Johannesburg and two apartments in Cape Town. The register also confirmed Ramaphosa's resignation from his directorship at Lonmin, for which he had been criticised over the Marikana massacre in 2012.
Farmer
During a visit to Uganda in 2004, Ramaphosa became interested in the Ankole cattle breed. Because of inadequate disease control measures in Uganda, the South African government denied him permission to import any of the breed. Instead, Ramaphosa purchased 43 cows from Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni and shipped them to Kenya. There the cows were artificially inseminated, the embryos removed and shipped to South Africa, there transferred to cows and then quarantined for two months. As of August 2017, Ramaphosa had 100 Ankole breeding cows at his Ntaba Nyoni farm in Mpumalanga.
In 2017, Ramaphosa co-wrote a book on the breed, Cattle of the Ages, Stories, and Portraits of the Ankole Cattle of Southern Africa.
Controversies
The Marikana massacre, as referred to in the media, occurred when police broke up an occupation by striking Lonmin workers of a "koppie" (hilltop) near Nkaneng shack settlement in Marikana on 16 August 2012. As a result of the police shootings, 34 miners died and an additional 78 miners were injured causing anger and outcry against the police and South African government. Further controversy emerged after it was discovered that most of the victims were shot in the back and many victims were shot far from police lines. The violence on 16 August 2012 was the single most lethal use of force by South African security forces against civilians since the end of the apartheid era.
During the Marikana Commission, it also emerged that Lonmin management solicited Ramaphosa, as Lonmin shareholder and ANC heavyweight, to coordinate "concomitant action" against "criminal" protesters and therefore is seen by many as being responsible for the massacre.
Under the investigation of Farlam committee, Ramaphosa said that Lonmin lobbied government and the SAPS firstly to secure a massive police presence at Lonmin and secondly to characterise what was taking place as a criminal rather than an industrial relations event.
The Marikana Commission of Inquiry ultimately found that given the deaths that had already occurred, his intervention did not cause the increase in police on site, nor did he know the operation would take place on 16 August.
In August 2017, Ramaphosa was involved in a scandal that alleged he had been in several extramarital affairs and was involved in paying money to individuals while maintaining the affairs. Ramaphosa later denied the allegations claiming they were politically motivated to derail his presidential campaign.
Honorary doctorates and awards
Among others, Ramaphosa has received honorary doctorates from the University of Natal, the University of Port Elizabeth, the University of Cape Town, the University of the North, the National University of Lesotho, National University of Ireland Galway the University of Massachusetts Boston and the University of Pennsylvania.
Ramaphosa received the Olof Palme prize in Stockholm in October 1987.
In 2004, he was voted 34th in the Top 100 Great South Africans.
Ramaphosa was included in the 2007 Time 100, an annual list of 100 men and women whose power, talent or moral example is transforming the world.
Ramaphosa received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 2009, presented by Awards Council member Archbishop Desmond Tutu at an awards ceremony at St. George's Cathedral in Cape Town, South Africa.
Ramaphosa was named one of Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People of 2019.
International positions
In his role as a businessman, Ramaphosa is a member of the Coca-Cola Company International Advisory Board as well as the Unilever Africa Advisory Council. He was also the first deputy chairman of the Commonwealth Business Council.
Along with the ex-president of Finland, Martti Ahtisaari, he was appointed an inspector of the Irish Republican Army weapon dumps in Northern Ireland. Ramaphosa is the honorary consul general for Iceland in Johannesburg, South Africa.
In the 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis, which followed the disputed re-election of President Mwai Kibaki in December 2007, Ramaphosa was unanimously chosen by the mediation team headed by Kofi Annan to be the chief mediator in charge of leading long-term talks. However, Kibaki's government expressed dissatisfaction with the choice of Ramaphosa, saying that he had business links with Kibaki's opponent Raila Odinga, and Annan accepted Ramaphosa's withdrawal from the role of chief mediator on 4 February. According to Ramaphosa, Odinga visited him in 2007, but he did not have any "special interest" that would lead him to favour one side or the other; however, he said that he could not be an effective mediator without "the trust and confidence of all parties" and that he, therefore, felt it would be best for him to return to South Africa to avoid becoming an obstacle in the negotiation.
Personal life
Ramaphosa is a very private person and not much is known about his personal life. Ramaphosa was previously married to Hope Ramaphosa (1978–1989) with whom he has a son, and later married and divorced, the now late businesswoman Nomazizi Mtshotshisa (1991–1993). In 1996, he married Tshepo Motsepe, a medical doctor and the sister of South African mining billionaire Patrice Motsepe. Ramaphosa has five known children.
He owns a luxury mansion at the foot of Lion's Head in Cape Town. Ramaphosa is known to be one of the richest people in South Africa, with an estimated net worth of more than $450 million and has appeared in financial magazines such as Forbes Africa and Bloomberg.
He is a polyglot, and is known for including a variety of South African languages when delivering most of his speeches.
Ramaphosa is also the founder of the Cyril Ramaphosa Foundation.
References
External links
Cyril Ramaphosa (1952 - ) | The Presidency
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1952 births
African National Congress politicians
Anti-apartheid activists
Living people
Olof Palme Prize laureates
People from Soweto
South African Venda people
University of South Africa alumni
University of Limpopo alumni
Deputy presidents of South Africa
Presidents of South Africa
Presidents of the African National Congress
20th-century South African politicians
21st-century South African politicians
Chancellors of the University of Mpumalanga
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Events from the year 1918 in the United States.
Incumbents
Federal Government
President: Woodrow Wilson (D-New Jersey)
Vice President: Thomas R. Marshall (D-Indiana)
Chief Justice: Edward Douglass White (Louisiana)
Speaker of the House of Representatives: Champ Clark (D-Missouri)
Congress: 65th
Events
January–March
January – The World Tomorrow pacifist magazine begins publication.
January 8 – President Woodrow Wilson delivers his Fourteen Points speech.
February 21 – The last Carolina parakeet (the last breed of parrot native to the eastern U.S.), a male named "Incas", dies at Cincinnati Zoo.
March – The Liberator socialist magazine begins publication.
March 4 – A soldier at Camp Funston, Kansas falls sick with the first confirmed case of the Spanish flu.
March 19 – The U.S. Congress establishes time zones and approves daylight saving time (DST goes into effect on March 31).
April–June
April 21 – The 6.7 San Jacinto earthquake shakes southern California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Severe), causing $200,000 in damage, one death, and several injuries.
May 2 – General Motors acquires the Chevrolet Motor Company of Delaware.
May 15 – The United States Post Office Department (later renamed the United States Postal Service) begins the first regular airmail service in the world (between New York City, Philadelphia and Washington, DC).
May 16 – The Sedition Act of 1918 is approved by the U.S. Congress.
May 20 – The small town of Codell, Kansas is hit for the third year in a row by a tornado. Coincidentally, all three tornadoes hit on the same date.
May 23 – First victims of the "axeman of New Orleans" in a 17-month series of brutal murders mainly directed at Italian American shopkeepers and their families; the serial killer is never identified.
June 8 – The total solar eclipse of June 8, 1918 crosses the United States from Washington State to Florida.
June 22
Suspects in the Chicago Restaurant Poisonings are arrested, and more than 100 waiters are taken into custody, for poisoning restaurant customers with a lethal powder called Mickey Finn.
Hammond Circus Train Wreck: A locomotive engineer fell asleep and ran his troop train into the rear of a circus train near Hammond, Indiana. The circus train held 400 performers and roustabouts of the Hagenbeck-Wallace Circus.
July–September
July 9 – Great Train Wreck of 1918: In Nashville, Tennessee, an inbound local train collides with an outbound express, killing 101 and injuring 171. It is considered the worst rail accident in U.S. history.
August – A deadly second wave of the Spanish flu starts in France, Sierra Leone and the United States.
August 13 – Opha May Johnson becomes the first woman to enlist in the United States Marine Corps.
August 27 – Border War; Battle of Ambos Nogales – U.S. Army forces skirmish with Mexican Carrancistas at Nogales, Arizona, in the only battle of World War I fought on U.S. soil.
September 11 – The Boston Red Sox defeat the Chicago Cubs for the 1918 World Series championship, their last World Series win until 2004.
September 12–15 – World War I: Battle of Saint-Mihiel fought in France: The first and only offensive launched solely by the American Expeditionary Forces under John J. Pershing overcomes German forces in the Saint-Mihiel salient.
October–December
October 4 – The T. A. Gillespie Company Shell Loading Plant explosion in New Jersey kills 100+, and destroys enough ammunition to supply the Western Front for 6 months.
October 8 – World War I: In the Forest of Argonne in France, U.S. Corporal Alvin C. York almost single-handedly kills 25 German soldiers and captures 132.
October 11 – The 7.1 San Fermín earthquake shakes Puerto Rico with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 76–116 people. A destructive tsunami contributed to the damage and loss of life.
October 12 – 1918 Cloquet Fire: The city of Cloquet, Minnesota and nearby areas are destroyed in a fire, killing 453.
October 25 – The sinks on Vanderbilt Reef near Juneau, Alaska; 353 people die in the greatest maritime disaster in the Pacific Northwest.
November 1 – Malbone Street Wreck: The worst rapid transit accident in world history occurs under the intersection of Malbone Street and Flatbush Avenue, in Brooklyn, New York City, with at least 93 dead.
November 11 – World War I ends.
December 4 – President of the U.S. Woodrow Wilson sails for the Paris Peace Conference, becoming the first U.S. president to travel to Europe while in office.
December 19 – Ripley's Believe It or Not! first appears as a cartoon under the title Champs and Chumps in The New York Globe.
Undated
The Native American Church is formally founded.
The Association Against the Prohibition Amendment is founded to oppose Prohibition in the U.S.
George Drumm's concert march "Hail, America" is first performed in New York City.
Ongoing
Progressive Era (1890s–1920s)
Lochner era (c. 1897–c. 1937)
U.S. occupation of Haiti (1915–1934)
World War I, U.S. involvement (1917–1918)
First Red Scare (1917–1920)
Births
January
January 1 – Ed Price, American soldier, pilot, and politician (d. 2012)
January 9 – Alma Ziegler, American female professional baseball player (d. 2005)
January 15 – Ira B. Harkey Jr., American newspaper editor (d. 2006)
January 16 – Stirling Silliphant, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1996)
January 17 – George M. Leader, American politician (d. 2013)
January 19
Peter Hobbs, American actor (d. 2011)
John H. Johnson, African-American publisher, founder of Ebony (d. 2005)
January 20 – Nevin S. Scrimshaw, American food scientist (d. 2013)
January 21 – Richard Winters, American World War II soldier (d. 2011)
January 23 – Gertrude B. Elion, American pharmacologist, winner of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1988 (d. 1999)
January 24 – Oral Roberts, American neo-Pentecostal televangelist (d. 2009)
January 25 – Ernie Harwell, American baseball sportscaster (d. 2010)
January 26
Philip José Farmer, American writer (d. 2009)
Vito Scotti, American actor (d. 1996)
January 27 – Elmore James, American musician (d. 1963)
January 29 – John Forsythe, American actor (Dynasty) (d. 2010)
January 31 – Millie Dunn Veasey, African-American civil rights activist and World War II soldier (d. 2018)
February
February 3
Joey Bishop, American entertainer, member of the "Rat Pack" (d. 2007)
Martin Greenberg, American poet and translator (d. 2021)
Helen Stephens, American athlete (d. 1994)
February 8
Fred Blassie, American professional wrestler, novelty singer (Pencil Neck Geek) (d. 2003)
Walter Newton Read, American lawyer and second chairman of the New Jersey Casino Control Commission (d. 2001)
February 12 – Julian Schwinger, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)
February 15
Allan Arbus, American actor (M*A*S*H) (d. 2013)
William T. Young, American businessman (d. 2004)
February 16 – Patty Andrews, American singer (The Andrews Sisters) (d. 2013)
February 17 – William Bronk, American poet (d. 1999)
February 19 – Fay McKenzie, American silent film actress (d. 2019)
February 21 – Robert E. Thacker, American aviator and test pilot (d. 2020)
February 22
Charlie Finley, American businessman (d. 1996)
Don Pardo, American television announcer (Saturday Night Live) (d. 2014)
Robert Pershing Wadlow, American tallest man record-holder (d. 1940)
February 25
Barney Ewell, American athlete (d. 1996)
Bobby Riggs, American tennis player (d. 1995)
February 26
Otis R. Bowen, American politician (d. 2013)
Theodore Sturgeon, American writer (d. 1985)
March
March 1 – James N. Morgan, American economist (d. 2018)
March 3 – Arthur Kornberg, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2007)
March 4 – Margaret Osborne duPont, American female tennis player (d. 2012)
March 5 – James Tobin, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
March 8 – Mendel L. Peterson, American underwater archaeologist (d. 2003)
March 9
George Lincoln Rockwell, American Nazi leader (d. 1967)
Mickey Spillane, American writer (d. 2006)
March 11 – Jack Coe, American evangelist (d. 1956)
March 12 – Elaine de Kooning, American artist (d. 1989)
March 13 – Eddie Pellagrini, American baseball player, coach (d. 2006)
March 15 – Richard Ellmann, American literary biographer (d. 1987)
March 16 – Frederick Reines, American physicist, winner of Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995 (d. 1998)
March 17 – Ross Bass, American politician (d. 1993)
March 18 – Bob Broeg, American sports writer (d. 2005)
March 20 – Jack Barry, American television game show host, producer (d. 1984)
March 23
Helene Hale, American politician (d. 2013)
Stick McGhee, American jump blues singer, guitarist, and songwriter (d. 1961)
March 25 – Howard Cosell, American attorney, lecturer, and sports journalist (d. 1995)
March 26 – Lloyd McCuiston, American politician
March 29
Pearl Bailey, African-American singer, actress (d. 1990)
Shirley Jameson, American female baseball player (d. 1993)
Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart (d. 1992)
April
April 1 – Milt Earnhart, American politician (d. 2020)
April 4 – Joseph Ashbrook, American astronomer (d. 1980)
April 7 – Bobby Doerr, American baseball player (d. 2017)
April 8
Betty Ford, First Lady of the United States, Second Lady of the United States (d. 2011)
Charles P. Roland, American historian
April 14 – Mary Healy, American actress, variety entertainer and singer (d. 2015)
April 15
Louis O. Coxe, American writer (d. 1993)
Edmund Jones, American politician (d. 2019)
April 17
William Holden, American actor (d. 1981)
Anne Shirley, American actress (d. 1993)
April 18 – Clifton Hillegass, American author, founder of CliffsNotes (d. 2001)
April 20 – Edward L. Beach Jr., American naval captain and author (d. 2002)
April 22
Mickey Vernon, American baseball player (d. 2008)
William Jay Smith, American poet (d. 2015)
April 24 – Lou Dorfsman, American graphic designer (d. 2008)
April 27 – John Rice, American baseball umpire (d. 2011)
April 28
Mildred Persinger, American feminist (d. 2018)
Rodger Wilton Young, United States Army soldier, remembered in the song "The Ballad of Rodger Young" (d. 1943)
April 29 – George Allen, American football coach (d. 1990)
May
May 1 – Jack Paar, American television show host (The Tonight Show) (d. 2004)
May 3 – Richard Dudman, American reporter, editorial writer (St. Louis Post-Dispatch) (d. 2017)
May 9
Russell M. Carneal, American politician, judge (d. 1998)
Orville Freeman, American politician (d. 2003)
Mike Wallace, American journalist (d. 2012)
May 10
T. Berry Brazelton, American pediatrician (d. 2018)
Jane Mayhall, American poet and novelist (d. 2009)
George Welch, U.S. soldier and pilot (d. 1954)
May 11
Richard Feynman, American physicist, winner of Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965 (d. 1988)
Phil Rasmussen, American pilot (d. 2005)
May 12 – Julius Rosenberg, American-born Soviet spy (d. 1953)
May 15 – Eddy Arnold, American country music singer (d. 2008)
May 17 – A. C. Lyles, American film producer (d. 2013)
May 18
Claudia Bryar, American actress (d. 2011)
Joe Krush, American illustrator
May 20 – Edward B. Lewis, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
May 21 – Lloyd Hartman Elliott, American educator, president of George Washington University (d. 2013)
May 23
Frank Mancuso, American major league baseball player, politician (d. 2007)
Naomi Replansky, American poet
June
June 2 – Kathryn Tucker Windham, American writer, storyteller (d. 2011)
June 4 – Johnny Klein, American drummer (d. 1997)
June 6 – Edwin G. Krebs, American biochemist, winner of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1992 (d. 2009)
June 8
Robert Preston, American actor (The Music Man) (d. 1987)
1918 – John D. Roberts, American chemist and academic (d. 2016)
1918 – John H. Ross, American captain and pilot (d. 2013)
June 9 – John Hospers, American philosopher (d. 2011)
June 10 – Wood Moy, American actor (d. 2017)
June 12 – Jerry A. Moore Jr., American politician (d. 2017)
June 18
Jerome Karle, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)
Lillian Ross, American journalist on The New Yorker (d. 2017)
Elisabeth Waldo, American violinist, composer
June 21
Dee Molenaar, American mountaineer, author and artist (d. 2020)
Josephine Webb, American engineer
June 25 – Sid Tepper, American songwriter (d. 2015)
June 26 – Raleigh Rhodes, American combat fighter pilot (d. 2007)
June 27 – Adolph Kiefer, American former competition swimmer (d. 2017)
June 28 – Marshall Brown, American professional basketball player (d. 2008)
June 29
Gene La Rocque, U.S. admiral (d. 2016)
Francis W. Nye, United States Air Force major general (d. 2019)
July
July 1 – Ralph Young, American singer, actor (d. 2008)
July 3
Johnny Palmer, American golfer (d. 2006)
Shirley Adelson Siegel, American activist and lawyer (d. 2020)
Ben Thompson, American architect and designer (d. 2002)
July 4
Joe Fortunato, American football, basketball, and baseball coach (d. 2004)
Eppie Lederer, American journalist and radio host (d. 2002)
Johnnie Parsons, American race car driver (d. 1984)
Pauline Phillips, American journalist and radio host, creator of Dear Abby (d. 2013)
July 5 – George Rochberg, American composer (d. 2005)
July 6
J. Dewey Daane, American economist (d. 2017)
Herm Fuetsch, American professional basketball player (d. 2010)
July 7 – Bob Vanatta, American head basketball coach (d. 2016)
July 8
Edward B. Giller, U.S. major general (d. 2017)
Craig Stevens, American actor (d. 2000)
Paul B. Fay, American businessman, soldier, and diplomat, 12th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 2009)
July 10
Chuck Stevens, American major baseball (d. 2018)
Frank L. Lambert, American professor emeritus of chemistry at Occidental College (d. 2018)
July 12
Doris Grumbach, American novelist, memoirist, biographer, literary critic, and essayist
Alice Van-Springsteen, American stuntwoman, jockey (d. 2008)
Vivian Mason, American actress (d. 2009)
Paul Stenn, American football offensive tackle (d. 2003)
July 14
Jay Wright Forrester, American computer engineer, systems scientist (d. 2016)
Arthur Laurents, American novelist and screenwriter (d. 2011)
July 16 – Leonard T. Schroeder, American colonel (d. 2009)
July 17 – Chandler Robbins, American ornithologist (d. 2017)
July 18
James Duesenberry, American economist (d. 2009)
Warren Hair, American professional basketball player (d. 2006)
July 20
Edward S. Little, American diplomat (d. 2004)
Cindy Walker, American songwriter, country singer (d. 2006)
July 22 – Stanley Lebergott, American government economist (d. 2009)
July 23
Carl T. Langford, American politician (d. 2011)
Pee Wee Reese, American baseball player (d. 1999)
July 24 – Irving London, American hematologist and geneticist (d. 2018)
July 25 – Jane Frank, American artist (d. 1986)
July 26 – Marjorie Lord, American actress (d. 2015)
July 27 – Leonard Rose, American cellist (d. 1984)
July 29 – Edwin O'Connor, American novelist, Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winner (d. 1968)
July 30
John L. Cason, American actor (d. 1961)
Jimmy Robinson, American actor (d. 1967)
July 31
Paul D. Boyer, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018)
Hank Jones, American pianist (d. 2010)
August
August 3 – Sidney Gottlieb, American Central Intelligence Agency official (d. 1999)
August 6 – Charles Coulston Gillispie, American historian (d. 2015)
August 9 – Robert Aldrich, American writer and filmmaker (d. 1983)
August 12 – Roy C. Bennett, American songwriter (d. 2015)
August 13 – Tao Porchon-Lynch, American yoga master and author (d. 2020)
August 19 – Oliver Brown, African-American plaintiff (d. 1961)
August 20 – Jacqueline Susann, American novelist (d. 1974)
August 21 – Bruria Kaufman, American-born Israeli physicist (d. 2010 in Israel)
August 22 – Martin Pope, American physical chemist
August 23 – Bernard Fisher, American surgeon (d. 2019)
August 25 – Leonard Bernstein, American composer and conductor (d. 1990)
August 26
Hutton Gibson, American religion writer, father of actor Mel Gibson (d. 2020)
Katherine Johnson, African-American physicist and mathematician (d. 2020)
August 27 – Simeon Booker, American journalist (d. 2017)
August 30 – Ted Williams, American baseball player (d. 2002)
August 31
Griffin Bell, American politician (d. 2009)
Alan Jay Lerner, American lyricist (d. 1986)
Kenny Washington, African-American football player (d. 1971)
September
September 1 – James D. Martin, American politician (d. 2017)
September 3 – Helen Wagner, American soap opera actress (d. 2010)
September 4
Paul Harvey, American radio broadcaster (d. 2009)
Gerald Wilson, American jazz trumpeter (d. 2014)
September 6 – Hugh Gillis, American politician (d. 2013)
September 13
Ray Charles, American musician, singer and songwriter (d. 2015)
Rosemary Kennedy, sister of John F. Kennedy (d. 2005)
September 15 – Nipsey Russell, African-American comedian (d. 2005)
September 19 – Joseph Zeller, American politician (d. 2018)
September 21 – John Gofman, American Manhattan Project scientist, advocate (d. 2007)
September 26
Harry Yee, American bartender
John Zacherle, American television and radio host, singer, and voice actor (d. 2016)
October
October 4 – Adrian Kantrowitz, American cardiac surgeon (d. 2008)
October 9 – E. Howard Hunt, American Watergate break-in coordinator (d. 2007)
October 13 – Robert Walker, American actor (d. 1951)
October 17 – Rita Hayworth, American actress (d. 1987)
October 18 – Bobby Troup, American singer-songwriter and actor, known for his role in Emergency! (d. 1999)
October 19 – Robert S. Strauss, American politician, Democratic National Committee Chairman (d. 2014)
October 22 – Fred Caligiuri, American baseball player (d. 2018)
October 23
Augusta Dabney, American actress (d. 2008)
Paul Rudolph, American architect (d. 1997)
October 25 – Milton Selzer, American actor (d. 2006)
October 27 – Teresa Wright, American actress (d. 2005)
October 29 – Diana Serra Cary, born Peggy-Jean Montgomery ("Baby Peggy"), American silent film child actress (d. 2020)
October 31 – Ian Stevenson, American parapsychologist (d. 2007)
November
November 3
Bob Feller, American baseball player (d. 2010)
Ann Hutchinson Guest, American movement, dance researcher
Elizabeth P. Hoisington, American Brigadier General (d. 2007)
Russell B. Long, United States Senator from Louisiana (d. 2003)
Dean Riesner, American film, television screenwriter (d. 2002)
November 4
Art Carney, American actor, best known for his role in The Honeymooners (d. 2003)
Cameron Mitchell, American actor, best known for his role in The High Chaparral (d. 1994)
November 7
Fred Cusick, American ice hockey broadcaster (d. 2009)
Billy Graham, evangelist (d. 2018)
November 8 – Bob Schiller, American screenwriter (d. 2017)
November 9
Spiro Agnew, 39th Vice President of the United States from 1969 to 1973 (d. 1996)
Thomas Ferebee, United States Air Force colonel (d. 2000)
November 10 – John Henry Moss, American baseball executive, politician (d. 2009)
November 11 – Louise Tobin, American singer
November 21 – Dorothy Maguire, American professional baseball player (d. 1981)
November 28 – Jack H. Harris, American film producer, distributor and actor (d. 2017)
November 29 – Madeleine L'Engle, children's fiction writer (d. 2007)
November 30 – Efrem Zimbalist, Jr., American actor (d. 2014)
December
December 6 – Nick Drahos, American football player (d. 2018)
December 10 – Anne Gwynne, American actress (d. 2003)
December 11 – John W. Reed, American legal scholar (d. 2018)
December 12 – Joe Williams, American jazz singer (d. 1999)
December 14 – Jack Cole, American cartoonist (d. 1958)
December 15 – Jeff Chandler, American actor (d. 1961)
December 17 – Dusty Anderson, American actress and model (d. 2007)
December 18 – Hal Kanter, American comedy writer, producer and director (d. 2011)
December 20 – Joseph Payne Brennan, American poet, author (d. 1990)
December 21
Fred Gloden, American football player (d. 2019)
Donald Regan, American Treasury Secretary, White House Chief of Staff (d. 2003)
December 24 – Dave Bartholomew, American musician, bandleader, composer and arranger (d. 2019)
December 25
Henry Hillman, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2017)
George S. Vest, American diplomat (d. 2021)
December 26 – Butch Ballard, American jazz drummer (d. 2011)
December 29 – Leo J. Dulacki, American general (d. 2019)
December 31 – Al Lakeman, American Major League Baseball catcher (d. 1976)
Deaths
January 8 – Ellis H. Roberts, politician (born 1827)
February 2 – John L. Sullivan, boxer, World Heavyweight Champion (born 1858)
February 15 – Vernon Castle, ballroom dancer (born 1887)
March 10 – Jim McCormick, baseball pitcher (born 1856 in Scotland)
March 14 – Lucretia Garfield, First Lady of the United States (born 1832)
March 16 – Prosper P. Parker, civil engineer, Union Army officer and politician (born 1835 in Canada)
March 27 – Henry Adams, historian (born 1838)
April 14 – James E. Ware, architect who devised the "dumbbell plan" for New York City tenements (born 1846)
May 1 – Grove Karl Gilbert, geologist (born 1843)
May 5 – Bertha Palmer, businesswoman, socialite and philanthropist (born 1849)
May 14 – James Gordon Bennett, Jr., newspaper publisher (born 1841)
May 17 – William Drew Robeson, African American Presbyterian minister, escaped slave and father of Paul Robeson (born 1844)
May 19 – Raoul Lufbery, fighter pilot (killed in action; born 1885 in France)
May 27 – Frederick Trump, German American businessman, paternal grandfather of Donald Trump (born 1869)
June 4 – Charles W. Fairbanks, 26th Vice President of the United States from 1905 to 1909 and U.S. Senator from Indiana from 1897 to 1905 (born 1852)
June 18 – Lizzie Halliday, serial killer (born c.1859)
June 25 – Jake Beckley, baseball player (born 1867)
June 27 – George Mary Searle, astronomer (born 1839)
June 28 – Albert Henry Munsell, inventor of the Munsell color system (born 1858)
July 20 – Francis Lupo, U.S. Army soldier (killed in action; born 1895)
July 27 – Gustav Kobbé, music critic and author (sailing accident; born 1857)
July 30 – Joyce Kilmer, poet (killed in action; born 1886)
August 1 – John Riley Banister, policeman and cowboy (born 1854)
August 10 – William Pitt Kellogg, U.S. Senator from Louisiana from 1868 to 1872 and from 1877 to 1883 (born 1830)
August 12 – Anna Held, singer (born 1872 in Poland)
August 14 – Anna Morton, Second Lady of the United States (born 1846)
September 12 – Joseph Clay Stiles Blackburn, U.S. Senator from Kentucky from 1885 to 1897 and from 1901 to 1907 (born 1838)
September 28
True Boardman, silent film actor (born 1882)
Freddie Stowers, African American corporal (killed in action; born 1896)
September 29 – Frank Luke, fighter pilot (killed in action; born 1897)
October 8 – James B. McCreary, 27th and 37th Governor of Kentucky from 1875 to 1879 and from 1911 to 1915, U.S. Senator from Kentucky from 1903 to 1909 (born 1838)
October 16 – Felix Arndt, pianist and composer (born 1889)
October 19 – Harold Lockwood, silent film actor (born 1887)
October 22 – Myrtle Gonzalez, silent film actress (born 1891)
October 28 – Edward Bouchet, physicist (born 1852)
November 4 – Andrew Dickson White, diplomat, academic and author (born 1832)
November 19 – Joseph F. Smith, Mormon leader (born 1838)
December 17 – John Green Brady, 5th Governor of the District of Alaska from 1897 to 1906 (born 1847)
December 26 – William Hampton Patton, entomologist (born 1853)
See also
List of American films of 1918
Timeline of United States history (1900–1929)
References
External links
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In mathematics (in particular, functional analysis), convolution is a mathematical operation on two functions ( and ) that produces a third function () that expresses how the shape of one is modified by the other. The term convolution refers to both the result function and to the process of computing it. It is defined as the integral of the product of the two functions after one is reversed and shifted. The integral is evaluated for all values of shift, producing the convolution function.
Some features of convolution are similar to cross-correlation: for real-valued functions, of a continuous or discrete variable, it differs from cross-correlation () only in that either or is reflected about the y-axis; thus it is a cross-correlation of and , or and . For complex-valued functions, the cross-correlation operator is the adjoint of the convolution operator.
Convolution has applications that include probability, statistics, acoustics, spectroscopy, signal processing and image processing, geophysics, engineering, physics, computer vision and differential equations.
The convolution can be defined for functions on Euclidean space and other groups. For example, periodic functions, such as the discrete-time Fourier transform, can be defined on a circle and convolved by periodic convolution. (See row 18 at .) A discrete convolution can be defined for functions on the set of integers.
Generalizations of convolution have applications in the field of numerical analysis and numerical linear algebra, and in the design and implementation of finite impulse response filters in signal processing.
Computing the inverse of the convolution operation is known as deconvolution.
Definition
The convolution of and is written , denoting the operator with the symbol . It is defined as the integral of the product of the two functions after one is reversed and shifted. As such, it is a particular kind of integral transform:
An equivalent definition is (see commutativity):
While the symbol is used above, it need not represent the time domain. But in that context, the convolution formula can be described as the area under the function weighted by the function shifted by amount . As changes, the weighting function emphasizes different parts of the input function .
For functions , supported on only (i.e., zero for negative arguments), the integration limits can be truncated, resulting in:
For the multi-dimensional formulation of convolution, see domain of definition (below).
Notation
A common engineering notational convention is:
which has to be interpreted carefully to avoid confusion. For instance, is equivalent to , but is in fact equivalent to .
Derivation
Given two functions and with bilateral Laplace transforms
and
respectively, the convolution operation can be defined as the inverse Laplace transform of the product of and . More precisely,
Let such that
Note that is the bilateral Laplace transform of . A similar derivation can be done using the unilateral Laplace transform.
The convolution operation also describes the output (in terms of the input) of an important class of operations known as linear time-invariant (LTI). See LTI system theory for a derivation of convolution as the result of LTI constraints. In terms of the Fourier transforms of the input and output of an LTI operation, no new frequency components are created. The existing ones are only modified (amplitude and/or phase). In other words, the output transform is the pointwise product of the input transform with a third transform (known as a transfer function). See Convolution theorem for a derivation of that property of convolution. Conversely, convolution can be derived as the inverse Fourier transform of the pointwise product of two Fourier transforms.
Visual explanation
Historical developments
One of the earliest uses of the convolution integral appeared in D'Alembert's derivation of Taylor's theorem in Recherches sur différents points importants du système du monde, published in 1754.
Also, an expression of the type:
is used by Sylvestre François Lacroix on page 505 of his book entitled Treatise on differences and series, which is the last of 3 volumes of the encyclopedic series: Traité du calcul différentiel et du calcul intégral, Chez Courcier, Paris, 1797–1800. Soon thereafter, convolution operations appear in the works of Pierre Simon Laplace, Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier, Siméon Denis Poisson, and others. The term itself did not come into wide use until the 1950s or 60s. Prior to that it was sometimes known as Faltung (which means folding in German), composition product, superposition integral, and Carson's integral. Yet it appears as early as 1903, though the definition is rather unfamiliar in older uses.
The operation:
is a particular case of composition products considered by the Italian mathematician Vito Volterra in 1913.
Circular convolution
When a function is periodic, with period , then for functions, , such that exists, the convolution is also periodic and identical to:
where is an arbitrary choice. The summation is called a periodic summation of the function .
When is a periodic summation of another function, , then is known as a circular or cyclic convolution of and .
And if the periodic summation above is replaced by , the operation is called a periodic convolution of and .
Discrete convolution
For complex-valued functions defined on the set Z of integers, the discrete convolution of and is given by:
or equivalently (see commutativity) by:
The convolution of two finite sequences is defined by extending the sequences to finitely supported functions on the set of integers. When the sequences are the coefficients of two polynomials, then the coefficients of the ordinary product of the two polynomials are the convolution of the original two sequences. This is known as the Cauchy product of the coefficients of the sequences.
Thus when has finite support in the set (representing, for instance, a finite impulse response), a finite summation may be used:
Circular discrete convolution
When a function is periodic, with period , then for functions, , such that exists, the convolution is also periodic and identical to:
The summation on is called a periodic summation of the function .
If is a periodic summation of another function, , then is known as a circular convolution of and .
When the non-zero durations of both and are limited to the interval , reduces to these common forms:
The notation () for cyclic convolution denotes convolution over the cyclic group of integers modulo .
Circular convolution arises most often in the context of fast convolution with a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm.
Fast convolution algorithms
In many situations, discrete convolutions can be converted to circular convolutions so that fast transforms with a convolution property can be used to implement the computation. For example, convolution of digit sequences is the kernel operation in multiplication of multi-digit numbers, which can therefore be efficiently implemented with transform techniques (; ).
requires arithmetic operations per output value and operations for outputs. That can be significantly reduced with any of several fast algorithms. Digital signal processing and other applications typically use fast convolution algorithms to reduce the cost of the convolution to O( log ) complexity.
The most common fast convolution algorithms use fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms via the circular convolution theorem. Specifically, the circular convolution of two finite-length sequences is found by taking an FFT of each sequence, multiplying pointwise, and then performing an inverse FFT. Convolutions of the type defined above are then efficiently implemented using that technique in conjunction with zero-extension and/or discarding portions of the output. Other fast convolution algorithms, such as the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm or the Mersenne transform, use fast Fourier transforms in other rings.
If one sequence is much longer than the other, zero-extension of the shorter sequence and fast circular convolution is not the most computationally efficient method available. Instead, decomposing the longer sequence into blocks and convolving each block allows for faster algorithms such as the overlap–save method and overlap–add method. A hybrid convolution method that combines block and FIR algorithms allows for a zero input-output latency that is useful for real-time convolution computations.
Domain of definition
The convolution of two complex-valued functions on is itself a complex-valued function on , defined by:
and is well-defined only if and decay sufficiently rapidly at infinity in order for the integral to exist. Conditions for the existence of the convolution may be tricky, since a blow-up in at infinity can be easily offset by sufficiently rapid decay in . The question of existence thus may involve different conditions on and :
Compactly supported functions
If and are compactly supported continuous functions, then their convolution exists, and is also compactly supported and continuous . More generally, if either function (say ) is compactly supported and the other is locally integrable, then the convolution is well-defined and continuous.
Convolution of and is also well defined when both functions are locally square integrable on and supported on an interval of the form (or both supported on ).
Integrable functions
The convolution of and exists if and are both Lebesgue integrable functions in (), and in this case is also integrable . This is a consequence of Tonelli's theorem. This is also true for functions in , under the discrete convolution, or more generally for the convolution on any group.
Likewise, if () and () where , then (), and
In the particular case , this shows that is a Banach algebra under the convolution (and equality of the two sides holds if and are non-negative almost everywhere).
More generally, Young's inequality implies that the convolution is a continuous bilinear map between suitable spaces. Specifically, if satisfy:
then
so that the convolution is a continuous bilinear mapping from to .
The Young inequality for convolution is also true in other contexts (circle group, convolution on ). The preceding inequality is not sharp on the real line: when , there exists a constant such that:
The optimal value of was discovered in 1975 and independently in 1976, see Brascamp–Lieb inequality.
A stronger estimate is true provided :
where is the weak norm. Convolution also defines a bilinear continuous map for , owing to the weak Young inequality:
Functions of rapid decay
In addition to compactly supported functions and integrable functions, functions that have sufficiently rapid decay at infinity can also be convolved. An important feature of the convolution is that if f and g both decay rapidly, then f∗g also decays rapidly. In particular, if f and g are rapidly decreasing functions, then so is the convolution f∗g. Combined with the fact that convolution commutes with differentiation (see #Properties), it follows that the class of Schwartz functions is closed under convolution .
Distributions
Under some circumstances, it is possible to define the convolution of a function with a distribution, or of two distributions. If f is a compactly supported function and g is a distribution, then f∗g is a smooth function defined by a distributional formula analogous to
More generally, it is possible to extend the definition of the convolution in a unique way so that the associative law
remains valid in the case where f is a distribution, and g a compactly supported distribution .
Measures
The convolution of any two Borel measures μ and ν of bounded variation is the measure defined by
In particular,
where is a measurable set and is the indicator function of .
This agrees with the convolution defined above when μ and ν are regarded as distributions, as well as the convolution of L1 functions when μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure.
The convolution of measures also satisfies the following version of Young's inequality
where the norm is the total variation of a measure. Because the space of measures of bounded variation is a Banach space, convolution of measures can be treated with standard methods of functional analysis that may not apply for the convolution of distributions.
Properties
Algebraic properties
The convolution defines a product on the linear space of integrable functions. This product satisfies the following algebraic properties, which formally mean that the space of integrable functions with the product given by convolution is a commutative associative algebra without identity . Other linear spaces of functions, such as the space of continuous functions of compact support, are closed under the convolution, and so also form commutative associative algebras.
Commutativity Proof: By definition: Changing the variable of integration to the result follows.
Associativity Proof: This follows from using Fubini's theorem (i.e., double integrals can be evaluated as iterated integrals in either order).
Distributivity Proof: This follows from linearity of the integral.
Associativity with scalar multiplication for any real (or complex) number .
Multiplicative identity No algebra of functions possesses an identity for the convolution. The lack of identity is typically not a major inconvenience, since most collections of functions on which the convolution is performed can be convolved with a delta distribution (a unitary impulse, centered at zero) or, at the very least (as is the case of L1) admit approximations to the identity. The linear space of compactly supported distributions does, however, admit an identity under the convolution. Specifically, where δ is the delta distribution.
Inverse element Some distributions S have an inverse element S−1 for the convolution which then must satisfy from which an explicit formula for S−1 may be obtained.The set of invertible distributions forms an abelian group under the convolution.
Complex conjugation
Relationship with differentiation Proof:
Relationship with integration If and then
Integration
If f and g are integrable functions, then the integral of their convolution on the whole space is simply obtained as the product of their integrals:
This follows from Fubini's theorem. The same result holds if f and g are only assumed to be nonnegative measurable functions, by Tonelli's theorem.
Differentiation
In the one-variable case,
where d/dx is the derivative. More generally, in the case of functions of several variables, an analogous formula holds with the partial derivative:
A particular consequence of this is that the convolution can be viewed as a "smoothing" operation: the convolution of f and g is differentiable as many times as f and g are in total.
These identities hold under the precise condition that f and g are absolutely integrable and at least one of them has an absolutely integrable (L1) weak derivative, as a consequence of Young's convolution inequality. For instance, when f is continuously differentiable with compact support, and g is an arbitrary locally integrable function,
These identities also hold much more broadly in the sense of tempered distributions if one of f or g is a
rapidly decreasing tempered distribution, a
compactly supported tempered distribution or a Schwartz function and the other is a tempered distribution. On the other hand, two positive integrable and infinitely differentiable functions may have a nowhere continuous convolution.
In the discrete case, the difference operator D f(n) = f(n + 1) − f(n) satisfies an analogous relationship:
Convolution theorem
The convolution theorem states that
where denotes the Fourier transform of , and is a constant that depends on the specific normalization of the Fourier transform. Versions of this theorem also hold for the Laplace transform, two-sided Laplace transform, Z-transform and Mellin transform.
On the other hand, if is the Fourier transform matrix, then
,
where is face-splitting product, denotes Kronecker product, denotes Hadamard product (this result is an evolving of count sketch properties).
Translational equivariance
The convolution commutes with translations, meaning that
where τxf is the translation of the function f by x defined by
If f is a Schwartz function, then τxf is the convolution with a translated Dirac delta function τxf = f ∗ τx δ. So translation invariance of the convolution of Schwartz functions is a consequence of the associativity of convolution.
Furthermore, under certain conditions, convolution is the most general translation invariant operation. Informally speaking, the following holds
Suppose that S is a bounded linear operator acting on functions which commutes with translations: S(τxf) = τx(Sf) for all x. Then S is given as convolution with a function (or distribution) gS; that is Sf = gS ∗ f.
Thus some translation invariant operations can be represented as convolution. Convolutions play an important role in the study of time-invariant systems, and especially LTI system theory. The representing function gS is the impulse response of the transformation S.
A more precise version of the theorem quoted above requires specifying the class of functions on which the convolution is defined, and also requires assuming in addition that S must be a continuous linear operator with respect to the appropriate topology. It is known, for instance, that every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on L1 is the convolution with a finite Borel measure. More generally, every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on Lp for 1 ≤ p < ∞ is the convolution with a tempered distribution whose Fourier transform is bounded. To wit, they are all given by bounded Fourier multipliers.
Convolutions on groups
If G is a suitable group endowed with a measure λ, and if f and g are real or complex valued integrable functions on G, then we can define their convolution by
It is not commutative in general. In typical cases of interest G is a locally compact Hausdorff topological group and λ is a (left-) Haar measure. In that case, unless G is unimodular, the convolution defined in this way is not the same as . The preference of one over the other is made so that convolution with a fixed function g commutes with left translation in the group:
Furthermore, the convention is also required for consistency with the definition of the convolution of measures given below. However, with a right instead of a left Haar measure, the latter integral is preferred over the former.
On locally compact abelian groups, a version of the convolution theorem holds: the Fourier transform of a convolution is the pointwise product of the Fourier transforms. The circle group T with the Lebesgue measure is an immediate example. For a fixed g in L1(T), we have the following familiar operator acting on the Hilbert space L2(T):
The operator T is compact. A direct calculation shows that its adjoint T* is convolution with
By the commutativity property cited above, T is normal: T* T = TT* . Also, T commutes with the translation operators. Consider the family S of operators consisting of all such convolutions and the translation operators. Then S is a commuting family of normal operators. According to spectral theory, there exists an orthonormal basis {hk} that simultaneously diagonalizes S. This characterizes convolutions on the circle. Specifically, we have
which are precisely the characters of T. Each convolution is a compact multiplication operator in this basis. This can be viewed as a version of the convolution theorem discussed above.
A discrete example is a finite cyclic group of order n. Convolution operators are here represented by circulant matrices, and can be diagonalized by the discrete Fourier transform.
A similar result holds for compact groups (not necessarily abelian): the matrix coefficients of finite-dimensional unitary representations form an orthonormal basis in L2 by the Peter–Weyl theorem, and an analog of the convolution theorem continues to hold, along with many other aspects of harmonic analysis that depend on the Fourier transform.
Convolution of measures
Let G be a (multiplicatively written) topological group.
If μ and ν are finite Borel measures on G, then their convolution μ∗ν is defined as the pushforward measure of the group action and can be written as
:
for each measurable subset E of G. The convolution is also a finite measure, whose total variation satisfies
In the case when G is locally compact with (left-)Haar measure λ, and μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to a λ, so that each has a density function, then the convolution μ∗ν is also absolutely continuous, and its density function is just the convolution of the two separate density functions.
If μ and ν are probability measures on the topological group then the convolution μ∗ν is the probability distribution of the sum X + Y of two independent random variables X and Y whose respective distributions are μ and ν.
Bialgebras
Let (X, Δ, ∇, ε, η) be a bialgebra with comultiplication Δ, multiplication ∇, unit η, and counit ε. The convolution is a product defined on the endomorphism algebra End(X) as follows. Let φ, ψ ∈ End(X), that is, φ, ψ: X → X are functions that respect all algebraic structure of X, then the convolution φ∗ψ is defined as the composition
The convolution appears notably in the definition of Hopf algebras . A bialgebra is a Hopf algebra if and only if it has an antipode: an endomorphism S such that
Applications
Convolution and related operations are found in many applications in science, engineering and mathematics.
In image processing
In digital image processing convolutional filtering plays an important role in many important algorithms in edge detection and related processes.
In optics, an out-of-focus photograph is a convolution of the sharp image with a lens function. The photographic term for this is bokeh.
In image processing applications such as adding blurring.
In digital data processing
In analytical chemistry, Savitzky–Golay smoothing filters are used for the analysis of spectroscopic data. They can improve signal-to-noise ratio with minimal distortion of the spectra
In statistics, a weighted moving average is a convolution.
In acoustics, reverberation is the convolution of the original sound with echoes from objects surrounding the sound source.
In digital signal processing, convolution is used to map the impulse response of a real room on a digital audio signal.
In electronic music convolution is the imposition of a spectral or rhythmic structure on a sound. Often this envelope or structure is taken from another sound. The convolution of two signals is the filtering of one through the other.
In electrical engineering, the convolution of one function (the input signal) with a second function (the impulse response) gives the output of a linear time-invariant system (LTI). At any given moment, the output is an accumulated effect of all the prior values of the input function, with the most recent values typically having the most influence (expressed as a multiplicative factor). The impulse response function provides that factor as a function of the elapsed time since each input value occurred.
In physics, wherever there is a linear system with a "superposition principle", a convolution operation makes an appearance. For instance, in spectroscopy line broadening due to the Doppler effect on its own gives a Gaussian spectral line shape and collision broadening alone gives a Lorentzian line shape. When both effects are operative, the line shape is a convolution of Gaussian and Lorentzian, a Voigt function.
In time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, the excitation signal can be treated as a chain of delta pulses, and the measured fluorescence is a sum of exponential decays from each delta pulse.
In computational fluid dynamics, the large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence model uses the convolution operation to lower the range of length scales necessary in computation thereby reducing computational cost.
In probability theory, the probability distribution of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of their individual distributions.
In kernel density estimation, a distribution is estimated from sample points by convolution with a kernel, such as an isotropic Gaussian.
In radiotherapy treatment planning systems, most part of all modern codes of calculation applies a convolution-superposition algorithm.
In structural reliability, the reliability index can be defined based on the convolution theorem.
The definition of reliability index for limit state functions with nonnormal distributions can be established corresponding to the joint distribution function. In fact, the joint distribution function can be obtained using the convolution theory.
Convolutional neural networks apply multiple cascaded convolution kernels with applications in machine vision and artificial intelligence. Though these are actually cross-correlations rather than convolutions in most cases.
In Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics, simulations of fluid dynamics are calculated using particles, each with surrounding kernels. For any given particle , some physical quantity is calculated as a convolution of with a weighting function, where denotes the neighbors of particle : those that are located within its kernel. The convolution is approximated as a summation over each neighbor.
See also
Analog signal processing
Circulant matrix
Convolution for optical broad-beam responses in scattering media
Convolution power
Deconvolution
Dirichlet convolution
Generalized signal averaging
Jan Mikusinski
List of convolutions of probability distributions
LTI system theory#Impulse response and convolution
Multidimensional discrete convolution
Scaled correlation
Titchmarsh convolution theorem
Toeplitz matrix (convolutions can be considered a Toeplitz matrix operation where each row is a shifted copy of the convolution kernel)
Notes
References
Further reading
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Dominguez-Torres, Alejandro (Nov 2, 2010). "Origin and history of convolution". 41 pgs. http://www.slideshare.net/Alexdfar/origin-adn-history-of-convolution. Cranfield, Bedford MK43 OAL, UK. Retrieved Mar 13, 2013.
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External links
Earliest Uses: The entry on Convolution has some historical information.
Convolution, on The Data Analysis BriefBook
http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/convolve/index.html Visual convolution Java Applet
http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/discreteconv2/index.html Visual convolution Java Applet for discrete-time functions
https://get-the-solution.net/projects/discret-convolution discret-convolution online calculator
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Convolution/CI.html Convolution demo and visualization in javascript
https://phiresky.github.io/convolution-demo/ Another convolution demo in javascript
Lectures on Image Processing: A collection of 18 lectures in pdf format from Vanderbilt University. Lecture 7 is on 2-D convolution., by Alan Peters
* https://archive.org/details/Lectures_on_Image_Processing
Convolution Kernel Mask Operation Interactive tutorial
Convolution at MathWorld
Freeverb3 Impulse Response Processor: Opensource zero latency impulse response processor with VST plugins
Stanford University CS 178 interactive Flash demo showing how spatial convolution works.
A video lecture on the subject of convolution given by Salman Khan
Example of FFT convolution for pattern-recognition (image processing)
Intuitive Guide to Convolution A blogpost about an intuitive interpretation of convolution.
Functional analysis
Image processing
Fourier analysis
Bilinear operators
Feature detection (computer vision)
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The Volvo S60 is a compact executive car manufactured and marketed by Volvo since 2000.
The first generation (2000–2009) was launched in autumn of 2000 in order to replace the S70 and was based on the P2 platform. It had a similar designed estate version called Volvo V70 and a sports version called S60 R. Styling cues were taken from the ECC concept car and the S80.
The second generation (2010–2018) was released in 2010 for the 2011 model year and has its own estate version, known as the Volvo V60.
The third generation joined the Volvo line-up in 2018 for the 2019 model year. It is built on a shortened version of the Scalable Product Architecture platform, in America's first Volvo factory in Ridgeville, South Carolina. The U.S. became the sole global source of the S60 sedan after production in China was phased out in early 2019.
First generation (2000–2009)
The S60 was built on Volvo's P2 platform, which was shared with other Volvo models like the S80, V70, XC70 and finally the XC90.
The Volvo S60 was released in 2000 (2001 model year) being the company's new generation sports sedan. The S60 is aimed to mainly compete with the BMW 3 Series (E46) and the Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W203). Unlike its rivals, the Volvo S60 continued production for 9 years with multiple facelifts. The S60 was refreshed in 2005. The exterior was updated with body-colored side moldings and bumpers with chrome linings, as well as new headlamps replacing the original with black housing. The interior received some updates as well, with new seats, trim, and an updated center console. The S60 went through a final facelift in 2008 with full body-colored bumper and door inserts and larger emblem in the front and larger spaced out "V-O-L-V-O" letters in the rear. The interior featured a new pattern upholstery which differs from its original pattern. The S60 came standard with Volvo's own radio unit, the HU-650 and an optional extra HU-850 unit. The HU-850 unit features a 225 or 335-watt power output (depending on optional external amplifier) with three presets: 2CH, 3CH and Dolby Digital Pro Logic II Surround Sound. The Four-C chassis from the S60 R became an option on some S60s. In 2004 the T5 engine was reengineered from 2.3 to 2.4 litres and received an increase of , and a modified turbo in the D5 model also increased the D5 bhp from 163 PS to 185 PS.
First generation models
S60
S60 Police specification (UK & EU)
Police specification models came about through Volvo's extensive work alongside the users of the vehicles and Police Fleet Management departments. As a result, the Police specification vehicles have a striking difference from original showroom model that sometimes the Volvo S60 is used as police cars.
Firstly the suspension was up-rated to deal with the demands of Police work; this included fitting the front suspension of the D5 model variant (as the suspension was designed to deal with the heavier diesel engine). Nivomat self-levelling suspension was also fitted to the rear to ensure correct geometry of the vehicle, regardless of the weight carried. On early models, the clutch was also replaced with the stronger D5 unit.
A larger specification battery and 110A alternator was also fitted to run all the extra equipment, along with a dedicated Police fuse box in the boot. Extra wiring looms are also fitted specially for the Police radios and other equipment, including CCTV cameras. Additional electrical noise suppression has been added so as not to interfere with the sensitive electronics the police use.
The speedometers in the vehicles are calibrated from the factory and do not require recalibration unless the wheel and overall rolling diameters are changed.
vented front disc brakes were also fitted alongside special brake pads (and wear indicators) specially designed to cope with high-speed pursuits.
During 2001–2004 the 2.3 litre T5 engine was used and in 2005-2009 the 2.4 litre T5 engine was used. Also beyond common speculation and myths, the engines are not chipped or modified specially for police use: they are complete factory spec but in 'exceptional cases' the speed limiter () may have been removed.
S60 R
First introduced in 2004, Volvo's S60 R used a Haldex all-wheel-drive system mated to a / inline-5. The 2004–2005 models came with a 6-speed manual transmission, or an available 5-speed automatic which allowed only torque in 1st and 2nd gears. The 2006–2007 models came with a 6-speed manual or 6-speed automatic transmission (which was no longer torque-restricted).
Other aspects which set the R apart from standard S60s were the large Brembo front and rear four-piston brakes, 18-inch 5-spoke "Pegasus" wheels (available as an upgrade to the standard 17-inch wheels of the same design), blue faced "R" gauges, standard HID headlights, as well as the Four-C suspension system.
Semi-active suspension with Four-C (a short name for "Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept") allows the user to select from three modes: Comfort, Sport, and Advanced. "Comfort" attempts to soften the car over bumps, while "Advanced" firms the suspension considerably and gives more aggressive throttle response - a setting Volvo implies is for use on the race track. This is accomplished through a drive by wire throttle, allowing the same pedal travel to result in different performance when the appropriate mode is selected, electronically controlled shock absorbers that can adjust themselves 500 times a second, and a complex series of sensors throughout the body of the vehicle. Volvo collaborated with high-tech system developer Ohlins Racing AB and shock absorber manufacturer Monroe for the self-adjusting shock absorbers.
The Rs had three interior color options: Nordkap (metallic dark blue), Gobi (light tan metallic) and a R-only leather option; Atacama, available for an additional charge. It was an unpainted, orangey-coloured natural leather with a baseball glove thickness and feel.
The small trunk lid spoiler that was standard on the S60 R created a 20% increased downforce at the rear wheels at high speeds compared to the standard S60s. The S60 Rs have a 0.29 Drag coefficient, compared to the standard S60's 0.28, due to the larger lower front bumper spoiler to support the secondary intercooler.
Another Volvo factory option for only the S60 R was a body kit which included front bumper splitters, side skirts and a rear valance, color matched to the body. The body kit was only available with certain body colors and in certain markets.
The S60 R continued the tradition of "R" cars for Volvo beginning in 1995 with the introduction of the 850 T-5 R.
Engines
Second generation (2010–2018)
The second generation S60 began production in Ghent, Belgium on May 17, 2010, with an expected annual production of 90,000 vehicles. Official photos were released in November 2009, and the car was publicly unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2010. It debuted as a 2011 model in North America. The second generation S60 also arrived with the 5th generation Haldex AWD system. More differences in the second generation S60 include the new large Volvo iron symbol, parallel to the grille LED day running lamps and larger spaced letters in the brand name on rear.
The engine range of the S60 and V60 comprises four petrol engines and three diesels. The engines available are the T3, T4, T5 and T6 petrol engines and D3, D5 and 1.6D DRIVe diesel engines, the latter of which has Stop Start Technology to increase the efficiency of the engine. The 2.4-litre D5 plug-in hybrid version, fitted with a five-cylinder diesel engine and a 50 kW electric motor, was scheduled for sale in Europe by November 2012.
The Volvo S60 and V60 come with Volvo's City Safety system as standard, which is the same system fitted to its sister the XC60. This system stops the car in the event of impending collision in 'City Traffic' below . Also, a new safety feature named "Pedestrian Detection" (available on both the V60 and S60) detects people in front of the car and automatically applies the brakes if the driver does not react in time. The new sedan shows off Volvo's completely new design language already seen in the Volvo XC60 concept. It rides on the same platform as the XC60. The goal of this new design was to target younger demographics.
2013 T5 engine update
In 2013, the T5 engine was revamped before the launch of the Drive-E arrival. Among the tweaks to the T5 power plant is a boost in engine compression to 9.5:1 from 9.0, engine torque peaks at 4200 rpm and engine management changes provide faster gear changes and upshifts when the 6-speed automatic gearbox is in the sport mode. Output remains the same over 2012 at and of torque, although there is a provision for overboost from the turbo which bumps the torque number to . The changes in compression ratio helps the S60 T5 deliver extra in the city and combined cycle. Front-drive versions are rated at city/ highway for a combined of , while the AWD model is less across the board. Volvo also says the T5 AWD is good for a sprint of 6.6 seconds, while the front-drive version is 0.2 seconds quicker.
2013 model year update
Changes include all-new exterior panels from the A-pillars forward including a new hood, front fenders and fascia; a wider grille with a larger Ironmark is flanked by new headlights while a larger, wider lower front intake gains bright accents and horizontally mounted LED daytime running lights; new integrated exhaust pipes at rear, a new Adaptive Digital TFT Display instrument cluster for select models (R-Design versions include unique blue instrument dials), new paddle shifters on T6 AWD and R-Design models (optional on T5), Advanced Quick Shift (AQS) option on all T6 engines and activated when the transmission is set to sport mode or when using paddle shifters, IntelliSafe with Pedestrian Detection and Cyclist Detection with full auto brake and Cross Traffic Alert became part of the Technology Package, a new radar-based Blind Spot Information System (BLIS) to monitor and alert the driver to rapidly approaching vehicles behind the car while still informing the driver about vehicles in the blind spots on both sides of the car, Cross Traffic Alert with radar sensors at the rear end of the car to alert the driver to crossing traffic from the sides when reversing out of a parking space.
North America models went on sale as 2014 model year vehicles in late 2013. Early models include S60 T5 (base, Premier, Premier Plus, Platinum), T6 (AWD, Premier Plus, Platinum, R-Design AWD, RD Platinum).
Second generation models
S60L
The S60L, also marketed as S60 Inscription, is the top-of-the-line, long wheelbase model of the S60. It has been lengthened by compared to the standard model to give additional legroom for rear passengers. It is also manufactured in Chengdu, China, and is the first consumer automobile manufactured in China to be sold in the United States. The S60L commenced production in October 2014.
S60L PHEV
The Volvo S60L PPHEV (Petrol Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle) concept car was unveiled at the 2014 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition. Volvo Cars announced that the S60L PPHEV will be manufactured at the Chengdu plant and is scheduled to be launched in China in the first half of 2015.
The S60L PPHEV shares the same electric-drive technology as the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid, but instead of the diesel engine of the V60, the S60L PPHEV has a 2-liter, four-cylinder gasoline turbocharged engine from Volvo Cars’ new Drive-E engine family. The electric motor is powered by an 11.2 kWh lithium-ion battery pack that delivers an all-electric range of up to . The petrol-powered engine produces and 350 N·m (258 lb-ft) of torque. The driver can select via three buttons among three driving modes: Pure, Hybrid or Power. In the default hybrid mode, the emissions are about 50 g/km, corresponding to a fuel consumption of . By selecting Pure mode, the car runs in all-electric mode, and the Power mode combines the capabilities of the engine and motor to deliver , 550 N·m (405 lb-ft) of torque and 0–100 km/h (62 mph) acceleration in 5.5 seconds.
Volvo unveiled the production model, the S60L T6 Twin Engine PHEV, at the 2015 Shanghai Motor Show. Sales of the S60L T6 PHEV, limited to the Chinese market, began on 22 April 2015. The production model has an all-electric range of .
S60 Cross Country
A new limited production model known as the S60 Cross Country saw a limited American release in the autumn of 2015 (as it was for the 2015 model year in Europe), with each dealership only getting one car. This variant is similar to the Volvo V60 Cross Country, as it is a raised sedan variant of the S60. Limited to about 500 units from 2016 to 2017.
Concepts and special editions
Volvo S60 Polestar performance concept (2012)
The Volvo S60 Polestar performance concept is a version of the Volvo S60 T6 AWD with a Volvo T6 inline six (B6304T4) engine rated at at 6500 rpm and of torque at 5500 rpm. It features a modified cylinder head and combustion chambers, modified inlet manifold and air intake, special manufactured connecting rods, Garrett 3171 turbocharger, Ferrita 3.5" stainless steel exhaust system, reinforced M66C (close ratio) manual 6-speed gear box, Haldex E-LSD in rear, Haldex Gen4 XWD, 265/30R19 tires, 9.5×19-inch Polestar Rims, chassis lowered by , Öhlins 3-way shock absorbers, reinforced anti-roll bars in the front and rear, increased track width by in the front and 40 mm (1.6 in) in the rear, Polestar-tuned EHPAS steering, stabilising X-members (front and rear), modified control-arms with uniballs in the front and rear, reinforced bushings in sub-frame and control-arms, modified engine mounts, 380 mm ventilated front brake discs with Polestar-Brembo 6 piston calipers, ventilated discs rear brake discs with Polestar-Volvo calipers, brake cooling air intakes from front, lowered front splitter and larger rear spoiler to reduce high speed lift, carbon fibre diffuser, body widened in the front and rear, Polestar designed seats with increased support, Alcantara on all functional areas (steering wheel, gear knob, and seats) to ensure maximum grip and a lowered centre console for optimised gear-lever ergonomics.
The vehicle was unveiled at the Gothenburg CityArena.
2013
The 2013 Volvo S60 Polestar is a limited (50 units) version of the Volvo S60 T6 AWD for the Australian market. It is based on the S60 Polestar performance concept and features an inline 6 engine rated at and of torque. It includes a new BorgWarner turbo, new intercooler, a stainless full-flow exhaust system with tail pipes, Polestar Öhlins 2-way adjustable shock absorbers, upgraded springs (60N/mm front, 65N/mm rear. (80% stiffer than stock)), upgraded stabilizers in the front and rear, upgraded rear tie blades, upgraded top mount in the front and rear, upgraded toe link arms in the rear, strut brace with carbon fibre reinforcement, Michelin Pilot Super Sport 235/40R19 tires, 8x19-inch ET51 bespoke Polestar rims, Polestar-tuned AWF21 six-speed automatic gearbox with a launch control system, a Polestar-tuned Haldex 4WD system, modified transmission software for faster shifts and launch control, modified AWD software for more rear torque, front 336x29 mm ventilated brake discs with Jurid 958 performance brake pads, rear 302x22 mm ventilated brake discs with HP2000 Brembo performance brake pads, new Polestar front splitter corners, new Polestar rear spoiler, new Polestar diffuser, Polestar door trims, Polestar badging on the front grille, boot and engine cover, Polestar shift knob, Polestar limited edition plate on the door sills and steering wheel and black outside mirror covers. Delivery began in June 2013.
2014
The 2014 S60 Polestar was offered in Canada, the Netherlands, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. Based on the S60 Polestar Concept car and the Australian S60 Polestar, it includes a Polestar Öhlins shock absorber system Polestar 8×20-inch ET53 bespoke rims with 245/35R20 tyres, a new twin-scroll BorgWarner turbo with new intercooler, stainless full-flow exhaust system with tail pipes, AWF21 automatic gearbox with paddle shift system, Polestar transmission calibration for faster gearshifts, launch control and curve-hold functionality; Polestar Haldex calibration for more rear torque dynamic distribution, Polestar calibrated stability control system, front ventilated and floating brake discs with Polestar/Brembo 6 piston brake calipers, rear ventilated brake disc. Delivery was set to begin in June 2014 to the local markets.
2015
The 2015 S60 Polestar produces and of torque. The 3.0-liter inline six-cylinder is here and kicks out additional and more torque compared to the same engine S60 R-Design. That's a respectable output bump coming by way of massaged engine management software, a stainless exhaust with pipes, new twin-scroll BorgWarner turbochargers and new intercooler. Polestar also did work to the transmission with new calibration for quicker gearshifts and launch control capabilities. The Haldex four-wheel-drive system also has Polestar tuning for more rear torque distribution, and the stability control system has been massaged. The chassis is firmer with a suspension that features Öhlins shock absorbers with 80 percent stiffer springs sitting on 20-inch wheels that would normally come wrapped with Michelin Pilot Super Sport tires from the factory. Brakes get a nice upgrade with front discs (replacing ones on the R-Design) with six-piston Brembo calipers and -inch rear discs. Visual changes include new front and rear splitters, rear spoiler and diffuser. Inside there's a thick-rimmed steering wheel and upgraded seats with suede inserts, suede door inserts and blue accent stitching throughout. According to Volvo, it has a time of 4.7 seconds and an electronically limited top speed of , up from .
Engines
Safety
Euro NCAP
Euro NCAP V60:
Overall =
Adult occupant = 94%
Child occupant = 82%
Pedestrian = 64%
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS)
1 vehicle structure rated "Good"
2 strength-to-weight ratio: 4.95
NHTSA
Third generation (2019–present)
Other than the Polestar model, T6 Momentum model and the T6 R-Design all other S60 models can be purchased or leased in the traditional way. Polestar models will be offered solely through its Care by Volvo monthly subscription plan. The 2019 model went on sale in October 2018.
Production
Production began in September 2018 in Ridgeville, South Carolina. The third generation of the Volvo S60 will be the first Volvo manufactured in the United States. A 2.3-million square-foot plant will build approximately 60,000 vehicles per year for both American and export markets. Capacity can go up to 100,000 vehicles per year if demand calls for it. The facility is Volvo's sixth, joining two European, three Chinese, and one Malaysian location. Roughly 2,000 workers are expected to staff the plant. As of April 2017, the construction company finished building the complex's shell.
Trim levels
The S60 is available in Momentum, R-Design, Inscription, and Polestar trim levels depending on the sales market.
Engines
At launch, it will come powered in three trims: the T5, which features a turbocharged 2.0-liter four-cylinder sending 252 horsepower to the front wheels (or all four wheels in some markets as an option); the T6, with a 2.0-liter four-cylinder that's both turbocharged and supercharged cranking out 318 horsepower sent to all four wheels; and the T8, a performance-oriented plug-in hybrid which combines a turbocharged and supercharged four-cylinder and an electric motor at the rear, sending a combined 400 horsepower to all four wheels. The T8 produces and with a 11.6-kWh battery pack, it gets a range of 22 miles (35 km) on the electric model.
The third generation S60 will have the hybrid powertrain and be one of the five new electric models launched in 2019 along with the second generation V60 and an all-electric sports coupe. The third generation S60 and V60 will also be available as Polestar models.
Safety
Standard gear on all S60s includes an improved City Safety collision avoidance system based on Volvo's Vision 2020. The system can now help the driver do an evasive maneuver and can detect and mitigate oncoming vehicles at intersections. An optional Pilot Assist system is equipped into the model.
Gallery
British land speed record
On 14 and 15 October 2000, the first-generation S60 T5 broke 18 British land speed records (including the highest average speed over a 24-hour period) for a Production Car class D (2000-3000cc) at at the Millbrook Proving Ground, in Bedfordshire, UK. A joint project by Volvo and Prodrive and covered by ITV's Driven and Car magazine.
The car was standard except for safety modifications such as a roll cage, exterior cut out switch, a modified fuel tank and additional head support to allow the drivers (BTCC drivers Anthony Reid, Rickard Rydell, John Cleland and Alain Menu as well as various Car journalists and ITV's Mike Brewer) to rest their neck during the 2-hour gaps between pit stops. Each pitstop included a driver change, refuel and tyre changes due to the extreme stresses being placed on the front outside tyre.
The following records were broken:
50 mile standing start: 148.59 mph
100 mile standing start: 147.00 mph
200 mile standing start: 144.05 mph
500 mile standing start: 141.53 mph
1000 miles standing start: 140.79 mph
2000 miles standing start: 137.25 mph
50 kilometre standing start: 147.39 mph
200 kilometre standing start: 145.89 mph
500 kilometre standing start: 141.63 mph
1000 kilometre standing start: 140.79 mph
2000 kilometre standing start: 139.75 mph
5000 kilometre standing start: 135.75 mph
Flying five kilometres: 152.02 mph
Average speed over one hour: 145.63 mph
Average speed over three hours: 141.62 mph
Average speed over six hours: 141.58 mph
Average speed over 12 hours: 138.49 mph
Average speed over 24 hours: 135.10 mph
S60 in motorsport
The S60 has been raced in a range of championships across Europe, North America and Australia.
Europe
Volvo regularly entered the S60 in the Swedish Touring Car Championship, where it finished 2nd in the drivers' championship twice and won the manufacturers' title once. The S60 continued to be raced after the formation of the Scandinavian Touring Car Championship, a merger of the Swedish and Danish touring car championships. Thed Björk won three consecutive titles from 2013 to 2015, and Rikard Göransson won the championship in 2016, driving an S60 prepared by Polestar Racing.
From 2002 to 2007 there was an S60 one-make racing series as a support series to the Swedish Touring Car Championship known as the S60 Challenge Cup, using 26 factory-modified S60s.
An S60 was driven by Robert Dahlgren in the Swedish round of the 2007 World Touring Car Championship.
In 2016 the S60 made its return to the WTCC with Fredrik Ekblom and Thed Björk driving for Polestar Cyan Racing. Their 2017 lineup consists of Thed Björk, Nestor Girolami and Nick Catsburg.
North America
The first generation S60 made its competitive debut in 2006, racing in the Speed World Challenge GT class. The second-generation model was introduced for the 2009 season. In 2010, its programme was expanded to include the SCAA Pro Racing World Challenge, where it won both the drivers' championship, for factory driver Randy Pobst, his fourth, and manufacturers' championships in the GT class. The programme was expanded again in 2011 to include the Pirelli World Challenge.
Australia
Volvo competed in the V8 Supercars Championship with two rear wheel drive V8 B8444S powered S60s between 2014 and 2016 with Garry Rogers Motorsport highlighted by a debut 2nd place at the Adelaide 500, a last second overtake to steal a race win at the Phillip Island Circuit, and third for Scott McLaughlin in the 2016 series driver standings.
Sales and marketing
† Combined total for S60 and V60.
‡ Includes 67 sales of the S60L long-wheelbase version.
See also
Volvo V70, estate car bearing the same design as the first generation
References
External links
Volvo S60 - Official page
IIHS Safety Test for Volvo S60
Volvo S60 review and more 2016
S60
Euro NCAP large family cars
Compact executive cars
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States
Sedans
Sports sedans
Plug-in hybrid vehicles
Police vehicles
Touring cars
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 2000
2010s cars
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Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart (31 October 1895 – 29 January 1970), commonly known throughout most of his career as Captain B. H. Liddell Hart, was a British soldier, military historian and military theorist. He wrote a series of military histories that proved influential among strategists. He argued that frontal assault was a strategy that was bound to fail at great cost in lives, as happened in the First World War. He instead recommended the "indirect approach" and reliance on fast-moving armoured formations.
His pre-war publications are known to have influenced German wartime strategy, though he was accused of prompting captured generals to exaggerate his part in the development of blitzkrieg tactics. He also helped promote the Rommel myth and the "clean Wehrmacht" argument for political purposes, when the Cold War necessitated the recruitment of a new West German army.
Life
Liddell Hart was born in Paris, the son of a Methodist minister. His mother's side of the family, the Liddells, came from Liddesdale, on the Scottish side of the border with England, and were associated with the London and South Western Railway. The Harts were farmers from Gloucestershire and Herefordshire. As a child Liddell Hart was fascinated by aviation. He received his formal academic education at Willington School in Putney, St Paul's School in London and at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (where he was a student of Geoffrey Butler).
World War I
On the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Liddell Hart volunteered for the British Army, where he became an officer in the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry and served with the regiment on the Western Front. Liddell Hart's front line experience was relatively brief, confined to two short spells in the autumn and winter of 1915, being sent home from the front after suffering concussive injuries from a shell burst. He was promoted to the rank of captain. He returned to the front for a third time in 1916, in time to participate in the Battle of the Somme. He was hit three times without serious injury before being badly gassed and sent out of the line on 19 July 1916. His battalion was nearly wiped out on the first day of the offensive on 1 July, a part of the 60,000 casualties suffered in the heaviest single day's loss in British history. The experiences he suffered on the Western Front profoundly affected him for the rest of his life. Transferred to be adjutant of Volunteer units in Stroud and Cambridge which trained new recruits, he wrote several booklets on infantry drill and training, which came to the attention of General Sir Ivor Maxse, commander of the 18th (Eastern) Division. After the war, he transferred to the Royal Army Educational Corps, where he prepared a new edition of the Infantry Training Manual. In it, Liddell Hart strove to instil the lessons of 1918, and carried on a correspondence with Maxse, a commanding officer during the battles of Hamel and Amiens.
In April 1918 Liddell Hart married Jessie Stone, the daughter of J. J. Stone, who had been his assistant adjutant at Stroud, and their son Adrian was born in 1922.
Journalist and military historian
Liddell Hart was placed on half-pay from 1924. He later retired from the Army in 1927. Two mild heart attacks in 1921 and 1922, probably the long-term effects of his gassing, precluded his further advancement in the small post-war army. He spent the rest of his career as a theorist and writer. In 1924, he became a lawn tennis correspondent and assistant military correspondent for The Morning Post covering Wimbledon and in 1926, publishing a collection of his tennis writings as The Lawn Tennis Masters Unveiled. He worked as the military correspondent of The Daily Telegraph from 1925 to 1935 and of The Times from 1935 to 1939.
In the mid-to-late 1920s Liddell Hart wrote a series of histories of major military figures through which he advanced his ideas that the frontal assault was a strategy bound to fail at great cost in lives. He argued that the tremendous losses Britain suffered in the Great War were caused by its commanding officers not appreciating that fact of history. He believed the British decision in 1914 of directly intervening on the Continent with a great army was a mistake. He claimed that historically, "the British way in warfare" was to leave Continental land battles to her allies, intervening only through naval power, with the army fighting the enemy away from its principal front in a "limited liability" commitment.
In his early writings on mechanised warfare, Liddell Hart had proposed that infantry be carried along with the fast-moving armoured formations. He described them as "tank marines" like the soldiers the Royal Navy carried with their ships. He proposed they be carried along in their own tracked vehicles and dismount to help take better-defended positions that otherwise would hold up the armoured units. That doctrine, similar to the mechanized infantry of later decades, contrasted with J.F.C. Fuller's ideas of a tank army, which put heavy emphasis on massed armoured formations. Liddell Hart foresaw the need for a combined arms force with mobile infantry and artillery, which was similar but not identical to the make-up of the panzer divisions that Heinz Guderian developed in Germany.
According to Liddell Hart's memoirs, in a series of articles for The Times from November 1935 to November 1936, he had argued that Britain's role in the next European war should be entrusted to the air force. He theorised that Britain's air force could defeat her enemies while avoiding the high casualties and the limited influence that would come from Britain placing a large conscript army on the Continent. The ideas influenced Neville Chamberlain, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, who argued in discussions of the Defence Policy and Requirements Committee for a strong air force, rather than a large army that would fight on the Continent.
Becoming prime minister in 1937, Chamberlain placed Liddell Hart in a position of influence behind British grand strategy in the late 1930s. In May, Liddell Hart prepared schemes for the reorganisation of the British Army for the defence of the British Empire and delivered them to Sir Thomas Inskip, Minister for the Co-ordination of Defence. In June, Liddell Hart gained an introduction to the Secretary of State for War, Leslie Hore-Belisha. Through July 1938 the two had an unofficial, close advisory relationship. Liddell Hart provided Hore-Belisha with ideas, which he would argue for in Cabinet or committees. On 20 October 1937, Chamberlain wrote to Hore-Belisha, "I have been reading in Europe in Arms by Liddell Hart. If you have not already done so you might find it interesting to glance at this, especially the chapter on the 'Role of the British Army'". Hore-Belisha wrote in reply: "I immediately read the 'Role of the British Army' in Liddell Hart's book. I am impressed by his general theories".
With the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the War Cabinet reversed the Chamberlain policy advanced by Liddell Hart. With Europe on the brink of war and Germany threatening an invasion of Poland, the cabinet chose instead to advocate a British and Imperial army of 55 divisions to intervene on the Continent by coming to the aid of Poland, Norway and France.
Postwar
After the war, Liddell Hart was responsible for extensive interviews and debriefs for several high-ranking German generals, who were held by the Allies as prisoners-of-war. Liddell Hart provided commentary on their outlook. The work was published as The Other Side of the Hill (UK edition, 1948) and The German Generals Talk (condensed US edition, 1948).
A few years later, Liddell Hart had the opportunity to review the notes that Erwin Rommel had kept during the war. Rommel had kept the notes with the intention of writing of his experiences after the war; the Rommel family had previously published the notes in German as War without Hate in 1950. Some of the notes had been destroyed by Rommel, and the rest, including Rommel's letters to his wife, had been confiscated by the American authorities. With Liddell Hart's help, they were later returned to Rommel's widow. Liddell Hart then edited and condensed the book and helped integrate the new material. The writings, along with notes and commentary by former General Fritz Bayerlein and Liddell Hart, were published in 1953 as The Rommel Papers. (See below for Liddell Hart's role in the Rommel myth.)
In 1954, Liddell Hart published his most influential work, Strategy. It was followed by a second expanded edition in 1967. The book was largely devoted to a historical study of the indirect approach and in what ways various battles and campaigns could be analyzed using that concept. Still relevant at the turn of the century, it was a factor in the development of the British manoeuvre warfare doctrine.
The Queen made Liddell Hart a Knight Bachelor in the New Year Honours of 1966. As of 2009, Liddell Hart's personal papers and library form the central collection in the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives at King's College London.
Liddell Hart died on 29 January 1970 at the age of 74 at his home in Marlow, Buckinghamshire.
Key ideas and observations
Liddell Hart was an advocate of the notion that it is easier to succeed in war by an indirect approach. To attack where the opponent expects, as Liddell Hart explained, makes the task of winning harder: "To move along the line of natural expectation consolidates the opponent's balance and thus increases his resisting power". That is in contrast to an indirect approach, in which physical or psychological surprise is a component: "The indirectness is usually physical and always psychological. In strategy, the longest way round is often the shortest way home".
Liddell Hart would illustrate the notion with historical examples. For example, Liddell Hart considered the Battle of Leuctra, won by Epaminondas, an example of an indirect approach. Rather than weighting his army on the right wing, as was standard at the time, Epaminondas weighted his left wing, held back his right wing and routed the Spartan army. A more modern example would be the landings of the Allies at Normandy on 6 June 1944, as the Germans were expecting a landing in the vicinity of Pas-de-Calais. By contrast, an example of a direct attack, in Liddell Hart's eyes, was the attack by Union forces at the Battle of Fredericksburg in 1862.
Even more impressive in Liddell Hart's eyes was the further campaign by Epaminondas, his invasion of the Peloponnese, in which in winter and in separate columns, he invaded Spartan controlled territory. He was unable to draw the Spartans into combat and so settled on freeing helots. He then built two city states as a break against Spartan power and so the campaign was successful. By breaking the Spartan economic base, he won a campaign without ever fighting a battle.
When analyzing the campaigns of Napoleon, Liddell Hart noted that his approaches were less subtle and more brute force as his forces became larger and that when his forces were lesser, he was more apt to be creative in his battles. Constant victory seemed to have dulled his skills as a soldier.
According to Reid, Liddell Hart's indirect approach has seven key themes.:
The dislocation of the enemy's balance should be the prelude to defeat, not to utter destruction.
Negotiate an end to unprofitable wars.
The methods of the indirect approach are better suited to democracy.
Military power relies on economic endurance. Defeating an enemy by beating him economically incurs no risk.
Implicitly, war is an activity between states.
Liddell Hart's notion of "rational pacifism".
Victory often emerges as the result of an enemy defeating itself.
Influence
At the height of his popularity, John F. Kennedy called Liddell Hart "the Captain who teaches Generals" and was using his writings to attack the Eisenhower administration, which he said was too dependent on nuclear arms. Liddell Hart influence extended to armies outside the UK and the US as well. Baumgarten stated of Liddell Hart's influence in the Australian Army: "The indirect approach was also one of the key influences on the development of manoeuvre theory, a dominant element in Army thinking throughout the 1990s". Retired Pakistani General Shaafat Shah called Liddell Hart's book Strategy: the Indirect Approach "A seminal work of military history and theory". In the book Science, Strategy and War, Frans Osinga mentioned while the Dutchman spoke of John Boyd, "In his recently published study of modern strategic theory, Colin Gray ranked Boyd among the outstanding general theorists of the strategy of the 20th century, along with the likes of Bernard Brodie, Edward Luttwak, Basil Liddell Hart and John Wylie". His biographer, Alex Danchev, noted that Liddell Hart's books were still being translated all around the world, some of them 70 years after they had been written.
Controversies
Influence on Panzerwaffe
Following the Second World War Liddell Hart pointed out that the German Wehrmacht adopted theories developed from those of J. F. C. Fuller and from his own, and that it used them against the Allies in Blitzkrieg warfare. Some scholars, such as the political scientist John Mearsheimer, have questioned the extent of the influence which the British officers, and in particular Liddell Hart, had in the development of the method of war practised by the Panzerwaffe in 1939–1941. During the post-war debriefs of the former Wehrmacht generals, Liddell Hart attempted to tease out his influence on their war practices. Following these interviews, many of the generals said that Liddell Hart had been an influence on their strategies, something that had not been claimed previously nor has any contemporary, pre-war, documentation been found to support their assertions. Liddell Hart thus put "words in the mouths of German Generals" with the aim, according to Mearsheimer, to "resurrect a lost reputation".
Shimon Naveh, the founder and former head of the Israel Defense Forces' Operational Theory Research Institute, stated that after World War II Liddell Hart "created" the idea of Blitzkrieg as a military doctrine: "It was the opposite of a doctrine. Blitzkrieg consisted of an avalanche of actions that were sorted out less by design and more by success." Naveh stated that,
by manipulation and contrivance, Liddell Hart distorted the actual circumstances of the Blitzkrieg formation and obscured its origins. Through his indoctrinated idealization of an ostentatious concept, he reinforced the myth of Blitzkrieg. By imposing, retrospectively, his own perceptions of mobile warfare upon the shallow concept of Blitzkrieg, he created a theoretical imbroglio that has taken 40 years to unravel.
Naveh stated that in his letters to German generals Erich von Manstein and Guderian, as well as to relatives and associates of Rommel, Liddell Hart "imposed his own fabricated version of Blitzkrieg on the latter and compelled him to proclaim it as original formula".
Naveh pointed out that the edition of Guderian's memoirs published in Germany differed from the one published in the United Kingdom. Guderian neglected to mention the influence of the English theorists such as Fuller and Liddell Hart in the German-language versions. One example of the influence of these men on Guderian was the report on the Battle of Cambrai published by Fuller in 1920, who at the time served as a staff officer at the Royal Tank Corps. Liddell Hart alleged that his findings and theories on armoured warfare were read and later taken in by Guderian, which thus helped to formulate the basis of operations that would become known as Blitzkrieg warfare. These tactics involved deep penetration of the armoured formations supported behind enemy lines by bomb-carrying aircraft. Dive bombers were the principal agents of delivery of high explosives in support of the forward units.
Though the German version of the Guderian memoirs mentions Liddell Hart, it did not ascribe to him his role in developing the theories behind armoured warfare. An explanation for the difference between the two translations can be found in the correspondence between the two men. In one letter to Guderian, Liddell Hart reminded the German general that he should provide him the credit he was due, offering "You might care to insert a remark that I emphasise the use of armoured forces for long-range operations against the opposing Army's communications, and also the proposed type of armoured division combining Panzer and Panzer-infantry units – and that these points particularly impressed you."
Richard M. Swain comments that while some arguments against Liddell Hart's thinking are deserved, Liddell Hart the man himself was not a knave and Mearsheimer's attempt of character assassination is unwarranted. Jay Luvaas comments that Liddell Hart and Fuller did actually anticipate the role of the armoured forces in a blitzkrieg. Luvaas opines that Liddell Hart did overestimate (in a sincere way) his influence on German generals, but the fact that many military leaders in Germany and other countries (including generals like Yigal Allon and Andre Beaufre) knew about his theories and considered his opinions as worth thinking about is true. According to Luvaas, von Mellenthin recounted that Rommel mentioned Liddell Hart many times and had a good opinion about him – although, in Luvaas's opinion, this would not make him a pupil. Luvass also sees Liddell Hart as a scholar who needed public recognition and influence, but also a naturally generous person whose efforts in building a connection to other people should not be assigned motives without evidence. Joseph Forbes dismisses the claim that Liddell Hart, Guderian and Rommel's friends and relatives were in a conspiracy to misrepresent Liddell Hart's influence as baseless insinuations, considering that: Liddell Hart's chapter on Guderian quotes Guderian as having faith in the theories of Hobart and not of Liddell Hart; the fact Desmond Young once recommended Liddell Hart to Manfred Rommel as a person who might help to publish his father's memoirs should not be used as proof that there was a conspiracy to give undue recognition to Liddell Hart; the whole book The German Generals talk contains one statement about Liddell Hart's influence. According to Forbes, Mearsheimer relies less on the actual text than on Frank Mahin's review to make the claim that Hart fills the book with fabricated comments by Germans to exaggerate his role.
Role in Rommel myth
Liddell Hart was instrumental in the creation of the "Rommel myth", a view that the German field marshal Erwin Rommel was an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of the Third Reich due to his participation in the 20 July plot against Adolf Hitler. The myth was created with Rommel's participation as a component of Nazi propaganda to praise the Wehrmacht and instil optimism in the German public. Starting in 1941, it was picked up and disseminated in the West by the British press as they sought to explain its continued inability to defeat the Axis forces in the North Africa campaign. Following the war, the Western Allies, and particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the "good German" and "our friend Rommel". His reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies – Britain and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic on the other.
After the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, it became clear to the Americans and the British that a German army would have to be revived to help face off against the Soviet Union. Many former German officers were convinced, however, that no future German army would be possible without the rehabilitation of the Wehrmacht. Thus, in the atmosphere of the Cold War, Rommel's former enemies, especially the British, played a key role in the manufacture and propagation of the myth. The German rearmament was highly dependent on the image boosting that the Wehrmacht needed. Liddell Hart, an early proponent of these two interconnected initiatives, provided the first widely available source on Rommel in his 1948 book on Hitler's generals. He devoted a chapter to Rommel, portraying him as an outsider to the Nazi regime. Additions to the chapter published in 1951 concluded with laudatory comments about Rommel's "gifts and performance" that "qualified him for a place in the role of the 'Great Captains' of history".
1953 saw the publication of Rommel's writings of the war period as The Rommel Papers, edited by Liddell Hart, the former Wehrmacht officer Fritz Bayerlein, and Rommel's widow and son, with an introduction by Liddell Hart. The historian Mark Connelly argues that The Rommel Papers was one of the two foundational works that lead to a "Rommel renaissance", the other being Desmond Young's biography Rommel: The Desert Fox. The book contributed to the perception of Rommel as a brilliant commander; in an introduction, Liddell Hart drew comparisons between Rommel and Lawrence of Arabia, "two masters of desert warfare", according to Liddell Hart. Liddell Hart's work on the book was also self-serving: he had coaxed Rommel's widow into adding material that suggested that Rommel was influenced by Liddell Hart's theories on mechanised warfare, making Rommel his "pupil" and giving Liddell Hart credit for Rommel's dramatic successes in 1940. (The controversy was described by the political scientist John Mearsheimer in his work The Weight of History. A review of Mearsheimer's work, published by the Strategic Studies Institute, points out that Mearsheimer "correctly takes 'The Captain' [Liddell Hart] to task for ... manipulating history".)
According to Connelly, Young and Liddell Hart laid the foundation for the Anglo-American myth, which consisted of three themes: Rommel's ambivalence towards Nazism; his military genius; and the emphasis of the chivalrous nature of the fighting in North Africa. Their works lent support to the image of the "clean Wehrmacht" and were generally not questioned, since they came from British authors, rather than German revisionists.
MI5 controversy
On 4 September 2006, MI5 files were released which showed that in early 1944 MI5 had suspicions that plans for the D-Day invasion had been leaked. Liddell Hart had prepared a treatise titled Some Reflections on the Problems of Invading the Continent which he circulated amongst political and military figures. It is possible that in his treatise Liddell Hart had correctly deduced a number of aspects of the upcoming Allied invasion, including the location of the landings. MI5 suspected that Liddell Hart had received plans of the invasion from General Sir Alfred "Tim" Pile who was in command of Britain's anti-aircraft defences. MI5 placed him under surveillance, intercepting his telephone calls and letters. The investigation showed no suggestion that Liddell Hart was involved in any subversive activity. No case was ever brought against Pile. Liddell Hart stated his work was merely speculative. It would appear that Liddell Hart had simply perceived the same problems and arrived at similar conclusions as the Allied general staff.
Biographies
Alex Danchev wrote the biography of Liddell Hart, Alchemist of War: The Life of Basil Liddell Hart, with the cooperation of Liddell Hart's widow.
Brian Bond wrote Liddell Hart: a study of his military thought (Cassell, 1977; Rutgers University Press, 1977).
John J. Mearsheimer's "Liddell Hart and the Weight of History" (New York, 1988), published by the Cornell University Press and part of the Cornell Studies in Security Affairs, uses primary evidence to look at Liddell Hart's claims to have predicted the fall of France by Blitzkrieg tactics and that he was influential with German generals and thinkers (notably Guderian and Rommel) in the 1930s. What emerges are serious questions as to Liddell Hart's version of history.
Works
Scipio Africanus: Greater Than Napoleon (originally: A Greater than Napoleon: Scipio Africanus; W Blackwood and Sons, London, 1926; Biblio and Tannen, New York, 1976)
Lawn Tennis Masters Unveiled (Arrowsmith, London, 1926)
Great Captains Unveiled (W. Blackwood and Sons, London, 1927; Greenhill, London, 1989)
Reputations 10 Years After (Little, Brown, Boston, 1928)
Sherman: Soldier, Realist, American (Dodd, Mead and Co, New York, 1929; Frederick A. Praeger, New York, 1960)
The decisive wars of history (1929) (This is the first part of the later: Strategy: the indirect approach)
The Real War (1914–1918) (1930), later republished as A History of the World War (1914–1918).
Foch, the man of Orleans In two Volumes (1931), Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, England.
The Ghost of Napoleon (Yale University, New Haven, 1934)
T.E. Lawrence in Arabia and After (Jonathan Cape, London, 1934 – online)
World War I in Outline (1936)
The Defence of Britain (Faber and Faber, London, Fall 1939 (after the German war against Poland); Greenwood, Westport, 1980). German edition:
Die Verteidigung Gross-Britanniens. Zürich 1939.
The Current of War, London: Hutchinson, 1941
The strategy of indirect approach (1941, reprinted in 1942 under the title: The way to win wars)
The way to win wars (1942)
Why Don't We Learn From History?, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1944
The Revolution in Warfare, London: Faber and Faber, 1946
The Other Side of the Hill. Germany's Generals. Their Rise and Fall, with their own Account of Military Events 1939–1945, London: Cassel, 1948; enlarged and revised edition, Delhi: Army Publishers, 1965
"Foreword" to Heinz Guderian's Panzer Leader (New York: Da Capo., 1952)
Strategy, second revised edition, London: Faber and Faber, 1954, 1967.
The Rommel Papers, (editor), 1953
The Tanks – A History of the Royal Tank Regiment and its Predecessors: Volumes I and II (Praeger, New York, 1959)
"Foreword" to Samuel B. Griffith's Sun Tzu: the Art of War (Oxford University Press, London, 1963)
The Memoirs of Captain Liddell Hart: Volumes I and II (Cassell, London, 1965)
History of the Second World War (London, Weidenfeld Nicolson, 1970
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Baumgarten, Sam. "Sir Basil Liddell Hart's influence on Australian military doctrine." Australian Army Journal 11.2 (2014): 64+
Bond, Brian, Liddell Hart: A Study of his Military Thought. London: Cassell, 1977.
Cook, Joseph J. "From Liddell Hart to Keegan: Examining the Twentieth Century Shift in Military History Embodied by Two British Giants of the Field." Saber and Scroll 4.2 (2015): 4.
Corum, James S. The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1992). .
Danchev, Alex, Alchemist of War: The Life of Basil Liddell Hart. (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998).
Danchev, Alex, "Liddell Hart and the Indirect Approach", Journal of Military History, Vol. 63, No. 2. (1999), pp. 313–337.
Gat, Azar. Fascist and liberal visions of war: Fuller, Liddell Hart, Douhet, and other modernists (Courier Corporation, 1998).
Larson, Robert H. "BH Liddell Hart: Apostle of Limited War." Military Affairs 44.2 (1980): 72+ in JSTOR
Luvaas, Jay. "Clausewitz, Fuller and Liddell Hart." Journal of Strategic Studies 9.2–3 (1986): 197–212.
Naveh, Shimon, In Pursuit of Military Excellence; The Evolution of Operational Theory. (London: Francass, 1997). .
Reid, Brian Holden. "'Young Turks, or Not So Young?': The Frustrated Quest of Major General JFC Fuller and Captain BH Liddell Hart." The Journal of Military History 73.1 (2009): 147–175. online
Swain, Richard M. "BH Liddell Hart and the Creation of a Theory of War, 1919-1933." Armed Forces & Society 17.1 (1990): 35–51.
External links
King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry officers
People educated at St Paul's School, London
Royal Tank Regiment officers
Royal Army Educational Corps officers
British Army personnel of World War I
Historians of armoured warfare
British military writers
Military theorists
Counterinsurgency theorists
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Historians of World War II
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Knights Bachelor
1895 births
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A lap dance (or contact dance) is a type of erotic dance performance offered in some strip clubs in which the dancer typically has body contact with a seated patron. Lap dancing is different from table dancing, in which the dancer is close to a seated patron, but without body contact. With lap dancing, the dancer may be nude, topless or scantily dressed, depending on the laws of the jurisdiction and the club's policies. With full-contact lap dances, the stripper may engage in non-penetrative sexual contact with the patron, such as "grinding" or "twerking" their body against the patron. Variant terms include couch dance, which is a lap dance where the customer is seated on a couch. In some places, a "block session" of lap dances (usually a half an hour to an hour) can be booked in a "champagne room" or "VIP room", which is a private room usually located in the back of a club. In many clubs, the duration of a lap dance is measured by the length of the song being played by the club's DJ. Charges for lap dances vary significantly.
Depending on the local jurisdiction and community standards, lap dances can involve touching of the dancer by the patron, touching the patron by the dancer, neither, or both. In some clubs, any touching by the patron is forbidden. On the other hand, absent any oversight by the club, various levels of contact may be negotiable between the participants. Clubs vary widely with regard to whether they enforce their rules or turn a blind eye to any violations.
There is some debate as to whether lap dancing is entertainment or a type of sex work. Critics of lap dancing allege that some club owners, by installing dark private booths and charging dancers steep stage fees, are covertly condoning and encouraging the sale of sexual acts between customers and dancers. This can be a concern if, as for instance in the United Kingdom, the club has a public entertainment licence rather than a sex establishment licence, and in jurisdictions where brothels are illegal. According to the UK paper The Guardian, "Research shows that the majority of women become lap-dancers through poverty and lack of choice."
History and legal issues
Lap dancing clubs are a later development of earlier strip clubs, where strippers danced on stage and were paid a wage. In the 1970s, New York's Melody Theater introduced audience participation and called it "Mardi Gras". The Melody Theater became the Harmony Theater and operated in two locations in Manhattan for over 20 years until it was closed down in 1998.
Also during the 1970s, adult film makers Jim and Artie Mitchell had been running an adult movie house, called the O'Farrell Theatre, in San Francisco to feature their films.
But in the second half of the '70s, with the invention of the videocassette recorder and a proliferation of video cassette rental stores, the demand for adult movie theaters began to plummet. Realizing that they needed a new business model for their building, the Mitchell brothers sent manager Vince Stanich around the country to explore customer-contact shows in sex clubs. After Stanich reported back, the Mitchell brothers responded in 1977 by opening three new rooms at their O'Farrell Theatre featuring customer-contact shows: The Ultra Room, The Kopenhagen, and New York Live. The Kopenhagen's shows were performed by a pair of naked women in a small room with about twenty men. However the club's most profitable new venue was New York Live, which was a cabaret-style strip club act with women dancing three song sets upon a stage, while usually being totally nude for the final song.
Most of the strippers who were not dancing were sitting naked on customers' laps for tips. The amount of tipping rapidly increased and was then marketed as a "lap dance", and its popularity caused lines of men to regularly appear outside the theater's doors. The Mitchells hired new dancers as fast as they could to keep up with demand, and had created another sex-show innovation which gained them international notoriety and generated more money than their film business.
Later in 2004, a San Francisco District Attorney's decision to drop prostitution charges against lap dancers in the city changed the sexual culture of San Francisco and "has the potential to influence the policies of other cities".
In some areas of the U.S. and Canada, local authorities began cracking down on lap dancing after reports that some clubs allowed customers to engage in sexual intercourse or other sexual activity with dancers during lap dance sessions. Various strip clubs have wide-ranging rules on how customers should interact with strippers.
Canada
In 1973, an upmarket Vancouver bar called "Gary Taylor's Show Lounge" employed showgirls and strippers as waitresses who gave a free dance with every drink. The club was raided by the police under the guise of obscenity legislation, but, in 1974, Judge Jack McGivern ruled that dancer nudity was not obscene, which started a trend of nude dancing in bars. No contact between dancers and patrons was allowed at the club, but Gary Taylor's had a boxing ring where the girls performed revealing acrobatics after stripping off and then earned tips. Americans from Washington state made the trip to the club from the United States, which at the time had stricter laws.
In a landmark ruling regarding the 1994 case of Pat Mara and Allan East (the owner and manager of Cheaters Tavern), Judge E. Gordon Hachborn legally defined lap dancing and ruled that it did not contravene Canadian public decency statutes. A number of conflicting judgements were issued in the years that followed, including decisions to close certain bars in which sex acts took place on the floor of the club and other rulings in which patrons were allowed to touch the dancers, as long as an actual sex act did not take place.
In 1999, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that a typical lap dance did not constitute an "obscene" act within the meaning of the Criminal Code. The Crown did not argue that lap dances constituted "prostitution", and therefore the court did not address the possible issue that the typical lap dance may contravene one or more anti-prostitution laws. This led to the displacement of strip clubs and table dancing clubs in Canada by lap dancing clubs.
In 2005, two Supreme Court of Canada rulings (R. v. Labaye and R. v. Kouri) decriminalized private sex clubs in Canada.
On 20 December 2013, (in Bedford v. Canada) the Supreme Court of Canada found the laws prohibiting brothels, public communication for the purpose of prostitution, and living on the profits of prostitution to be unconstitutional. The ruling gave the Canadian parliament twelve months to rewrite Canada's prostitution laws; in the meantime, existing anti-prostitution laws continued to be enforced. Current laws on prostitution in Canada, introduced in 2014, make it illegal to purchase sexual services (including lap dancing) but legal to sell them.
Ireland
In the early 2000s, lap dancing expanded rapidly in the Republic of Ireland, building on an existing strip pub industry. A number of lap-dancing clubs were opened in Dublin, including one by the English nightclub owner Peter Stringfellow. Lap-dancing clubs were also opened across the country. Many of Ireland's lap-dancing clubs have subsequently closed as a result of the worsened economic climate and changes to Ireland's licensing laws in 2008. Reputational issues have also played a part in the decline of Ireland's lap-dancing clubs.
Police raids took place on Irish lap-dancing clubs in 2003 in search of criminal activity as part of Operation Quest. Efforts to distance Irish lap dancing from the sex industry were hampered by the UK's decision in 2010 to classify its lap dancing clubs as sex establishments. Ireland's lap-dancing clubs became viewed as more expensive than their rivals overseas and more restricted in terms of the entertainment on offer. By 2012 there were five or six clubs operating in Dublin, one in Galway and one in Cork. Most lap-dancing clubs in Ireland operate a no-touching rule, and typically do not charge dancers a "house fee" to perform, instead taking a proportion of the dancer's earnings.
United States
Some jurisdictions in the United States outlaw lap dances and enforce a minimum distance between dancer and patron. In Seattle, one such minimum distance ordinance was overturned by public referendum in November 2006.
Also in 2006, concerned about reports of sexual assault and illegal stage fees, San Francisco's Commission on the Status of Women recommended a ban on private rooms and booths at adult clubs in the city. However, a majority of dancers at the Commission's meetings and the San Francisco Board of Supervisors' meetings protested against these efforts, fearing for their income and claiming that these rooms were safer than other venues. As a result, the Commission's proposed ban was not adopted by the city.
In February 2010, the Detroit City Council voted to ban lap dances in VIP rooms. However, across from Detroit in Windsor, Ontario in Canada, lap dancing remained legal, even where alcohol was served, and sex clubs were also legal in Windsor. Current laws on prostitution in Canada, introduced in 2014, make it illegal to purchase sexual services (including lap dancing) but legal to sell them.
In 2012, the New York Court of Appeals ruled that lap dances were not an art form and are subject to sales tax.
United Kingdom
The first lap dancing club in the UK was opened in 1995. During the 2000s the lap dancing industry grew quickly, with the Licensing Act 2003 as the only legislation in England and Wales regulating lap dancing clubs. The Lap Dancing Association (LDA), a trade association for the UK lap dancing industry, was formed in 2006 and officially launched in 2008. It operated a code of practice for its members. According to a BBC report, as of November 2008, the association represented roughly one-third of the industry's clubs. Members included For Your Eyes Only, Spearmint Rhino, Bandit Queen and Candy Bar. In 2008, clubs were being opened at a rate of about one per week.
In April 2008 the LDA proposed that its code of conduct should become legally enforceable by local authorities as part of their licensing function. The association submitted a memorandum to the Culture, Media and Sport Committee in November 2008 when the latter was reviewing the Licensing Act 2003. The association said that there was no sexual activity offered for sale in their clubs, and that to classify them as part of the sex industry would stigmatise performers. Simon Warr, who ran the clubs Platinum Lace and For Your Eyes Only and who was the president of the LDA In 2009, gave oral evidence to the committee, describing lap dancing as "not sexually stimulating". Three MPs undertook a fact-finding visit to a London lap dancing club at the invitation of the LDA. The association opposed the provisions of the subsequent Policing and Crime Act 2009 which reclassified lap-dancing clubs in England and Wales as "sexual entertainment venues" instead of "entertainment venues", introduced a licensing system for clubs and allowed local authorities to decide the number and location of lap-dancing clubs in their area. Chris Knight, vice-chairman of the LDA, said that the cost of the additional licence required to run a lap dancing club from 2010 could affect many businesses and questioned the right of local authorities to make licensing decisions on "emotive and moralistic grounds".
In 2009, the total number of clubs had reached its peak of 310 (approximately twice the number in 2003), and the number of lap-dancers was estimated at 10,000. Lap-dancing clubs had opened in big cities, small towns, and out-of-town business parks. The figures plateaued during the subsequent weaker economic climate and had hardly changed by 2012. At that point, the amount of money a lap-dancer earned in an average shift was £230 (down from around £280 in 2011), and the industry was valued at around £300 million. However, some clubs, particularly in London, charged a house fee for the dancers to perform and had an increased number of dancers, which reduced an individual dancer's earnings.
Between 2010 and 2015, there were approximately forty-five refusals of licences for sexual entertainment venues in England and Wales, mainly on the grounds that the locality was unsuitable. The legislation provides for no right of appeal against such refusals, except on the grounds that committees have not followed correct procedure. The number of refusals, together with the costs of licence application, means that there have been few new businesses opened since 2010, with the overall number of clubs declining over time as a number of local authorities implemented a "nil limit" for new clubs.
In February 2014, Fiona Mactaggart (MP for Slough) asked the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, Iain Duncan Smith, if he would "make it his policy not to offer job subsidies for employing teenagers as auxiliary workers in adult entertainment establishments". Her question related to employers in the adult entertainment industry being offered an incentive of over £2,000 from the Department for Work and Pensions for every unemployed young person (aged 18–24) that they hired. Esther McVey, the Minister of State for Employment, stated that: "The Welfare Reform Act 2012 ensured that vacancies which involve performing sexual activities were banned from being advertised on Government websites and a distinction was made in law to differentiate between performers and ancillary workers."
Scotland
In 2005 Tom McCabe MSP set up the Adult Entertainment Working Group, an advisory body within the Scottish Government, to investigate the legislative issues involved in a proposed lap dancing ban in Scotland. At that time, lap dancing clubs in Scotland were licensed under Section 41 of the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982, which covers general entertainment licenses, and licences in Scotland could not be refused on the basis of the nature of the entertainment in itself. The working group, headed by Linda Costelloe Baker, consisted of academics, lawyers and politicians, and had a working period from April 2005 until April 2006. It commissioned the market research organisation Ipsos MORI to examine the public's attitudes towards adult entertainment, completed site visits and took evidence from a variety of witnesses. Respondents to the group's consultation included the Church of Scotland. The group reported to Scottish ministers on 25 April 2006.
The group concluded that lap dancing venues are a form of "commercial sexual exploitation...which encompasses pornography, internet sex chat rooms, sex phone lines, escort services, prostitution, trafficking for prostitution, peep shows, lap dancing, pole dancing, table dancing and stripping". It recommended reviewing the licensing of lap dancing venues and proposed national guidelines to prevent performers from touching or being touched by customers, ensuring that activities are visible at all times, and introducing a minimum age of 18 for everyone involved. A prominent voice of opposition to a lap dancing ban was exotic dancer Veronica Deneuve who set out to try to involve the stripping community in the discussion to inform such legislation. The International Union of Sex Workers said that the "recommendations are flawed and would be extremely detrimental to workers and operators in the industry".
The Scottish Government accepted a number of the recommendations, but it rejected the idea that licensing boards should be able to determine whether full nudity is appropriate in given locales. It also rejected the idea of a compulsory one-metre no-touching zone between dancer and customer, suggesting that this would be unenforceable. It did, however, propose to enable licensing boards to consider nude dance venues as a separate class of venue. No legislation directly followed the group's report. However, the report informed the statement of licensing policy of many licensing boards across Scotland on the introduction of the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005.
In 2013 the Scottish Government and carried out a consultation on the regulation of "sexual entertainment venues". This, in combination with the AEWG's 2006 report, paved the way for the Scottish Parliament to introduce licensing reform for lap dancing as part of the Air Weapons and Licensing (Scotland) Act 2015. This came into effect in 2016 and requires local authorities in Scotland to set out individual policies with regard to the licensing of lap dancing clubs.
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland's first lap dancing club was opened by Donegal businessman Jerome Brennan, who already owned lap dancing clubs in Dundalk and Limerick in the Republic of Ireland, mainly using dancers from Russia and the Baltic states. In 2002 Brennan opened the Movie Star Cafe, a lap dancing club in Belfast, with dancers from Belfast and England. The Belfast club was officially opened as a restaurant to circumvent Northern Ireland's licensing laws. The opening of the club was opposed by Rev. David McIlveen, a minister in the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, and the club was often picketed by protesters from the church and women's groups. In 2003 councillors from Belfast City Council expressed their intention to refuse the renewal of the club's licence, and the club closed in November 2003 with debts of over £300,000. Brennan's nightclub in Dundalk remained open.
A few years later Northern Ireland businessman Lawrence John organised lap dancing at a Hooters bar, followed by a clandestine lap dancing club in Belfast in 2007. It was the subject of a report on the BBC Northern Ireland TV programme Spotlight in 2008 alleging that simulated lesbian sex shows took place on the premises.
Labor issues and job conditions
The economic position of lap dancers, as employees of the clubs, has also changed. Over time, most strip clubs have stopped paying wages to the dancers. Stage dancing became a showcase to advertise the bodies of the dancers, whose money came from the tips or standard charges, depending on the club, that the patrons gave them for lap dancing. In the majority of clubs, dancers are simply charged a percentage of their nightly takings. However, the latest development in many countries, including Great Britain, the United States and Canada, is that many clubs charge dancers a "stage fee" or "tip-out", which is an amount that a dancer needs to pay a club (usually in advance) in order to work on a given night, per shift. The lapdancers are expected to tip the "house mothers" (women who work in a strip club to support and assist the dancers) and DJs.
Given that dancers are basically paying for the privilege to be at a club, some clubs allow as many dancers as possible to appear on any given night, increasing competition among the dancers. Also, the vast majority of clubs will not waive this charge if a night happens to be slow. Consequently, the dancer either leaves her shift without any profit or builds a debt to the club.
Concerns raised by lapdancers include patrons stalking them, exposing their penis, ejaculating in their pants, attempting to have sex with the dancers without their consent, or committing sexual assault.
Some lapdance clubs have CCTV cameras in the "champagne rooms" for the safety of the dancers. Dancer Mary Jane says that when a lapdancer wishes to have paid sexual activities with a client, she tips the management, waitresses, and DJ to "turn a blind eye" to these sexual activities.
In the U.S., most clubs treat dancers as independent contractors, thereby avoiding the need to pay minimum wages, overtime pay, income taxes and other benefits required by law. This status has repeatedly been challenged by some dancers. While labor commissions and the courts have, for the most part, ruled that exotic dancers are employees and deserving of reimbursement for back pay and stage fees, some court decisions have decided that an exotic dancer can be classified as an independent contractor. In June 2006, in Tracy Buel v. Chowder House (dba The Hungry I) an appellate court of California's first district ruled that dancer Tracy Buel, also known as "Daisy Anarchy", was correctly classified as an independent contractor and that "Buel shall pay defendants’ costs on appeal". A publication called the California Employment Law Letter described the case as follows: "The dancer based her suit on the fact that she was an employee of the nightclub rather than an independent contractor. The appellate court, however, after applying a 10-factor test, upheld the jury's verdict in favor of the nightclub and its owners and found that the evidence weighed in favor of classifying the dancer as an independent contractor rather than an employee."
A UK study on lap dancing found that the overwhelming majority of those surveyed were satisfied with their work, because they got to choose their own hours, got paid instantly, got more money than in other available jobs, and had the opportunity to combine "fun and work" (e.g., socializing with other dancers and patrons). At the same time, the same study revealed various disadvantages to lap dancing work, such as: the women never knew how much they would earn each week; the women had to try to keep their job secret from friends and family; the women had to face some rude and abusive customers. As well, while most felt safe, almost half of the dancers had faced frequent verbal harassment and unwanted touching from patrons. Another issue raised by the dancers was their lack of labour rights in the workplace and the high overhead costs – house fees (or stage fees), commissions, fines (whether paid directly to the club's management or not), and tipping out (or paying a portion of their income) to DJs and bouncers.
The UK paper The Guardian gave a darker portrait of lap dancing in an article partly based on an interview with a former stripper. It stated that "[r]esearch shows that the majority of women become lap-dancers through poverty and lack of choice," and that "academic research has linked lap-dancing to trafficking, prostitution and an increase in male sexual violence against both the women who work in the clubs and those who live and work in their vicinity." For example, a "recent conference in Ireland highlighted the use of lap-dance clubs by human traffickers as a tool for grooming women into prostitution; the clubs also normalise the idea of paying for sexual services." "[R]esearch on strip clubs in the US found that all dancers had suffered verbal harassment and physical and sexual abuse while at work; all had been propositioned for prostitution; and three-quarters had been stalked by men associated with the club."
Critics of lap dancing choose to describe it as a type of sex work, because, in their opinion, "it is difficult to discern between the performance of erotic dance and prostitution." However, others contend that it is a misnomer to call a lap dancer a sex worker, because no sexual act is technically performed during a typical lap dance. Club owners in the UK argue that lap dancing should not be labelled as sex work. On the other hand, one lapdancer, Mary Jane, told a reporter that she and other lapdancers negotiate “extras" (nicknamed the "secret menu") with clients, such as a "hand job" (male masturbation) or sexual intercourse, for additional payment.
In 2007, based on statistics from eighteen dancers over a period of 60 days, it was noted that female lap dancers earned the highest tips around the time of ovulation, during the most fertile period of their menstrual cycle and the lowest tips during menstruation; the average difference in earning between those two times amounted to about $30 per hour. Women on the pill earned overall less than those not on the pill. The results were interpreted as evidence of estrus in humans: females apparently advertise their fertility status to males in some manner. This finding earned its authors the 2008 Ig Nobel Prize (a parody of the Nobel Prize given for unusual or trivial achievements in scientific research) in Economics.
Level of contact
Establishments that offer lap dancing, and the lap dancers themselves, are sometimes rated regarding "mileage." It refers to the amount of contact between dancer and patron during the performance. Every jurisdiction has its own laws regarding such contact, but enforcement of these laws is sporadic. Ultimately, it comes down to what the club and the dancer will allow.
Nevada, and especially Las Vegas, have established very lenient laws regarding what contact is allowed during a lap dance. Patrons may legally touch the dancer anywhere she will permit, excluding the genitals. This has led to a pricing strategy in some all-nude strip clubs, in which a standard lap dance is considered to be just topless with no contact, but can be upgraded to include full nudity and/or touching with additional payment.
In film
1995: In the film Showgirls, Zack Carey (Kyle MacLachlan) gets a lap dance from Nomi Malone (Elizabeth Berkley).
1999: In the film Go, Marcus (Taye Diggs) and a friend get lap dances in Las Vegas, but violence ensues when a bouncer assaults them after some minor hand-contact with a lap dancer.
2001: Within director Wayne Wang's film, Center of the World starring Peter Sarsgaard and Molly Parker, a wealthy dot-com entrepreneur becomes obsessed with a lap dancer.
2007: In Quentin Tarantino's film Death Proof, Butterfly performs a lap dance on Stuntman Mike to The Coasters' "Down in Mexico". In the double-feature Grindhouse, the scene was abruptly "skipped" in a comical manner.
2010: In the film Welcome to the Rileys starring James Gandolfini and Kristen Stewart, an emotionally damaged man tries to help a wayward lap dancer.
2014: Within the film Lap Dance starring Carmen Electra, an actress makes a pact with her fiancé to take a job as a lap dancer in order to take care of her cancer-stricken father.
See also
Erotic dancing
Legal status of striptease
Pole dance
Strip club
Striptease
Taxi dancing
Las Vegas Dancers Alliance
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Erotic dance
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The Heinkel He 277 was a four-engine, long-range heavy bomber design, originating as a derivative of the He 177, intended for production and use by the German Luftwaffe during World War II. The main difference was in its engines. The He 177 used two Daimler-Benz DB 606 "power system" engines, each of which consisted of two combined Daimler-Benz DB 601 engines, each DB 606 weighed 1.5 tons. The He 177A-3 and its successors used two DB 610 "power system" engines, each of which consisted of two combined Daimler-Benz DB 605 engines, each DB 610 weighed 1.5 tons. Due to problems with both the DB 606 and the DB 610, the He 277 was intended to use four unitized BMW 801E 14-cylinder radial engines, each mounted in an individual nacelle and each turning a three-blade, four-meter diameter propeller.
The design was never produced and no prototype airframe was completed. The deteriorating condition of the German aviation industry late in the war and the competition from other long-range bomber designs from other firms, led to the design being cancelled. Although not specifically intended for it at first, partially due to the time-frame in the spring of 1942 in which its ultimate niche was requested for by the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM), the He 277 design became Heinkel's entry in the important trans-oceanic range Amerikabomber competition, struggling to compete against other designs from rival firms in the competition for a truly trans-oceanic ranged bomber for the Luftwaffe.
The "He 177B" versus He 277 controversy
For many years after the war, a substantial number of aviation history books and magazine articles that dealt with late World War II German military aviation developments consistently stated that Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, early in World War II, was becoming so frustrated by the 177A's ongoing engine problems, caused by the twin DB 606 "coupled" powerplants selected for the He 177A design in the pre-war years, that he forbade Ernst Heinkel from doing any work on a separately four-engined version of the 177 airframe, or even mentioning a new "He 277" design with four separate engines – by one account, in the late autumn of 1941 – until Heinkel brought the disagreement directly to Adolf Hitler, who supposedly not only approved of calling the new, separately engined version of the 177 the "He 277", but overruled Göring's prohibition on working on the design (previously called the "He 177B" by Heinkel as a "cover designation" to hide its existence from Göring, and the RLM.)
Statements by Göring himself in August 1942 in response to Oberst Edgar Petersen's reports - in his capacity as the Kommandeur der Erprobungstellen (commander of all Luftwaffe test stations), themselves headquartered at Erprobungsstelle Rechlin - on solving the serious problems with the original Heinkel He 177A's powerplants, however, seem to directly contradict elements of the oft-repeated story, as those statements seem to show that Göring thought that the He 177A actually had four separate engines, and in late August 1942 Göring derisively labeled the He 177A's coupled engine arrangements, the 1.5 tonnes-apiece DB 606 and DB 610 "power systems" at that time as monstrous zusammengeschweißte Motoren, or "welded-together engines", in his complaints about the He 177A's ongoing engine difficulties, and was anxious to see a truly four-engined version of Heinkel's heavy bomber fully developed and in production. The earliest-dated initiative to be undertaken by Ernst Heinkel himself to trial a true "four-engined" design format for the original He 177 dated back to 17 November 1938, before the construction of the He 177 V3 and V4 prototype airframes had even been started, when Heinkel had personally asked the RLM to set aside the He 177 V3 and V4 airframes for a trial installation of four separate unitized Junkers Jumo 211 powerplants to overcome the concerns that the RLM Technischen-Amt technical department's director Ernst Udet and Heinkel had expressed about the RLM's specific dive-bombing priority for the He 177A, but was turned down for the trial fitment.
Facts that could have fostered the origin of the post-war aviation book storyline about the "He 177B"/He 277" controversy were that the RLM, in listing the He 177 development projects that they approved of the Heinkel firm doing work on as of February 1943 — six months after Göring's recorded engine complaint statements, and 18 months after the first-ever consideration by the RLM for any He 177 proposed variant to have four "individual" powerplants, as the paper-only "He 177H" high-altitude predecessor to the later He 274 in October 1941, only included the He 177 A-5 heavy bomber, A-6 high-altitude bomber, A-7 long-range version, and the "He 277" itself, defining the February 1943 date as the earliest reliable date of any official German government mention of such an "He 277"-designated aircraft, as this date also indicates the time by which the RLM had issued the Heinkel firm the 8-277 airframe design number for the project. The RLM was also expecting, during the late spring of 1943 — about one year after the mid-Spring 1942 Amerikabomber proposal first arrived in Göring's offices — that a trio of He 277 V-series prototype aircraft, and construction of ten pre-production He 277A-0 series service test machines were to be completed, as well as "progressive development" of the still-unbuilt and unfinalized design, were anticipated as coming from Heinkel's Schwechat southern plant complex in Austria. The initial starting place for the He 277's fuselage design had been meant to originate with the last "coupled-engine" proposed variant of the He 177 itself, the long-range A-7, which itself was to be the basis for a four-engined variant of the Greif as the He 177A-10, then redesignated the He 177B-7 in the late summer of 1943, as both the A-7 and B-7 had omitted the manned rear dorsal turret of the earlier A-series versions for lighter weight. The considerable changes in the He 277's overall design philosophy evolved after the Amerikabomber proposal's emergence in May 1942, from the changes in the He 277's general arrangement proposal drawings during that time period. The original proposal, which was meant to use the He 177A-7's fuselage as the starting point, evolved into designing a dedicated, new and wider He 219-general pattern fuselage layout for the 277 from the Spring 1943 timeframe onward, which would be more capable of using a tricycle undercarriage then gaining favor with a few German aviation designers, even with the 277 not known to have been specifically considered by the RLM in the earlier timeframe for the Amerikabomber proposal.
The main factor that seemingly required the lower-drag "coupled" powerplant format for the He 177A, the diving attack mandate by the RLM, which Ernst Heinkel vehemently disagreed with since the original Greif's beginnings in the late 1930s, was rescinded by Göring himself some five months before the "He 277's" earliest-known February 1943 RLM approval date. The Heinkel firm started work on the He 177B as a straightforward, separately four-engined development of the 177A under the B-series designation at least as early as the late summer of 1943, when official Heinkel documents began referring to the He 177B, evidenced from an August 1943-dated, Heinkel factory-created general arrangement Typenblatt drawing of the He 177 V101 being labeled with the 8-177 RLM designation for the entire line of Greif airframes, and "B-5" elsewhere in the drawing's title block, as a fully RLM approved development of the original He 177 aircraft line, and not in any way directly related to the entirely separate He 277 advanced bomber design project, which by the summer of 1943 was considered to be Heinkel's Amerikabomber aviation contract contender. The first development of the original He 177A to fly with four "individual" engines – using a quartet of He 219-style annular radiators to cool its likely-unitized Daimler-Benz DB 603 powerplants – was the second He 177B prototype, the He 177 V102, on December 20, 1943.
Trio of separate efforts
In total, there were three separate efforts, the movement toward which had been initiated by Ernst Heinkel as early as November 1938, to develop "true four-engined versions" of the A-series Greif: the He 177B, which culminated in four prototype examples being built, with three getting airborne before the war's end; the He 274, of which only two prototypes were started before the end of World War II and completed and flown in France after the war's end; and the He 277, for which only a few airframe parts had been in the process of completion, with no completed prototypes at any time, before or after the end of the war.
Design features
The general arrangement Typenblatt drawings that Heinkel's firm was developing for the He 277 by mid-1943 show an advanced design of heavy bomber, with a 133 square meter area (1,431.6 sq. ft.) "shoulder mount", 40 meter (131 ft 3 in) span wing design, four separate BMW 801E powerplants of 1,471 kW (2,000 PS, 1,973 hp) output each at take-off, with each engine turning a propeller of up to four meters in diameter. The undercarriage options considered for the design included either a fully retracting conventional or nosewheel landing gear, with main gear assemblies that possessed twinned main wheels on each unit, retracting forward (for the nosewheel version, rearwards for a conventional gear arrangement) into the inner engine nacelles. The Heinkel firm's previous experience with designing flightworthy, retractable tricycle undercarriage-equipped airframes extended as far back as late 1939 with the Heinkel He 280 jet fighter prototype, and further strengthened with the unexpectedly successful Heinkel He 219A night fighter, which also used a tricycle undercarriage.
The main crew accommodation of the He 277 consisted of a heavily glazed and "greenhouse"-framed clear view "stepless" cockpit, a common feature of many late-war German bomber airframes and new designs. Immediately aft of the heavily glazed nose, the cockpit glazing over the crew seating and pilot accommodation-enclosing upper section that was blended with the nose glazing's contours, protruding above the 277's forward dorsal fuselage decking level, with a rearward extension atop the fuselage that faired-in the forward upper dorsal turret's forward surface, extending rearwards to just forward of the inner engine cowls. The fuselage outlines themselves were deep, and almost slab-sided in cross-section, with its general sideview profile lines being strongly reminiscent of the smaller He 219 night fighter. This similarity with the 219 even extended to the depictions of the He 277's fuselage-mounted defensive armament emplacements as proposed by Heinkel, with one forward and two aft-facing "steps" along the slightly rounded dorsal and ventral surfaces of the fuselage, much like the smaller night fighter's earliest prototypes had, for the 277's manned aft dorsal and remote aft ventral turret defensive weapons mounts — the aft ventral emplacement being moved rearwards by roughly two meters, in comparison with the early He 219V-series prototypes, to accommodate the aft end of the He 277's bomb bay. The twin tail empennage assembly of the He 219 night fighter was also a likely inspiration for the 277's own similar unit, that added aerodynamic stability when compared to the 177A's single vertical tail — proven to be true from the first flights of the He 177B-series' four-engined He 177 V102 twin-tailed prototype from late December 1943 onwards — and made mounting a powered traversable defensive tail turret easier. Provision was shown on the Heinkel Typenblatt general arrangement drawing for a quartet of ETC-family underwing hardpoint racks, two per wing panel on either side of the outboard pair of BMW 801 engines, potentially allowing external ordnance loads or drop tanks to extend the bomber's capabilities or range.
In a May 1943 Heinkel factory document showing possible offensive bombload configurations and flight consumable (fuel, etc.) weights for the He 277, two differing bomb bay sizes (interior dimensions of 1.5 x 7.5 meters for the He 277's tailwheel version, and 1.75 x 7.0 meters for the tricycle undercarriage version) were considered, with the latter bomb bay configuration existing within a 1.90 meter width fuselage. The lightest warload of six 500 kg (1,100 lb) SC 500 bombs for each bomb bay configuration, gave the tricycle-geared, 1.9 meter exterior width wider-fuselage version, considering a larger load (12,200 kg/26,895 lb) of fuel, a possible stated maximum range of , equalling the potential range capability of the earlier-designed Me 261, an indicator of what could have been achieved had the 277 been in full consideration from its beginnings for the Amerikabomber design competition.
Defensive armament comprised, as envisioned, a five-turret complement of defensive ordnance positions, with only two of these directly manned, and the remainder all remotely operated: a forward, remotely operated Fernbedienbare Drehlafette FDL 151Z "chin turret" under the extreme nose with twin MG 151/20 cannon much as the 177B-series was intended to use, with a 20º "upwards"-tilted axis of traverse in the turret mount design to provide a small degree of elevated fire, twin dorsal turrets – a second remotely operated FDL 151Z forward emplacement, otherwise similar in appearance to the proposed chin turret, and a manned Hydraulische Drehlafette HDL 151Z rear dorsal emplacement – each armed with a pair of MG 151/20 cannon, with both dorsal turrets providing aftwards-section defensive fire upwards and to the sides and rear; an aft remotely operated FDL-family ventral turret for lower rearwards defense, just behind the bomb bay's rear edge with another pair of MG 151/20 cannon with the gunner laying prone, facing rearwards in a starboard-side offset position that possessed a slightly-protruding ventral blister-like gondola for the gunner's position to sight the rear ventral remote turret, and a manned Hecklafette HL 131V tail turret with a quartet of MG 131 heavy machine guns. The Hecklafette four-gun turret had also been planned to be used on some of the other Amerikabomber competing airframes for their own tail-mounted defensive armament, in addition to Heinkel's own A-6 and A-7 proposed versions of the original He 177A airframe, and the nascent He 177B-5 to be in production at Arado Flugzeugwerke by November 1944, and meant to be fitted onto not only the incomplete He 177 V104 B-series "finalized" prototype airframe as the B-5's production prototype, but also a projected "C-version" of the He 219 night fighter. This increasing demand for an advanced "quadmount" gun turret within the Heinkel firm's own range of late-war combat aircraft designs, that had not even been produced by the Borsig firm responsible for it, beyond a small number of test units and engineering mockups led to an alternative twin-cannon "HL 151Z" version to be planned for. This newly conceived twin-cannon adaptation was meant to use new elevation gun-mount assemblies with the HL 131V's core traverse shell, with each new elevation unit configured to take a single MG 151/20 cannon per turret side. Only a few ground test examples of the twin-cannon variant tail turret had been produced by March 1944. One of these twin-cannon experimental tail turrets was mounted on an He 177A airframe for testing, possibly any of the He 177 V32 through V34 prototypes already configured to take the original HL 131V turret. Some sideview line drawing depictions of purported "He 277" aircraft, usually in the same aviation history volumes that purveyed the erroneous "He 177B/He 277" storyline, also show what could be an early He 177A-7-based depiction of the later Amerikabomber competitor bearing the He 177A's "Cabin 3" standard cockpit and a quartet of the He 219-derived unitized DB 603 inverted V12 engines actually used on the four He 177B-series prototypes (He 177 V101 through V104) for power, with the abandoned Bugstandlafette BL 131V quadmount remote turret as a "chin turret" in place of the FDL 151Z system as depicted in the Heinkel firm's factory Typenblatt drawings — the BL 131V had already been abandoned in 1943 as too heavy (reducing offensive bombload by a full tonne) and slowing the earlier He 177A airframe by some 30 km/h in top airspeed due to drag, making even the chance of its proposed existence on any He 277 design proposals unlikely.
Competing bomber designs
Throughout the time that the He 277 design was being worked on, Ernst Heinkel was facing competition from other developing heavy bomber designs, and large four-engined aircraft proposals that showed promise as heavy bombers, from Focke-Wulf (the Fw 300, and later, the Ta 400), Junkers (the Ju 390), from Messerschmitt AG (the Me 264), and from his own firm's He 274 four-engined, high-altitude development of the He 177.
The first of these designs that the He 277 was pitted against, mostly to determine the "most producible" bomber that could also be license-built, given Germany's limited aircraft production capacity to arm the Luftwaffe with, and partially to determine the best long-range bomber design to fulfill the needs of the spring 1942-issued Amerikabomber program documents, the Messerschmitt Me 264 ended up being the first design to challenge the He 277's chance for production. The Me 264 was a purpose-built long-range bomber, using a tricycle landing gear configuration from the start. The Me 264 prototypes were already flying their test programs with power of exactly the same choice that Heinkel had asked for on November 17, 1938, for the He 177 V3 and V4 prototypes: with four Junkers Jumo 211 engines as early as late December 1942 – a full year after Nazi Germany had declared war on the United States, five months after the Eighth Air Force had begun flying bomber missions against Nazi-occupied France, and two months before the RLM's earliest-known mention of any recorded approval for the He 277 design itself — the later fitment of a quartet of the BMW 801 radials to each example of the trio of Me 264 prototypes also potentially challenged the availability of the same engine design that the He 277 was meant to use, had the Me 264 gone into production with them.
The four-engined Me 264's development, because of the need to use scarce strategic materials in its construction, and because of the better performance estimates that the Focke-Wulf Ta 400 and He 277 possessed, was stopped in May 1943.
Because of the US involvement in the European Theater commencing in mid-August 1942, the Luftwaffe now found that it had a serious need for a well-armed, long-range bomber, which the Luftwaffe found could not be achieved with the 1,120 kW (1,500 hp) class engines it had on hand for such a four-engined bomber. Such ongoing difficulties in developing high-output aviation powerplants of over 1,500 kW apiece, that could be used in combat with proven reliability — which excluded the DB 606 engines of the earlier He 177A variants, which themselves proved to be seriously troublesome from the start of the He 177A's combat service in 1942 — meant that six engines of the under-1,500 kW (2,000 PS) power output levels that they could produce would be needed on a strategic bomber design for a successful mission from Europe to attack the US and safely return to base, with enough of an offensive bombload to be effective, and to have enough defensive firepower for protection to achieve a safe return. It was events on the date of July 3, 1943 that seemed to cement this viewpoint in the RLM's mind – no production decisions on the still-unfinalized He 277's design had emerged by that date, and the continuing problems in Dessau with the high-output Junkers Jumo 222 engine had set back its development, making its use with the He 277, first proposed on that date, even more problematic. The Blohm & Voss firm's aviation division had already settled on six engines with success, as early as 1940, on the prototypes of the BV 222 Wiking flying boat maritime patrol aircraft, itself possessing a substantial 46 meter wingspan, with 255 square meters of area. This emerging need for six engines for such an aircraft was also recognized by Messerschmitt AG, when that firm fielded a paper project for a six-engined "Me 264B", that had a stretched wingspan outwards to 47.5 meters (155 ft 10 in), with two additional BMW 801 radial engines outboard of the existing four powerplants and the same Hecklafette four-gun tail turret as the He 277. Eventually, the Heinkel firm received an order on July 23, 1943 from the Reich Air Ministry's technical department (Technischen Amt) — for Heinkel's engineering shops to design a set of wings for the 277's unfinalized design that could accept a quartet of the troubled Jumo 222 engines, alongside the still "paper-only" concept also being ordered to be designed and buildable with the desired six-engine format the RLM was now favoring for an Amerikabomber, intended to be upwards of a 170 square meter (1,830 sq. ft.) wing area of 45 meter (147 ft 7 in) span to possibly accommodate either four Jumo 222s or six BMW 801s.
In March 1943, Focke-Wulf came up with a six-engined version of their proposed Fw 300 bomber, originally powered with just four BMW 801E radials. Their more advanced Ta 400 design, first proposed in October 1943 with a tricycle landing gear setup and meant to be powered with a half-dozen of the same engines as the 277 was meant to use, was joined by the Ju 390, a Junkers six-engined version of the developed version of their early-war Junkers Ju 90 airliner, the operational Junkers Ju 290 maritime patrol bomber, and also using six of the same BMW radials as the 277, with both the earlier four-engined A-8 variant of the Ju 290, and the Ju 390A-1 each meant to have a pair of the He 277's Hecklafette quad-gun tail turrets, but with one each in the planned tail position and in a new nose-mount version.
By October 1943, Ernst Heinkel had compared the Messerschmitt and Junkers four-engined designs, and the six-engined BV 222, Ju 390 and Ta 400 designs to his own He 277 project, with the following conclusions:
Of these competing types mentioned by Dr. Heinkel — outside of the thirteen BV 222 six-engined maritime patrol flying boats actually built — only three of the Me 264 design, and a verified pair of the Ju 390 aircraft were ever built, solely as flyable prototypes, and none of these aircraft saw any action against the Allies.
The He 274, because of its own intended high-altitude role, was only a potential competitor with the He 277 for Heinkel's own company engineering and production staff, and the He 274's production had already been outsourced by the end of 1941 to the French Societe Anonyme des Usines Farman, or "SAUF" firm in Suresnes to partially allow Heinkel to work on other projects, like the He 277 and the more advanced Heinkel He 343 jet powered medium bomber design, both of which each had a few airframe components in the process of manufacture for prototype airframes, but with both designs never able to be completed as flyable aircraft.
End of the project
The last competing aircraft design that threatened the He 277's chance for increasingly scarce production capacity was the Junkers Ju 488, a composite of earlier developments of the Junkers Ju 88 twin-engined fast medium bomber design, with a few core components being purpose-designed solely for it, that were brought together to create a four-engined heavy bomber while using already-available components. Two prototype Ju 488s had been completed by the start of the summer of 1944, but were each sabotaged to unairworthy status by the French Resistance by mid-July 1944, before either one had ever been flown.
In April 1944, simultaneously with the four He 177B prototypes either flying (He 177 V101 to V103) or nearing completion (V104) at the Heinkel-Süd facility at Schwechat, the RLM ordered Heinkel to cease any further work on the He 277 project, and all components were also ordered to be scrapped, without any complete examples of the 277 ever having been completed by Heinkel, only three months before the Jägernotprogramm took over all German military aircraft production priorities on July 3, 1944 — with only the Heinkel He 162 Spatz lightweight jet fighter contract winner allowed to progress into production by the RLM from Heinkel's firm from that time forward.
Specifications (He 277 basic configuration)
From Griehl, Manfred and Dressel, Joachim. Heinkel He 177-277-274, Airlife Publishing, Shrewsbury, England 1998, pp. 159 & 184.
not built/completed, design only
See also
References
Bibliography
Green, William. Warplanes of the Third Reich. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1970 (4th Impression 1979). .
Griehl, Manfred and Dressel, Joachim. Heinkel He 177-277-274, Airlife Publishing, Shrewsbury, England 1998. . (Primary reference for article)
Gunston, Bill & Wood, Tony. Hitler's Luftwaffe. London: Salamander Books Ltd., 1977. .
Wagner, Ray and Nowarra, Heinz. German Combat Planes: A Comprehensive Survey and History of the Development of German Military Aircraft from 1914 to 1945. New York: Doubleday, 1971.
External links
http://www.century-of-flight.net/Aviation%20history/photo_albums/timeline/ww2/Heinkel%20He%20277.htm (contains elements from the controversy mentioned at the start of this article)
Abandoned military aircraft projects of Germany
1940s German bomber aircraft
World War II heavy bombers of Germany
He 277
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Andrea Lee Press is an American sociologist and media studies scholar. She is the William R. Kenan Jr. Professor of Media Studies and Sociology at the University of Virginia.
Biography
Press received a PhD in sociology from the University of California, Berkeley in 1987. She has held faculty positions at the University of California, Davis, the University of Michigan, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Hebrew University and the London School of Economics in a variety of departments such as communications, sociology, writing studies, social psychology, and women’s studies. Presently, she is the William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor of Media Studies and Sociology at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia. She has been a co-editor of the academic journal The Communication Review since 1999. Press has been a fellow at the Oxford Center for International Gender Research, the Yale Center for Comparative Research, the Center for Advanced Study of the University of Illinois, the Stanhope Center for Communications Policy Research, the Tavistock Clinic in London, and the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. She is the recipient of grants from the National Science Foundation, the National Institute of Mental Health, and the Soroptimist International Foundation. Press is the recipient of the Arnold O. Beckman Award for the best research proposal submitted at the University of Illinois. Her book Women Watching Television was nominated for the Jessie Bernard Award by the American Sociological Association, an award given in recognition of scholarly work that has enlarged the horizons of sociology to encompass fully the role of women in society. In 2019, Press was elected incoming Vice-Chair of the Feminist Scholarship Division of the International Communication Association. In 2020, Press became a Fellow of the International Communication Association, an honor awarded in recognition of distinguished scholarly contributions to the broad field of communication. Fellow status recognizes a documented record of scholarly achievement. In 2021, Press became the Chair of the Feminist Scholarship Division.
Research
Professor Press is best known for her research addressing feminist media issues and the innovative use of qualitative methodology. Her first book, Women Watching Television: Gender, Class, and Generation in the American Television Experience, uses qualitative research methodologies to examine the cultural impact of television among women from working and middle-class backgrounds. As E. Ann Kaplan wrote in the academic journal Signs, “Andrea L. Press's book Women Watching Television is a sophisticated sociological study of class and generational differences in women's responses to television . . . Press builds on prior research through empirical investigation. She combines approaches often hitherto used separately, linking the class emphasis and the hegemony theory in much British cultural studies work with British and American feminist methods” (p. 551).
Professor Press' second book coauthored with Elizabeth R. Cole, Speaking of Abortion: Television and Authority in the Lives of Women, examines women's reactions to a television about abortion using “ethnographic focus groups.” As Nina Eliasoph noted in a review in the American Journal of Sociology, this research has broad interdisciplinary appeal, “For scholars of morality, gender, class, and media reception, the book’s intensive and clever use of interview material offers many provocative and thoughtful challenges.”
In addition to several recent articles, in 2010, Professor Press and coauthor Professor Bruce Williams published The New Media Environment: What’s New, What’s Not? (Blackwell). Professor Press' monograph MEDIA-READY FEMINISM AND EVERYDAY SEXISM: HOW U.S. AUDIENCES CREATE MEANINGS ACROSS PLATFORMS is published by SUNY Press (co-authored with Francesca Tripodi, 2021). Her co-edited collections include MEDIA AND CLASS (2017), THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF CONTEMPORARY FEMINISM (2019), FEMINIST RECEPTION STUDIES IN A POST-AUDIENCE AGE (2018), and THE NEW FEMINIST TELEVISION STUDIES (2018). Her forthcoming book CINEMA AND FEMINISM: A QUICK IMMERSION addresses issues of the portrayal and development of feminist thought in popular Hollywood film.
Contributions and significance
Andrea Press' intellectual concerns center on the nature of culture and the way people appropriate and recreate its meanings. In particular, she has sought to investigate how culture contributes to the reproduction of social class and gender in the contemporary U.S. Her focus on television, and now both on the new media environment and on the history of Hollywood film, derives from this interest. Media reception provides an idea site for examining the production and reproduction of a popular culture marked by gender and class distinctions. Given these interests, Press' work is inherently interdisciplinary, as scholars in many disciplines have developed definitions of culture and derived methods for studying cultural production and reproduction. Press develops and refines a qualitative, interpretive methodology for studying the active reception of popular cultural forms and for examining the role of gender and class in this process, drawing insights from several disciplines such as anthropology, philosophy, literature, and political theory. Press has explored these questions in four books projects thus far, each building on and extending the results of the last, to construct a theory of how women in particular interpret and appropriate cultural forms, and use them in understanding and creating gendered political, moral, social and cultural identities.
The first two projects focus on women's reception of television. Women Watching Television centers on the question of how women interpret television, and the related issue of how women use television to make sense of their lives and identities. Speaking of Abortion focuses more specifically on the social issue of abortion, and the way television is used creatively by small groups of women friends as they formulate and express their feelings, opinions, and convictions about the issue. While scholars in several social science disciplines have been interested in the impact of television exposure on measurable attitudes, and some in both humanities and social science fields have critically interpreted television itself from a scholarly perspective, few have looked at the way television is used by viewers as they create meanings, develop self-interpretations, and formulate and express their feelings and ideas, as Press does in these works.
In Women Watching Television, Press refines theories about television reception, about the relationship between television and culture, and about women's interpretations and uses of television. Press argues that television exerts a "class-specific" hegemony for working-class women, and a "gender-specific" hegemony for middle-class women. Thus put, her findings challenge both hegemony and what is known in cultural studies as "resistance theory"—the reigning theories of media reception dominant in critical cultural studies. In contrast to hegemony theory, which tends to offer totalizing explanations for media reception, Press' results suggest important differences in the way reception operates for different groups of women. Resistance theory is also belied by her results, since it has considered almost all viewers' interpretive activity in response to television to be resistance. Its proponents tend to downplay evidence of limits to the critical content of viewer interpretations, which her interviews illustrate. Using the evidence of in-depth interviews with women about television, Press argues that television reception is a contradictory process, one fully explained neither by the ideas of hegemony nor resistance. Women resist television at some levels, yet are susceptible to its hegemonic meanings at others. This is particularly evident in her findings about class differences in receptivity. Press found the middle-class women used television portrayals of gender relations to help solve relationship issues plaguing their own lives; often they identified with television's largely middle-class characters and families. In contrast, working-class women identified less with television characters, yet judged television portrayals and situations to be more realistic than did their middle-class counterparts. They used television to formulate their own ideas of "normal" life and found their own lives to be lacking in comparison with television's more affluent families. Thus, the working-class women were able to resist hegemonic meanings about appropriate gender roles encoded in entertainment television, while they quite uncritically appropriated many aspects of television's pictures of social class. The middle-class women, in contrast, talked more of television's images of gender role issues, and used television's treatment of these issues more uncritically as a springboard for working out their own family and work roles, often a troubled and rapidly changing part of their lives.
Women Watching Television (University of Pennsylvania) has important implications specifically for feminist theory. In particular, it helps resolve two major debates. First, Press challenges the false unity underlying the concept of "woman" by examining important differences between women; in particular, she focuses on social class and generational differences. In addition, Press challenges prior feminist theories of women's interpretations of television which generally argue that women in the postwar U.S. use television and other media products to construct autonomously their own self-identities and to express resistance to the effects of gender discrimination on their lives. Press' interview data portray a more complicated picture in which women: use television images both to reinforce and to resist traditional ideas about women's proper roles in work and family. This is most evident in her findings about generational differences between women. For the older women Press interviewed, television was a source of new ideas, particularly about women's increasing opportunities in the labor force. For the younger women, television served as a repository of nostalgic notions of the traditional family. It exacerbated their feelings about leaving their own families, often deemed imperfect according to television family images (current feminist theory has exposed this idyllic nuclear family image to be largely a creation of television and other media).
Press extends and elaborates her work investigating interpretive television reception for the female audience in a second book, Speaking of Abortion: Television and Authority in the Lives of Women (University of Chicago), co-authored with Elizabeth Cole, currently the Associate Dean of Faculty at the University of Michigan. The politically charged issue of abortion has been the focus of an ongoing public debate, as well as an issue with which most women have some private experience. In the book, Press and Cole examine non-activist women's discourse about abortion, which has been slighted in a literature focusing primarily on activists. In particular, they examine how women's views on abortion are formed in dialogue with, and against the background of, mass media discourse about the issue. Methodologically, the book extends the interpretive methodology Press used in her first book. While there she interviewed individual women about their experiences with television, here Press and Cole interview groups of women who are asked to discuss television they watch together. The research is based on focus-group discussions with pro-life and pro-choice women of different social classes. To create groups, contact women were asked to organize a group of their friends, for a meeting in their home. With this methodology, Press and Cole amend traditional focus groups in an ethnographic direction, to approximate more fully the setting in which television is most often watched, and the type of public discussion in which women most often engage: they asked each group to discuss the issue of abortion, and then to view and interpret, collectively, a selected fictional television show about the issue. Using their discussions of this issue, Press and Cole explore women's views on abortion generally, focusing on the way different class and opinion groups understand distinctions between the public and the private, and how they critically interpret different presentations of this issue on entertainment television, and use these presentations in conceptualizing and expressing their own political, moral, and private positions on the issue.
Speaking of Abortion contributes to the literature about women's reception of television and the feminist literature about the relationship between the abortion debate and female morality and identity. Whereas most studies of media and public opinion overlook the political, moral, and social content of entertainment television, this book adds a dimension to the debate about the way media content is used by viewers as they interpret, understand, and formulate their views. Second, extant views of the separation of public and private spheres in modern American life ignore the particular experience of women, who are often identified with the private realm and dismissed as public actors. Press and Cole argue in this book that the public sphere for women is not absent, but exists in realms largely unexamined by current scholarship. They address the way the private realm often serves as a setting for formulating and expressing contending views about public issues, the role of television in that forum, and the particular form this debate takes for women. In this respect, the study expands the theoretical tradition established by the many feminist scholars who have challenged traditional definitions of the public/private distinction (Philosopher Nancy Fraser, historians Joan Scott and Linda Gordon, and political theorists Iris Young and Jean Elshtain, to name just a few). Finally, the feminist literature about abortion has either focused on activist women only in two polarized opinion camps (Luker, Ginsburg) or falsely generalized reasoning processes about abortion and other moral issues to all women based on samples composed primarily of middle-class women (Gilligan). In this study, Press and Cole focus on non-activist women, many of whom do not fall neatly into either opinion camp, or into the conventional definition of political actors; and, building on Press' earlier study, they emphasize the social class differences which divide the interpretations and self-conceptions of women.
Press' new projects continue her exploration of the role culture plays in the way women formulate, express, and live their identities. In The New Media Environment (Blackwell), co-authored with Bruce A. Williams, Press and Williams discuss data from a longitudinal study of the use of online tools by children of different social class backgrounds. In their forthcoming book, Media-Ready Feminism and Everyday Sexism: How U.S. Audiences Create Meaning Across Platforms Press and Tripodi draw on focus group data and textual analysis to explore the impact of second wave feminism on current thought about a series of issues including women's body image; sexuality; the "double standard"; work-family balance; and reproductive rights. Press' pieces in Slate and in the Chronicle of Higher Education , both co-edited with Francesca Tripodi, engage issues of feminism and sexism in the online community.
In addition to Press' theoretical interests, questions about the epistemological potential of qualitative and ethnographic methodology in communication studies have long been of concern in her writing and research. They have become increasingly important as she has developed and employed several different types of qualitative methods in her research. Press has written about the use of ethnographic methodology in the field of communication in the article "Toward a Qualitative Methodology of Audience Study: Using Ethnography to Study the Popular Culture Audience." A piece in the journal Feminist Media Studies and one in the journal Communication and Culture lay out theoretical concerns of interest currently to the community of feminist media studies researchers. She has also published in Contexts and in the Yale Journal of Sociology on issues of gender in high education administration. In addition Press has edited several special journal issues (with Mary Beth Haralovich on The New Feminist Television Studies, with Melissa Click on "Feminist Media Studies Today," and, in Feminist Media Studies, with Katherine Sender and Andre Cavalcante on "Feminist Media Audiences").
Selected publications
Books
Press, Andrea L. 2021. CINEMA AND FEMINISM: A QUICK IMMERSION. New York and Barcelona: Tibidabo Publishing.
Press, Andrea L., and Francesca Tripodi. 2021. MEDIA-READY FEMINISM AND EVERYDAY SEXISM: HOW U.S. AUDIENCES CREATE MEANING ACROSS PLATFORMS. Albany: SUNY Press.
Oren, Tasha, and Andrea L. Press, editors. 2019. THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF CONTEMPORARY FEMINISM. London: Routledge.
Press, Andrea L., Andre Cavalcante, Katherine Sender, editors. 2018. FEMINIST RECEPTION STUDIES IN A POST-AUDIENCE AGE. London: Routledge.
Press, Andrea L., and Mary Ellen Brown, editors. 2018. THE NEW FEMINIST TELEVISION STUDIES. Lambert Academic Publishing.
Press, Andrea L., and June Deery, editors. 2017. MEDIA AND CLASS: TV, FILM, AND DIGITAL CULTURE. London: Routledge.
Press, Andrea L., and Mary Beth Haralovich, editors. 2012. The New Feminist Television Studies. London: Taylor and Francis. Special Issue of the Communication Review, 15(3).
Press, Andrea L., and Bruce A. Williams. 2010. The New Media Environment London: Blackwell. (*Translated into Egyptian Arabic.)
Press, Andrea L., and Elizabeth R. Cole. 1999. Speaking of Abortion: Television and Authority in the Lives of Women. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Press, A. L. 1991. Women Watching Television: Gender, Class, and Generation in the American Television Experience. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.*
Nominated for the JESSIE BERNARD AWARD of the American Sociological Association.
Edited journal issues
Press, Andrea L., Andre Cavalcante, Katherine Sender, editors. 2017. Feminist Media Audiences. Co-editing special issue of the journal Feminist Media Studies. Volume 17, No. 1.
Press, Andrea L., and Melissa Click, editors. 2014. Feminist Media Studies Today. Special issue of the Communication Review, based on the 2014 Console-ing Passions Keynote speakers and Panels.
Press, Andrea L., and Mary Beth Haralovich, editors. 2012. The New Feminist Television Studies. London: Taylor and Francis. Special Issue of the Communication Review, 15(3).
Press, Andrea L., and Arlene Stein, editors. 2008. Commemorating the Barnard Conference. London: Taylor and Francis. Special Issue of the Communication Review, 11(3).
Press, Andrea L., editor. 2006. Audience Research in the Post-Audience Age. London: Taylor and Francis. Special issue of the Communication Review, 2006 9(2).
Books in development
Press, Andrea L. How Feminist is the Media? Contract being negotiated, Polity Press.
Articles
Press, Andrea L., and Marjorie Rosen. 2017. June Deery and Andrea Press, Editors, Media and Class. Routledge.
Press, Andrea L., and Ellen Rosenman. 2016. “Consumerism and the Languages of Class.” In Timothy Shary and Frances Smith, editors, Refocus on Amy Heckerling. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 77–96.
Press, Andrea L., Fan Mai, Francesca Tripodi, and Mike Wayne. 2016. “Audiences.” The Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 216–222.
Press, Andrea L., and Laura Grindstaff. 2014. “Too Little But Not Too Late: Sociological Contributions to Feminist Media Studies.” pp. 151–167 in Media Sociology: A Reappraisal., edited by Silvio Waisbord. London: Polity.
Press, Andrea L. 2014. “Fractured Feminism: Articulations of Feminism, Sex and Class by Reality TV Viewers.” pp. 208–227 in A Companion to Reality Television, edited by Laurie Ouellette. London: Blackwell.
Press, Andrea. 2013. “Fractured Feminism” [J]. Translated into Chinese by Kewen Ding, China Book Review, No.3: 42-48, as (美)安德烈拉·普瑞斯.“碎裂的女性主义”[J].丁珂文译. 中国图书评论(辽宁).
Press, Andrea L. 2012. “Sex, Gender, and the 2012 Struggle over the Presidency of the University of Virginia.” Yale Journal of Sociology. Fall, 2012.
Press, Andrea L. 2012. “Faculty Governance Under Siege.” Contexts. Fall, 2012.
Press, Andrea L. 2012. “The Price of Motherhood: Feminism and Cultural Bias.” Communication, Culture and Critique 5:119-124.
Press, Andrea L. 2011. “Feminism and Media in the Post-Feminist Era: What to make of the “Feminist” in Feminist Media Studies.” Feminist Media Studies 11(1): 107-114. (Reprinted as )
Press, Andrea L. 2009. “Gender and Family in Television’s Golden Age and Beyond.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 625(1): 139-150.
Press, Andrea L. 2008. “Feminist Media Studies and the Sexuality Debates.” Communication Review, 11(3): 195-198.
Press, Andrea L. 2007. “Do We Want a Model of Reception Research?” Communication Review Volume 10, No. 3, 2007, pp. 179–181.
Press, Andrea L., and Camille Johnson-Yale. 2007. “Political Talk and the Flow of Ambient Television: Women Watching OPRAH in an African-American Hair Salon.” pp. 1–29 in James Schwoch and Phil Goldstein, editors, Reception Study. New York: Oxford University Press.
Press, Andrea L. 2006. “Audience Research in the Post-Audience Age.” Communication Review, 9, No. 2, 93-100.
Press, Andrea L. 2006. "Gender and Culture." Culture Section, Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by George Ritzer. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 936–942.
Press, Andrea L., and Sonia Livingstone. 2006. “Taking Audience Research Into the Age of New Media: Old Problems and New Challenges.” pp. 175–200 in Mimi White, James Schwoch, and Dilip Goankar, editors, Cultural Studies and Methodological Issues. London: Basil Blackwell.
Press, Andrea L., and Bruce A. Williams. 2005. “Fame and Everyday Life: The “Lottery Celebrity” of Reality TV.” Pp. 176-190 in Mark D. Jacobs and Nancy Weiss Hanrahan, editors, The Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Culture. New York and London: Blackwell.
Press, Andrea L., and Tamar Liebes. 2004. “Feminism and Hollywood: Why the Backlash?” Media Report to Women, Winter, 2004.
Press, Andrea L., and Tamar Liebes. 2003. “Feminism and Hollywood: Whatever Happened to the Golden Age?" pp. 1–31 in James Curran and Nick Couldry, editors, Contesting Media Power. Boulder, Co: Rowman and Littlefield.
Press, Andrea L. 2002. “Audiences.” The Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by Neil Smelser (Communication Section edited by Michael Schudson).
Press, Andrea L., and Linda Blum. 2001. "What Can We Hear After Postmodernism? The Growing Gulf Between Cultural Studies and Feminist Research." pp. 182–221 in Across Disciplines and Beyond Boundaries: Tracking American Cultural Studies, edited by Cat Warren, Mary Vavrus, and Eve Munson. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Press, Andrea L. 2001. "Studying the Female Popular Culture Audience." The Women's Studies Encyclopedia, edited by Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender. New York and London: Simon and Schuster International Press.
Press, Andrea L. 2000. “Recent Developments in Feminist Communication Theory: Difference, Public Sphere, Body and Technology.” pp. 27–44 in Mass Media and Society, edited by James Curran and Michael Gurevitch. London and New York: Routledge.
Press, Andrea L. 1996. "Toward a Qualitative Methodology of Audience Study: Using Ethnography to Study the Popular Cultural Audience." pp. 113–130 in The Audience and Its Landscape, edited by James Hay, Larry Grossberg, and Ellen Wartella. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Press, Andrea L., and Elizabeth Cole. 1995. "Reconciling Faith and Fact: Pro-Life Women Discuss Media, Science and the Abortion Debate." Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 12(4):380-402.
Press, Andrea L. "Women Watching Television." 1995. pp. 17–54 in Transmission, edited by David Tofler and Peter d'Agostino. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
Press, Andrea L., and Elizabeth R. Cole. 1994. "Women Like Us: Working-Class Women Respond to Television Representations of Abortion." pp. 55–80 in Reading, Viewing, Listening: Audiences and Cultural Reception, edited by Jon Cruz and Justin Lewis. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Press, Andrea L. 1994. "The Sociology of Cultural Reception: Notes Toward an Emerging Paradigm." pp. 221–246 in Emerging Theoretical Perspectives in the Sociology of Culture, edited by Diana Crane. England: Basil Blackwell.
Press, Andrea L., and Terry Strathman. 1993. "Work, Family, and Social Class in Television Images of Women: Prime-Time Television and the Construction of Postfeminism." Women and Language 16(2):7-15.
Press, Andrea L., and Elizabeth R. Cole. 1992. "Pro-Choice Voices: Discourses of Abortion Among Pro-Choice Women." Perspectives on Social Problems.4:73-92.
Press, Andrea L. 1992. "The Active Viewer and the Problem of Interpretation: Reconciling Traditional and Critical Research." Communication Yearbook 15: 91-106.
Press, Andrea L. 1991. "Working-Class Women in a Middle-Class World: The Impact of Television on Modes of Reasoning About Abortion." Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8(4):421-441.
Press, Andrea L. 1990. "Class, Gender, and the Female Viewer: Women's Responses to Dynasty." pp. 158–182 in Television and Women's Culture, edited by Mary Ellen Brown. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. (*Reprinted in Polish, 2012).
Press, Andrea L. 1989. "The Ongoing Feminist Revolution." Critical Studies in Mass Communication 6(2):196-202.
Press, Andrea L. 1989. "Class and Gender in the Hegemonic Process: Class Differences in Women's Perceptions of Television Realism and Identification with Television Characters." Media, Culture, and Society 11(2):229-252.
Press, Andrea L. 1986. "New Views on the Mass Production of Women's Culture." Communication Research 13(1):139-150.
Press, Andrea L. 1986. "Ideologies of Femininity: Film and Popular Consciousness in the Postwar Era." pp. 313–323 in Media, Audience and Social Structure, edited by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Muriel Cantor. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
Review essays
Press, Andrea L. 1993. "Feminist Methodology? A Reassessment." Contemporary Sociology 22(1):23-30.
Press, Andrea L., and Arlene Stein. 1985. "Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality." Berkeley Journal of Sociology XXX:205-212.
Other publications
Press, Andrea L., and Francesca Tripodi. 2014. “The New Misogyny” Chronicle of Higher Education, Chronicle Blog. July 2, 2014.
Press, Andrea L., and Francesca Tripodi. 2014. “What We Found While Lurking on an Anonymous College Message Board for Two Years” SLATE, June 5, 2014.
Press, Andrea L., and Bruce A. Williams. 1997. “Mass Media and the Boundaries of Public and Private Life.” Perspectives: The American Sociological Association Theory Section Newsletter 19(3): 7-9.
Press, Andrea L. 1992. "Television and the Political Culture of Abortion." Newsletter of the Sociology of Culture Section of the American Sociological Association 6(3):12-15.
Press, Andrea L. 1992. "Working-Class Women Respond to the Primacy of Class in Television Representations of Abortion." Paper available as Working Paper #82 in the Working Paper Series sponsored by the Center for the Study of Social Transformations (CSST), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Williams, Bruce A., and Andrea L. Press. 1992. "Perot and Fascism." Op-Ed piece published in the Christian Science Monitor, September. (One page).
References
External links
http://www.virginia.edu/sociology/peopleofsociology/apress.htm
http://www.virginia.edu/mediastudies/faculty/press.html
1955 births
American mass media scholars
American sociologists
Date of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of California, Davis faculty
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign faculty
University of Michigan faculty
University of Virginia faculty
American women sociologists
21st-century American women
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MNK Futsal Dinamo is a Croatian professional futsal club from Zagreb, established on 21 March 2012. Futsal Dinamo is a fan owned club. Members of the club elect their leadership through democratic elections and the business operations are completely transparent. The main objective of the club is to gather fans of Dinamo Zagreb and promote futsal as a sport. Also, the goal of the club is to be self-sustaining and financially independent. All the funds the club acquires are exclusively invested in the development of the club and its sports sections.
Unsatisfied with situation in GNK Dinamo, the ultras group of the club, Bad Blue Boys, and the members of the club decided to get involved in the functioning of the Futsal Dinamo (club founded by futsal enthusiasts and supporters of Dinamo) in order to continue the tradition of supporting for Dinamo and to demonstrate the model of a fan owned club.
The first democratic elections in the club were held on 11 July 2015. Assembly of the Club, consisted of its members, had unanimously chosen Matija Đulvat as the club's president. The second democratic elections wewre held on 12th July 2019 and Assembly of the Club had again unanimously chosen Đulvat as the club's president for the next four years. Futsal Dinamo is currently participating in the First Croatian futsal division. Futsal Dinamo has three Regional Cups and the club lost in the semi-finals of Croatian first division in the last five seasons, twice against Split twice against champions Novo Vrijeme from Makarska and once (2019/20) against the current champion Olmissum from Omiš.
History
The foundation of the Club
MNK Futsal Dinamo was founded by Matija Đulvat and Mate Čuljak on 21 March 2012. The first president of the club was Matija Đulvat, current president and the captain of the team. Mate Čuljak was the first coach of the club. The assistant coach was Juraj Fabijanić, the acting president of the club in season 2014/15.
In the first season the club competed in the Second Croatian Futsal Division North. The Club finished the season in second place and was very close to ensure qualification group for the First Croatian Futsal Division.
Because of the financial difficulties in the next season (2013/14) the club did not participate in the senior competition, however, it continued to compete in the youth categories.
Entry of the Bad Blue Boys in the Club
Supporters of GNK Dinamo, ultras group Bad Blue Boys and the members of the club who have been unsatisfied with current leadership of GNK Dinamo. for a number of years decided to present to the public a democratic model of club ownership based on which GNK Dinamo should function according to law. In spring of 2014 they came up with an idea of establishing their own futsal club with which they wanted to re-stimulate the forgotten trend of going to football matches in Zagreb City and to demonstrate the fan owned club model. Since there was already a club MNK Futsal Dinamo, founded by futsal enthusiasts and big fans of Dinamo, Bad Blue Boys have contacted the leading men of the club. They agreed that the senior team will be reactivated, and that the members of the club will elect their leadership in democratic elections. Each member will be entitled to participate in the Assembly of the club and, thus, become one of its owners.
However, Futsal Dinamo is not a substitute for the "football" Dinamo which cannot be replaced by anything. The main goal of this project is to demonstrate the model of fan owned club with completely transparent way doing business. It also aims to maintain the tradition of supporting Dinamo and to promote futsal as a sport. The desire of its fans is to fuse football and futsal Dinamo, in an appropriate time.
Official presentation of the project MNK Futsal Dinamo
Project Futsal Dinamo was officially presented on the iconic Zagreb stadium Šalata with an exhibition match between Futsal Dinamo and "Dinamo All Stars" on 6 September 2014, the 47th anniversary of Dinamo winning the only Croatian football European trophy, The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. Team "Dinamo All Stars" consisted of many legends of Dinamo Zagreb such as Igor Bišćan, Silvio Marić, Dario Šimić, Tomislav Šokota, Slavko Ištvanić, Zvonimir Soldo and others.
On the outdoor stadium, more than four thousand people have gathered. For three hours Dinamo's fans have cheered for Dinamo and chanted its name, the match ended 4:4.
The official presentation of the Club had made a great media and public impact in Croatia and among futsal enthusiasts worldwide.
Competition season 2014/15, 2.HMNL
Competition season 2014/15 Futsal Dinamo opened on 12 October 2014 in Small Hall of "Dom Sportova" (The home of Sports) against MNK Siscia, the previous year champion of Second Croatian Futsal Division North. Dinamo won the game with 6:1. In the second round of the League, Dinamo had only one draw in all matches of the first part of Championship. An away match against MNK Kozakiv ended 2:2. But, after that, Dinamo achieved four victories against MNK Petrinjčica (8:3), MNK Zagreb 92 (4:0), MNK Agram Extreme 4:3 and MNK Rugvica 7:3, in a derby match.
In the last round of the first part of the Championship Dinamo played against MNK Patriot and become a half-season Champion after 5:0 win. The match was held in the iconic Zagreb's sports Hall, the Dražen Petrović Arena in front of five and a half thousand of Dinamo supporters. In the second part of the season, Dinamo defeated MNK Siscia (11:1), Kozakiv (6:0), Petrinjčica (2:1) and Zagreb 92 (5:1). The only defeat during the whole Championship, Dinamo had on 20 April 2015 against Agram Extreme (6:8). A Champion of the Second Croatian Futsal Division North was decided in the game against a direct competitor MNK Rugvica in Small Hall of Dom Sportova. Dinamo won that match 4:0 and secured its first title in the history.
Dinamo opened the qualification group to enter the first Division with two great victories, against Crnica from Šibenik (7:2) and Aurelia from Vinkovci (5:0). After that Dinamo defeated Potpićan in Labin in a tight match (3:2), and ensured its leap to First Division with victories over Crnica (5:1), and Aurelia (3:2). The end of the great season, in which Dinamo clinched Second Division North, Regional Cup and mini-league of regional champions, was celebrated in a home match against Potpićan. The game ended 4:2 for Dinamo.
Croatian futsal Cup
Dinamo started the Cup competition in 1/8 finals of the Regional Cup. The first match was an away game against the first league squad Novi Marof. Dinamo won 7:2, and during that game, GNK Dinamo's legend, Tomislav Šokota, scored a hat-trick. In ¼ finals, Dinamo defeated Kozakiv (3:1), and in semi-finals Rugvica with 8:2. On that game Šokota scored another hat-trick. In the regional cup finals Dinamo played against the previous year Croatian champion, Alumnus. In completely filled Dražen Petrović Arena, Dinamo won a dramatic match after turning the result in the last two minutes of the match. With that victory, Dinamo clinched its first trophy in history, and secured qualification to the National Cup. In 1/8 finals of National Cup, Dinamo lost against reigning Croatian champion and reigning winner of Croatian Cup, Nacional.
Competition season 2015/16, 1.HMNL
Dinamo had its debut in the First Croatian Futsal Division on 18 September 2015 in Dom Sportova, when they defeated Potpićan with 9:0. After that Dinamo won all home matches in the first half of the season. They defeated Murter with 6:1, Solin with 7:1, Square Dubrovnik with 4:1, Novo Vrijeme Makarska with 2:0, and Alumnus Zagreb with 4:3. In six home matches, Dinamo had six victories with goal difference 32:6.
On the other hand, in five away matches during half-season, Dinamo had only one draw (against Uspinjača 1:1), and five defeats (Osijek Kelme 3:2, Vrgorac 2:1, Nacional 4:0 and Split Tommy 7:1). Futsal Dinamo finished the half season in a third place with 14 points behind the leading team Nacional. Dinamo's top scorer in the half-season was Davor Kanjuh with eight goals.
In the second half of the season Futsal Dinamo defeated Potpićan (7:1), Osijek Kelme (4:2), Murter (7:3), Vrgorac (4:2), Solin (5:3), Uspinjača (3:2), Novo Vrijeme (7:1) and Alumnus (6:2). They lost against Nacional (0:3), Square (4:8) and Split Tommy (2:4). Futsal Dinamo finished third in the regular part of the season and secured his place in play-offs against Split Tommy. Dinamo's top scorer in the regular season was Kanjuh with 17 goals.
Croatian futsal Cup
Jus like season before, Dinamo started his Cup competition in Regional Cup North. In the ¼ finals Dinamo defeated last year's finalist Alumnus with 3:1. In semi-finals Dinamo defeated Novi Marof in away game with 4:1 and in finals Rugvica with 5:2. That was Dinamo's fourth trophy in history and the Club advanced to the national Cup competition.
In 1/8 finals of Croatian Cup Futsal Dinamo played against Square from Dubrovnik. Dinamo won in Zagreb (4:0), and lost in Dubrovnik (1:2) and secured its place in the final eight tournament. On the final tournament, Futsal Dinamo lost in quarter-finals against champions Split Tommy (4:6).
In the playoffs Futsal Dinamo lost against Split Tommy. The first match ended 6:7, and second 1:2.
Competition season 2016/17, 1.HMNL
During the summer break, Futsal Dinamo signed two national Croatian futsal team selection players Vedran Matošević and Kristijan Grbeša and one England national futsal team player Douglas Reed. Before the beginning of the season, Futsal Dinamo played on a strong international tournament in Switzerland on which Dinamo defeated strong Czech club Era-Pack Chrudim and lost in finals (0:1) against Benfica.
Futsal Dinamo opened the season with 1:1 draw against Novo Vrijeme from Makarska at home ground. After that, Dinamo secured six consecutive victories, against Alumnus 8:4, Solin (5:2), Uspinjača (3:2), Square from Dubrovnik 7:6, Vrgorac (2:1) and Osijek (3:2). After that Dinamo lost two home matches against Split Tommy (2:3) and Nacional (2:4), and won on away matches in Slavonski Brod against Brod 035 (6:3), and Labin against Potpićan 98 Istra (4:1). Dinamo finished the first part of the season in third place with four points behind the leading Nacional. The best scorer of Futsal Dinamo in half-season was Grbeša with 11 goals.
Croatian futsal Cup
The third year in the row, Futsal Dinamo started its Cup competition from Regional Cup. In quarter finals, Dinamo defeated Novi Marof with 10:0, and in semi-finals Alumnus with 6:2. The second year in the row Dinamo played its finals game in Karlovac and secured the third consecutive title by defeating MNK Jesenje from Zagorje. Futsal Dinamo secured its place in the National Cup.
Competition season 2017/18, 1.HMNL
Third season for Futsal Dinamo in Croatian first futsal division saw the club take the lead on the table for the first time in history. Summer transfer window was very busy in Futsal Dinamo as Doug Reed, Antonia Franja, Sadat Ziberi and Matej Horvat left the club, while Hrvoje Penava and Kristijan Grbeša were sent on loan for the first part of the season. Recruitments came from the club's academy with hot prospects joining first team: Vito Gagulić, Ivan Šulentić, Danijel Dekanić and Tomislav Hercigonja. Matija Rajh was the only player to join the club outside the academy prospects.
Futsal Dinamo recorded a loss in the season opener at home versus Split Tommy (2:4). However, Futsal Dinamo afterwards won ten straight matches against every other opponent in the division, recording also its first victory against city rivals Nacional. Historic first place in the division came after Week 9 and win against MNK Uspinjača. Futsal Dinamo held the position until the winter break and was crowned fall champion for the first time in its history.
Spring season opener was another match versus Split Tommy, where Futsal Dinamo probably played its worst game of the season, losing 6:2 without proper contest and losing the top spot. However, after another series of wins, which included another derby win against Nacional, Futsal Dinamo found itself again on the top of the first division table. Club managed to stay at the top until a 4:4 draw in a thriller match versus MNK Square Dubrovnik away. That draw saw Futsal Dinamo giving the top spot to Split Tommy. At the end of the regular season, Futsal Dinamo finished second with record of 18 wins, 2 draws and 2 losses.
Second place in the regular season was Futsal Dinamo best result in its history and saw them „skipping“ quarter-final in championship playoffs. In semi-finals, Futsal Dinamo played the best-out-of-three against Novo Vrijeme Makarska. In first match in front of home crowd in Zagreb, Futsal Dinamo won 3:1 with Penava, Prgomet and Kanjuh scoring one goal each. However, spectators on second match of the series in Makarska witnessed one of the worst performances of Futsal Dinamo this season after 4:0 defeat. Third and final match of the series was a proper thriller where Futsal Dinamo was losing two times and two times managed to come back. Matija Capar scored the equalizing goal for 2:2 just 20 seconds before full-time and took the game to overtime. Despite many chances in overtime, neither team scored a goal and match went to penalties. After five series of penalty kicks, Novo Vrijeme Makarska clinched a spot in the finals and left Futsal Dinamo to end its season in semi-finals once again.
In regard to the club’s top scorer list that season, Kristijan Grbeša scored most goals (22), followed by Davor Kanjuh (21), Vedran Matošević (20), Mihovil Prgomet (19) and Kristian Čekol (13).
Croatian futsal cup
After securing better coefficient in the cup system after years of playing in preliminary Regional cup, Futsal Dinamo was awarded direct participation in National cup. In first and second round, Futsal Dinamo secured wins against MNK Murter (3:5) and MNK Alumnus (9:1) and reserved its spot in the final-four series in Našice, together with MNK Vrgorac, Split Tommy and hosts MNK Našice. Opponent in the semi-final was MNK Vrgorac who showed that they are no pushovers as they cruised to 5:1 victory eliminating Futsal Dinamo from the Cup.
Scorers and tragedies
Unfortunately, 2017/2018 season will be known as the darkest period in the short history of the club due to the two terrible tragedies that struck the ‘Blue family’. At the end of December 2017, one of the club's founders and its first coach Mate Čuljak suddenly died after collapsing during the friendly tournament. At the end of the season, five days after the last match of the season against Novo Vrijeme (2:2), Matija Capar, player and Futsal Dinamo's futsal Academy director, as well as young Academy cadet Oskar Kadrnka died in an automobile accident upon returning from cadets’ tournament in Šibenik on which U15 selection of the club won a bronze medal ..
Competition season 2018/19, 1.HMNL
Futsal Dinamo had its season premiere on the fifth traditional Šalata event and has hosted famous Greek club Panathinaikos. Due to the good relations between Bad Blue Boys and Gate 13, many Greek fans were present on the stands of Šalata. Dinamo won the match 5:4 and fans created yet another spectacular atmosphere. However, Dinamo did not enter 2018/2019 campaign in a good way. In first three weeks, Dinamo had two surprising draws against Brod (3:3) and Crnica (2:2), while Dinamo lost in an away match against Novo Vrijeme (1:4). However, Blues managed to consolidate and after a series of victories jumped to the upper part of the league table. One match before the end of the regular part of the season Dinamo was second. However, in the last match in Dom Sportova Hall, Dinamo played a 3:3 draw against AFC Universitas, conceding a goal in the last second and thus falling to fourth place in the division.
In Playoffs, Dinamo played against its city rival Uspinjača Gimka. In first match of the series, Uspinjača Gimka won 2:1 despite having 72 shots directed towards their goal. In second match, Dinamo won and equalized the series to 1-1. In the dramatic third and deciding match in Dom Sportova Hall, Dinamo won 5:4 thanks to Davor Kanjuh’s goal 15 seconds before full time and managed to clinch league’s semi-final where they would meet Novo Vrijeme. Novo Vrijeme was better opponent in two matches against Dinamo and they stopped Dinamo for the second time in row in the Playoff semi-finals.
Croatian futsal cup
Futsal Dinamo was not obligated to play Regional cup this year as well, but it did not manage to overcome the first obstacle in the National cup. Despite having a 3:1 lead at the half-time in an away match against Uspinjača Gimka in Sutinska vrela Sports Hall, Uspinjača managed to clinch the 5:4 victory in the end..
Competition season 2019/20, 1.HMNL
Futsal Dinamo started the season with traditional match on Šalata. This year's guest was Italian club Milano Calcio A5, and Dinamo won 2:0. The season didn't started well for the club. Dinamo lost first two rounds (against Novo Vrijeme and Square) and draw in third against Alumnus. The first victory of the season Dinamo achieved in the fourth round defeating Crnica 4:0 in Kutija šibica. The first round of the season Dinamo ended on the 5th place with only three victories. But, in the second part of the season, Dinamo was the only Croatian club without a loss defeating the league leader Olmissum in an away match (2:1) just before the competition was suspended due to coronavirus outbreak.
After the "COVID 19 break" the season continued in the mid-June 2020. Dinamo secured victories in the last three matches of the regular season (Universitas, Split and Uspinjača Gimka), and finished third before the playoffs. In the quarterfinals, Dinamo defeated their city-rivals Uspinjača Gimka after another thrilling match (4:2 in overtime) and lost to the later champion Olmissum in Omiš (0:1)..
The club's top season goalscorer was Kristian Čekol with 16 goals, and he has also been voted the best player of the season by profession and supporters. The assist-leader of the season was Davor Kanjuh with 15 assists.
Croatian futsal cup
Futsal Dinamo defeated Brod 035 (from second tier) in the first round of the Croatian cup, and lost in the quarter finals in the match against Olmissum in Omiš (2:3).
Season by season record
GP - games played; W - games won; D - games drawn; L - games lost; GD - goal-differential; Pts - points won; Pos - final position/playoff result (stage of elimination)
Records
Biggest win: Futsal Dinamo - Siscia 11-1 (2012–13, league)
Biggest defeat: Uspinjača - Futsal Dinamo 8-1 (2012–13, league)
Colors and coat of arms
Colors
The color of MNK Futsal Dinamo is blue, which is also the color of GNK Dinamo. The away set consists of a white T-shirt, dark blue shorts and white socks. The third set has a dark blue T-shirt with dark blue shorts and white socks.
Club Crest
Futsal Dinamo's crest is shaped as a shield with a crown on the top. The shield represents the desire of the club to "defend, preserve and promote the fundamental values of sport". The dominant color in the shield is blue which reflects the official color of the club. In the middle of the shield there is a stylized white letter "d". The crown upon the shield is also white. Inside the crown there is a blue sign "FUTSAL DINAMO".
This crest is inspired by GNK Dinamo's official crest from 1950 to 1969. During that period Dinamo clinched two former Yugoslavia league titles and the only Croatian won European title, Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1967.
Sports Hall
Futsal Dinamo does not have a permanent home. Club plays its home matches at various sports halls in Zagreb City. Dinamo played most of the matches in Dom Sportova sports hall, but it also played at Dražen Petrović Basketball Hall, Sutinska Vrela, Martinovka, SD Trešnjevka, sports hall in Dubrava and two times in Karlovac.
The organization of the club
The club is owned by its members who elect their leadership in democratic elections. Therefore, each member is also the "owner" of the club. All club members with voting rights are entitled to participate in the Assembly of the club. The members under 18 years of age can participate in the functioning of the Assembly, but have no voting rights. Any physical person can become a member of the club if they pay the membership fee and register in the Members registry which allows them all membership rights and obligations. The club bodies are: the Assembly, the Presidency, the Supervisory Board and Disciplinary Commission. The club Assembly is the highest governing body of the club, composed of work-capable club members. Regular session of the Assembly is organized at least once a year, while the Electoral Assembly is held once in four years. The Presidency is the executive body of the club. It performs all functions prescribed by the Statute such as managing sports and other policies of the club, representing the club, asset management, naming the sports director of the club and others. The President is elected by the members of the Electoral Assembly for a mandate of four years. Any member of the Presidency has to be proposed to the Assembly by the club president and the Presidency is obligated to submit a yearly report to the Assembly. The Supervisory Board of the Club monitors and oversees the work of the club bodies constituted by the statute. The Supervisory Board members are elected by the Assembly. A candidate must be nominated by at least 20 voting members and he or she must agree with their nomination. The mandate of Supervisory Board members lasts four years.
The Disciplinary Committee is a club body which monitors the responsibilities of the members of the club. Club members are disciplinary liable for any violation of their membership duties. They can receive a warning or be expelled from the club. The Disciplinary Committee consists of three members for a term of four years. The members of Disciplinary committee are appointed and dismissed by the Assembly.
The first electoral assembly of the Club was held on 11 July 2015. By unanimous decision, the Assembly elected Matija Đulvat as the club's president, Juraj Čošić as the club's vice-president. The club's secretary-general is Kristijan Tudja. Juraj Fabijanić, Nikola Majpruz and Domagoj Purgar were elected in the Supervisory bord as members.
Membership in the Club
The annual membership fee is 80 kunas (around 10.5 €). By becoming a member each person receives an appropriate gift. The sum of 80kn for the fee was decided upon the first club referendum. Currently, the club has more than one thousand members.
In the first year (2014) Dinamo had 1608 members, in the second (2015) 1325, in the third (2016) 1603 and in the fourth (2017) 1554 members. In the current year (2018) Dinamo has broken the record of annual memberships and currently has more than 2000 members.
The vision of the club
The idea for this project is that Futsal Dinamo becomes one day an official part of the GNK Dinamo sports community, like citizens associations from Spain (FC Barcelona) and Portugal (S.L. Benfica, Sporting CP) are. The objective is to continue with the affirmation of the fan owned club model and to promote futsal and sports in general.
Futsal Dinamo Futsal Academy
Apart from first team, Futsal Dinamo also has U21, U19, U17, U15, U13, U11, U9, U7 and U5 squads. More than 110 children are currently training at Dinamo’s Futsal Academy, coached by eight professional coaches at four different locations in Zagreb (SD Megaton, SD Fair Play, SD Martinovka and SD Dom Sportova). Most prominent success of the Futsal Academy is the appearance at the Croatian national finals for U21 selection and U13 bronze medal on Club World Cup in Barcelona in 2017.
Head of Dinamo’s Futsal Academy is Petra Mandić.
e-Futsal Dinamo
E-sports team
On the first Members’ Tournament in EA Sport’s FIFA 2020 video game, held on October 6th 2019, Futsal Dinamo founded its e-sports team. Players who are training at the club are playing various FIFA tournaments under Futsal Dinamo crest. The goal of e-sports team is to motivate young people to do sports and be good students while playing video games in their free time.
Premiere match of Dinamo’s e-sport team was on eDinamo Cup, organized by GNK Dinamo, while Andrija Vrcan at the Supernova Garden Mall Tournament seized first trophy for the club in e-sports category.
One of the first team goalkeepers Tomislav Hercigonja is a member of e-sports team, as well as Filip Novak, club’s junior and current Vice-Champion of Croatia in FIFA. Another club’s junior Andrija Vrcan and Tomislav Špiljar, former junior and club’s trustee are also member of the e-sports selection.
During the coronavirus pandemic, Futsal Dinamo started organizing Dinamo's online tournaments and played the first ever e-sports match between two sports-clubs. In the e-sports match against Uspinjača Gimka, Dinamo won with 2-1-1.
Current squad 2019/20
Number 6 is retired and symbolizes every member who represents the sixth player on the field.
Number 2 is retired in the memory of the tragically deceased Matija Capar (20.10.1984.-04.06.2018.)
Number 18 is retired in the memory of the tragically deceased Oskar Kadrnka (22.03.2003.-04.06.2018.)
Club honours
National competitions
Second Croatian Futsal Division: 1
2014–15
Play-offs for First Croatian Futsal Division: 1
2014–15
Regional competitions
Croatian Regional Cup North: 1
2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17
Humanitarian character
The club has supported the organization "Palčić Gore" (Thumb Up) which provides assistance to the premature born and ill children. The funds to support this organization were collected at the most visited match of the club against Patriot (5.500 people in Dražen Petrović Arena, 1 December 2014) through various items sale. During the winter break the club organized a charity match against the stars of Scandinavian futsal who played under the name "Nordic Stars". The overall profit realized from the sale of the tickets was donated to the association "St. Vinko Paulski" from Vukovar which takes care of citizens with lower income and parents with more children.
Since then, Futsal Dinamo organizes the charitable event as a part of the league match during the Feast of Saint Nicholas. On December 7th 2019 Futsal Dinamo organized the biggest charitable event since then at the derby against Split played in Basketball sports hall Dražen Petrović. Futsal Dinamo invited five charitable organizations (Palčići, Jedni za druge, Judo club for people with disabilities Fuji, Down Syndrom centar Pula, Saint Vinko Paulski Vukovar), included them in the sports match and blue Saint Nicholas gave their members meaningful gifts. Futsal Dinamo also donated part of the income of ticket sales to the charitable organizations.
Players, management and the fans of the club are in "Kolona Sjećanja" (Memorial Walk) every year on the anniversary of Vukovar's fall in Croatian War for Independence (18 November). They also pay tribute to victims by visiting the Memorial Cemetery, Ovčara and Vukovar hospital. On those days Futsal Dinamo plays a friendly match against Aurelia, futsal club from neighbouring Vinkovci.
In March 2015 Futsal Dinamo took part in the humanitarian indoor futsal spectacle in Kutina, organized with the purpose of raising funds for the family of Veljko Marić, veteran of Croatian War for Independence. Dinamo clinched tournament defeating Kutina in the finals with 6:5 and raised 10 000 kn (around 1.500 €) to donate the Marić family.
Exactly one year after the official presentation on Šalata, Dinamo presented the team for the new season at the same place. For that occasion, the club organized a competition among the members to design the shirts whose sales revenue was donated to the association "For each other", that deals with addiction prevention, social and psychological rehabilitation and re-socialization of former drug addicts and people with disabilities.
The club appeals to its members to engage in voluntary work in the club and promotes more involvement in communities so the club can be as successful as possible.
References
External links
Futsal Dinamo
Croatian Football Federation
Bad Blue Boys
Futsal clubs in Croatia
Futsal clubs established in 2012
Sports teams in Zagreb
2012 establishments in Croatia
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The 2019–20 Milwaukee Bucks season was the 52nd season of the franchise in the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Bucks entered the season following a playoff defeat in six games from the Toronto Raptors in the Eastern Conference Finals. The Bucks had the best team defensive rating in the NBA.
On February 23, 2020, the Bucks became the first team to clinch a playoff berth after the Chicago Bulls defeated the Washington Wizards. The season was suspended by the league officials following the games of March 11 after it was reported that Rudy Gobert tested positive for COVID-19. The Bucks returned to play on July 31 against the Boston Celtics at the ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex in Orlando, Florida.
When the format of the 2020 NBA Bubble announced, Bucks won the Central Division on June 4 and tied Detroit Pistons' record of 9 Central Division titles. After a 23-point comeback win over the Miami Heat, the Bucks clinched the top seed in the Eastern Conference for the second consecutive season as well as the best NBA record overall for the shortened season at 56–17, or roughly 63–19 in a full season. The Bucks faced the Orlando Magic in the First Found. In a significant development following the shooting of Jacob Blake in Kenosha, Wisconsin, the Bucks led a strike in solidarity with the Black Lives Matter movement, refusing to play Game 5 of their series against the Magic on August 26. On September 8, the Milwaukee Bucks season came to an end when the 5th seeded Miami Heat eliminated them in a five-game upset in the Conference Semifinals. This season was also Kyle Korver's last in the NBA as he spent the entire 2020-21 season as a free agent and subsequently retired on August 12, 2021 for family reasons. The 51st pick in the 2003 draft, Korver's retirement left LeBron James, Carmelo Anthony, and Udonis Haslem as the only remaining active players from the early 2000s.
Draft picks
The Bucks only held a first-round pick. That pick would then be traded to the Detroit Pistons, which would again be transferred to the Cleveland Cavaliers.
Roster
Standings
Division
Conference
Game log
Preseason
The preseason schedule was announced on July 23, 2019.
|- style="background:#cfc"
| 1
| October 7
| @ Chicago
|
| Mason III, Lopez (14)
| Thanasis Antetokounmpo (10)
| Frank Mason (6)
| United Center17,036
| 1–0
|- style="background:#cfc"
| 2
| October 9
| Utah
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (22)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Frank Mason (6)
| Fiserv Forum13,915
| 2–0
|- style="background:#cfc"
| 3
| October 11
| @ Dallas
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (34)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Antetokounmpo, Middleton, Hill (4)
| American Airlines Center17,082
| 3–0
|- style="background:#cfc"
| 4
| October 13
| @ Washington
|
| Khris Middleton (22)
| Khris Middleton (9)
| Middleton, Mason III, Matthews (4)
| Capital One Arena10,216
| 4–0
|- style="background:#cfc"
| 5
| October 17
| Minnesota
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (26)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Khris Middleton (7)
| Fiserv Forum16,148
| 5–0
Regular season
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1
| October 24
| @ Houston
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (30)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (13)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Toyota Center18,055
| 1–0
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 2
| October 26
| Miami
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (29)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (17)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| Fiserv Forum17,467
| 1–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 3
| October 28
| Cleveland
|
| Khris Middleton (21)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (10)
| Eric Bledsoe (8)
| Fiserv Forum17,385
| 2–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 4
| October 30
| @ Boston
|
| Khris Middleton (26)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Antetokounmpo, Bledsoe (5)
| TD Garden18,624
| 2–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 5
| November 1
| @ Orlando
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (29)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Antetokounmpo, Bledsoe (6)
| Amway Center15,105
| 3–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 6
| November 2
| Toronto
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (36)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (15)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (8)
| Fiserv Forum17,637
| 4–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 7
| November 4
| @ Minnesota
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (34)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (15)
| Antetokounmpo, Bledsoe (6)
| Target Center16,271
| 5–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 8
| November 6
| @ L. A. Clippers
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (38)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (16)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| Staples Center19,068
| 6–2
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 9
| November 8
| @ Utah
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (30)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (13)
| Eric Bledsoe (5)
| Vivint Smart Home Arena18,306
| 6–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 10
| November 10
| @ Oklahoma City
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (35)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (16)
| Eric Bledsoe (9)
| Chesapeake Energy Arena18,203
| 7–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 11
| November 14
| Chicago
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (38)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (16)
| Eric Bledsoe (8)
| Fiserv Forum17,627
| 8–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 12
| November 16
| @ Indiana
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (26)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (13)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse17,024
| 9–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 13
| November 18
| @ Chicago
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (33)
| Lopez, Antetokounmpo (10)
| Sterling Brown (6)
| United Center17,565
| 10–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 14
| November 20
| @ Atlanta
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (33)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Eric Bledsoe (5)
| State Farm Arena16,441
| 11–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 15
| November 21
| Portland
|
| Eric Bledsoe (30)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (19)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (15)
| Fiserv Forum17,385
| 12–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 16
| November 23
| Detroit
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (28)
| Antetokounmpo, Brown (10)
| Eric Bledsoe (5)
| Fiserv Forum17,585
| 13–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 17
| November 25
| Utah
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (50)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (6)
| Fiserv Forum17,385
| 14–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 18
| November 27
| Atlanta
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (30)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (10)
| Eric Bledsoe (10)
| Fiserv Forum17,525
| 15–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 19
| November 29
| @ Cleveland
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (33)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (12)
| Middleton, Bledsoe (5)
| Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse19,432
| 16–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 20
| November 30
| Charlotte
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (26)
| Pat Connaughton (10)
| Eric Bledsoe (10)
| Fiserv Forum17,550
| 17–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 21
| December 2
| New York
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (29)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (15)
| Kyle Korver (5)
| Fiserv Forum17,385
| 18–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 22
| December 4
| @ Detroit
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (35)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| Eric Bledsoe (6)
| Little Caesars Arena15,742
| 19–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 23
| December 6
| L. A. Clippers
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (27)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Middleton, Bledsoe (5)
| Fiserv Forum17,732
| 20–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 24
| December 9
| Orlando
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (32)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (15)
| Antetokounmpo, Bledsoe (8)
| Fiserv Forum17,385
| 21–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 25
| December 11
| New Orleans
|
| Eric Bledsoe (29)
| Ersan İlyasova (9)
| Eric Bledsoe (6)
| Fiserv Forum17,385
| 22–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 26
| December 13
| @ Memphis
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (37)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| George Hill (5)
| FedExForum16,109
| 23–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 27
| December 14
| Cleveland
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (29)
| Robin Lopez (6)
| Khris Middleton (6)
| Fiserv Forum17,481
| 24–3
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 28
| December 16
| Dallas
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (48)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Donte DiVincenzo (9)
| Fiserv Forum17,727
| 24–4
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 29
| December 19
| L. A. Lakers
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (34)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (7)
| Fiserv Forum18,051
| 25–4
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 30
| December 21
| @ New York
|
| Khris Middleton (23)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (10)
| Madison Square Garden18,129
| 26–4
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 31
| December 22
| Indiana
|
| Wesley Matthews (19)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (19)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| Fiserv Forum18,029
| 27–4
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 32
| December 25
| @ Philadelphia
|
| Khris Middleton (31)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (7)
| Wells Fargo Center21,028
| 27–5
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 33
| December 27
| @ Atlanta
|
| Khris Middleton (23)
| Ersan İlyasova (17)
| Khris Middleton (7)
| State Farm Arena17,358
| 28–5
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 34
| December 28
| Orlando
|
| Khris Middleton (21)
| Ersan İlyasova (14)
| Khris Middleton (7)
| Fiserv Forum17,920
| 29–5
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 35
| December 30
| @ Chicago
|
| Khris Middleton (25)
| Ersan İlyasova (11)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (6)
| United Center21,954
| 30–5
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 36
| January 1
| Minnesota
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (32)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (17)
| Antetokounmpo, Middleton (4)
| Fiserv Forum17,819
| 31–5
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 37
| January 4
| San Antonio
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (32)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (8)
| Korver, Bledsoe (6)
| Fiserv Forum18,002
| 32–5
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 38
| January 6
| @ San Antonio
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (24)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (12)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (8)
| AT&T Center18,354
| 32–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 39
| January 8
| @ Golden State
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (30)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (12)
| Khris Middleton (6)
| Chase Center18,064
| 33–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 40
| January 10
| @ Sacramento
|
| Khris Middleton (27)
| Sterling Brown (12)
| George Hill (6)
| Golden 1 Center17,583
| 34–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 41
| January 11
| @ Portland
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (32)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (17)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (6)
| Moda Center19,843
| 35–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 42
| January 14
| New York
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (37)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| Antetokounmpo, DiVincenzo (4)
| Fiserv Forum17,590
| 36–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 43
| January 16
| Boston
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (32)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (17)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (7)
| Fiserv Forum17,873
| 37–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 44
| January 18
| @ Brooklyn
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (29)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (12)
| Eric Bledsoe (5)
| Barclays Center17,732
| 38–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 45
| January 20
| Chicago
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (28)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (10)
| Fiserv Forum17,747
| 39–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 46
| January 24
| @ Charlotte
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (30)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (16)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (6)
| AccorHotels Arena15,758
| 40–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 47
| January 28
| Washington
|
| Khris Middleton (51)
| Khris Middleton (10)
| Eric Bledsoe (10)
| Fiserv Forum17,681
| 41–6
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 48
| January 31
| Denver
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (31)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (16)
| Antetokounmpo, Middleton (9)
| Fiserv Forum18,141
| 41–7
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 49
| February 2
| Phoenix
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (30)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (19)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| Fiserv Forum17,754
| 42–7
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 50
| February 4
| @ New Orleans
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (34)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (17)
| Khris Middleton (8)
| Smoothie King Center15,424
| 43–7
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 51
| February 6
| Philadelphia
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (36)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (20)
| Antetokounmpo, Bledsoe (6)
| Fiserv Forum17,928
| 44–7
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 52
| February 8
| @ Orlando
|
| Brook Lopez (23)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (18)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| Amway Center16,632
| 45–7
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 53
| February 10
| Sacramento
|
| Bledsoe, Middleton (28)
| Khris Middleton (11)
| Bledsoe, Middleton (8)
| Fiserv Forum17,463
| 46–7
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 54
| February 12
| @ Indiana
|
| Donte DiVincenzo (19)
| Brown, DiVincenzo (8)
| Khris Middleton (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse17,018
| 46–8
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 55
| February 20
| @ Detroit
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (33)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (16)
| Eric Bledsoe (6)
| Little Caesars Arena16,097
| 47–8
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 56
| February 22
| Philadelphia
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (31)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (17)
| Antetokounmpo, Bledsoe (8)
| Fiserv Forum18,290
| 48–8
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 57
| February 24
| @ Washington
|
| Khris Middleton (40)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Eric Bledsoe (10)
| Capital One Arena16,580
| 49–8
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 58
| February 25
| @ Toronto
|
| Khris Middleton (22)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (19)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (8)
| Scotiabank Arena19,993
| 50–8
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 59
| February 28
| Oklahoma City
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (32)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (13)
| Antetokounmpo, Hill (6)
| Fiserv Forum18,412
| 51–8
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 60
| March 1
| @ Charlotte
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (41)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (20)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (6)
| Spectrum Center19,149
| 52–8
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 61
| March 2
| @ Miami
|
| Brook Lopez (21)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (15)
| Eric Bledsoe (4)
| American Airlines Arena19,600
| 52–9
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 62
| March 4
| Indiana
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (29)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (12)
| Eric Bledsoe (7)
| Fiserv Forum17,695
| 53–9
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 63
| March 6
| @ L. A. Lakers
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (32)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (6)
| Staples Center18,997
| 53–10
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 64
| March 8
| @ Phoenix
|
| Khris Middleton (39)
| DiVincenzo, İlyasova (7)
| Eric Bledsoe (7)
| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,282
| 53–11
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 65
| March 9
| @ Denver
|
| Kyle Korver (23)
| D. J. Wilson (9)
| Frank Mason III (5)
| Pepsi Center19,838
| 53–12
|- style="background:#ccc;"
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 66
| July 31
| Boston
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (36)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (15)
| Khris Middleton (8)
| HP Field HouseNo In-Person Attendance
| 54–12
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 67
| August 2
| @ Houston
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (36)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (18)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (8)
| AdventHealth ArenaNo In-Person Attendance
| 54–13
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 68
| August 4
| Brooklyn
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (16)
| Ersan İlyasova (10)
| Donte DiVincenzo (6)
| Visa Athletic CenterNo In-Person Attendance
| 54–14
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 69
| August 6
| Miami
|
| Antetokounmpo, Middleton (30)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (12)
| Khris Middleton (8)
| AdventHealth ArenaNo In-Person Attendance
| 55–14
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 70
| August 8
| @ Dallas
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (34)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (13)
| Khris Middleton (11)
| AdventHealth ArenaNo In-Person Attendance
| 55–15
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 71
| August 10
| Toronto
|
| Kyle Korver (19)
| Donte DiVincenzo (9)
| Eric Bledsoe (8)
| HP Field HouseNo In-Person Attendance
| 55–16
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 72
| August 11
| @ Washington
|
| Brook Lopez (24)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| Hill, Mason III (6)
| Visa Athletic CenterNo In-Person Attendance
| 56–16
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 73
| August 13
| @ Memphis
|
| Brook Lopez (19)
| Brook Lopez (9)
| Frank Mason III (8)
| Visa Athletic CenterNo In-Person Attendance
| 56–17
|- style="background:#;"
| 66
| March 12
| Boston
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 67
| March 14
| Golden State
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 68
| March 16
| Miami
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 69
| March 19
| Memphis
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 70
| March 21
| @ Washington
|
|
|
|
| Capital One Arena
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 71
| March 23
| Detroit
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 72
| March 25
| Houston
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 73
| March 27
| Washington
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 74
| March 29
| Dallas
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 75
| April 1
| Toronto
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 76
| April 3
| @ Toronto
|
|
|
|
| Scotiabank Arena
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 77
| April 5
| @ Boston
|
|
|
|
| TD Garden
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 78
| April 7
| @ Philadelphia
|
|
|
|
| Wells Fargo Center
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 79
| April 9
| Brooklyn
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 80
| April 11
| @ Cleveland
|
|
|
|
| Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 81
| April 12
| Atlanta
|
|
|
|
| Fiserv Forum
|
|- style="background:#;"
| 82
| April 15
| @ Brooklyn
|
|
|
|
| Barclays Center
|
Playoffs
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 1
| August 18
| Orlando
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (31)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (17)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (7)
| HP Field HouseNo in-person attendance
| 0–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 2
| August 20
| Orlando
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (28)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (20)
| Eric Bledsoe (7)
| HP Field HouseNo in-person attendance
| 1–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 3
| August 22
| @ Orlando
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (35)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (11)
| Eric Bledsoe (8)
| HP Field HouseNo in-person attendance
| 2–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 4
| August 24
| @ Orlando
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (31)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (15)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (8)
| HP Field HouseNo in-person attendance
| 3–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 5
| August 29
| Orlando
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (28)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (17)
| Eric Bledsoe (8)
| AdventHealth ArenaNo in-person attendance
| 4–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 1
| August 31
| Miami
|
| Khris Middleton (28)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (10)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| HP Field HouseNo in-person attendance
| 0–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 2
| September 2
| Miami
|
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (29)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (14)
| Khris Middleton (8)
| HP Field HouseNo in-person attendance
| 0–2
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 3
| September 4
| @ Miami
|
| Brook Lopez (22)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (16)
| Giannis Antetokounmpo (9)
| HP Field HouseNo in-person attendance
| 0–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 4
| September 6
| @ Miami
|
| Khris Middleton (36)
| Eric Bledsoe (10)
| Khris Middleton (8)
| AdventHealth ArenaNo in-person attendance
| 1–3
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 5
| September 8
| Miami
|
| Khris Middleton (23)
| Brook Lopez (14)
| Eric Bledsoe (9)
| HP Field HouseNo in-person attendance
| 1–4
Transactions
Overview
Trades
Free agency
Additions
Subtractions
References
Milwaukee Bucks seasons
Milwaukee Bucks
Milwaukee Bucks
Milwaukee Bucks
| 7,497 |
doc-en-8465_0
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The Aesop Prize and Aesop Accolades are conferred annually by the Children’s Folklore Section of the American Folklore Society upon English language books for children and young adults, both fiction and nonfiction.
About the Prize
The Prize and the Accolades are for books published in the previous two years. Winners are announced at the annual meeting of the American Folklore Society each October. The Prize was first awarded in 1992. The Accolades were first awarded in 1993.
Prize Review Criteria
Folklore should be central to the book’s content and, if appropriate, to its illustrations.
The folklore presented in the book should accurately reflect the culture and worldview of the people whose folklore is the focus of the book.
The reader’s understanding of folklore should be enhanced by the book, as should the book be enhanced by the presence of folklore.
The book should reflect the high artistic standards of the best of children’s literature and have strong appeal to the child reader.
Folklore sources must be fully acknowledged and annotations referenced within the bound contents of the publication.
Recipients of the Prize and Accolades
2020 Aesop Prize
The Fabled Life of Aesop, by Ian Lendler. Illustrated by Pamela Zagarenski (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2020)
2020 Aesop Accolades
Under the Cottonwood Tree: El Susto de la Curandera, by Paul and Carlos Meyer. Art by Margaret Hardy (Los Angeles: North Fourth Publications, 2019)
Lola: A Ghost Story, by J. Torres. Illustrated by Elbert Or (Portland: Oni Press Publication, 2020)
The Moose of Ewenki, by Gerelchimeg Blackcrane. Illustrated by Jiu Er. Translated by Helen Mixter (Vancouver: Greystone Kids, 2020)
A World of Spooky Stories: 50 Tales to Make your Spine Tingle, by Angela McAllister. Illustrated by Madalina Andronic (London: Frances Lincoln Children's Books, 2019)
2019 Aesop Prizes
Peg Bearskin, as told by Mrs. Elizabeth Brewer. Adapted by Philip Dinn and Andy Jones. Illustrated by Denise Gallagher (Newfoundland: Running the Goat Books & Broadsides Inc., 2019)
Raisins and Almonds: A Yiddish Lullaby, by Susan Tarcov. Illustrated by Sonia Sánchez (Minneapolis: Kar-Ben Publishing, 2019)
2019 Aesop Accolades
Honu and Moa, by Edna Cabcabin Moran (Kane'ohe: BeachHouse Publishing, 2018)
Takaanaaluk, by Herve Paniaq. Illustrated by Germaine Arnaktauyok (Iqaluit: Inhabit Media Inc., 2018)
Riding a Donkey Backwards: Wise and Foolish Tales of Mulla Nasruddin, retold by Sean Taylor and the Khayaal Theatre. Illustrated by Shirin Adl (Somerville: Candlewick Press, 2018)
2018 Aesop Prize
The Dragon Slayer: Folktales from Latin America, by Jaime Hernandez. Illustrated by F. Isabel Campoy (New York: Toon Books, 2017)
2018 Aesop Accolades
Spirited Away: Fairy Stories of Old Newfoundland, by Tom Dawe. Illustrated by Veselina Tomova (Newfoundland: Running the Goat Books & Broadsides Inc., 2017)
Muskrat and Skunk: A Lakota Drum Story, retold and illustrated by Donald F. Montileaux (Pierre: South Dakota Historical Society Press, 2017)
Norse Myths: Tales of Odin, Thor, and Loki, by Kevin Crossley-Holland. Illustrated by Jeffrey Alan Love (Somerville: Candlewick Studio, 2017)
Wordwings, by Sydelle Pearl (Toronto: Guernica Editions, 2017)
2017 Aesop Prize
Noodleheads See the Future, by Tedd Arnold, Martha Hamilton, and Mitch Weiss. Illustrated by Tedd Arnold (New York: Holiday House, 2017)
2017 Aesop Accolades
The Secret of the Kelpie, retold by Lari Don and Illustrated by Phillip Longson (Edinburgh: Floris Books, 2016)
The Wishing Foxes, by Margaret REad MacDonlad. Illustrated by Kitty Harvill with Jen Whitman and Nat Whitman (New Orleans: Plum Street Publishers, 2017)
Yokki and the Parno Gry. by Richard O'Neill and Catherine Quarmby. Illustrated by Miarieke Nelissen (Swindon: Child's Play, 2017)
2016 Aesop Prizes
Lowriders to the Center of the Earth, by Cathy Camper and Raúl the Third (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2016)
I Am Pan!, by Mordecai Gerstein (New York: Roaring Brook Press, 2016)
2016 Aesop Accolades
The Princess and the Warrior, by Duncan Tonatiuh (New York: Abrams, 2016)
The Storyteller, Evan Turk (New York: Atheneum Books for Young Readers, 2016)
2015 Aesop Prize
West of the Moon, by Margi Preus (New York: Amulet Books, 2014)
Percy Jackson's Greek Heroes, by Rick Riordan, illustr. by John Rocco (New York: Disney/Hyperion, 2015)
2015 Aesop Accolades
Tree Matters, by Gangu Bai, V. Geetha and Gita Wolf (Tara Books Private Limited, 2014)
My Grandfather’s Coat, by Jim Aylesworth and Barbara McClintock (Scholastic Press, 2014)
The Legend of the Beaver's Tail, by Stephanie Shaw (Ann Arbor: Sleeping Bear Press, 2015)
2014 Aesop Prize
Chinese Fables: “The Dragon Slayer” and Other Timeless Tales of Wisdom, by Shiho S. Nunes (Tokyo/Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 2013)
2014 Aesop Accolades
Never Say a Mean Word Again: A Tale from Medieval Spain, by Jacqueline Jules (Bloomington, Indiana: Wisdom Tales Press, 2014)
We Shall Overcome: The Story of a Song, by Debbie Levy (New York: Disney Jump At the Sun, 2013)
Tasunka: A Lakota Horse Legend, by Donald Montileaux (Pierre, SD: South Dakota State Historical Society Press)
Gobble you up!, by Gita Wolf (Berkeley, CA: Publishers Group West: Tara Books, 2013)
2013 Aesop Prize
Looks Like Daylight, by Deborah Ellis (Toronto: Groundwood Books, 2013)
2013 Aesop Accolades
Written in Stone, by Rosanne Parry (New York, New York, Random House, 2013)
Nasreddine, by Odile Weulersse, illustr. by Rebecca Dautremer (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Books for Young Readers, 2013)
Whiskers, Tails & Wings: Animal Folktales from Mexico, by Judy Goldman, illustr. by Fabricio VandenBroeck (Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge, 2013)
2012 Aesop Prize
Which Side Are You On?, by George Ella Lyon, illustr. by Christopher Cardinale (El Paso, TX: Cinco Puntos Press, 2011)
2012 Aesop Accolades
Mouse & Lion, by Rand Burkert, illustr. by Nancy Ekholm Burkert (New York: Michael di Capua/Scholastic, 2011)
The Matatu, by Eric Waters, illustr. by Eva Campbell (Victoria, BC: Orca 2012)
Walking on Earth & Touching the Sky: Poetry and Prose by Lakota Youth at Red Cloud Indian School, by Timothy P. McLaughlin, illustr. by S.D. Nelson (New York: Abrams, 2012)
2011 Aesop Prize
Trickster: Native American Tales, A Graphic Collection, ed. by Matt Dembicki (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Books, 2010)
2011 Aesop Accolades
Odetta: The Queen of Folk, by Stephen Alcorn and Samantha Thornhill (New York: Scholastic, 2010)
The Arabian Nights, by Wafa’ Tarnowska, illustr. by Carole Hénaff (Cambridge, MA: Barefoot Books, 2010)
It’s Not About the Rose!, by Veronika Martenova Charles, illustr. by David Parkins (Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Books, 2010)
It’s Not About the Crumbs!, by Veronika Martenova Charles, illustr. by David Parkins (Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Books, 2010)
It’s Not About the Pumpkin!, by Veronika Martenova Charles, illustr. by David Parkins (Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Books, 2010)
It’s Not About the Hunter!, by Veronika Martenova Charles, illustr. by David Parkins (Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Books, 2010)
It’s Not About the Apple!, by Veronika Martenova Charles, illustr. by David Parkins (Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Books, 2010)
2010 Aesop Prize
Joha Makes a Wish: A Middle Eastern Tale, adapted by Eric A. Kimmel, illustr. by Omar Rayyan (Marshall Cavendish Children, 2010)
2010 Aesop Accolades
Cloud Tea Monkeys, by Mal Peet and Elspeth Graham, illustr. by Juan Wijngaard (Candlewick Press, 2009)
Firebird, retold by Saviour Pirotta, illustr. by Catherine Hyde (Templar Books, an imprint of Candlewick Press, 2010)
2009 Aesop Prize
Dance, Nana, Dance (Baila, Nana, Baila), by Joe Hayes, illustr. by Mauricio Trenard Sayago (Cinco Puntos Press, 2008)
The Kalevala: Tales of Magic and Adventure, adapted by Kirsti Mäkinen, illustrated by Pirkko-Liisa Surojegin, transl. by Kaarina Brooks (Simply Read Books, 2009)
Naupaka, by Nona Beamer, illustr. by Caren Ke’ala Loebel-Fried, transl. from the Hawai’ian by Kaliko Beamer-Trapp, music by Keola Beamer (Bishop Museum Press, 2008) (Includes audio CD).
2009 Aesop Accolades
The Barefoot Book of Earth Tales, by Dawn Casey, illustr. by Anne Wilson (Barefoot Books, 2009)
Jack Tales and Mountain Yarns as told by Orville Hicks, transcription and text by Julia Taylor Ebel, illustr. by Sherry Jenkins Jensen (Parkway Publishers, Inc. 2009)
Polish Folktales and Folklore, by Michal Malinowski and Anne Pellowski (Libraries Unlimited, 2009)
Princess Peacock, Tales from the Other Peoples of China, by Haiwang Yuan (World Folklore Series, Libraries Unlimited, 2008)
Tsunami!, by Kimiko Kajikawa, illustr. by Ed Young (Phiomel Books, 2009)
2009 Special Recognition - given to Libraries Unlimited for their scholarly efforts in compiling the comprehensive World Folklore Series.
2008 Aesop Prize
Ain’t Nothing But a Man: My Quest to Find the Real John Henry, by Scott Reynolds Nelson, with Marc Aronson (National Geographic, 2008)
2008 Aesop Accolades
Dance in a Buffalo Skull, told by Zitkala-Ša, illustr. by S. D. Nelson (Prairie Tales Series, no. 2. South Dakota State Historical Society Press, 2007)
The Adventures of Molly Whuppie and Other Appalachian Folktales, by Anne Shelby, illustrated by Paula McArdle (University of North Carolina Press, 2007)
2007 Aesop Prize
Lugalbanda: The Boy Who Got Caught Up In a War, told by Kathy Henderson, illustrated by Jane Ray (Candlewick, 2006)
The Legend of Hong Kil Dong: the Robin Hood of Korea, retold by Anne Sibley O'Brien (Charlesbridge, 2006)
2007 Aesop Accolades
Solomon and the Ant and Other Jewish Folktales, retold by Sheldon Oberman. Introduction and commentary by Peninnah Schram (Boyds Mills Press, 2006)
Tatanka and the Lakota People: A Creation Story, illustrated by Donald F. Montileaux (South Dakota State Historical Press, 2006)
2006 Aesop Prize
Malian's Song. By Marge Bruchac, illustrated by William Maughan. Middlebury, Vermont: Vermont Folklife Center, 2005.
Outfoxing Fear: Folktales From Around the World. Edited by Kathleen Ragan. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006.
2006 Aesop Accolades
Chál tó yinílo‘: Frog Brings Rain. By Patricia Hruby Powell. Flagstaff, Arizona: Salina Bookshelf, 2006.
Brazilian Folktales. By Livia de Almeida and Ana Portella, edited by Margaret Read MacDonald. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries Unlimited, 2006.
2005 Aesop Prize
From the Winds of Manguito: Cuban Folktales in English and Spanish. Retold by Elvia Pérez. Edited by Margaret Read MacDonald. Translated by Paula Martin. Illustrated by VÍctor Francisco Hernández Mora. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries Unlimited, 2004.
Roy Makes a Car. By Mary E. Lyons. Illustrated by Terry Widener. New York: Atheneum, 2005.
2005 Aesop Accolades
The Flying Canoe. Retold by Roch Carrier. Translated by Sheila Fischman. Illustrated by Sheldon Cohen. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Tundra Books, 2004.
Grandma Lena's Big Ol' Turnip. By Denia Lewis Hester. Illustrated by Jackie Urbanovic. Morton Grove, Illinois: Albert Whitman and Company, 2005.
The Minister's Daughter. By Julie Hearn. New York and London: Atheneum, 2005.
2004 Aesop Prize
Ayat Jamilah: Beautiful Signs: A Treasury of Islamic Wisdom for Children and Parents. Collected and adapted by Sarah Conover and Freda Crane. Illustrated by Valerie Wahl. Spokane, Washington: Eastern Washington University Press, 2004.
The Magic Gourd. Written and illustrated by Baba Wagué Diakité. New York: Scholastic Press, 2003.
2004 Aesop Accolades
Bottle Houses:The Creative World of Grandma Prisbrey. Written by Melissa Eskridge Slaymaker. Illustrated by Julie Paschkis. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.
The Painted Wall and Other Strange Tales. Selected and adapted by Michael Bedard from the Liao-Chai of Pu Sung-ling. Toronto: Tundra Books, 2003.
Sure as Sunrise: Stories of Bruh Rabbit & His Walkin’ Talkin’ Friends. Written by Alice McGill. Illustrated by Don Tate. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004.
Walking on Solid Ground. By Shu Pui Cheung, Shuyuan Li, Aaron Chau and Deborah Wei. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Folklore Project, 2004.
2003 Aesop Prize
Horse Hooves and Chicken Feet: Mexican Folktales. Selected by Neil Philip. Illustrated by Jacqueline Mair. New York: Clarion Books, 2003.
Mightier Than the Sword: World Folktales for Strong Boys. Collected and told by Jane Yolen. Illustrated by Raul Colon. San Diego: Silver Whistle/ Harcourt, Inc., 2003.
2003 Aesop Accolades
Invisible Kingdoms: Jewish Tales of Angels, Spirits, and Demons. Retold by Howard Schwartz, illustrated by Stephen Fieser. New York: HarperCollins, 2002.
Nelson Mandela’s Favorite African Folktales. [written and illustrated by various hands] New York: W. W. Norton, 2002.
Pajaro Verde: The Green Bird By Joe Hayes, illustrated by Antonio Castro L. El Paso, TX: Cinco Puntos, 2002.
Something for Nothing. By Ann Redisch Stampler, illustrated by Jacqueline M. Cohen. New York: Clarion Books, 2003.
The Sun, the Rain, and the Apple Seed: A Novel of Johnny Appleseed's Life. By Lynda Durrant. New York: Clarion Books, 2003.
Yonder Mountain: A Cherokee Legend. Told by Robert H. Bushyhead, written by Kay Thorpe Bannon, illustrated by Kristina Rodana. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2002.
2002 Aesop Prize
Can You Guess My Name? Traditional Tales Around the World. Selected and retold by Judy Sierra. Illustrated by Stefano Vitale. Clarion Books, 2002.
One Time Dog Market at Buda and Other Hungarian Folktales. Translated and retold by Irma Molnér. Illustrations by Georgeta-Elena Enesel. Linnet Books, 2001.
2002 Aesop Accolades
Head, Body, Legs: A Story from Liberia. Retold by Won-Ldy Paye and Margaret H. Lippert. Illustrated by Julie Pashkis. Henry Holt, 2002.
The Race of the Birkebeiners. Written by Lise Lunge-Larsen. Illustrated by Mary Azarian. Houghton Mifflin, 2001.
Shakespeare's Storybook: Folk Tales That Inspired the Bard. Retold by Patrick Ryan. Illustrated by James Mayhew. Barefoot Books, 2001.
2001 Aesop Prize
Fiesta Feminina. Celebrating Women in Mexican Folktale. Retold by Mary-Joan Gerson. Illustrated by Maya Christina Gonzalez. Barefoot Books, 2001.
2001 Aesop Accolades
Mabela the Clever. Retold by Margaret Read MacDonald. Illustrated by Tim Coffey. Albert Whitman, 2001.
Daisy and the Doll. By Michael Medearis and Angela Shelf Medearis. Paintings by Larry Johnson. Vermont Folklife Center, 2001.
2000 Aesop Prize
The Day the Rabbi Disappeared: Jewish Holiday Tales of Magic. Text by Howard Schwartz. Illustrations by Monique Passicot. Viking, 2000.
2000 Aesop Accolades
The Hunter: A Chinese Folktale. Text by Mary Casanova. Illustrations by Ed Young. Atheneum, 2000.
In the Hollow of Your Hand: Slave Lullabies. Text by Alice McGill. Illustrations by Michael Cummings. Houghton, Mifflin, 2000.
Stockings of Buttermilk: American Folktales. Text by Neil Philip. Illustrations by Jacqueline Mair. Clarion, 1999.
1999 Aesop Prize
King Solomon And His Magic Ring. Text by Elie Wiesel. Illustrations by Mark Podwal. Greenwillow, 1999.
Trickster And The Fainting Birds. Text by Howard Norman. Illustrations by Tom Pohrt. Harcourt Brace, 1999.
1999 Aesop Accolades
The Deetkatoo: Native American Stories About Little People. Text by John Bierhorst. Illustrations by Ron Hilbert Coy. William Morrow, 1998.
The Donkey And The Rock. Text and illustrations by Demi. Henry Holt, 1999.
The Hatseller And The Monkeys. Text and illustrations by Baba Wagu? Diakit?. Scholastic, 1999.
Why Leopard Has Spots: Dan Stories From Liberia. Text by Won-Ldy Paye and Margaret H. Lippert. Illustrations by Ashley Bryan. Fulcrum, 1998.
1998 Aesop Prize
Echoes Of The Elders: The Stories And Paintings Of Chief Lelooska. Text and illustrations by Chief Lelooska. DK Publishing, Inc., 1997.
1998 Aesop Accolades
The Girl Who Dreamed Only Geese And Other Tales Of The Far North. Text by Howard Norman. Illustrations by Leo and Diane Dillon. Harcourt Brace, 1997.
The Hatmaker's Sign: A Story By Benjamin Franklin. Text by Candace Fleming. Illustrations by Robert Andrew Parker. Orchard, 1998.
The Legend Of The White Buffalo Woman. Text and illustrations by Paul Goble. National Geographic Society, 1998.
Momentos Magicos/Magic Moments: Tales From Latin America English and Spanish texts by Olga Loya. August House, 1997.
1997 Aesop Prize
Earth Tales From Around The World. Text by Michael J. Caduto. Illustrations by Adelaide Murphy Tyrol. Fulcrum, 1997.
The Hired Hand: An African-American Folktale. Text by Robert D. San Souci. Illustrations by Jerry Pinkney. Dial Books for Young Readers, 1997.
1997 Aesop Accolades
Bouki Dances The Kokioko: A Comical Tale From Haiti. Text by Diane Wolkstein. Illustrations by Jesse Sweetwater. Harcourt Brace, 1997.
The Cricket's Cage: A Chinese Folktale. Text and illustrations by Stefan Czernecki. Hyperion, 1997.
Esther's Story. Text by Diane Wolkstein. Illustrations by Juan Wijngaard. Morrow Junior Books, 1996.
Full Moon Stories: Thirteen Native American Legends. Text and illustrations by Eagle Walking Turtle. Hyperion, 1997.
Musicians Of The Sun. Text and illustrations by Gerald McDermott. Simon & Schuster, 1997.
The Sea King's Daughter: A Russian Legend. Text by Aaron Shepard. Illustrations by Gennady Spirin. Atheneum, 1997.
1996 Aesop Prize
Next Year In Jerusalem. Text by Howard Schwartz. Illustrations by Neil Waldman. Viking, 1996.
Nursery Tales Around The World. Text by Judy Sierra. Illustrations by Stefano Vitale. Clarion, 1996.
1996 Aesop Accolades
The Biggest Frog In Australia. Text and illustrations by Susan L. Roth. Simon and Schuster, 1996.
The Maiden Of the Northland: A Hero Tale Of Finland. Text by Aaron Shepard. Illustrations by Carol Schwartz.
Medio-Pollito/Half-Chicken. Text by Alma Flor Ada. Illustrations by Kim Howard. Doubleday, 1996.
Mysterious Tales Of Japan. Text by Rafe Martin. Illustrations by Tatsuro Kiuchi. G.P. Putnam, 1996.
Princess Florecita And The Iron Shoes. Text by John Warren Stewig. Illustrations by K. Wendy Propp. Apple Soup Books, 1995.
Songs For Survival: Songs And Chants From Tribal Peoples Around The World. Compiled by Nikki Siegen-Smith. Illustrations by Bernard Lodge. Dutton, 1995.
The Story Of The Milky Way: A Cherokee Tale. Text by Joseph Bruchac and Gayle Ross. Illustrations by Virginia A. Stroud. Dial, 1995.
The Turkey Girl. Text by Penny Pollock. Illustrations by Ed Young. Little Brown, 1996.
When The World Was Young: Creation And Pourquoi Tales. Text by Margaret Mayo. Illustrations by Louise Brierley. Simon and Schuster, 1995.
Wicked Jack. Text by Connie N. Wooldridge. Illustrations by Will Hillenbrand. Holiday House, 1995.
The Woman In The Moon: A Story From Hawai'i. Text by Jama Kim Rattagan. Illustrations by Carla Golembe. Little Brown Canada, 1996.
1995 Aesop Prize
Fair Is Fair: World Folktales Of Justice, text by Sharon Creeden (August House, 1994)
1995 Aesop Accolades
Coyote And The Winnowing Birds: A Traditional Hopi Tale, based On a Story Told By Eugene Sekaquaptewa. Translated by Emory Sekaquaptewa and Barbara Pepper and illustrated by Hopi children (Clear Light, 1994)
Duppy Talk: West Indian Tales Of Magic And Mystery, text by Gerald Hausman (Simon and Schuster, 1994)
Giants! Stories From Around The World, text by Paul Robert Walker, illustr. by James Bernardin (Harcourt Brace, 1995)
The Gifts Of Wali Dad: A Tale Of India And Pakistan, text by Aaron Shepard, illustr. by Daniel San Souci (Atheneum, 1995)
When The World Ended, How Hummingbird Got Fire, How People Were Made: Rumsien Ohlone Stories, text and illustr. by Linda Yamane (Oyate, 1995)
Why Alligator Hates Dog: A Cajun Folktale, text by J.J. Reneaux, illustr. by Donnie Lee Green (August House, 1995)
1994 Aesop Prize
John Henry, text by Julius Lester, illustr. by Jerry Pinkney (Dial, 1994)
1994 Aesop Accolades
Baba Yaga: A Russian Folktale, text and illustr. by Katya Arnold (North-South, 1993)
The Bossy Gallito, text by Lucia M. Gonzalez, illustr. by Lulu Delacre (Scholastic, 1994)
Christopher: The Holy Giant, text and illustr. by Tomie de Paola (Holiday House, 1994)
Coyote And Little Turtle: A Traditional Hopi Tale, told by Herschel Talashoema and illustr. by Hopi children of the Hotevilla-Bacavi Community School. Translated and edited by Emory Sekaquaptewa and Barbara Pepper (Clear Light, 1994)
The Girl Who Wanted To Hunt: A Siberian Tale, text by Emery Bernhard, illustr. by Durga Bernhard (Holiday House, 1994)
The Magic Storysinger From The Finnish Epic Tale Kalevala, text and illustr. by M.E.A. McNeil (Stemmer House, 1993)
The Mummer's Song, text by Bud Davidge, illustr. by Ian Wallace. Afterword by Kevin Major (Douglas & McIntyre, 1993)
Shadow Of A Flying Bird: A Legend Of The Kurdistani Jews, text and illustr. by Mordecai Gerstein (Hyperion, 1994)
1993 Aesop Prize
Cut From The Same Cloth: American Women In Myth, Legend, And Tall Tale, text by Robert D. San Souci, illustr. by Brian Pinkney (Philomel, 1993)
Love Flute, text and illustr. by Paul Goble (Bradbury, 1993)
1993 Aesop Accolades (this was the first year the Accolades were awarded)
Big Men, Big Country: A Collection Of American Tall Tales, text by Robert Paul Walker, illustr. by James Bernardin (Harcourt Brace, 1993)
The Green Gourd: A North Carolina Folktale, text by C.W. Hunter, illustr. by Tony Griego (G.P. Putnam, 1992)
Ishi's Tale Of Lizard, text by Leanne Hinton, illustr. by Susan L. Roth (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1992)
Northern Lights: The Soccer Trails, text by Michael Arvaarluk Kusugak, illustr. by Vladyana Krykorka (Annick Press, 1993)
Sundiata: Lion King Of Mali, text and illustr. by David Wisniewski (Clarion, 1993)
Surtsey: The Newest Place On Earth, text by Kathryn Lasky, photographs by Christopher G. Knight (Hyperion, 1992)
1992 Aesop Prize
Aesop And Company With Scenes From His Legendary Life, text by Barbara Bader, illustr. by Arthur Geisert (Houghton Mifflin, 1992)
Days Of Awe: Stories For Rosh Hashanah And Yom Kippur, text by Eric A. Kimmel, illustr. by Erika Weihs (Viking, 1992)
Reference
About the Aesop Award and Aesop Accolades
Children's literary awards
Awards established in 1992
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Free-radical polymerization (FRP) is a method of polymerization, by which a polymer forms by the successive addition of free-radical building blocks. Free radicals can be formed by a number of different mechanisms, usually involving separate initiator molecules. Following its generation, the initiating free radical adds (nonradical) monomer units, thereby growing the polymer chain.
Free-radical polymerization is a key synthesis route for obtaining a wide variety of different polymers and materials composites. The relatively non-specific nature of free-radical chemical interactions makes this one of the most versatile forms of polymerization available and allows facile reactions of polymeric free-radical chain ends and other chemicals or substrates. In 2001, 40 billion of the 110 billion pounds of polymers produced in the United States were produced by free-radical polymerization.
Free-radical polymerization is a type of chain-growth polymerization, along with anionic, cationic and coordination polymerization.
Initiation
Initiation is the first step of the polymerization process. During initiation, an active center is created from which a polymer chain is generated. Not all monomers are susceptible to all types of initiators. Radical initiation works best on the carbon–carbon double bond of vinyl monomers and the carbon–oxygen double bond in aldehydes and ketones. Initiation has two steps. In the first step, one or two radicals are created from the initiating molecules. In the second step, radicals are transferred from the initiator molecules to the monomer units present. Several choices are available for these initiators.
Types of initiation and the initiators
Thermal decomposition The initiator is heated until a bond is homolytically cleaved, producing two radicals (Figure 1). This method is used most often with organic peroxides or azo compounds.
Photolysis Radiation cleaves a bond homolytically, producing two radicals (Figure 2). This method is used most often with metal iodides, metal alkyls, and azo compounds. Photoinitiation can also occur by bi-molecular H abstraction when the radical is in its lowest triplet excited state. An acceptable photoinitiator system should fulfill the following requirements:
High absorptivity in the 300–400 nm range.
Efficient generation of radicals capable of attacking the alkene double bond of vinyl monomers.
Adequate solubility in the binder system (prepolymer + monomer).
Should not impart yellowing or unpleasant odors to the cured material.
The photoinitiator and any byproducts resulting from its use should be non-toxic.
Redox reactions Reduction of hydrogen peroxide or an alkyl hydrogen peroxide by iron (Figure 3). Other reductants such as Cr2+, V2+, Ti3+, Co2+, and Cu+ can be employed in place of ferrous ion in many instances.
Persulfates The dissociation of a persulfate in the aqueous phase (Figure 4). This method is useful in emulsion polymerizations, in which the radical diffuses into a hydrophobic monomer-containing droplet.
Ionizing radiation α-, β-, γ-, or x-rays cause ejection of an electron from the initiating species, followed by dissociation and electron capture to produce a radical (Figure 5).
Electrochemical Electrolysis of a solution containing both monomer and electrolyte. A monomer molecule will receive an electron at the cathode to become a radical anion, and a monomer molecule will give up an electron at the anode to form a radical cation (Figure 6). The radical ions then initiate free radical (and/or ionic) polymerization. This type of initiation is especially useful for coating metal surfaces with polymer films.
Plasma A gaseous monomer is placed in an electric discharge at low pressures under conditions where a plasma (ionized gaseous molecules) is created. In some cases, the system is heated and/or placed in a radiofrequency field to assist in creating the plasma.
Sonication High-intensity ultrasound at frequencies beyond the range of human hearing (16 kHz) can be applied to a monomer. Initiation results from the effects of cavitation (the formation and collapse of cavities in the liquid). The collapse of the cavities generates very high local temperatures and pressures. This results in the formation of excited electronic states, which in turn lead to bond breakage and radical formation.
Ternary initiators A ternary initiator is the combination of several types of initiators into one initiating system. The types of initiators are chosen based on the properties they are known to induce in the polymers they produce. For example, poly(methyl methacrylate) has been synthesized by the ternary system benzoyl peroxide-3,6-bis(o-carboxybenzoyl)-N-isopropylcarbazole-di-η5-indenylzicronium dichloride (Figure 7). This type of initiating system contains a metallocene, an initiator, and a heteroaromatic diketo carboxylic acid. Metallocenes in combination with initiators accelerate polymerization of poly(methyl methacrylate) and produce a polymer with a narrower molecular weight distribution. The example shown here consists of indenylzirconium (a metallocene) and benzoyl peroxide (an initiator). Also, initiating systems containing heteroaromatic diketo carboxylic acids, such as 3,6-bis(o-carboxybenzoyl)-N-isopropylcarbazole in this example, are known to catalyze the decomposition of benzoyl peroxide. Initiating systems with this particular heteroaromatic diket carboxylic acid are also known to have effects on the microstructure of the polymer. The combination of all of these components—a metallocene, an initiator, and a heteroaromatic diketo carboxylic acid—yields a ternary initiating system that was shown to accelerate the polymerization and produce polymers with enhanced heat resistance and regular microstructure.
Initiator efficiency
Due to side reactions and inefficient synthesis of the radical species, chain initiation is not . The efficiency factor f is used to describe the effective radical concentration. The maximal value of f is 1, but typical values range from 0.3 to 0.8. The following is a list of reactions that decrease the efficiency of the initiator.
Primary recombination Two radicals recombine before initiating a chain (Figure 8). This occurs within the solvent cage, meaning that no solvent has yet come between the new radicals.
Other recombination pathways Two radical initiators recombine before initiating a chain, but not in the solvent cage (Figure 9).
Side reactions One radical is produced instead of the three radicals that could be produced (Figure 10).
Propagation
During polymerization, a polymer spends most of its time in increasing its chain length, or propagating. After the radical initiator is formed, it attacks a monomer (Figure 11). In an ethene monomer, one electron pair is held securely between the two carbons in a sigma bond. The other is more loosely held in a pi bond. The free radical uses one electron from the pi bond to form a more stable bond with the carbon atom. The other electron returns to the second carbon atom, turning the whole molecule into another radical. This begins the polymer chain. Figure 12 shows how the orbitals of an ethylene monomer interact with a radical initiator.
Once a chain has been initiated, the chain propagates (Figure 13) until there are no more monomers (living polymerization) or until termination occurs. There may be anywhere from a few to thousands of propagation steps depending on several factors such as radical and chain reactivity, the solvent, and temperature. The mechanism of chain propagation is as follows:
Termination
Chain termination is inevitable in radical polymerization due to the high reactivity of radicals. Termination can occur by several different mechanisms. If longer chains are desired, the initiator concentration should be kept low; otherwise, many shorter chains will result.
Combination of two active chain ends: one or both of the following processes may occur.
Combination: two chain ends simply couple together to form one long chain (Figure 14). One can determine if this mode of termination is occurring by monitoring the molecular weight of the propagating species: combination will result in doubling of molecular weight. Also, combination will result in a polymer that is C2 symmetric about the point of the combination.
Radical disproportionation: a hydrogen atom from one chain end is abstracted to another, producing a polymer with a terminal unsaturated group and a polymer with a terminal saturated group (Figure 15).
Combination of an active chain end with an initiator radical (Figure 16).
Interaction with impurities or inhibitors. Oxygen is the common inhibitor. The growing chain will react with molecular oxygen, producing an oxygen radical, which is much less reactive (Figure 17). This significantly slows down the rate of propagation. Nitrobenzene, butylated hydroxyl toluene, and diphenyl picryl hydrazyl (DPPH, Figure 18) are a few other inhibitors. The latter is an especially effective inhibitor because of the resonance stabilization of the radical.
Chain transfer
Contrary to the other modes of termination, chain transfer results in the destruction of only one radical, but also the creation of another radical. Often, however, this newly created radical is not capable of further propagation. Similar to disproportionation, all chain-transfer mechanisms also involve the abstraction of a hydrogen or other atom. There are several types of chain-transfer mechanisms.
To solvent: a hydrogen atom is abstracted from a solvent molecule, resulting in the formation of radical on the solvent molecules, which will not propagate further (Figure 19). The effectiveness of chain transfer involving solvent molecules depends on the amount of solvent present (more solvent leads to greater probability of transfer), the strength of the bond involved in the abstraction step (weaker bond leads to greater probability of transfer), and the stability of the solvent radical that is formed (greater stability leads to greater probability of transfer). Halogens, except fluorine, are easily transferred.
To monomer: a hydrogen atom is abstracted from a monomer. While this does create a radical on the affected monomer, resonance stabilization of this radical discourages further propagation (Figure 20).
To initiator: a polymer chain reacts with an initiator, which terminates that polymer chain, but creates a new radical initiator (Figure 21). This initiator can then begin new polymer chains. Therefore, contrary to the other forms of chain transfer, chain transfer to the initiator does allow for further propagation. Peroxide initiators are especially sensitive to chain transfer.
To polymer: the radical of a polymer chain abstracts a hydrogen atom from somewhere on another polymer chain (Figure 22). This terminates the growth of one polymer chain, but allows the other to branch and resume growing. This reaction step changes neither the number of polymer chains nor the number of monomers which have been polymerized, so that the number-average degree of polymerization is unaffected.
Effects of chain transfer: The most obvious effect of chain transfer is a decrease in the polymer chain length. If the rate of transfer is much larger than the rate of propagation, then very small polymers are formed with chain lengths of 2-5 repeating units (telomerization). The Mayo equation estimates the influence of chain transfer on chain length (xn): . Where ktr is the rate constant for chain transfer and kp is the rate constant for propagation. The Mayo equation assumes that transfer to solvent is the major termination pathway.
Methods
There are four industrial methods of radical polymerization:
Bulk polymerization: reaction mixture contains only initiator and monomer, no solvent.
Solution polymerization: reaction mixture contains solvent, initiator, and monomer.
Suspension polymerization: reaction mixture contains an aqueous phase, water-insoluble monomer, and initiator soluble in the monomer droplets (both the monomer and the initiator are hydrophobic).
Emulsion polymerization: similar to suspension polymerization except that the initiator is soluble in the aqueous phase rather than in the monomer droplets (the monomer is hydrophobic, and the initiator is hydrophilic). An emulsifying agent is also needed.
Other methods of radical polymerization include the following:
Template polymerization: In this process, polymer chains are allowed to grow along template macromolecules for the greater part of their lifetime. A well-chosen template can affect the rate of polymerization as well as the molar mass and microstructure of the daughter polymer. The molar mass of a daughter polymer can be up to 70 times greater than those of polymers produced in the absence of the template and can be higher in molar mass than the templates themselves. This is because of retardation of the termination for template-associated radicals and by hopping of a radical to the neighboring template after reaching the end of a template polymer.
Plasma polymerization: The polymerization is initiated with plasma. A variety of organic molecules including alkenes, alkynes, and alkanes undergo polymerization to high molecular weight products under these conditions. The propagation mechanisms appear to involve both ionic and radical species. Plasma polymerization offers a potentially unique method of forming thin polymer films for uses such as thin-film capacitors, antireflection coatings, and various types of thin membranes.
Sonication: The polymerization is initiated by high-intensity ultrasound. Polymerization to high molecular weight polymer is observed but the conversions are low (<15%). The polymerization is self-limiting because of the high viscosity produced even at low conversion. High viscosity hinders cavitation and radical production.
Reversible deactivation radical polymerization
Also known as living radical polymerization, controlled radical polymerization, reversible deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP) relies on completely pure reactions, preventing termination caused by impurities. Because these polymerizations stop only when there is no more monomer, polymerization can continue upon the addition of more monomer. Block copolymers can be made this way. RDRP allows for control of molecular weight and dispersity. However, this is very difficult to achieve and instead a pseudo-living polymerization occurs with only partial control of molecular weight and dispersity. ATRP and RAFT are the main types of complete radical polymerization.
Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP): based on the formation of a carbon-carbon bond by atom transfer radical addition. This method, independently discovered in 1995 by Mitsuo Sawamoto and by Jin-Shan Wang and Krzysztof Matyjaszewski, requires reversible activation of a dormant species (such as an alkyl halide) and a transition metal halide catalyst (to activate dormant species).
Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain-Transfer Polymerization (RAFT): requires a compound that can act as a reversible chain-transfer agent, such as dithio compound.
Stable Free Radical Polymerization (SFRP): used to synthesize linear or branched polymers with narrow molecular weight distributions and reactive end groups on each polymer chain. The process has also been used to create block co-polymers with unique properties. Conversion rates are about 100% using this process but require temperatures of about 135 °C. This process is most commonly used with acrylates, styrenes, and dienes. The reaction scheme in Figure 23 illustrates the SFRP process. Because the chain end is functionalized with the TEMPO molecule (Figure 24), premature termination by coupling is reduced. As with all living polymerizations, the polymer chain grows until all of the monomer is consumed.
Kinetics
In typical chain growth polymerizations, the reaction rates for initiation, propagation and termination can be described as follows:
where f is the efficiency of the initiator and kd, kp, and kt are the constants for initiator dissociation, chain propagation and termination, respectively. [I] [M] and [M•] are the concentrations of the initiator, monomer and the active growing chain.
Under the steady-state approximation, the concentration of the active growing chains remains constant, i.e. the rates of initiation and of termination are equal. The concentration of active chain can be derived and expressed in terms of the other known species in the system.
In this case, the rate of chain propagation can be further described using a function of the initiator and monomer concentrations
The kinetic chain length v is a measure of the average number of monomer units reacting with an active center during its lifetime and is related to the molecular weight through the mechanism of the termination. Without chain transfer, the kinetic chain length is only a function of propagation rate and initiation rate.
Assuming no chain-transfer effect occurs in the reaction, the number average degree of polymerization Pn can be correlated with the kinetic chain length. In the case of termination by disproportionation, one polymer molecule is produced per every kinetic chain:
Termination by combination leads to one polymer molecule per two kinetic chains:
Any mixture of both these mechanisms can be described by using the value , the contribution of disproportionation to the overall termination process:
If chain transfer is considered, the kinetic chain length is not affected by the transfer process because the growing free-radical center generated by the initiation step stays alive after any chain-transfer event, although multiple polymer chains are produced. However, the number average degree of polymerization decreases as the chain transfers, since the growing chains are terminated by the chain-transfer events. Taking into account the chain-transfer reaction towards solvent S, initiator I, polymer P, and added chain-transfer agent T. The equation of Pn will be modified as follows:
It is usual to define chain-transfer constants C for the different molecules
, , , ,
Thermodynamics
In chain growth polymerization, the position of the equilibrium between polymer and monomers can be determined by the thermodynamics of the polymerization. The Gibbs free energy (ΔGp) of the polymerization is commonly used to quantify the tendency of a polymeric reaction. The polymerization will be favored if ΔGp < 0; if ΔGp > 0, the polymer will undergo depolymerization. According to the thermodynamic equation ΔG = ΔH – TΔS, a negative enthalpy and an increasing entropy will shift the equilibrium towards polymerization.
In general, the polymerization is an exothermic process, i.e. negative enthalpy change, since addition of a monomer to the growing polymer chain involves the conversion of π bonds into σ bonds, or a ring–opening reaction that releases the ring tension in a cyclic monomer. Meanwhile, during polymerization, a large amount of small molecules are associated, losing rotation and translational degrees of freedom. As a result, the entropy decreases in the system, ΔSp < 0 for nearly all polymerization processes. Since depolymerization is almost always entropically favored, the ΔHp must then be sufficiently negative to compensate for the unfavorable entropic term. Only then will polymerization be thermodynamically favored by the resulting negative ΔGp.
In practice, polymerization is favored at low temperatures: TΔSp is small. Depolymerization is favored at high temperatures: TΔSp is large. As the temperature increases, ΔGp become less negative. At a certain temperature, the polymerization reaches equilibrium (rate of polymerization = rate of depolymerization). This temperature is called the ceiling temperature (Tc). ΔGp = 0.
Stereochemistry
The stereochemistry of polymerization is concerned with the difference in atom connectivity and spatial orientation in polymers that has the same chemical composition.
Hermann Staudinger studied the stereoisomerism in chain polymerization of vinyl monomers in the late 1920s, and it took another two decades for people to fully appreciate the idea that each of the propagation steps in the polymer growth could give rise to stereoisomerism. The major milestone in the stereochemistry was established by Ziegler and Natta and their coworkers in 1950s, as they developed metal based catalyst to synthesize stereoregular polymers. The reason why the stereochemistry of the polymer is of particular interest is because the physical behavior of a polymer depends not only on the general chemical composition but also on the more subtle differences in microstructure. Atactic polymers consist of a random arrangement of stereochemistry and are amorphous (noncrystalline), soft materials with lower physical strength. The corresponding isotactic (like substituents all on the same side) and syndiotactic (like substituents of alternate repeating units on the same side) polymers are usually obtained as highly crystalline materials. It is easier for the stereoregular polymers to pack into a crystal lattice since they are more ordered and the resulting crystallinity leads to higher physical strength and increased solvent and chemical resistance as well as differences in other properties that depend on crystallinity. The prime example of the industrial utility of stereoregular polymers is polypropene. Isotactic polypropene is a high-melting (165 °C), strong, crystalline polymer, which is used as both a plastic and fiber. Atactic polypropene is an amorphous material with an oily to waxy soft appearance that finds use in asphalt blends and formulations for lubricants, sealants, and adhesives, but the volumes are minuscule compared to that of isotactic polypropene.
When a monomer adds to a radical chain end, there are two factors to consider regarding its stereochemistry: 1) the interaction between the terminal chain carbon and the approaching monomer molecule and 2) the configuration of the penultimate repeating unit in the polymer chain. The terminal carbon atom has sp2 hybridization and is planar. Consider the polymerization of the monomer CH2=CXY. There are two ways that a monomer molecule can approach the terminal carbon: the mirror approach (with like substituents on the same side) or the non-mirror approach (like substituents on opposite sides). If free rotation does not occur before the next monomer adds, the mirror approach will always lead to an isotactic polymer and the non-mirror approach will always lead to a syndiotactic polymer (Figure 25). However, if interactions between the substituents of the penultimate repeating unit and the terminal carbon atom are significant, then conformational factors could cause the monomer to add to the polymer in a way that minimizes steric or electrostatic interaction (Figure 26).
Reactivity
Traditionally, the reactivity of monomers and radicals are assessed by the means of copolymerization data. The Q–e scheme, the most widely used tool for the semi-quantitative prediction of monomer reactivity ratios, was first proposed by Alfrey and Price in 1947. The scheme takes into account the intrinsic thermodynamic stability and polar effects in the transition state. A given radical and a monomer are considered to have intrinsic reactivities Pi and Qj, respectively. The polar effects in the transition state, the supposed permanent electric charge carried by that entity (radical or molecule), is quantified by the factor e, which is a constant for a given monomer, and has the same value for the radical derived from that specific monomer. For addition of monomer 2 to a growing polymer chain whose active end is the radical of monomer 1, the rate constant, k12, is postulated to be related to the four relevant reactivity parameters by
The monomer reactivity ratio for the addition of monomers 1 and 2 to this chain is given by
For the copolymerization of a given pair of monomers, the two experimental reactivity ratios r1 and r2 permit the evaluation of (Q1/Q2) and (e1 – e2). Values for each monomer can then be assigned relative to a reference monomer, usually chosen as styrene with the arbitrary values Q = 1.0 and e = –0.8.
Applications
Free radical polymerization has found applications including the manufacture of polystyrene, thermoplastic block copolymer elastomers, cardiovascular stents, chemical surfactants and lubricants. Block copolymers are used for a wide variety of applications including adhesives, footwear and toys.
Free radical polymerization has uses in research as well, such as in the functionalization of carbon nanotubes. CNTs intrinsic electronic properties lead them to form large aggregates in solution, precluding useful applications. Adding small chemical groups to the walls of CNT can eliminate this propensity and tune the response to the surrounding environment. The use of polymers instead of smaller molecules can modify CNT properties (and conversely, nanotubes can modify polymer mechanical and electronic properties). For example, researchers coated carbon nanotubes with polystyrene by first polymerizing polystyrene via chain radical polymerization and subsequently mixing it at 130 °C with carbon nanotubes to generate radicals and graft them onto the walls of carbon nanotubes (Figure 27). Chain growth polymerization ("grafting to") synthesizes a polymer with predetermined properties. Purification of the polymer can be used to obtain a more uniform length distribution before grafting. Conversely, “grafting from”, with radical polymerization techniques such as atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) or nitroxide-mediated polymerization (NMP), allows rapid growth of high molecular weight polymers.
Radical polymerization also aids synthesis of nanocomposite hydrogels. These gels are made of water-swellable nano-scale clay (especially those classed as smectites) enveloped by a network polymer. They are often biocompatible and have mechanical properties (such as flexibility and strength) that promise applications such as synthetic tissue. Synthesis involves free radical polymerization. The general synthesis procedure is depicted in Figure 28. Clay is dispersed in water, where it forms very small, porous plates. Next the initiator and a catalyst are added, followed by adding the organic monomer, generally an acrylamide or acrylamide derivative. The initiator is chosen to have stronger interaction with the clay than the organic monomer, so it preferentially adsorbs to the clay surface. The mixture and water solvent is heated to initiate polymerization. Polymers grow off the initiators that are in turn bound to the clay. Due to recombination and disproportionation reactions, growing polymer chains bind to one another, forming a strong, cross-linked network polymer, with clay particles acting as branching points for multiple polymer chain segments. Free radical polymerization used in this context allows the synthesis of polymers from a wide variety of substrates (the chemistries of suitable clays vary). Termination reactions unique to chain growth polymerization produce a material with flexibility, mechanical strength and biocompatibility.
Electronics
The radical polymer glass PTMA is about 10 times more electrically conductive than common semiconducting polymers. PTMA is in a class of electrically active polymers that could find use in transparent solar cells, antistatic and antiglare coatings for mobile phone displays, antistatic coverings for aircraft to protect against lightning strikes, flexible flash drives, and thermoelectric devices, which convert electricity into heat and the reverse. Widespread practical applications require increasing conductivity another 100 to 1,000 times.
The polymer was created using deprotection, which involves replacing a specific hydrogen atom in the pendant group with an oxygen atom. The resulting oxygen atom in PTMA has one unpaired electron in its outer shell, making it amenable to transporting charge. The deprotection step can lead to four distinct chemical functionalities, two of which are promising for increasing conductivity.
See also
Anionic addition polymerization
Chain-growth polymerisation
Chain transfer
Cobalt-mediated radical polymerization
Living polymerization
Nitroxide mediated radical polymerization
Polymer
Polymerization
Reversible-deactivation radical polymerization
Step-growth polymerization
References
External links
Addition Polymerization
Free Radical Polymerization (video animation)
Free Radical Polymerization - Chain Transfer
Free Radical Vinyl Polymerization
The Polymerization of Alkenes
Polymer Synthesis
Radical Reaction Chemistry
Stable Free Radical Polymerization
Reaction mechanisms
Polymerization reactions
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Vernacular architecture is building done outside any academic tradition, and without professional guidance. This category encompasses a wide range and variety of building types, with differing methods of construction, from around the world, both historical and extant, representing the majority of buildings and settlements created in pre-industrial societies. Vernacular architecture constitutes 95% of the world's built environment, as estimated in 1995 by Amos Rapoport, as measured against the small percentage of new buildings every year designed by architects and built by engineers.
Vernacular architecture usually serves immediate, local needs; is constrained by the materials available in its particular region; and reflects local traditions and cultural practices. Traditionally, the study of vernacular architecture did not examine formally schooled architects, but instead that of the design skills and tradition of local builders, who were rarely given any attribution for the work. More recently, vernacular architecture has been examined by designers and the building industry in an effort to be more energy conscious with contemporary design and construction—part of a broader interest in sustainable design.
As of 1986, even among scholars publishing in the field, the exact boundaries of "vernacular" have not been clear.
This issue of definition, apparently so simple, has proven to be one of the most serious problems for advocates of vernacular architecture and landscapes research. A straightforward, convincing, authoritative definition has not yet been offered. Vernacular architecture is a phenomenon that many understand intuitively but that few are able to define. The literature on the subject is thus filled with what might be called non-definitions. Vernacular architecture is non-high style building, it is those structures not designed by professionals; it is not monumental; it is un-sophisticated; it is mere building; it is, according to the distinguished historian Nikolaus Pevsner, not architecture. Those who take a more positive approach rely on adjectives like ordinary, everyday, and commonplace. While these terms are not as pejorative as other descriptive phrases that are sometimes applied to the vernacular, neither are they very precise. For example, the skyscrapers of Manhattan are works of high style architecture, but they are also commonplace in Manhattan. Are they not logically New York City vernacular buildings?
Vernacular architecture tends to be overlooked in traditional histories of design. It is not a stylistic description, much less one specific style, so it cannot be summarized in terms of easy-to-understand patterns, characteristics, materials, or elements. Because of the usage of traditional building methods and local builders, vernacular buildings are considered cultural expressions—aboriginal, indigenous, ancestral, rural, ethnic, or regional—as much as architectural artifacts.
Evolution of the phrase
The term vernacular means "domestic, native, indigenous"; from verna, meaning "native slave" or "home-born slave". The word probably derives from an older Etruscan word.
The term is borrowed from linguistics, where vernacular refers to language use particular to a time, place or group.
The phrase dates to at least 1857, when it was used by Sir George Gilbert Scott, as the focus of the first chapter of his book "Remarks on Secular & Domestic Architecture, Present & Future", and in a paper read to an architectural society in Leicester in October of that year. As a proponent of the Gothic Revival movement in England, Scott used the term as a pejorative to refer to the "prevailing architecture" in England of the time, all of it, as opposed to the Gothic he wanted to introduce. In this "vernacular" category Scott included St Paul's Cathedral, Greenwich Hospital, London, and Castle Howard, although admitting their relative nobility.
The term was popularized with positive connotations in a 1964 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, designed by architect Bernard Rudofsky, with a subsequent book. Both were called Architecture Without Architects. Featuring dramatic black-and-white photography of vernacular buildings around the world, the exhibition was extremely popular. Rudofsky brought the concept into the eye of the public and of mainstream architecture, and also kept the definitions loose: he wrote that the exhibition "attempts to break down our narrow concepts of the art of building by introducing the unfamiliar world of nonpedigreed architecture. It is so little known that we don't even have a name for it. For want of a generic label we shall call it vernacular, anonymous, spontaneous, indigenous, rural, as the case may be." The book was a reminder of the legitimacy and "hard-won knowledge" inherent in vernacular buildings, from Polish salt-caves to gigantic Syrian water wheels to Moroccan desert fortresses, and was considered iconoclastic at the time.
The term "commercial vernacular" was popularized in the late 1960s by the publication of Robert Venturi's "Learning from Las Vegas", referring to 20th-century American suburban tract and commercial architecture.
Although vernacular architecture might be designed by people who do have some training in design, in 1971 Ronald Brunskill nonetheless defined vernacular architecture as:
...a building designed by an amateur without any training in design; the individual will have been guided by a series of conventions built up in his locality, paying little attention to what may be fashionable. The function of the building would be the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree, being quite minimal. Local materials would be used as a matter of course, other materials being chosen and imported quite exceptionally.
In the Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World edited in 1997 by Paul Oliver of the Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development. Oliver argued that vernacular architecture, given the insights it gives into issues of environmental adaptation, will be necessary in the future to "ensure sustainability in both cultural and economic terms beyond the short term." The encyclopedia defined the field of vernacular architecture as:
...comprising the dwellings and all other buildings of the people. Related to their environmental contexts and available resources they are customarily owner- or community-built, utilizing traditional technologies. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of life of the cultures that produce them.
In 2007 Allen Noble wrote a lengthy discussion of the relevant terms, in Traditional Buildings: A Global Survey of Structural Forms and Cultural Functions. Noble concluded that "folk architecture" is built by "persons not professionally trained in building arts." "Vernacular architecture" is "of the common people", but may be built by trained professionals, using local, traditional designs and materials. "Traditional architecture" is architecture passed down from person to person, generation to generation, particularly orally, but at any level of society, not just by common people. "Primitive architecture" is a term Noble discourages the use of. The term popular architecture is used more in eastern Europe and is synonymous with folk or vernacular architecture.
Vernacular and the architect
Architecture designed by professional architects is usually not considered to be vernacular. Indeed, it can be argued that the very process of consciously designing a building makes it not vernacular. Paul Oliver, in his book Dwellings, states: "...it is contended that 'popular architecture' designed by professional architects or commercial builders for popular use, does not come within the compass of the vernacular". Oliver also offers the following simple definition of vernacular architecture: "the architecture of the people, and by the people, but not for the people."
Frank Lloyd Wright described vernacular architecture as "Folk building growing in response to actual needs, fitted into environment by people who knew no better than to fit them with native feeling". suggesting that it is a primitive form of design, lacking intelligent thought, but he also stated that it was "for us better worth study than all the highly self-conscious academic attempts at the beautiful throughout Europe".
Since at least the Arts and Crafts Movement, many modern architects have studied vernacular buildings and claimed to draw inspiration from them, including aspects of the vernacular in their designs. In 1946, the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was appointed to design the town of New Gourna near Luxor. Having studied traditional Nubian settlements and technologies, he incorporated the traditional mud brick vaults of the Nubian settlements in his designs. The experiment failed, due to a variety of social and economic reasons.
Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa is considered the pioneer of regional modernism in South Asia. Along with him, modern proponents of the use of the vernacular in architectural design include Charles Correa, a well known Indian architect; Muzharul Islam and Bashirul Haq, internationally known Bangladeshi architects; Balkrishna Doshi, another Indian, who established the Vastu-Shilpa Foundation in Ahmedabad to research the vernacular architecture of the region; and Sheila Sri Prakash who has used rural Indian architecture as an inspiration for innovations in environmental and socio-economically sustainable design and planning. The Dutch architect Aldo van Eyck was also a proponent of vernacular architecture. Architects whose work exemplifies the modern take on vernacular architecture would be Samuel Mockbee, Christopher Alexander and Paolo Soleri.
Oliver claims that:
As yet there is no clearly defined and specialized discipline for the study of dwellings or the larger compass of vernacular architecture. If such a discipline were to emerge it would probably be one that combines some of the elements of both architecture and anthropology with aspects of history and geography.
Architects have developed a renewed interest in vernacular architecture as a model for sustainable design. Contemporary complementary architecture is informed largely by vernacular architecture.
Influences on the vernacular
Vernacular architecture is influenced by a great range of different aspects of human behaviour and environment, leading to differing building forms for almost every different context; even neighbouring villages may have subtly different approaches to the construction and use of their dwellings, even if they at first appear the same. Despite these variations, every building is subject to the same laws of physics, and hence will demonstrate significant similarities in structural forms.
Climate
One of the most significant influences on vernacular architecture is the macro climate of the area in which the building is constructed. Buildings in cold climates invariably have high thermal mass or significant amounts of insulation. They are usually sealed in order to prevent heat loss, and openings such as windows tend to be small or non-existent. Buildings in warm climates, by contrast, tend to be constructed of lighter materials and to allow significant cross-ventilation through openings in the fabric of the building.
Buildings for a continental climate must be able to cope with significant variations in temperature, and may even be altered by their occupants according to the seasons. In hot arid and semi-arid regions, vernacular structures typically include a number of distinctive elements to provide for ventilation and temperature control. Across the middle-east, these elements included such design features as courtyard gardens with water features, screen walls, reflected light, mashrabiya (the distinctive oriel window with timber lattice-work) and bad girs (wind-catchers).
Buildings take different forms depending on precipitation levels in the region – leading to dwellings on stilts in many regions with frequent flooding or rainy monsoon seasons. For example, the Queenslander is an elevated weatherboard house with a sloped, tin roof that evolved in the early 19th-century as a solution to the annual flooding caused by monsoonal rain in Australia's northern states. Flat roofs are rare in areas with high levels of precipitation. Similarly, areas with high winds will lead to specialised buildings able to cope with them, and buildings tend to present minimal surface area to prevailing winds and are often situated low on the landscape to minimise potential storm damage.
Climatic influences on vernacular architecture are substantial and can be extremely complex. Mediterranean vernacular, and that of much of the Middle East, often includes a courtyard with a fountain or pond; air cooled by water mist and evaporation is drawn through the building by the natural ventilation set up by the building form. Similarly, Northern African vernacular often has very high thermal mass and small windows to keep the occupants cool, and in many cases also includes chimneys, not for fires but to draw air through the internal spaces. Such specializations are not designed, but learned by trial and error over generations of building construction, often existing long before the scientific theories which explain why they work. Vernacular architecture is also used for the purposes of local citizens.
Culture
The way of life of building occupants, and the way they use their shelters, is of great influence on building forms. The size of family units, who shares which spaces, how food is prepared and eaten, how people interact and many other cultural considerations will affect the layout and size of dwellings.
For example, the family units of several East African ethnic communities live in family compounds, surrounded by marked boundaries, in which separate single-roomed dwellings are built to house different members of the family. In polygamous communities there may be separate dwellings for different wives, and more again for sons who are too old to share space with the women of the family. Social interaction within the family is governed by, and privacy is provided by, the separation between the structures in which family members live. By contrast, in Western Europe, such separation is accomplished inside one dwelling, by dividing the building into separate rooms.
Culture also has a great influence on the appearance of vernacular buildings, as occupants often decorate buildings in accordance with local customs and beliefs.
Nomadic dwellings
There are many cultures around the world which include some aspect of nomadic life, and they have all developed vernacular solutions for the need for shelter. These all include appropriate responses to climate and customs of their inhabitants, including practicalities of simple construction such as huts, and if necessary, transport such as tents.
The Inuit people have a number of different forms of shelter appropriate to different seasons and geographical locations, including the igloo (for winter) and the tupiq (for summer). The Sami of Northern Europe, who live in climates similar to those experienced by the Inuit, have developed different shelters appropriate to their culture including the lavvu and goahti. The development of different solutions in similar circumstances because of cultural influences is typical of vernacular architecture.
Many nomadic people use materials common in the local environment to construct temporary dwellings, such as the Punan of Sarawak who use palm fronds, or the Ituri Pygmies who use saplings and mongongo leaves to construct domed huts. Other cultures reuse materials, transporting them with them as they move. Examples of this are the tribes of Mongolia, who carry their gers (yurts) with them, or the black desert tents of the Qashgai in Iran. Notable in each case is the significant impact of the availability of materials and the availability of pack animals or other forms of transport on the ultimate form of the shelters.
All the shelters are adapted to suit the local climate. The Mongolian gers (yurts), for example, are versatile enough to be cool in hot continental summers and warm in the sub-zero temperatures of Mongolian winters, and include a close-able ventilation hole at the centre and a chimney for a stove. A ger is typically not often relocated, and is therefore sturdy and secure, including wooden front door and several layers of coverings. A traditional Berber tent, by contrast, might be relocated daily, and is much lighter and quicker to erect and dismantle – and because of the climate it is used in, does not need to provide the same degree of protection from the elements.
Permanent dwellings
The type of structure and materials used for a dwelling vary depending on how permanent it is. Frequently moved nomadic structures will be lightweight and simple, more permanent ones will be less so. When people settle somewhere permanently, the architecture of their dwellings will change to reflect that.
Materials used will become heavier, more solid and more durable. They may also become more complicated and more expensive, as the capital and labour required to construct them is a one-time cost. Permanent dwellings often offer a greater degree of protection and shelter from the elements. In some cases however, where dwellings are subjected to severe weather conditions such as frequent flooding or high winds, buildings may be deliberately "designed" to fail and be replaced, rather than requiring the uneconomical or even impossible structures needed to withstand them. The collapse of a relatively flimsy, lightweight structure is also less likely to cause serious injury than a heavy structure.
Over time, dwellings' architecture may come to reflect a very specific geographical locale.
Environment, construction elements and materials
The local environment and the construction materials it can provide, govern many aspects of vernacular architecture. Areas rich in trees will develop a wooden vernacular, while areas without much wood may use mud or stone. In early California redwood water towers supporting redwood tanks and enclosed by redwood siding (tankhouses) were part of a self-contained wind-powered domestic water system. In the Far East it is common to use bamboo, as it is both plentiful and versatile. Vernacular, almost by definition, is sustainable, and will not exhaust the local resources. If it is not sustainable, it is not suitable for its local context, and cannot be vernacular.
Construction elements and materials frequently found in vernacular buildings include:
Adobe – a type of mud brick, often covered with white-wash, commonly used in Spain and Spanish colonies
Bad girs – a type of chimney used to provide natural ventilation, commonly found in Iran, Iraq and other parts of the Middle-East
Cob – a type of plaster made from subsoil with the addition of fibrous material to give added strength
Mashrabiya (also known as shanashol in Iraq) – a type of oriel window with timber lattice-work, designed to allow ventilation, commonly found in Iraq and Egypt in upper-class homes
Mud bricks – loam or sand mixed with water and vegetable matter such as straw
Rammed earth often used in foundations
Saddleback roof
Thatch – dry vegetation used as roofing material
Wychert – a blend of white earth and clay
Legal aspects
As many jurisdictions introduce tougher building codes and zoning regulations, "folk architects" sometimes find themselves in conflict with the local authorities.
A case that made news in Russia was that of an Arkhangelsk entrepreneur Nikolay P. Sutyagin, who built what was reportedly the world's tallest single-family wooden house for himself and his family, only to see it condemned as a fire hazard. The 13-storey, tall structure, known locally as "Sutyagin's skyscraper" (Небоскрёб Сутягина), was found to be in violation of Arkhangelsk building codes, and in 2008 the courts ordered the building to be demolished by February 1, 2009. On December 26, 2008, the tower was pulled down, and the remainder was dismantled manually over the course of the next several months.
Gallery
Africa
Anatolia
Central Asia
Middle East
South Asia
Far East Asia
Southeast Asia and Austronesia
Australia and New Zealand
Europe
North America
South America
Types and examples by region
Inter-regional
Bender tent – a temporary dwelling used by Nomadic people
Stilt house – a raised house found in monsoonal regions, especially monsoonal South Asia or other areas prone to flooding
Brazil
Bustee – a dwelling made from waste materials, often associated with the slums of India or the favellas of Brazil
Canada
Canadian Railway style, Railway stations built in Canada in the 19th and early 20th centuries were often simple wood structures that lacked decorative features. Some of these stations survive today but not as active railway stations.
Iraq
Desert castles – (in Arabic, known as q'sar) fortified palaces or castles built during the Umayyad period, the ruins of which are now scattered across the semi-arid regions of north-eastern Jordan, Syria, Israel, Palestine and Iraq. These often served as hunting lodges for noble families.
Mudhif – a traditional building constructed entirely of reeds and common to the Marsh Arabs of southern Iraq. Many were destroyed by Saddam Hussein, but since 2003, Arab communities have been returning to their traditional homes and way of life.
Germany
Gulf house
Low German house
Middle German house
Old Frisian farmhouse
Indonesia
Israel
Sukkah – a temporary dwelling for use during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. A sukkah must be made of organic materials, have three walls, and must have a roof that is partially open to the sky. The roof is typically made of branches or thatch.
Four room house- Iron Age structures constructed of mud and stone.
Wild Bau cladding style- the practice of repurposing rubble from Israeli structures destroyed during wars and terrorist attacks in masonry, especially in Katamon.
Italy
Alpine 'barn' houses (dwellings built on the storey above the ground floor, which housed cattle durign winter
Dammuso (Dammusu) dry stone housing of Pantelleria
Sassi di Matera – cave dwellings
Trullo – dry stone hut-shaped house with a conical roof
Norway
Philippines
Torogan sleeping house in Mindanao, Philippines
Scotland
Bastle house – a multi-storey, fortified farmhouse with sophisticated security measures designed to provide defense against the frequent raiding parties along the Scottish border.
Blackhouse – a traditional dry-stone wall building, roofed with thatch of turf, a flagstone floor and central hearth, designed to accommodate livestock and people, separated by a partition.
Crofters cottage – a simple construction of stone walls filled with earth for insulation, a thatched or turf roof and stone slabs were set into the middle of the room for a peat fire which provided some form of central heating. An unusual croft house Brotchie's Steading, Dunnet was built with whale bone couples.
Cruck house – a medieval structure designed to cope with shortages of long-span timber. The frame of the structure uses "siles" or "couples" (a type of fork) for the end walls. The walls do not support the roof, which is instead carried on the cruck frame. This type of building is common throughout England, Scotland and Wales, although only a few intact examples have survived.
Shieling – a type of temporary hut (or a collection of huts) constructed of stone, sod and turf used as a dwelling during the Summer months when highlanders took their livestock to higher ground in search of new pasture.
Tower house or peel tower – a medieval building, typically of stone, constructed by the aristocratic classes as a defensible residence.
Turf house – e.g. East Ayrshire, Medieval turf house
Spain
Adobe house - mudbrick buildings found in Spain and Spanish colonies
United States
Creole architecture in the United States - a type of house or cottage common along the Gulf Coast and associated rivers, especially in southern Louisiana and Mississippi.
Vernacular Architecture of Rural and Small-Town Missouri, by Howard Wight Marshall
Earth lodge -a subterranean dwelling used by the Native Americans of the Great Plains
Hogan –traditional dwelling of Navajo people
Earl A. Young (born March 31, 1889 – May 24, 1975) was an American architect, realtor and insurance agent. Over a span of 52 years, he designed and built 31 structures in Charlevoix, Michigan but was never a registered architect. He worked mostly in stone, using limestone, fieldstone, and boulders he found throughout Northern Michigan. The homes are commonly referred to as gnome homes, mushroom houses, or Hobbit houses. His door, window, roof and fireplace designs were very distinct because of his use of curved lines. Young's goal was to show that a small stone house could be as impressive as a castle. Young also helped make Charlevoix the busy, summer resort town that it is today.
Ukraine
Different regions in Ukraine have their own examples of vernacular architecture. For example, in the Carpathian Mountains and the surrounding foothills, wood and clay are the primary traditional building materials. Ukrainian architecture is preserved at The Museum of Folk Architecture and Way of Life of Central Naddnipryanshchyna located in Pereiaslav, Ukraine.
See also
Indigenous architecture
House types:
A-frame house
Barabara (Aleut)
Bastle house (England, Scotland)
Beehive house (Bantu, Africa)
Bender tent
Blackhouse
Bothy
Bungalow
Burdei (Romania, Ukraine)
Cabana (structure)
Chalet (Alpine regions of Europe)
Clochán (Ireland)
Cruck house
Earth lodge (American Indian)
Four room house (ancient Israel and Judah)
Gulf house (East Frisia and North Germany)
Half-timbered construction
Hall house
Hut
Icelandic turf houses
Igloo
Khmer house
Log cabin
Longhouse
Low German house
List of human habitation forms
List of house types
Machiya Japan
Malay houses traditional houses of Bahasa people of Malaya
Mitato (Greece)
Mountain hut
Mudhif
Nakamal (Vanuatu)
Nipa hut (Philippines)
Oast house
Oca (structure) (Brazil)
Old Frisian farmhouse (The Netherlands and North German Plain)
Orri (France)
Peel tower (England, Scotland)
The Queenslander (Australia)
Rondavel (Central and South Africa)
Rumoh Aceh indigenous architecture of Aceh, Indonesia
Sheiling
Shotgun house
Sod house
Stilt house
Tipi
Torogan (Philippines)
Tower house (Scotland, Spain and mountainous regions)
Trullo
Wharenui, a Māori longhouse (New Zealand)
Wigwam
Yaranga
Yurt (Central Asia)
Architectural elements
Dormer window
Mashrabiya (also known as shanashel in Iraq)
Oriel window
Windcatcher (bad girs in Arabic)
Building techniques and materials:
Bundwerk construction method used in Austria, Tyrol and Bavaria
Cob (material)
Grouted roof
Pierrotage (French infill material)
Sod roof
Stilts (architecture)
Thatch
Veranda (Australia)
Wattle and daub
Organizations:
Vernacular Architecture Forum
Architecture, SUST
International Network for Traditional Building, Architecture & Urbanism
Regional vernacular architecture:
Architecture in early modern Scotland#Vernacular architecture in Early modern Scotland
Baita (architecture) Alpine regions of Europe
Balinese architecture Bali, Indonesia
Batak architecture Indigenous architecture of the people of Sumatra, Indonesia
Creole architecture in the United States
Estonian vernacular architecture
European medieval architecture in North America
Indian vernacular architecture
Kanak traditional architecture
Mar del Plata style
Scottish Vernacular
Shophouse (South-East Asia)
Traditional architecture of Enggano (Indonesia)
Vernacular architecture in Indonesia
Rustic architecture of the United States
Vernacular architecture of the Carpathians
Vernacular architecture of old Riyadh (Saudi Arabia)
Vernacular architecture in Norway
Vernacular architecture of Ukraine
Vernacular residential architecture of Western Sichuan
Vernacular architecture of Spain
Examples:
Al-Mashrabiya Building
Broken Angel House
Ethel S. Roy House
Machiya – traditional Japanese wooden town houses
Phonehenge West
Slow architecture
Watts Towers
Witch window
People:
Laurie Baker
Geoffrey Bawa
Rifat Chadirji
Bashirul Haq
Saiful Haq
Friedensreich Hundertwasser
Howard Moffitt
Mudéjar
Dan Phillips
Kea Tawana
References
Sources and further reading
Large format.
Clifton-Taylor pioneered the study of the English vernacular.
Glassie, Henry. "Architects, Vernacular Traditions, and Society" Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review, Vol 1, 1990, 9-21
Mark Jarzombek, Architecture of First Societies: A Global Perspective, (New York: Wiley & Sons, August 2013)
Carl Pruscha, Austrian architect and United Nations-UNESCO advisor to the government of Nepal, lived and worked in the Himalayas 1964–74. He continued his activities as head of the design studio "Habitat, Environment and Conservation" at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna.
Schittich, Christian, ed. (2019). Vernacular Architecture: Atlas for Living Throughout the World. Basle: Birkhäuser.
Upton, Dell and John Michael Vlach, eds. Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1986. .
Wharton, David. "Roadside Architecture." Southern Spaces, February 1, 2005, http://southernspaces.org/2005/roadside-architecture.
External links
Centre for Vernacular Architecture-Bangalore-India
Vernacular Architecture Forum
Vernacular Architecture Examples at GreatBuildings
Vernacular Architecture and Landscape Architecture Research Guide – Environmental Design Library, University of California, Berkeley
Himalayan Vernacular Architecture - Technische Universität Berlin
DATs Fachwerk interiors (Germany)
Folklore
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Sir John Betjeman (; 28 August 190619 May 1984) was an English poet, writer, and broadcaster. He was Poet Laureate from 1972 until his death. He was a founding member of The Victorian Society and a passionate defender of Victorian architecture, helping to save St Pancras railway station from demolition. He began his career as a journalist and ended it as one of the most popular British Poets Laureate and a much-loved figure on British television.
Life
Early life and education
Betjeman was born John Betjemann. He was the son of a prosperous silverware maker of Dutch descent. His parents, Mabel (née Dawson) and Ernest Betjemann, had a family firm at 34–42 Pentonville Road which manufactured the kind of ornamental household furniture and gadgets distinctive to Victorians.
During the First World War the family name was changed to the less German-looking Betjeman. His father's forebears had actually come from the present day Netherlands more than a century earlier, setting up their home and business in Islington, London, and during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War had, ironically, added the extra "-n" to avoid the anti-Dutch sentiment existing at the time.
Betjeman was baptised at St Anne's Church, Highgate Rise, a 19th-century church at the foot of Highgate West Hill. The family lived at Parliament Hill Mansions in the Lissenden Gardens private estate in Gospel Oak in north London.
In 1909, the Betjemanns moved half a mile north to more opulent Highgate. From West Hill they lived in the reflected glory of the Burdett-Coutts estate:
Betjeman's early schooling was at the local Byron House and Highgate School, where he was taught by poet T. S. Eliot. After this, he boarded at the Dragon School preparatory school in North Oxford and Marlborough College, a public school in Wiltshire. In his penultimate year, he joined the secret Society of Amici in which he was a contemporary of both Louis MacNeice and Graham Shepard. He founded The Heretick, a satirical magazine that lampooned Marlborough's obsession with sport. While at school, his exposure to the works of Arthur Machen won him over to High Church Anglicanism, a conversion of importance to his later writing and conception of the arts. Betjeman left Marlborough in July 1925.
Magdalen College, Oxford
Betjeman entered the University of Oxford with difficulty, having failed the mathematics portion of the university's matriculation exam, Responsions. He was, however, admitted as a commoner (i.e. a non-scholarship student) at Magdalen College and entered the newly created School of English Language and Literature. At Oxford, Betjeman made little use of the academic opportunities. His tutor, a young C. S. Lewis, regarded him as an "idle prig" and Betjeman in turn considered Lewis unfriendly, demanding, and uninspiring as a teacher. Betjeman particularly disliked the coursework's emphasis on linguistics, and dedicated most of his time to cultivating his social life and his interest in English ecclesiastical architecture, and to private literary pursuits.
At Oxford, he was a friend of Maurice Bowra, later (1938 to 1970) to be Warden of Wadham. Betjeman had a poem published in Isis, the university magazine, and served as editor of the Cherwell student newspaper during 1927. His first book of poems was privately printed with the help of fellow student Edward James. He brought his teddy bear Archibald Ormsby-Gore up to Magdalen with him, the memory of which inspired his Oxford contemporary Evelyn Waugh to include Sebastian Flyte's teddy Aloysius in Brideshead Revisited. Much of this period of his life is recorded in his blank verse autobiography Summoned by Bells published in 1960 and made into a television film in 1976.
It is a common misapprehension, cultivated by Betjeman himself, that he did not complete his degree because he failed to pass the compulsory holy scripture examination, known colloquially as "Divvers", short for "Divinity". In Hilary term 1928, Betjeman failed Divinity for the second time. He had to leave the university for the Trinity term to prepare for a retake of the exam; he was then allowed to return in October. Betjeman then wrote to the Secretary of the Tutorial Board at Magdalen, G. C. Lee, asking to be entered for the Pass School, a set of examinations taken on rare occasions by undergraduates who are deemed unlikely to achieve an honours degree. In Summoned by Bells Betjeman claims that his tutor, C. S. Lewis, said "You'd have only got a third" – but he had informed the tutorial board that he thought Betjeman would not achieve an honours degree of any class.
Permission to sit the Pass School was granted. Betjeman decided to offer a paper in Welsh. Osbert Lancaster tells the story that a tutor came by train twice a week (first class) from Aberystwyth to teach Betjeman. However, Jesus College had a number of Welsh tutors who more probably would have taught him. Betjeman finally had to leave at the end of the Michaelmas term, 1928. Betjeman did pass his Divinity examination on his third try but was expelled after failing the Pass School. He had achieved a satisfactory result in only one of the three required papers (on Shakespeare and other English authors). Betjeman's academic failure at Oxford rankled with him for the rest of his life and he was never reconciled with C.S. Lewis, towards whom he nursed a bitter detestation. This situation was perhaps complicated by his enduring love of Oxford, from which he accepted an honorary doctorate of letters in 1974.
After university
Betjeman left Oxford without a degree. Whilst there, however, he had made the acquaintance of people who would later influence his work, including Louis MacNeice and W. H. Auden. He worked briefly as a private secretary, school teacher and film critic for the Evening Standard, where he also wrote for their high-society gossip column, the Londoner's Diary. He was employed by the Architectural Review between 1930 and 1935, as a full-time assistant editor, following their publishing of some of his freelance work. Timothy Mowl (2000) says, "His years at the Architectural Review were to be his true university". At this time, while his prose style matured, he joined the MARS Group, an organisation of young modernist architects and architectural critics in Britain.
Betjeman's sexuality can best be described as bisexual, and his longest and best documented relationships were with women, and a fairer analysis of his sexuality may be that he was "the hatcher of a lifetime of schoolboy crushes – both gay and straight", most of which progressed no further. Nevertheless, he has been considered "temperamentally gay", and even became a penpal of Lord Alfred 'Bosie' Douglas of Oscar Wilde fame. On 29 July 1933 Betjeman married the Hon. Penelope Chetwode, the daughter of Field Marshal Lord Chetwode. The couple lived in Berkshire and had a son, Paul, in 1937, and a daughter, Candida, in 1942. In 1937, Betjeman was a churchwarden at Uffington, the Berkshire village (in Oxfordshire since boundary changes of 1974) where he lived. That year, he paid for the cleaning of the church's royal arms and later presided over the conversion of the church's oil lamps to electricity.
The Shell Guides were developed by Betjeman and Jack Beddington, a friend who was publicity manager with Shell-Mex & BP, to guide Britain's growing number of motorists around the counties of Britain and their historical sites. They were published by the Architectural Press and financed by Shell. By the start of World War II 13 had been published, of which Cornwall (1934) and Devon (1936) were written by Betjeman. A third, Shropshire, was written with and designed by his good friend John Piper in 1951.
In 1939, Betjeman was rejected for military service in World War II but found war work with the films division of the Ministry of Information. In 1941 he became British press attaché in neutral Dublin, Ireland, working with Sir John Maffey. His secretary in Dublin was the journalist and writer Shevawn Lynam, the author of the novel The Spirit and the Clay, about the resistance to Francoism in the Basque Country. Betjeman may have been involved with the gathering of intelligence. He is reported to have been selected for murder by the IRA. The order was rescinded after a meeting with an unnamed Old IRA man who was impressed by his works.
Betjeman wrote a number of poems based on his experiences in Ireland during the "Emergency" (the war) including "The Irish Unionist's Farewell to Greta Hellstrom in 1922" (written during the war) which contained the refrain "Dungarvan in the rain". The object of his affections, "Greta", has remained a mystery until recently revealed to have been a member of a well-known Anglo-Irish family of Western county Waterford. His official brief included establishing friendly contacts with leading figures in the Dublin literary scene: he befriended Patrick Kavanagh, then at the very start of his career. Kavanagh celebrated the birth of Betjeman's daughter with a poem "Candida"; another well-known poem contains the line Let John Betjeman call for me in a car. From March to November 1944 Betjeman was assigned to another wartime job, working on publicity for the Admiralty in Bath.
After the Second World War
Betjeman's wife Penelope became a Roman Catholic in 1948. The couple drifted apart and in 1951 he met Lady Elizabeth Cavendish, with whom he developed an immediate and lifelong friendship. By 1948 Betjeman had published more than a dozen books. Five of these were verse collections, including one in the USA. Sales of his Collected Poems in 1958 reached 100,000. The popularity of the book prompted Ken Russell to make a film about him, John Betjeman: A Poet in London (1959). Filmed in 35 mm and running 11 minutes and 35 seconds, it was first shown on the BBC's Monitor. In 1953 his address was the Old Rectory, Farnborough, Wantage, Berkshire.
He continued writing guidebooks and works on architecture during the 1960s and 1970s and started broadcasting. He was a founder member of The Victorian Society (1958). Betjeman was closely associated with the culture and spirit of Metro-land, as outer reaches of the Metropolitan Railway were known before the war. In 1973 he made a widely acclaimed television documentary for the BBC called Metro-Land, directed by Edward Mirzoeff. On the centenary of Betjeman's birth in 2006, his daughter led two celebratory railway trips: from London to Bristol, and through Metro-land, to Quainton Road. In 1974, Betjeman and Mirzoeff followed up Metro-Land with A Passion for Churches, a celebration of Betjeman's beloved Church of England, filmed entirely in the Diocese of Norwich. In 1975, he proposed that the Fine Rooms of Somerset House should house the Turner Bequest, so helping to scupper the plan of the Minister for the Arts for a Theatre Museum to be housed there. In 1977 the BBC broadcast "The Queen's Realm: A Prospect of England", an aerial anthology of English landscape, music and poetry, selected by Betjeman and produced by Edward Mirzoeff, in celebration of the Queen's Silver Jubilee.
Betjeman was fond of the ghost stories of M.R. James and supplied an introduction to Peter Haining's book M. R. James – Book of the Supernatural. He was susceptible to the supernatural; Diana Mitford tells the story of Betjeman staying at her country home, Biddesden House, in the 1920s. She says, "he had a terrifying dream, that he was handed a card with wide black edges, and on it his name was engraved, and a date. He knew this was the date of his death". For the last decade of his life Betjeman suffered increasingly from Parkinson's disease. He died at his home in Trebetherick, Cornwall, on 19 May 1984, aged 77, and is buried nearby at St Enodoc's Church.
Poetry
Betjeman's poems are often humorous, and in broadcasting he exploited his bumbling and fogeyish image. His wryly comic verse is accessible and has attracted a great following for its satirical and observant grace. Auden said in his introduction to Slick But Not Streamlined, "so at home with the provincial gaslit towns, the seaside lodgings, the bicycle, the harmonium." His poetry is similarly redolent of time and place, continually seeking out intimations of the eternal in the manifestly ordinary. There are constant evocations of the physical chaff and clutter that accumulates in everyday life, the miscellanea of an England now gone but not beyond the reach of living memory.
He talks of Ovaltine and Sturmey-Archer bicycle gears. "Oh! Fuller's angel cake, Robertson's marmalade," he writes, "Liberty lampshades, come shine on us all."
In a 1962 radio interview he told teenage questioners that he could not write about 'abstract things', preferring places, and faces. Philip Larkin wrote of his work, "how much more interesting & worth writing about Betjeman's subjects are than most other modern poets, I mean, whether so-and-so achieves some metaphysical inner unity is not really so interesting to us as the overbuilding of rural Middlesex".
Betjeman was an Anglican and his religious beliefs come through in some of his poems. In a letter written on Christmas Day 1947, he said: “Also my view of the world is that man is born to fulfil the purposes of his Creator i.e. to Praise his Creator, to stand in awe of Him and to dread Him. In this way I differ from most modern poets, who are agnostics and have an idea that Man is the centre of the Universe or is a helpless bubble blown about by uncontrolled forces." He combined piety with a nagging uncertainty about the truth of Christianity. Unlike Thomas Hardy, who disbelieved in the truth of the Christmas story while hoping it might be so, Betjeman affirms his belief even while fearing it might be false. In the poem "Christmas", one of his most openly religious pieces, the last three stanzas that proclaim the wonder of Christ's birth do so in the form of a question "And is it true...?" His views on Christianity were expressed in his poem "The Conversion of St. Paul", a response to a radio broadcast by humanist Margaret Knight:
Betjeman became Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom in 1972, the first Knight Bachelor to be appointed (the only other, Sir William Davenant, was knighted after his appointment). This role, combined with his popularity as a television performer, ensured that his poetry reached an audience enormous by the standards of the time. Similarly to Tennyson, he appealed to a wide public and managed to voice the thoughts and aspirations of many ordinary people while retaining the respect of many of his fellow poets. This is partly because of the apparently simple traditional metrical structures and rhymes he uses. In the early 1970s, he began a recording career of four albums on Charisma Records which included Betjeman's Banana Blush (1974) and Late Flowering Love (1974), where his poetry reading is set to music with overdubbing by leading musicians of the time. Madeleine Dring set five of Betjeman's poems to music in 1976, just before her death. His recording catalogue extends to nine albums, four singles and two compilations.
Prompted by the rapid development of the Buckinghamshire town before World War II, Betjeman wrote the ten-stanza poem "Slough" to express his dismay at the industrialisation of Britain. He later came to regret having written it. The poem was first included in his 1937 collection Continual Dew.
Betjeman and architecture
Betjeman had a fondness for Victorian architecture at a time when it was unfashionable and was a founding member of The Victorian Society. He wrote on this subject in First and Last Loves (1952) and more extensively in London's Historic Railway Stations in 1972, defending the beauty of 12 stations. He led the campaign to save Holy Trinity, Sloane Street, in London when it was threatened with demolition in the early 1970s. He was also a founding member of the Friends of Friendless Churches in 1957.
He fought a spirited but unsuccessful campaign to save the Propylaeum, known commonly as the Euston Arch, London. He is considered instrumental in helping to save St Pancras railway station, London, and was commemorated when it became an international terminus for Eurostar in November 2007. He called the plan to demolish St Pancras a "criminal folly". About it he wrote, "What [the Londoner] sees in his mind's eye is that cluster of towers and pinnacles seen from Pentonville Hill and outlined against a foggy sunset and the great arc of Barlow's train shed gaping to devour incoming engines and the sudden burst of exuberant Gothic of the hotel seen from gloomy Judd Street". On the reopening of St Pancras station in 2007, the Statue of John Betjeman was commissioned from curators Futurecity. A proposal by artist Martin Jennings was selected from a shortlist. The finished work was erected in the station at platform level, including a series of slate roundels depicting selections of Betjeman's writings.
Betjeman was given the remaining two-year lease on Victorian Gothic architect William Burges's Tower House in Holland Park upon leaseholder Mrs E. R. B. Graham's death in 1962. Betjeman felt he could not afford the financial implications of taking over the house permanently, with his potential liability for £10,000 of renovations upon the expiry of the lease. After damage from vandals, restoration began in 1966. Betjeman's lease included furniture from the house by Burges and Betjeman gave three pieces, the Zodiac settle, the Narcissus washstand and the Philosophy cabinet, to Evelyn Waugh.
He edited, and wrote large sections of, The Collins Guide to English Parish Churches (1958); his substantial editorial preface was described by The Times Literary Supplement as "pure gold". The classic status of this book is acknowledged by Simon Jenkins in his England's Thousand Best Churches: "Three ghosts inhabit all English churches ... They are those of John Betjeman, Alec Clifton-Taylor and Nikolaus Pevsner."
Betjeman responded to architecture as the visible manifestation of society's spiritual life as well as its political and economic structure. He attacked speculators and bureaucrats for what he saw as their rapacity and lack of imagination. In the preface of his collection of architectural essays First and Last Loves he wrote
In a BBC film made in 1968 but not broadcast at that time, Betjeman described the sound of Leeds to be of "Victorian buildings crashing to the ground". He went on to lambast John Poulson's British Railways House (now City House), saying how it blocked all the light out to City Square and was only a testament to money with no architectural merit. He also praised the architecture of Leeds Town Hall. In 1969 Betjeman contributed the foreword to Derek Linstrum's Historic Architecture of Leeds.
Betjeman was for over 20 years a trustee of the Bath Preservation Trust and was vice-president from 1965 to 1971, at a time when Bath—a city rich in Georgian architecture—was coming under increasing pressure from modern developers and a road had been proposed to cut across it. He also created a short television documentary called Architecture of Bath, in which he voiced his concerns about the way the city's architectural heritage was being mistreated. From 1946 to 1948 he had served as Secretary to the Oxford Preservation Trust. Betjeman was also instrumental in saving the Duke of Cornwall Hotel in Plymouth.
Legacy
Prizes
The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings annually presents a John Betjeman award to recognise the repair and conservation of places of worship in England and Wales.
The John Betjeman Poetry Competition for Young People began in 2006 and was open to 10- to 13-year-olds living anywhere in the British Isles (including the Republic of Ireland), with a first prize of £1,000. In addition to prizes for individual finalists, state schools who enter pupils may win one of six one-day poetry workshops.
In 2020 Private Eye reported that the prize was to close after thirteen years.
Other memorials
A memorial window, Symbols of the Resurrection designed by John Piper, in All Saints' Church, Farnborough, Berkshire, where Betjeman lived in the nearby Rectory.
The Betjeman Millennium Park at Wantage in Oxfordshire, where he lived from 1951 to 1972 and where he set his book Archie and the Strict Baptists
One of the roads in Pinner, a town covered in Betjeman's film Metro-Land is called Betjeman Close, while another in Chorleywood, also covered in Metro-Land, is called Betjeman Gardens.
A road in the Sheffield suburb of Broomhill is called Betjeman Gardens. This suburb was described by Betjeman as 'the prettiest suburb in England' and was the subject of his poem 'An Edwardian Sunday, Broomhill, Sheffield'.
One of the engines on the pier railway at Southend-on-Sea is named Sir John Betjeman (the other Sir William Heygate).
A British Rail Class 86 AC electric locomotive, 86229, was named Sir John Betjeman by the man in person at St Pancras station on 24 June 1983, just before his death; it was renamed Lions Group International in 1998 and was scrapped in February 2020. The nameplate is now carried by Class 90 locomotive 90007, in service on the London – Norwich route.
In 2003, to mark their centenary, the residents of Lissenden Gardens in north London put up a blue plaque to mark Betjeman's birthplace.
In 2006, a blue plaque was installed on Betjeman's childhood home, 31 West Hill, Highgate, London N6.
In 2006 a blue plaque was erected at Garrard's Farm, Uffington, Oxfordshire, which had been his first married home.
A blue plaque has been erected at 43 Cloth Fair, opposite St Bartholomew-the-Great church and near St Bartholomew's Hospital, where he lived and worked. He let the ground floor to Leonard Beddall-Smith, the conservation architect and Georgian specialist, who was the founder architect of the Landmark Trust, who now own the building to celebrate Betjeman's time there.
The statue of John Betjeman at St Pancras station in London by sculptor Martin Jennings was unveiled in 2007.
In 2012 Betjeman featured on BBC Radio 4 as author of the week on The Write Stuff.
In 2014, a new street in Cleobury Mortimer, Shropshire, was named 'Betjeman Way', in honour of the poet, and in recognition of the fact that the restoration of Cleobury Mortimer's church steeple won SPAB's John Betjeman award in 1994.
On 1 September 2014 Betjeman was the subject of the hour-long BBC Four documentary Return to Betjemanland, presented by his biographer A. N. Wilson. At the start of the broadcast, there was a spoken tribute to Betjeman's daughter Candida Lycett Green, who had died just twelve days earlier on 19 August, aged 71.
On 28 August 2016 a bust of Betjeman based on the St Pancras statue was unveiled outside the Vale and Downland Museum in Wantage, Oxfordshire.
On 10 June 2017 a plaque was unveiled at the Dragon School, Oxford, to mark the centenary of his arrival there on 2 May 1917.
Awards and honours
1960 Queen's Medal for Poetry
1960 Appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1960 New Year Honours.
1968 Companion of Literature, the Royal Society of Literature
1969 Appointed Knight Bachelor in the 1969 Birthday Honours.
1972 Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom
1973 Honorary Member, the American Academy of Arts and Letters
2011 Honoured by the University of Oxford, his alma mater, as one of its 100 most distinguished members from ten centuries.
Works
Some works include:
Mount Zion. 1932.
Continual Dew. 1937.
An Oxford University Chest. 1938.
English Cities & Small Towns. William Collins 1943.
New Bats in Old Belfries. 1945.
A Few Late Chrysanthemums. 1954.
Poems in the Porch. 1954.
The Collins Guide to English Parish Churches (editor). 1958
High and Low. 1966.
A Nip in the Air. 1974.
edited by Candida Lycett Green
References
Notes
Sources
Gardner, Kevin J. (2010) Betjeman and the Anglican Tradition, London, SPCK.
Green, Chris (2006). John Betjeman and the Railways. Transport for London
Hillier, Bevis (1984). John Betjeman: a life in pictures. London: John Murray.
Hillier, Bevis (1988). Young Betjeman. London: John Murray. .
Hillier, Bevis (2002). John Betjeman: new fame, new love. London: John Murray. .
Hillier, Bevis (2004). Betjeman: the bonus of laughter. London : John Murray. .
Hillier, Bevis (2006). Betjeman: the biography. London: John Murray.
Lycett Green, Candida (Ed.) (Methuen, 1994). Letters: John Betjeman, Vol.1, 1926 to 1951. London: Methuen.
Lycett Green, Candida (Ed.) (Methuen, 1995). Letters: John Betjeman, Vol.2, 1951 to 1984. London: Methuen.
Lycett Green, Candida, Betjeman's stations in The Oldie, September 2006
Matthew, H.C.G. and Harrison, B. (eds), (2004). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (vol. 5). Oxford: OUP.
Mirzoeff, Edward (2006). Viewing notes for Metro-land (DVD) (24pp)
Mowl, Timothy (2000). Stylistic Cold Wars, Betjeman versus Pevsner. London: John Murray.
Schroeder, Reinhard (1972). Die Lyrik John Betjemans. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. (Thesis).
Sieveking, Lancelot de Giberne (1963). John Betjeman and Dorset. Dorchester: Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society.
Stanford, Derek (1961). John Betjeman, a study. London: Neville Spearman.
Taylor-Martin, Patrick (1983). John Betjeman, his life and work. London: Allen Lane.
Wilson, A. N. (2006). Betjeman. London: Hutchinson.
External links
Betjeman documentaries on BBC iPlayer
John Betjeman Poetry Competition for Young People website
John Betjeman fonds at University of Victoria, Special Collections
John Betjeman Concordance at University of Victoria, Special Collections
The Betjeman Society
Poetry Foundation profile
BBC4 audio interviews from People Today 24 December 1959 Home Service
David Heathcote's A Shell Eye on England
Betjeman Archive at the British Library
John Betjeman Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
1906 births
1984 deaths
20th-century English poets
20th-century English male writers
20th-century translators
People educated at Byron House School
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
Anglican poets
British Poets Laureate
Burials in Cornwall
Charisma Records artists
Churchwardens
Commanders of the Order of Saint James of the Sword
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
Neurological disease deaths in England
Dutch–English translators
English Anglicans
English male poets
English people of Dutch descent
Knights Bachelor
Literary translators
People educated at Highgate School
People educated at Marlborough College
People educated at The Dragon School
People from Camden Town
People from Hampstead
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The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant religious revival during the early 19th century in the United States. The Second Great Awakening, which spread religion through revivals and emotional preaching, sparked a number of reform movements. Revivals were a key part of the movement and attracted hundreds of converts to new Protestant denominations. The Methodist Church used circuit riders to reach people in frontier locations. The Second Great Awakening led to a period of antebellum social reform and an emphasis on salvation by institutions. The outpouring of religious fervor and revival began in Kentucky and Tennessee in the 1790s and early 1800s among the Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists. The awakening brought comfort in the face of uncertainty as a result of the socio-political changes in America.
It led to the founding of several well known colleges, seminaries, and mission societies. The Great Awakening notably altered the religious climate in the American colonies. Ordinary people were encouraged to make a personal connection with God, instead of relying on a minister. Newer denominations, such as Methodists and Baptists, grew quickly. While the movement unified the colonies and boosted church growth, experts say it also caused division.
Historians named the Second Great Awakening in the context of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1750s and of the Third Great Awakening of the late 1850s to early 1900s. The Second and Third Awakenings were part of a much larger Romantic religious movement that was sweeping across England, Scotland, and Germany.
New religious movements emerged during the Second Great Awakening, such as Adventism, Dispensationalism, and the Latter Day Saint movement.
Spread of revivals
Background
As the First Great Awakening a half century earlier, the Second Great Awakening in North America reflected Romanticism characterized by enthusiasm, emotion, and an appeal to the supernatural. It rejected the skepticism, deism, Unitarianism, and rationalism left over from the American Enlightenment, about the same time that similar movements flourished in Europe. Pietism was sweeping Germanic countries and evangelicalism was waxing strong in England.
The Second Great Awakening occurred in several episodes and over different denominations; however, the revivals were very similar. As the most effective form of evangelizing during this period, revival meetings cut across geographical boundaries. The movement quickly spread throughout Kentucky, Indiana, Tennessee, and southern Ohio, as well as other regions of the United States and Canada. Each denomination had assets that allowed it to thrive on the frontier. The Methodists had an efficient organization that depended on itinerant ministers, known as circuit riders, who sought out people in remote frontier locations. The circuit riders came from among the common people, which helped them establish rapport with the frontier families they hoped to convert.
Theology
Postmillennialist theology dominated American Protestantism in the first half of the 19th century. Postmillennialists believed that Christ will return to earth after the "Millennium", which could entail either a literal 1,000 years or a figurative "long period" of peace and happiness. Christians thus had a duty to purify society in preparation for that return. This duty extended beyond American borders to include Christian Restorationism. George Fredrickson argues that Postmillennial theology "was an impetus to the promotion of Progressive reforms, as historians have frequently pointed out." During the Second Great Awakening of the 1830s, some diviners expected the millennium to arrive in a few years. By the late 1840s, however, the great day had receded to the distant future, and postmillennialism became a more passive religious dimension of the wider middle-class pursuit of reform and progress.
Burned-over district
Beginning in the 1820s, Western New York State experienced a series of popular religious revivals that would later earn this region the nickname "the burned-over district," which implied the area was set ablaze with spiritual fervor. This term, however, was not used by contemporaries in the first half of the nineteenth century, as it originates from Charles Grandison Finney's Autobiography of Charles G Finney (1876), in which he writes: "I found that region of country what, in the western phrase, would be called, a 'burnt district.' There had been, a few years previously, a wild excitement passing through that region, which they called a revival of religion, but which turned out to be spurious." Charles Finney, a leading revivalist active in the area, coined the term. During this period, a number of nonconformist, folk religion, and evangelical sects flourished in the region, including the Mormons, Millerites, Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Shakers. Spiritualism was also popular in Western New York during this period, with the Lily Dale community and the Fox Sisters playing a defining role in the movement's development.
The extent to which religious fervor actually impacted the region was reassessed in last quarter of the twentieth century. Linda K. Pritchard uses statistical data to show that compared to the rest of New York State, the Ohio River Valley in the lower Midwest, and the country as a whole, the religiosity of the Burned-over District was typical rather than exceptional. More recent works, however, have argued that these revivals in Western New York had a unique and lasting impact upon the religious and social life of the entire nation.
West and Tidewater South
On the American frontier, evangelical denominations, especially Methodists and Baptists, sent missionary preachers and exhorters to meet the people in the backcountry in an effort to support the growth of church membership and the formation of new congregations. Another key component of the revivalists' techniques was the camp meeting. These outdoor religious gatherings originated from field meetings and the Scottish Presbyterians' "Holy Fairs", which were brought to America in the mid-eighteenth century from Ireland, Scotland, and Britain's border counties. Most of the Scots-Irish immigrants before the American Revolutionary War settled in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and down the spine of the Appalachian Mountains in present-day Maryland and Virginia, where Presbyterian emigrants and Baptists held large outdoor gatherings in the years prior to the war. The Presbyterians and Methodists sponsored similar gatherings on a regular basis after the Revolution.
The denominations that encouraged the revivals were based on an interpretation of man's spiritual equality before God, which led them to recruit members and preachers from a wide range of classes and all races. Baptists and Methodist revivals were successful in some parts of the Tidewater South, where an increasing number of common planters, plain folk, and slaves were converted.
West
In the newly settled frontier regions, the revival was implemented through camp meetings. These often provided the first encounter for some settlers with organized religion, and they were important as social venues. The camp meeting was a religious service of several days' length with preachers. Settlers in thinly populated areas gathered at the camp meeting for fellowship as well as worship. The sheer exhilaration of participating in a religious revival with crowds of hundreds and perhaps thousands of people inspired the dancing, shouting, and singing associated with these events. The revivals also followed an arc of great emotional power, with an emphasis on the individual's sins and need to turn to Christ, and a sense of restoring personal salvation. This differed from the Calvinists' belief in predestination as outlined in the Westminster Confession of Faith, which emphasized the inability of men to save themselves and decreed that the only way to be saved was by God's electing grace. Upon their return home, most converts joined or created small local churches, which grew rapidly.
The Revival of 1800 in Logan County, Kentucky, began as a traditional Presbyterian sacramental occasion. The first informal camp meeting began in June, when people began camping on the grounds of the Red River Meeting House. Subsequent meetings followed at the nearby Gasper River and Muddy River congregations. All three of these congregations were under the ministry of James McGready. A year later, in August 1801, an even larger sacrament occasion that is generally considered to be America's first camp meeting was held at Cane Ridge in Bourbon County, Kentucky, under Barton W. Stone (1772–1844) with numerous Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist ministers participating in the services. The six-day gathering attracting perhaps as many as 20,000 people, although the exact number of attendees was not formally recorded. Due to the efforts of such leaders as Stone and Alexander Campbell (1788–1866), the camp meeting revival spread religious enthusiasm and became a major mode of church expansion, especially for the Methodists and Baptists. Presbyterians and Methodists initially worked together to host the early camp meetings, but the Presbyterians eventually became less involved because of the noise and often raucous activities that occurred during the protracted sessions.
As a result of the Revival of 1800, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church emerged in Kentucky and became a strong support of the revivalist movement. Cane Ridge was also instrumental in fostering what became known as the Restoration Movement, which consisted of non-denominational churches committed to what they viewed as the original, fundamental Christianity of the New Testament. Churches with roots in this movement include the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada. The congregations of these denomination were committed to individuals' achieving a personal relationship with Christ.
Church membership soars
The Methodist circuit riders and local Baptist preachers made enormous gains in increasing church membership. To a lesser extent the Presbyterians also gained members, particularly with the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in sparsely settled areas. As a result, the numerical strength of the Baptists and Methodists rose relative to that of the denominations dominant in the colonial period—the Anglicans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists. Among the new denominations that grew from the religious ferment of the Second Great Awakening are the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada.
The converts during the Second Great Awakening were predominantly female. A 1932 source estimated at least three female converts to every two male converts between 1798 and 1826. Young people (those under 25) also converted in greater numbers, and were the first to convert.
Subgroups
Adventism
The Advent Movement emerged in the 1830s and 1840s in North America, and was preached by ministers such as William Miller, whose followers became known as Millerites. The name refers to belief in the soon Second Advent of Jesus (popularly known as the Second coming) and resulted in several major religious denominations, including Seventh-day Adventists and Advent Christians.
Holiness movement
Though its roots are in the First Great Awakening and earlier, a re-emphasis on Wesleyan teachings on sanctification emerged during the Second Great Awakening, leading to a distinction between Mainline Methodism and Holiness churches.
Restoration Movement
The idea of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the U.S. after the American Revolution. This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity without an elaborate hierarchy contributed to the development of many groups during the Second Great Awakening, including the Latter Day Saints, Baptists and Shakers. Several factors made the restoration sentiment particularly appealing during this time period:
To immigrants in the early 19th century, the land in the United States seemed pristine, edenic and undefiled – "the perfect place to recover pure, uncorrupted and original Christianity" – and the tradition-bound European churches seemed out of place in this new setting.
A primitive faith based on the Bible alone promised a way to sidestep the competing claims of the many denominations available and for congregations to find assurance of being right without the security of an established national church.
The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening. While the leaders of one of the two primary groups making up this movement, Thomas Campbell and Alexander Campbell, resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the revivals contributed to the development of the other major branch, led by Barton W. Stone. The Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.
Culture and society
Efforts to apply Christian teaching to the resolution of social problems presaged the Social Gospel of the late 19th century. Converts were taught that to achieve salvation they needed not just to repent personal sin but also work for the moral perfection of society, which meant eradicating sin in all its forms. Thus, evangelical converts were leading figures in a variety of 19th century reform movements.
Congregationalists set up missionary societies to evangelize the western territory of the northern tier. Members of these groups acted as apostles for the faith, and also as educators and exponents of northeastern urban culture. The Second Great Awakening served as an "organizing process" that created "a religious and educational infrastructure" across the western frontier that encompassed social networks, a religious journalism that provided mass communication, and church-related colleges. Publication and education societies promoted Christian education; most notable among them was the American Bible Society, founded in 1816. Women made up a large part of these voluntary societies. The Female Missionary Society and the Maternal Association, both active in Utica, NY, were highly organized and financially sophisticated women's organizations responsible for many of the evangelical converts of the New York frontier.
There were also societies that broadened their focus from traditional religious concerns to larger societal ones. These organizations were primarily sponsored by affluent women. They did not stem entirely from the Second Great Awakening, but the revivalist doctrine and the expectation that one's conversion would lead to personal action accelerated the role of women's social benevolence work. Social activism influenced abolition groups and supporters of the Temperance movement. They began efforts to reform prisons and care for the handicapped and mentally ill. They believed in the perfectibility of people and were highly moralistic in their endeavors.
Slaves and free African Americans
Baptists and Methodists in the South preached to slaveholders and slaves alike. Conversions and congregations started with the First Great Awakening, resulting in Baptist and Methodist preachers being authorized among slaves and free African Americans more than a decade before 1800. "Black Harry" Hosier, an illiterate freedman who drove Francis Asbury on his circuits, proved to be able to memorize large passages of the Bible verbatim and became a cross-over success, as popular among white audiences as the black ones Asbury had originally intended for him to minister. His sermon at Thomas Chapel in Chapeltown, Delaware, in 1784 was the first to be delivered by a black preacher directly to a white congregation.
Despite being called the "greatest orator in America" by Benjamin Rush and one of the best in the world by Bishop Thomas Coke, Hosier was repeatedly passed over for ordination and permitted no vote during his attendance at the Christmas Conference that formally established American Methodism. Richard Allen, the other black attendee, was ordained by the Methodists in 1799, but his congregation of free African Americans in Philadelphia left the church there because of its discrimination. They founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) in Philadelphia. After first submitting to oversight by the established Methodist bishops, several AME congregations finally left to form the first independent African-American denomination in the United States in 1816. Soon after, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AME Zion) was founded as another denomination in New York City.
Early Baptist congregations were formed by slaves and free African Americans in South Carolina and Virginia. Especially in the Baptist Church, African Americans were welcomed as members and as preachers. By the early 19th century, independent African-American congregations numbered in the several hundreds in some cities of the South, such as Charleston, South Carolina, and Richmond and Petersburg, Virginia. With the growth in congregations and churches, Baptist associations formed in Virginia, for instance, as well as Kentucky and other states.
The revival also inspired slaves to demand freedom. In 1800, out of African-American revival meetings in Virginia, a plan for slave rebellion was devised by Gabriel Prosser, although the rebellion was discovered and crushed before it started. Despite white attempts to control independent African-American congregations, especially after the Nat Turner uprising of 1831, a number of African-American congregations managed to maintain their separation as independent congregations in Baptist associations. State legislatures passed laws requiring them always to have a white man present at their worship meetings.
Women
Women, who made up the majority of converts during the Awakening, played a crucial role in its development and focus. It is not clear why women converted in larger numbers than men. Various scholarly theories attribute the discrepancy to a reaction to the perceived sinfulness of youthful frivolity, an inherent greater sense of religiosity in women, a communal reaction to economic insecurity, or an assertion of the self in the face of patriarchal rule. Husbands, especially in the South, sometimes disapproved of their wives' conversion, forcing women to choose between submission to God or their spouses. Church membership and religious activity gave women peer support and place for meaningful activity outside the home, providing many women with communal identity and shared experiences.
Despite the predominance of women in the movement, they were not formally indoctrinated or given leading ministerial positions. However, women took other public roles; for example, relaying testimonials about their conversion experience, or assisting sinners (both male and female) through the conversion process. Leaders such as Charles Finney saw women's public prayer as a crucial aspect in preparing a community for revival and improving their efficacy in conversion. Women also took crucial roles in the conversion and religious upbringing of children. During the period of revival, mothers were seen as the moral and spiritual foundation of the family, and were thus tasked with instructing children in matters of religion and ethics.
The greatest change in women's roles stemmed from participation in newly formalized missionary and reform societies. Women's prayer groups were an early and socially acceptable form of women's organization. In the 1830s, female moral reform societies rapidly spread across the North making it the first predominantly female social movement. Through women's positions in these organizations, women gained influence outside of the private sphere.
Changing demographics of gender also affected religious doctrine. In an effort to give sermons that would resonate with the congregation, ministers stressed Christ's humility and forgiveness, in what the historian Barbara Welter calls a "feminization" of Christianity.
Prominent figures
Richard Allen, founder, African Methodist Episcopal Church
Francis Asbury, Methodist, circuit rider and founder of the Methodist Episcopal Church
Henry Ward Beecher, Congregationalist, son of Lyman Beecher
Lyman Beecher, Presbyterian
Antoinette Brown Blackwell, Congregationalist and later Unitarian, the first ordained female minister in the United States
Alexander Campbell, Presbyterian, and early leader of the Restoration Movement
Thomas Campbell, Presbyterian, then early leader of the Restoration Movement
Peter Cartwright, Methodist
Lorenzo Dow, Methodist
Timothy Dwight IV, Congregationalist
Charles Grandison Finney, Presbyterian and anti-Calvinist, second president of Oberlin College
"Black Harry" Hosier, Methodist, the first African American to preach to a white congregation
Adoniram Judson, early Baptist missionary.
Ann Lee, Shakers
Jarena Lee, Methodist, a female AME circuit rider
Robert Matthews, cult following as Matthias the Prophet
William Miller, Millerism, forerunner of Adventism
Asahel Nettleton, Reformed
Benjamin Randall, Free Will Baptist
Luther Rice, Baptist missionary to India, and Baptist missionary in the US South
Joseph Smith, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, early leader of the Restoration Movement
Barton Stone, Presbyterian non-Calvinist, then early leader of the Restoration Movement
Nathaniel William Taylor, heterodox Calvinist
Ellen G. White, Seventh-day Adventist Church prophetess
Political implications
Revivals and perfectionist hopes of improving individuals and society continued to increase from 1840 to 1865 across all major denominations, especially in urban areas. Evangelists often directly addressed issues such as slavery, greed, and poverty, laying the groundwork for later reform movements. The influence of the Awakening continued in the form of more secular movements. In the midst of shifts in theology and church polity, American Christians began progressive movements to reform society during this period. Known commonly as antebellum reform, this phenomenon included reforms against the consumption of alcohol, for women's rights and abolition of slavery, and a multitude of other issues faced by society.
The religious enthusiasm of the Second Great Awakening was echoed by the new political enthusiasm of the Second Party System. More active participation in politics by more segments of the population brought religious and moral issues into the political sphere. The spirit of evangelical humanitarian reforms was carried on in the antebellum Whig party.
Historians stress the common understanding among participants of reform as being a part of God's plan. As a result, local churches saw their roles in society in purifying the world through the individuals to whom they could bring salvation, and through changes in the law and the creation of institutions. Interest in transforming the world was applied to mainstream political action, as temperance activists, antislavery advocates, and proponents of other variations of reform sought to implement their beliefs into national politics. While Protestant religion had previously played an important role on the American political scene, the Second Great Awakening strengthened the role it would play.
See also
Advent Christian Church
Christian revival
Christianity in the 19th century
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Cumberland Presbyterian Church
Ethnocultural politics in the United States
Holiness movement
Restoration Movement
Seventh-day Adventist Church
References
Further reading
Abzug, Robert H. Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (1994) ()
Ahlstrom, Sydney. A Religious History of the American People (1972) ()
Billington, Ray A. The Protestant Crusade. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938.
Birdsall, Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening and the New England Social Order", Church History 39 (1970): 345–364. .
Bratt, James D. "Religious Anti-revivalism in Antebellum America", Journal of the Early Republic (2004) 24(1): 65–106. . .
Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground; a Study on the American Camp Meeting. Garland Publishing, Inc., (1992).
Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground, Too, the Camp Meeting Family Tree. Hazleton: Holiness Archives, (1997).
Bruce, Dickson D., Jr. And They All Sang Hallelujah: Plain Folk Camp-Meeting Religion, 1800–1845 (1974)
Butler, Jon. Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People. 1990.
Carwardine, Richard J. Evangelicals and Politics in Antebellum America. Yale University Press, 1993.
Carwardine, Richard J. "The Second Great Awakening in the Urban Centers: An Examination of Methodism and the 'New Measures, Journal of American History 59 (1972): 327–340. . .
Cott, Nancy F. "Young Women in the Second Great Awakening in New England," Feminist Studies, (1975), 3#1 pp. 15–29. .
Cross, Whitney, R. The Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York, 1800–1850, (1950).
Foster, Charles I. An Errand of Mercy: The Evangelical United Front, 1790–1837, (University of North Carolina Press, 1960)
Grainger, Brett. Church in the Wild: Evangelicals in Antebellum America (Harvard UP, 2019) online review
Hambrick-Stowe, Charles. Charles G. Finney and the Spirit of American Evangelicalism. (1996).
Hankins, Barry. The Second Great Awakening and the Transcendentalists. Greenwood, 2004.
Hatch, Nathan O. The Democratization of American Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.
Heyrman, Christine Leigh. Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt (1997).
Johnson, Charles A. "The Frontier Camp Meeting: Contemporary and Historical Appraisals, 1805–1840", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1950) 37#1 pp. 91–110. . .
Kyle, I. Francis, III. An Uncommon Christian: James Brainerd Taylor, Forgotten Evangelist in America's Second Great Awakening (2008). See Uncommon Christian Ministries
Long, Kimberly Bracken. "The Communion Sermons of James Mcgready: Sacramental Theology and Scots-Irish Piety on the Kentucky Frontier", Journal of Presbyterian History, 2002 80(1): 3–16. . .
Loveland Anne C. Southern Evangelicals and the Social Order, 1800–1860, (1980)
McLoughlin William G. Modern Revivalism, 1959.
McLoughlin William G. Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: An Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607–1977, 1978.
Marsden, George M. The Evangelical Mind and the New School Presbyterian Experience: A Case Study of Thought and Theology in Nineteenth-Century America (1970).
Meyer, Neil. "Falling for the Lord: Shame, Revivalism, and the Origins of the Second Great Awakening." Early American Studies 9.1 (2011): 142–166. .
Posey, Walter Brownlow. The Baptist Church in the Lower Mississippi Valley, 1776–1845 (1957)
Posey, Walter Brownlow. Frontier Mission: A History of Religion West of the Southern Appalachians to 1861 (1966)
Raboteau, Albert. Slave Religion: The "invisible Institution' in the Antebellum South, (1979)
Roth, Randolph A. The Democratic Dilemma: Religion, Reform, and the Social Order in the Connecticut River Valley of Vermont, 1791–1850, (1987)
Smith, Timothy L. Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War (1957)
Historiography
Conforti, Joseph. "The Invention of the Great Awakening, 1795–1842". Early American Literature (1991): 99–118. .
Griffin, Clifford S. "Religious Benevolence as Social Control, 1815–1860", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, (1957) 44#3 pp. 423–444. . .
Mathews, Donald G. "The Second Great Awakening as an organizing process, 1780–1830: An hypothesis". American Quarterly (1969): 23–43. . .
Shiels, Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening in Connecticut: Critique of the Traditional Interpretation", Church History 49 (1980): 401–415. .
Varel, David A. "The Historiography of the Second Great Awakening and the Problem of Historical Causation, 1945–2005". Madison Historical Review (2014) 8#4 online
Restoration Movement
History of Christianity in the United States
Christian revivals
Christian terminology
19th-century Protestantism
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Theology of the Body is the topic of a series of 129 lectures given by Pope John Paul II during his Wednesday audiences in St. Peter's Square and the Paul VI Audience Hall between September 5, 1979, and November 28, 1984. It constitutes an analysis on human sexuality. The complete addresses were later compiled and expanded upon in many of John Paul's encyclicals, letters, and exhortations.
In Theology of the Body, John Paul II intends to establish an adequate anthropology in which the human body reveals God. He examines man and woman before the Fall, after it, and at the resurrection of the dead. He also contemplates the sexual complementarity of man and woman. He explores the nature of marriage, celibacy and virginity, and expands on the teachings in Humanae vitae on contraception. According to author Christopher West, the central thesis of John Paul's Theology of the Body is that "the body, and it alone, is capable of making visible what is invisible: the spiritual and the divine. It was created to transfer into the visible reality of the world, the mystery hidden since time immemorial in God, and thus to be a sign of it."
At present the Theology of the Body has been widely used and included in the curriculum of the Marriage Preparation Course in the Catholic dioceses of the United States.
Preceding developments in the history of ideas
The series of addresses were given as a reflection on the creation of man as male and female, as a sexual being. They sought to respond to certain “distorted ideas and attitudes” fundamental to the sexual revolution. Pope John Paul II addresses how the common understanding of the human body which analyzes it as a mechanism leads to objectification, that is, a loss of understanding of its intrinsic, personal meaning. Pope John Paul's thought is influenced by his earlier philosophical interests including the phenomenological approaches of Edmund Husserl and Max Scheler, and especially by the philosophical action theory of Thomas Aquinas which analyzes human acts in the context of what is done, freely chosen, and felt, while presupposing that those acts are made possible due to the substantial union of soul and matter as required by hylomorphism. Key pre-papal writings on these topics include Love and Responsibility, The Acting Person, and various papers collected in Person and Community. These themes are continued in John Paul II's theological anthropology, which analyzes the nature of human beings in relation to God. The Theology of the Body presents an interpretation of the fundamental significance of the body, and in particular of sexual differentiation and complementarity, one which aims to challenge common contemporary philosophical views. Nevertheless, the pope's personalistic phenomenology is "echoing what he learned from St. John of the Cross" and is "in harmony with St. Thomas Aquinas".
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon was an early empiricist who focused on problems of knowledge. In his Great Instauration, he argued that the current state of knowledge is immature and not advancing. His purpose was for the human mind to have authority over nature through understanding and knowledge. Bacon argued against Aristotle's final and formal cause, stating that "the final cause rather corrupts than advances the sciences." He thought that focusing on formal causality is an impediment to knowledge, because power is gained by focusing on matter that is observable and experienced, not just a figment of the mind. His emphasis on power over nature contributed to the rise of an understanding of nature as mechanism and the claim that true knowledge of nature is that expressed by mechanical laws. Pope John Paul II saw Bacon's conception of knowledge and its proper object as the beginning of the split between person and body, which is his goal to reconcile.
René Descartes
René Descartes furthered a mathematical approach to philosophy and epistemology through skepticism and rationalism, emphasizing the practical value of power over nature. In his Discourse on Method, Descartes said, “we can find a practical [philosophy], by which knowing the nature and behavior of fire, water, air, stars, the heavens, and all the other bodies which surround us…we can employ these entities for all the purposes for which they are suited, and so make ourselves the masters and possessors of nature”. In addition to the importance of power over nature, Descartes (like Bacon) insisted upon dismissing final cause, stating that “the entire class of causes which people customarily derive from a thing’s ‘end,’ I judge to be utterly useless”.
Descartes’ practical philosophy also proposed a dualism between the mind and the physical body, based on the belief that they are two distinct substances. The body is matter that is spatially extended, whereas the mind is the substance that thinks and contains the rational soul. Pope John Paul II responded to this dualism in his Letter to Families in 1994: “It is typical of rationalism to make a radical contrast in man between spirit and body, between body and spirit. But man is a person in the unity of his body and his spirit. The body can never be reduced to mere matter”. Pope John Paul II maintained that the stark Cartesian opposition between body and spirit leads to human sexuality as an area for manipulation and exploitation, rather than wonder and unity as he addresses in the Theology of the Body lectures.
Immanuel Kant
Pope John Paul II admitted that the work of Immanuel Kant was the “starting ground” of many of his reflections. Kant, like Bacon and Descartes, believed that natural science can only progress through the mathematical-materialist determinist study of nature. However, Kant saw danger in those laws of nature if God is excluded because morality and religion are called into question. Kant's solution to that danger was to insist that theoretical reason is limited in regards to morality and religion. Reason and sense-data should not be used to try to answer the question of God. Kant stated, “I had to do away with knowledge to make room for faith”. That faith led to the development of Kant's personalism. In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant said, “the conviction [of faith] is not a logical but a moral certainty; and because it rests on subjective bases (of the moral attitude), I must not even say, It is morally certain that there is a God, etc., but I must say, I am morally certain, etc." That ideology allows each person to choose their own terms for reality and morality, because they cannot be argued against using theoretical reason.
Kant's personalism extends from faith and applies to moral dignity, autonomy, and freedom. Pope John Paul II agreed with some aspects of personalism but criticized Kant as believing in “anti-trinitarian personalism,” which removes the relational character of the Trinity to focus on an autonomous self. Kant's views on the autonomous self placed each human's conscience acting as a personal “lawmaker” for subjective morality, but John Paul II argued that a human's conscience cannot create moral norms, rather it must discover them in objective truth.
The difference between Kant's view and Pope John Paul II's view of personalism is made clear throughout the Theology of the Body in arguments about sex, marriage, and polygamy. Kant had two principles of sexual ethics: that one must not “enjoy” another person solely for pleasure and that sexual union involves giving oneself to another. Pope John Paul II agreed on those principles, yet disagreed on the meaning and reasoning behind the principles. Kant believed that people lose their autonomy and dignity in sexual acts, because they are reduced to things being used for pleasure. Marriage resolves that by giving the spouses “lifelong mutual possession of their sexual characteristics”. However, Kant's explanation of marriage still does not transform the objectifying nature of sex, it merely permits it as legal. On the other hand, Pope John Paul II explains the sexual act in marriage as fulfillment of the natural law of spousal love. Rather than objectifying and depersonalizing, it is enriching for a person because it is a sincere gift of the self in love. Pope John Paul II highlights conjugal love, whereas Kant does not acknowledge it.
John of the Cross
Pope John Paul II's basic beliefs on love, when he was establishing his Theology of the Body, was derived from Saint John of the Cross (San Juan de la Cruz), a Spanish mystic and Doctor of the Church. Karol Wojtyla—before he became Pope John Paul II—defended his doctoral dissertation, later translated in a book titled Faith According to Saint John of the Cross, in June 1948 at the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas. In that work, John of the Cross's influence is shown in his belief that relationship with God is a unifying process in which its elements actuated dynamically. Other influence is that he values love over faith, and that love "draws the person into a real ontological and psychological union with God".
The "Sanjuanist triangle" of love consists of three points: 1) Love is self-giving; 2) Filial love to God and conjugal love in marriage are the self-giving paradigm; 3) Relationship between the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit within the Trinity is the model of self-giving love. Through pure love, a person experiences God in the "mutual exchange of self-donation".
Thomas Petri O.P. writes, "We may also note Wojtyla's observation that for John of the Cross, God is objective but not objectivizable to the intellect, which naturally lends itself to the personalistic norm that will eventually hold pride of place in Wojtyla's thought. Like the person of God, no human person can ever be a mere object of our actions but must be understood in relationship."
Delivery
Theology of the Body is the topic of a series of 129 lectures given by Pope John Paul II during his Wednesday audiences in St. Peter's Square and the Paul VI Audience Hall between September 5, 1979 and November 28, 1984. It constitutes an analysis on human sexuality, and is considered as the first major teaching of his pontificate. Denis Read, O.C.D. says that, by means of the Theology of the Body, "John Paul II gave the Church the beginning of a mystical philosophy of life." The complete addresses were later compiled and expanded upon in many of John Paul's encyclicals, letters, and exhortations.
The delivery of the Theology of the Body series did have interruptions. For example, the Wednesday audiences were devoted to other topics during the Holy Year of Redemption in 1983.
Topics
The work covers such topics as the unified corporeal and spiritual qualities of the human person; the origins, history and destiny of humanity; the deepest desires of the human heart and the way to experience true happiness and freedom; the truth about man's need and desire for loving communion derived from the revealed understanding of humanity in the image of a Triune Creator; the truth about God's original design for human sexuality and thus the dignity of the human person, how it was distorted through sin, and how it has been restored and renewed through the redemption of Jesus Christ; and Catholic teachings about the sacramentality of marriage.
The central thesis of John Paul's Theology of the Body, according to author Christopher West, is that "the body, and it alone, is capable of making visible what is invisible: the spiritual and the divine. It was created to transfer into the visible reality of the world, the mystery hidden since time immemorial in God, and thus to be a sign of it."
The work consists of two halves and five cycles. The first half, entitled "The Words of Christ" consists of three cycles in which John Paul II establishes an "adequate anthropology." Cycle 1 looks at the human person as we were created to be "in the beginning" (original man); Cycle 2 addresses human life after original sin, unredeemed and redeemed (historical man). Cycle 3 treats the reality of our life at the end of time when Christ comes back again and history reaches its fulfillment (eschatological man). John Paul II also places his reflections on virginity for the kingdom within the context of Cycle 3. In the second half, entitled "The Sacrament" (which refers to the sacrament of marriage), John Paul II addresses the sacramentality of marriage in Cycle 4 and the responsible transmission of human life in Cycle 5.
Some consider the first encyclical of Pope Benedict XVI, Deus caritas est (God is Love), with its exposition of the relation between agape and eros, to be the culmination of John Paul II's Theology of the Body. For John Paul II's theology, eros has an inherent nuptial meaning but that its role is a sustaining theme for the body if logic is followed.
Man and woman "in the beginning"
In this first cycle, beginning on September 5, 1979, Pope John Paul II discusses Christ's answer to the Pharisees when they ask him about whether a man can divorce his wife. Christ responds "He said to them: Because Moses by reason of the hardness of your heart permitted you to put away your wives: but from the beginning it was not so" (). John Paul II draws attention to how Christ's response calls the Pharisees to harken back to the beginning, to the created world before the fall of man and original sin. The pope dives into the experience of original man through the book of Genesis, and identifies two unique experiences: original solitude, and original unity. Original solitude is the experience of Adam, prior to Eve, when he realizes that through naming the animals there is something intrinsically different about himself. He is unable to find a suitable partner. This self-realization of a dignity before God higher than the rest of creation is original solitude. Original unity is drawn from man's first encounter with woman, where he exclaims "This now is bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called woman, because she was taken out of man" (). Prior the Fall, the pope accounts, man and woman's desire for one another was perfectly oriented in a Sacramental way that pointed them toward God's ultimate plan for humanity: the marriage of Christ the bridegroom with his bride the Church. Throughout Sacred Scripture, the most common reference that Christ uses when speaking of heaven is that of a wedding feast. Thus, marriage is intended to be a union that draws us deeper into the mystery of our creation and provides a foretaste of the heavenly marriage between Christ and his Church, where man and woman are no longer given in marriage. In heaven, the eternal wedding feast, men and women have now arrived at their ultimate destination and no longer have need of the Sacrament (or sign) of marriage.
Man and woman after the Fall
This second cycle focuses on Christ's remarks on adultery in the Sermon on the Mount ():You have heard that it was said to them of old: Thou shalt not commit adultery. But I say to you, that whosoever shall look on a woman to lust after her, hath already committed adultery with her in his heart.Pope John Paul II explains this as looking at another person, even at his/her own partner, to desire them in a reductive way, that is they are viewed as merely an object of desire. Pope John Paul II says this seems to be a key passage for theology of the body.
Man and woman after the Resurrection of the Dead
The third cycle analyzes Christ's answer to the Sadducees when they come to him and ask him about a woman who had married seven brothers.
Celibacy and virginity
The fourth cycle is a meditation on celibacy and virginity.
Pope John Paul II stated that continence for the sake of the Kingdom is not opposed to marriage. He noted that when arguing with the Pharisees about whether is it licit to divorce and Jesus' disciples inferred that it was better not to marry, Jesus did not address whether it was expedient or not to marry, but pointed out that there are "eunuchs" and some are so willingly for the sake of the kingdom of heaven.
Sacrament of marriage
The fifth cycle discusses the sacrament of marriage.
Contraception
Pope John Paul II began his discussion of contraception on 11 July 1984 with the 114th lecture in this series. This section of the lecture series, the sixth and final part, is largely a reflection on Humanae vitae, the 1968 encyclical of Pope Paul VI. In it, John Paul continued his emphasis on the design of the human body revealing God's truths. It is explained and reaffirmed that the fundamental structure of males and females, which causes sexual intercourse between them to result in both greater intimacy and the capability of generating new life, demonstrates a morally inseparable connection between these two functions.
The authority of the Magisterium (teaching authority of the Church and those who hold the office) to interpret the divine intention (in this context, through the structure of the body), is emphasized. Although not all of the Church's teachings on sexuality are present in a literal reading of the biblical text, John Paul gives examples of how they are part of longstanding Church tradition — a tradition that was created in the context of scriptural teachings.
The ability of the human body to express truth through the sexual union of married couples is acclaimed. The moral wrongness of using artificial means to manipulate such a significant aspect of the created body is explained. Dominion over outside forces, and also self-mastery through discipline, are integral human drives. However, the language expressed by bodies, in this context the language expressed during sexual intercourse, is so damaged by the use of artificial contraception that the conjugal act "ceases to be an act of love... [or] communion of persons" but rather is a mere bodily union.
On the other hand, the licitness of natural family planning (NFP) methods is held to be evident from the structure of the human body, which has natural periods of fertility and infertility. The morality of these methods was literally designed into the body, and use of them, unlike use of artificial contraception, can actually improve the dialog between couples which is expressed through the language of the body. Throughout these speeches the main emphasis is on the intrinsic goodness of the marital act. The power of love between spouses is said to both lead to and be nourished by the moral use of the conjugal act. Thus, moral exercise of sexual intercourse uses the form of the body to reveal the love of God toward Creation.
While following the rules of NFP does not guarantee a truly spiritual sexual relationship between husband and wife, understanding the theology that makes NFP acceptable can foster the maturity needed by the couple to attain that level of spirituality, living life by the Holy Spirit. Also, Pope John Paul II warns couples against "lowering the number of births in their family below the morally correct level." Responsible parenthood is greatly encouraged, however it is emphasized that while this sometimes means limiting family size, responsible parenthood can also mandate couples to increase their family size. This is because of the good that children bring not only to their immediate family, but also to their society and Church.
The seriousness of a couple's decision to maintain or increase their family size is discussed. John Paul refers to Gaudium et spes, a document issued by the Second Vatican Council, which emphasizes the importance of couples' having their conscience guided by the law of God. The difficulty inherent in and endurance required to consciously regulate births with these methods is discussed, although largely in the context of the integral part played by the burdens of life as Christians follow the "hard way" through the "narrow gate". In fact, the kind of discipline necessary to practice periodic continence is claimed to impart licit conjugal acts with deeper meaning, as well as bringing out the ability of a married couple to express love through non-sexual acts.
John Paul states many other benefits claimed for moral use of NFP, some from Humanae vitae. These include an increase of marital peace, less spousal selfishness, increased and more positive influence over their children (5 September 1984), and increased dignity of person through following the law of God. Use of NFP is also said to increase appreciation of children, by fostering respect for what is created by God.
Assessments
By Pope John Paul II
Pope John Paul II's last book, Memory and Identity, mentions the importance of the Thomistic philosophy and theology of the prominent doctor of the Catholic Church St. Thomas Aquinas to come to a deeper understanding of the Pope's personalist (phenomenological) presentation of Humanae vitae in his Theology of the Body catechesis, since he saw the limitations of a strictly phenomenological approach. He wrote:
By George Weigel
George Weigel has described Theology of the Body as "one of the boldest reconfigurations of Catholic theology in centuries." He goes on to say it is a "kind of theological time bomb set to go off with dramatic consequences, sometime in the third millennium of the Church." Weigel believes that it has barely begun to "shape the Church's theology, preaching, and religious education" but when it does "it will compel a dramatic development of thinking about virtually every major theme in the Creed."
Weigel also realizes major obstacles to the theology of the body. The Pope is very hard to read and understand: "The density of John Paul's material is one factor. A secondary literature capable of translating John Paul's thought into accessible categories and vocabulary is badly needed." And, Weigel believes, the dominant liberal views on such issues as women's rights, birth control, abortion and divorce are also obstacles to the "theology of the body" becoming known or accepted.
Many of Weigel's concerns with respect to being able to understand the set of Wednesday General Audiences on the Theology of the Body have been addressed in the new translation, Man and Woman He Created Them: A Theology of the Body (2006, Michael Waldstein, translator). One of the drawbacks of the prior English-language versions is that different translators were used at varying times over the long period that the Audience talks were given. Hence, it happened occasionally that the same term would be translated differently from one talk to the other. The new translation has corrected that problem in addition to being confirmed by having had access to John Paul's original notes in Polish, rather than merely the Italian used in the Audience talks.
By Christopher West
In his Theology of the Body Explained Christopher West, who has been teaching John Paul's theology of the body since the late 1990s, wrote, "John Paul's TOB is most often cast as an extended catechesis on marriage and sexual love. It certainly is that, but it is also so much more. Through the mystery of the Incarnate person and the biblical analogy of spousal love, John Paul II's catechesis illumines the entirety of God's plan for human life from origin to eschaton with a splendid supernatural light."
Philosopher-theologian Alice von Hildebrand, widow of 20th century philosopher-theologian Dietrich von Hildebrand, has severely criticized West's approach.
By John Cornwell
In his account of the reign of John Paul II, author John Cornwell says of the Theology of the Body: "This work, which constitutes, in the view of some keen papal supporters, John Paul's vital legacy to the world, has been perhaps his least influential."
By Charles Curran
Dissident Catholic moral theologian Charles E. Curran, writing in his book The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II, says the pope's Wednesday audiences are unlikely to have been understood by many of those present at the time: "Quite frankly, the talks do not seem appropriate for the occasion. They are somewhat theoretical and too detailed for a general audience. In addition, because each individual talk is part of a larger whole, it is difficult to understand the full meaning of any short talk without seeing the whole picture. I am sure that most of those in attendance at the audiences did not follow what the pope was saying." Curran also makes the point that such talks have "little or no importance from the viewpoint of authoritative teaching," and that the pope appears to be unaware of contemporary biblical scholarship and makes no mention of any contemporary scholars of any type.
Curran also believes the Theology of the Body "clearly cannot serve as a theology for all persons and all bodies", and that "there are many people for whom the 'nuptial meaning' of the body he develops are not appropriate. As with many utopias, the elderly are missing. But also most obviously the unmarried - people who are single, people who are widowed, and homosexuals. The pope at one point tries to show how virginity and celibacy can be understood within the terms of his ideas about the 'nuptial meaning' of the body, but these arguments are unconvincing." On the positive side, Curran says the pope "strongly supports the equality of men and women in marriage and expressly opposes any subordination of the woman to the man."
Thomas Petri, O.P. says, "Charles Curran can be excused for his criticism to the contrary since it was made before the publication of Waldstein's translation."
By Kenneth L. Woodward
The religion editor for Newsweek, Kenneth L. Woodward, has described John Paul's Theology of the Body as "a highly romantic and unrealistic view of human sexuality".
By Sebastian Moore, OSB
Benedictine Sebastian Moore, a controversial Catholic moral theologian who often criticizes some Catholic teachings, expresses his disagreement openly with the Theology of the Body. Moore criticizes what he regards as a lack of connection to real people in their real lives. Specifically he notes that while the pope reflects on the essential incompleteness of the body in its maleness and femaleness and on the mystery of the union of two in one flesh, he does not talk specifically about the various concrete experiences of the sexual act itself. Moore also argues that in his protracted discussion of the "shame" of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden when they become aware of their nakedness, the pope fundamentally misunderstands what the story is saying. In the Genesis account, according to Moore, "it is shame that sets the stage for lust", but "in the pope's account, it is the other way round: lust generates shame."
By Georg Schelbert
Theologian Georg Schelbert, of the University of Fribourg in Switzerland, is critical of the Theology of the Body for its highly selective use of Scripture. Schelbert argues that it is clear that the biblical stories of the patriarchs in the Old Testament clearly permit polygamy, in contradiction of John Paul's statement that polygamy "directly rejects the plan of God as revealed in the beginning." He also notes that, in John Paul's discussion of divorce, "not a single word is said about the so-called Pauline privilege (or about the extension of that privilege, which for a long time was falsely called 'Petrine') which relaxes these rigorous conclusions".
See also
New feminism
Religion and sexuality#Christianity
Male and female he created them: toward a path of dialogue on the question of gender identity in education
References
Further reading
External links
General Audiences: John Paul II's Theology of the Body. Summary of each lecture.
Catholic theology of the body
Works by Pope John Paul II
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Union Square is a public plaza bordered by Geary, Powell, Post and Stockton Streets in downtown San Francisco, California. "Union Square" also refers to the central shopping, hotel, and theater district that surrounds the plaza for several blocks. The area got its name because it was once used for Thomas Starr King rallies and support for the Union Army during the American Civil War, earning its designation as a California Historical Landmark.
Today, this one-block plaza and surrounding area is one of the largest collections of department stores, upscale boutiques, gift shops, art galleries, and beauty salons in the United States, making Union Square a major tourist destination and a well-known gathering place in downtown San Francisco. Grand hotels and small inns, as well as repertory, off-Broadway, and single-act theaters also contribute to the area's dynamic, 24-hour character.
The Dewey Monument is at the center of Union Square. It is a statue of Nike, the ancient Greek goddess of victory.
History
Union Square was originally a tall sand dune, and the square was later set aside to be made into a public park in 1850. Union Square got its name from the pro-Union rallies held there on the eve of the Civil War. The monument itself is also a tribute to the sailors of the United States Navy.
Union Square was built and dedicated by San Francisco's first American mayor John Geary in 1850 and is so named for the pro-Union rallies by Thomas Starr King that happened there before and during the United States Civil War. Since then the plaza has undergone many notable changes, one of the most significant happening in 1903 with the dedication of a tall monument to Admiral George Dewey's victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War. It also commemorates U.S. President William McKinley, who had been recently assassinated. Executed by Robert Aitken, the statue at the top of the monument, "Victory," was modeled after a voluptuous Danish-American stenographer and artist's model, Alma de Bretteville, who eventually married one of San Francisco's richest citizens. Another significant change happened between 1939 and 1941 when a large underground parking garage was built under the square; this meant the plaza's lawns, shrubs and the Dewey monument were now on the garage "roof." Designed by Timothy Pflueger, it was the world's first underground parking garage.
This design was to prove problematic in a number of ways. Insertion of the garage raised the square above sidewalks on two of its four sides, creating problematic pedestrian barriers. In addition, designed to be impressive when looking down from adjoining buildings, the layout provided little actual useable space. Lawn areas and planted beds were raised behind 18” granite curbs, and further lined with hedges, making them inaccessible for public use. As social conditions deteriorated, and as the once low hedging grew, the lawn areas became campsites for the homeless who were not as easily deterred. Plant materials were randomly replaced as they died, and the park looked forlorn. At the very heart of the city’s premier retail and hotel zone, it became a place to walk around, not through. And in addition, the waterproofing on the roof deck had failed, pouring water into the garage below. (https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/chappell_jim_2017.pdf)
During the late 1970s, and through the 1980s and 1990s, the area became somewhat derelict as the homeless began to camp in the space. San Francisco's rowdy New Year's parties used to happen yearly at the plaza with some sort of civil disruption and rioting happening afterward. In early 1998 city planners began plans to renovate the plaza to create more paved surfaces for easier maintenance, with outdoor cafes, and more levels to the underground garage. Finally in late 2000, the park was partially closed down to renovate the park and the parking garage. On July 25, 2002, the park reopened and a ceremony was held with then Mayor Willie Brown. In 2004 Unwire Now, a company founded by entrepreneur Jaz Banga, launched a free Wi-Fi network in Union Square which was championed by Mayor Gavin Newsom.
San Francisco’s population peaked in 1950 and went down for the next fifty years (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_San_Francisco), during which time the city’s budget was stressed, and Union Square began to suffer from under-maintenance and management. In 1995, San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association (SPUR), the city’s non-profit good planning and governance group, and the San Francisco chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA), published a report, “Union Square: Managing San Francisco’s Landmark Retail and Visitor District”. (SPUR Newsletter/Calendar. Report 329, May 1995). The report highlighted both the civic and fiscal importance of the district centered on the square itself, and called for establishment of a Business Improvement District. The district was formed in 1999 and continues to manage and maintain the district and Union Square itself.
UNION SQUARE REDESIGN
Activist Mayor Willie L. Brown, Jr., was inaugurated in January 1996, and that summer announced that there would be a design competition to redesign Union Square. The vehicle for the competition was the San Francisco Prize, a consortium established in 1995 by the American Institute of Architects, the American Society of Landscape Architects, California College of Arts and Crafts, San Francisco Beautiful, the SF Museum of Modern Art, and SPUR. Financial sponsors of this, the Second Annual San Francisco Prize, included the City and County of San Francisco, Macy’s and The San Francisco Prize.
The design competition to redesign Union Square was officially announced on March 21, 1997, by the Planning Department of the City and County of San Francisco. The competition was titled Toward a More Perfect Union: an International Design Competition for the Future of Union Square. Evan S. Rose served as the Planning Department Competition Project Manager. The Competition Advisor was Bill Liskamm, FAIA. SPUR staffed the competition, sending out over 1,000 competition packets to landscape architects and other designers around the world.
The competition was conducted in two stages: Stage One, to select five winning designs for further consideration in the subsequent stage, and Stage Two, to select the one of the five winners to actually be built. Monetary prizes were awarded to the five winners. The City and County of San Francisco then interviewed each winner for selection as part of the final design team for the renovation of Union Square.
Competition Jury
Aaron Betsky, Critic and Curator of Architecture and Design, SFMOMA, San Francisco
(footnote credentials)
Sheila Levrant de Bretteville, Graphic Designer, New Haven, Connecticut
Gerald G. Green, Planning Director, SF Planning Department, San Francisco
Allan B. Jacobs, Urban Designer, and former Planning Director, San Francisco
David M. Kelly, Industrial Designer, founder of IDEO, San Francisco
Thom Mayne, Architect/Urban Designer, founder of Morphosis, Los Angeles
Louis Meunier, Executive Vice-President, Macy’s, San Francisco
Achva Benzinberg Stein, Landscape Architect, founding principal, Benzinberg Stein Associates, Los Angeles
Results of the Competition - Stage One
The two-stage competition received 309 submittals from 20 states and 10 countries. In July 1997, five Stage 1 winners and four honorable mentions were selected On July 28, 1997, The San Francisco Prize announced the winners.
Grand Prize:
“Union Square Park(ing)”
E. M. Design, Buffalo, New York
Rose Mendez, Team Leader
Winner:
“All the Square is a Stage”
Philips/Fotheringham, Sausalito and Martinez, California
Winner:
“De Young Museum Relocation”
Robert Edmonds, San Francisco
Winner:
“Meet Me at the Golden Plate”
Jones Partners: San Francisco
Winner:
“Union Square”
Martinez/Kaufman, San Francisco
Honorable mentions:
“Synthetic Square”
Joseph Bula, New York
“Urban Weave”
Denise Hoffman, Cambridge, Massachusetts
“Bar Code”
Archifax
James Haig Streeter and Nigel Sampey, San Francisco
“Posturing Toward a More Perfect Union”
Sisyphus Arbeit Studio, Brighton, Massachusetts
Jury Comments
In their collective and general comments, the Jury “pointed out that the winning schemes were chosen not because they presented ready-made solutions, but rather ideas that showed a Square re-invigorated by new users, new landscapes, and new ways of thinking about the way we make the public space, which we own together, our own. In response to a call for ideas for ‘a more perfect union,’ the winning designers proposed innovative, sometimes startling, but always buildable suggestions for how Union Square could become a place with clear uses, defined spaces, and a sensible grandeur befitting the heart of San Francisco. The jury was delighted by the breadth and sophistication of the schemes, and looks forward to seeing the designers develop them to make that more perfect union of form, function, space and place” (quoted from the press release provided by SPUR on July 28, 1997).
Comments on the Grand Prize Winner - “Union Square Park(ing)”
“This gently folded plane lets us see the slope of Union Square and makes it inhabitable. For the first time since it was a sand dune, Union Square would be one single space for all to enjoy. In place of the confusion of ramps, stairs, planters, bushes and paved area that now take up the Square, F. M. Design proposes one plane that unwraps itself over the garage like a piece of origami. While opening the Square up, making it part of the streets around it, and letting light into the parking garage, this urban napkin also manages to shelter an indoor/outdoor market and other uses. Out of this landscape, a majestic bandstand and skating rink area rises as a counterpoint to the Dewey Memorial. The jury felt that the very abstraction of the scheme would give the designers a chance to work with the neighborhood groups and the City and citizens of San Francisco to find the appropriate materials and details that would turn this brilliant idea into a beautiful square.”
Comments on the Winner: “All the Square is a Stage”
Underneath eye-catching graphics, this scheme presents a simple idea about a square that steps down in broad strips of paving to the south. The designers married this movement with a monumentality that gives the square a clear center. Held between the Dewey Memorial and a new stage, this central area serves as a truly grand heart to the Square. The jury felt that the rather busy detailing of the scheme could be simplified, but admired the desire to incorporate the surrounding streetscape with the Square through paving patterns.
Comments on the Winner: “De Young Museum Relocation”
The jury chose this scheme because it offers a radical alternative to the current Square. By proposing that the garage be converted into the new home for the De Young Museum, the designers have offered a provocative contribution to the debate about the relationship between open space and cultural monuments in our city. Even if such a startling marriage of Square and Museum would not occur, the jury thought the idea of sinking the Square to create a defined space focused on a densely-packed object was well thought out. The design of the plaza combines functional uses with accessibility and places of repose, though the jury felt the access from Geary and Stockton [Streets] could be improved.”
Comments on the Winner: “Meet Me at the Golden Plate”
Both witty and wise in its use of space, this scheme uses the imagery of the Golden Gate Bridge, one of San Francisco’s best-loved icons, to ennoble another part of our city’s infrastructure. By lifting up a set of grass planes above the streets, Jones Partners creates an amphitheater and other defined spaces. A Visitors Center both functionally and structurally anchors the proposal. Jones Partners have re-thought the very notion of an urban square as a machine for gathering, seeing, learning and escaping from the City without leaving its exciting realities. The jury did feel that the scale of some of the pieces could be reduced without damage to the integrity of the scheme.
Comments on the Winner: “Union Square”
In this sensitive and sensible scheme, the Square becomes a series of interconnected planes stepping down towards the corner of Geary and Stockton [Streets]. The Square becomes much more open to both Geary and Powell, while two strips of water help define a much gentler and simpler central space. Strategically located planting define both these spaces and paths throughout the Square. All of the spaces are continuous, but their off-set location creates some complexity and sense of layering. Balancing civic grandeur with visibility, simplicity and a gentle sense of scale this is a thoughtful rethinking of the nature of this space.
Results of the Competition - Stage Two
For the month of August, all 309 entries were publicly exhibited in Macy’s furniture store on Market Street, then at SPUR, the AIA, and other public locations around the city. Visitors were asked to fill out comment cards to guide both the Stage Two selection, and design refinements prior to construction. (SPUR Newsletter/Calendar Report 355, August 1997) SPUR also established five principles to which a final design must adhere, in order to produce an attractive, enticing urban open space that would be accessible to a diverse population and enhance the quality of the entire district:
1. Connectivity: Integrate the square with its immediate surroundings
2. Functionality: Promote positive urban design principles such as sun, sight lines, comfort and sensible traffic patterns
3. Creativity: Create unique opportunities out of the square’s parking garage
4. Programmability: Facilitate the flexible use of the square for a variety of programmatic uses
5. Feasibility: Accomplishable with respect to the inherent constraints of budget, time and the laws of physics. (SPUR Newsletter/calendar Report 356, September 1997)
During Stage Two, each of the five Stage-One finalists was invited to interview with a City of San Francisco selection panel. The entry titled "All the Square is a Stage", was selected by the City and County of San Francisco as the final winner of the Competition, based on the five SPUR principles, the comments from the public, and the experience of the design team. Two local landscape architects, April Philips and Michael Fotheringham, were the designers of “All the Square is a Stage.” They had both worked at EDAW, Inc, previous to joining together for this Competition.
The designers proposed a formal and programmatic open space solution organized on a set of bi-symmetrical cross-axes and stepped terraces. The arrangement of functions invites a range of social and cultural experiences. The new design acknowledges individual and group needs by shaping and linking intimate and grand outdoor spaces, utilizing furnishings, materials and surfaces that evoke refinement and comfort. A grand central plaza, focused on the Dewey Memorial at the heart of the Square, is framed by retail uses and a performance stage. Existing slopes of the garage roof were augmented to create a level granite-paved central plaza with garden and lawn terraces at the edges and dramatic entrances at each corner. Paving materials recall the natural origins of the site–sand and water. A variety of trees and shrubs offer an infusion of natural cooling and color. Visitor amenities include ticket box office, cafe with outdoor dining, ample seating areas, light sculptures, elevator, and lawn terraces. Temporary chair seating is added in the central space during stage performances.
The Philips/Fotheringham Partnership was invited to enter into contracts with the City and its qualified design team (see below) to provide design and construction documents for the renovation of Union Square. A community committee was formed, co-chaired by Linda Mjellem, Executive Director of the Union Square Association/Union Square Business Improvement District, and Jim Chappell, Executive Director of SPUR. The committee met with the Philips/Fotheringham Partnership team throughout the final design process. Construction began in the Fall of 2000, and the newly renovated Square opened to the public on July 25, 2002.
Project Design Team:
Owner/Client: City and County of San Francisco
City Project Manager: Don Alameida, Department of Public Works
Sponsor: Union Square Association: Linda Mjellem
Sponsor: SPUR: Jim Chappell
Design Competition Winners: Philips + Fotheringham Partnership
Design Landscape Architects: Philips + Fotheringham Partnership
Landscape Architects of Record: Royston, Hanamoto, Alley & Abey
Architects: Patri Merker Architects
Civil Engineers: Olivia Chen Consultants
Structural Engineers: Faye Bernstein & Associates
Mechanical Engineers: Takahashi Consulting Engineers
Lighting Design: Francis Krahe & Associates
Graphic Design: Debra Nichols Design
Fountain Design: CMS Collaborative
Irrigation Design: James D. Eddy Associates
Artists: R.M. (Ron) Fischer (Light Sculptures) & Vicki Saulls (Glazed Tiles)
Visitor amenities include a ticket box office, cafe with indoor and outdoor dining, a stage area for weekly events, light sculptures, art tiles at two of the corner entries, and an elevator connecting all four parking levels to the roof-top public space.
The Phased Opening of Union Square & Programming
July 25, 2002
Ribbon Cutting
September, 2002
Light sculptures installation
Restoration of the Dewey Memorial Monument
Performing Art Series with SF Jazz (9/7), SF Symphony (9/14), SF Gay Men’s Chorus (9/21) and SF Opera (9/28)
October, 2002 (tentative)
Half price ticket booth opens on the Square
MUNI Cable Car Bell Ringing Contest (10/18)
November, 2002
Café opened
Macy’s Holiday Tree Lighting
Ice Rink returned to Union Square for the Holiday Season
December, 2002
Festival of Lights
The Unique Ownership and Tenancy of Union Square
The operations of Union Square involve several entities. The City and County of San Francisco owns the land. The Department of Recreation & Parks has jurisdiction over the park and plaza. Recreation & Parks subcontracted the management of the park to MJM Management Company, to handle leasing and management of events in the Park. Rec & Parks and MJM jointly maintain the park. MJM was also selected by the Union Square Business Improvement District to manage the entire district. The Department of Parking & Traffic has jurisdiction over the garage. The Department of Public Works was the owner’s representative on the project. The non-profit Uptown Parking Corporation is the tenant that operates the parking garage. Funding for construction came from both the Uptown Parking Corporation revenues and the City’s Open Space Fund. (https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/chappell_jim_2017.pdf)
The redesign of the park has been judged a great success: it has gone from a liability to the City and neighborhood to a major generator of activity and revenue. Each year, over 100 events are programmed and permitted, including musical performances, dances, art exhibitions, rallies and spontaneous events which drive a sense of community and bring thousands to the area, which contribute to the success of many surrounding businesses. These events generate hundreds of thousands of dollars in annual revenue to the Recreation & Parks Department. (https://oqude46pekg2hhkab2visep1-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Union_Square_Case_Study_10_14_19.pdf)
Union Square hosts many public concerts and events. Public views of the square can be seen from surrounding high places such as the Sir Francis Drake Hotel, Macy's top floor, and the Grand Hyatt hotel. The Union Square Business Improvement District was founded in 1999 and focused primarily on cleaning and safety issues. The BID also deals with marketing, advocacy, streetscapes and capital improvement programs. The Union Square BID has been criticized by some as acting in a harassing manner toward homeless people at times, to deter them from being there.
Public art
At the center of Union Square stands the Dewey Monument, an column on which stand a statue of Nike, the ancient Greek Goddess of Victory. The monument is dedicated to Admiral George Dewey, a hero of the Spanish–American War for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay in 1898. The monument was dedicated in 1903.
As part of the redesign of the Square, the San Francisco Art Commission commissioned two artists to add artworks to the new design:
-R.M. (Ron) Fischer designed four Light Sculptures located along the southern edge of the central plaza.
-Vicki Saulls designed a series of Glazed Tiles located at two corner entrances to the Square–the corner of Post and Powell, and the corner of Geary and Stockton.
Beginning in 2009, painted heart sculptures from the Hearts in San Francisco public art installation have been installed in each of the four corners of the square.
Economy
The Tiffany Building is an 11-story, building at Union Square; the bottom two floors contain a Tiffany & Co. store, while the upper floors contain offices. Cathay Pacific maintains its North America regional headquarters on the third floor of the Tiffany Building, The Cathay Pacific North America headquarters moved from Greater Los Angeles and opened in the Tiffany Building in 2005.
The only hotel actually located on Union Square is the Westin St. Francis hotel which is celebrated for its historic Magneta Grandfather Clock. It is believed to be the only hotel in the world that offers its guests, as a courtesy, a coin washing service. The process originated in 1938 at a time when high-society ladies wore white gloves that were easily tarnished during the exchange of money. It uses borax soap in an antiquated, manually-operated burnisher.
Nearby attractions
Union Square has also come to describe not just the plaza itself, but the general shopping, dining, and theater districts within the surrounding blocks. The Geary and Curran theaters one block west on Geary anchor the "theater district" and border the Tenderloin. Union Square is also home to San Francisco's TIX Bay Area, a half-priced ticket booth and Ticketmaster outlet. Run by Theatre Bay Area, tickets for most of San Francisco's performing arts can be purchased the day of the performance at a discounted rate.
At the end of Powell Street two blocks south, where the cable cars turn around beside Hallidie Plaza at Market Street, is a growing retail corridor that is connected to the SOMA district. Nob Hill, with its grand mansions, apartment buildings and hotels, stands to the northwest of Union Square. Directly northeast is Chinatown, with its famous dragon gate at Grant Avenue and Bush Street.
The city's historic French Quarter northeast of Union Square and centers on the Belden Place alleyway, between Bush and Pine Streets, and Claude Lane off Bush Street. This area has many open-air French Restaurants and Cafes. Every year the area is the site of the boisterous Bastille Day celebration, the nation's largest, and Bush Street is temporarily renamed "Buisson."
Directly east of the Square off of Stockton Street is Maiden Lane, a short and narrow alley of exclusive boutiques and cafes that leads to the Financial District and boasts the Xanadu Gallery, San Francisco's only building designed by Frank Lloyd Wright—with its interior most notable for being the predecessor for New York City's Guggenheim Museum. The square is part of the Barbary Coast Trail, linking many San Francisco landmarks.
Shopping
Over the years, Union Square became a popular shopping destination. Several department stores sit within the three-block radius of Union Square, including Neiman Marcus, Macy's, Saks Fifth Avenue, and Barneys New York. Bloomingdale's and Nordstrom anchor the nearby Westfield San Francisco Centre, a shopping mall built in 1988 on nearby Market Street.
A mix of upscale boutiques and popular retailers occupy many of the buildings surrounding Union Square. Among the luxury retailers that front Union Square are Louis Vuitton, Gucci, Bulgari, Loro Piana, Moncler, and jeweler Tiffany & Co.; while flagship Victoria's Secret, Williams Sonoma, Nike, and Apple stores also occupy buildings surrounding Union Square. Other notable brands in the surrounding area include Chanel, Prada, Burberry, Salvatore Ferragamo, Shapur Mozaffarian, Goyard, Dior and Cartier.
Gap Inc., which is headquartered less than a mile away on the Embarcadero, operates multiple flagship and full-line stores for The Gap, Banana Republic, and Old Navy in and around Union Square.
Transportation
Two cable car lines (Powell-Hyde and Powell-Mason) serve Union Square on Powell Street.
In addition, Union Square is served by many trolleybus and bus lines and the F Market heritage streetcar. The Muni Metro and BART subway systems both serve the area at nearby Powell Street Station on Market Street. In 2012, Muni began building an extension of its Muni Metro system to connect Union Square and Chinatown with Caltrain and other neighborhoods in San Francisco. After several delays, the extension, known as the Central Subway, is scheduled for completion by 2020, and the new Union Square station will be called Union Square/Market Street.
In popular culture
Scenes of the square and the surrounding neighborhood were featured in Alfred Hitchcock's thriller Vertigo (1958) and the opening scene of his The Birds was filmed at the edge of the square—the character Melanie Daniels (Tippi Hedren) looks up and sees hundreds of birds flying in a circular pattern around the column at the center of the square.
Francis Ford Coppola shot numerous scenes of The Conversation (1974) in Union Square, where the bugged conversation which forms the foundation of the movie takes place.
Philip Kaufman's 1978 film Invasion of the Body Snatchers also features scenes of the square.
In Blake Edwards' 1962 film Days of Wine and Roses, Jack Lemmon (as Joe Clay) looks at his reflection in the window of the Union Square Lounge on Maiden Lane and realizes he is an alcoholic "bum."
See also
49-Mile Scenic Drive
List of upscale shopping districts
Theatre District, San Francisco
References
External links
Union Square's official website
360 degree panoramic photographs of San Francisco's Union Square, from Don Bain's 360° Panoramas
California Historical Landmarks
Economy of San Francisco
Entertainment districts in California
Neighborhoods in San Francisco
Shopping districts and streets in the United States
Shopping malls established in 1988
Shopping malls in San Francisco
Squares in San Francisco
Tourist attractions in San Francisco
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Phulkari () refers to the folk embroidery of the Punjab. Although Phulkari means floral work, the designs include not only flowers but also cover motifs and geometrical shapes.
The main characteristics of Phulkari embroidery are use of darn stitch on the wrong side of coarse cotton cloth with coloured silken thread. Punjabi women create innumerable alluring and interesting designs and patterns by their skilful manipulation of the darn stitch. According to Kehal (2009), a cloth where only a few flowers are embroidered is called a Phulkari. The other types are distinct varieties. The traditional varieties of Phulkaris are large items of cloth and include Chope, Tilpatr, Neelak and Bagh. Sometimes, the Bagh is given separate categorization of its own as on other varieties of a Phulkari, parts of the cloth is visible, whereas in a Bagh, the embroidery covers the entire garment so that the base cloth is not visible. Further, in contemporary modern designs, simple and sparsely embroidered (long scarf), (oversized long scarf), and shawls, made for everyday use, are referred to as , whereas clothing items that cover the entire body, made for special and ceremonial occasions such as weddings are called (large garden). The Phulkari continues to be an integral part of Punjabi weddings to the present day.
The craft of Phulkari has undergone changes over the centuries. According to Pal (1960) in his seminal essay on the history and use of the Phulkari published by Patiala University, the traditional method of embroidering a Phulkari and its widespread use in Punjab, India declined by the 1950s. Traditionally, women would embroider Phulkaris without using stencils. Pal (1960) states that women would clean their courtyards and invite friends and family to ceremonially begin the process of embroidering a Phulkari. Folk songs would be sung on this occasion. "Ih Phulkari Meri Maan Ne Kadhi/ Is Noo Ghut Ghut Japhiyan Paawan" (This Phulkari was embroidered by my mother, I embrace it warmly). Folk songs like these are indicative of the emotional attachment the girl had to the Phulkari embroidered by her mother or grandmother, or aunts.
According to Blurton (2003), "angular satin-stitch baghs (shawls) and phulkaris (shawls similar to baghs, but less heavily embroidered)" up to 20 pieces would form part of a brides dowry. The items would be gifted by the bride's father, uncles and mother-in-law. Blurton further states that it took many years for the baghs and phulkaris to be embroidered. Traditionally women would begin to embroider the bhagh when their grandsons were born to be give to their future brides.
Accordingly, in the past, as soon as a girl was born, mothers and grandmothers would start embroidering Baghs and Phulkaris, which were to be given away at the time of marriage. Depending on the status of the family, the parents would give dowry of 11 to 101 Baghs and Phulkaris. It was also passed from one generation to the next as an heirloom. Historically, the exquisite embroidery for Baghs are known to have been made in the districts of Hazara, Peshawar, Sialkot, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Multan, Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ambala, Ludhiana, Nabha, Jind, Faridkot, Kapurthala and Chakwal of the Punjab region. Phulkari and Bagh embroidery has influenced the embroidery of Gujarat known as heer bharat in its use of geometrical motifs and stitchery. Phulkaris and Baghs were worn by women all over Punjab during marriage festivals and other joyous occasions. They were embroidered by the women for their own use and use of other family members and were not for sale in the market. Thus, it was purely a domestic art which not only satisfied their inner urge for creation but brought colour into day-to-day life. In a way, it was true folk art. Noting the value of traditional Phulkaris, Aryan (1983) collected the garments noting their spectacular artwork. Such efforts to preserve the art of Phulkari has influenced its revival.
Etymology
The Punjabi term, Phulkari is made of two words: Phul means flower and Akari means shape. Phulkari meant the shape/direction of flowers which symbolized life. In Punjab, it was popularly believed that the birth of girl child in the family was auspicious. The mother and grandmothers would start embroidering Phulkari dupattas upon her birth because they believed that she would be the creator for future generations. Originally Phulkari was done with real flowers. Silk and Mulmul (soft cotton muslin) fabrics were used because of their purity and longevity. It was believed that the virtue and character of a woman gave shape to the Phulkari.
Origin
There are different theories about the origin of Phulkari. One such belief is that this embroidery was prevalent in different parts of the country as far back as the 7th century CE but survived only in Punjab. Motifs similar to the ones found in Phulkari are also found in Kashida of Bihar and some of the embroideries of Rajasthan. Another thought is that this style of embroidery came from Iran where it was called Gulkari, also meaning floral work. However, Pal (1960) notes that the styles of Phulkari are distinct to Gulkari work.
There is reference to Phulkari in ancient texts, folk legends, and literature of Punjab. In Harishcharitra, the biography of the Emperor Harshavardhana (590-647 CE), the last ruler of great ancient Indian Vardhana empire, the seventh-century chronicler Bana wrote, "Some people were embroidering flowers and leaves on the cloth from the reverse side," which is a technical description of Phulkari embroidery. However, the earliest reference to the word Phulkari is in Punjabi literature in the 18th century Waris Shah's version of Heer Ranjha (a legendary Punjabi tragic romance) which describes the wedding trousseau of the female protagonist Heer and lists various clothing items with Phulkari embroidery. The first extensive English publication on Phulkari was by Flora Annie Steel in 1880 where she describes the various styles and exhibited the varieties in picture form.
In its present form, Phulkari embroidery has been popular since the 15th century. Pal (1960) believes that no matter its origin, Phulkari work is distinctive and uniquely Punjabi.
Fabrics
Various coarse structured fabrics such as khaddar, Dasuti, and Khaddar casement were used for embroidery work, including Phulkari. According to the employment of Phulkari types "chaddar," "bhagh," or "chope," these Khadddar characteristics vary in thickness, weight, and loose or firmly woven structures. The first was a loosely woven khaddar with coarse yarns, which stood in contrast to "Halwan" (a lightweight and finely woven Khaddar), and the third was "Chaunsa Khaddar," which was woven with finer yarns and was chosen for "Bhag".
Phulkari was essentially a product of domestic work done by the women of the household. The fabric on which Phulkari embroidery was done was hand spun (a handloomed plain-weave cotton fabric). Cotton was grown throughout Punjab plains and after a series of simple processes it was spun into yarn by the women on the (spinning wheel). After making the yarn it was dyed by the (dyer) and woven by the (weaver).Traditionally, use of coarse khaddar fabric made it easy to count the yarn. The base khaddar cloth used in Western Punjab was finer than what was used in Central Punjab. The fabric was woven in widths, which were narrow, as the width of the loom was such. Thus, the fabric had to be stitched lengthwise to make the desired width, which was later embroidered. This practice of stitching two pieces was common among textiles of Punjab in the early 20th century. In West Punjab (now in Pakistan), two or three pieces of cloth were first folded and joined together, leading to distorted designs. In East Punjab (now Punjab, Haryana, and part of Himachal Pradesh), they were joined together first and then embroidered.
Patterns
The hallmark of Phulkari is, making innumerable patterns by using long and short darn stitches. There were no pattern books and embroidery was worked entirely from the reverse of the fabric. The designs were not traced. Techniques and patterns were not documented but transmitted from word of mouth and each regional group was identified with the style of embroidery or design The embroidery is done with floss silk thread. Soft untwisted silk floss called , was used for embroidery. The thread came from Kashmir, Afghanistan, and Bengal and was dyed in the big cities by the . The best quality silk came from China. The village ladies obtained the thread from hawkers or peddlers who went from village to village selling daily needs items.
The most favoured colour was red and its shades, because red is considered auspicious by both Hindus and Sikhs of Punjab. Madder brown, rust red, or indigo were the usual background colours for a base for the embroideries. White was used in Bagh by elderly ladies and widows. Black and blue were less preferred in Western Punjab, whereas white was less commonly used in East Punjab. Geometrical patterns are usually embroidered on the Phulkaris. Phulkari depicted scenes from everyday life in the villages. Animals and birds represented success, beauty, pride, and goodwill and different fruits symbolized wealth, prosperity, and fertility. Wheat and barley stalks with ears were also common motifs. No religious subjects or darbar (Sikh temple hall) scenes were embroidered. The decorated end of a scarf or shawl, the pallu, has separate panels of exquisite Phulkari workmanship with striking designs.
Despite the fact that this embroidery was not originally done on a commercial scale, some of it did find a market abroad in the 19th century. The embroideries for shawls or ghagras (a long full decorated skirt) were used to make curtains for European homes. Specimens of Phulkari cloth from different regions of Punjab were sent to Colonial and Indian Exhibition, held under the British regime. By the end of the 19th century, Phulkaris and Baghs had found a market in Europe and America. There were firms in Amritsar where Phulkari work of any shape or size could be ordered. Some of the firms procured orders from Europe for supplying Phulkari on a commercial scale. The newer market dictated the changes in designs and color combinations. Some commented that the Europeanized versions of Phulkari were not Indian at all. The embroideries were in black, green, and red and the stitches of embroidery were an inch in length.
Types
Pal (1960) describes the following traditional varieties of Phulkari: . He also describes the materials used, colours and stitching techniques. The traditional cloth would be khaddar using hand-spun cotton. The cotton would be weaved professionally to create a heavy material. Lighter versions called were also used. Pal noted that khaddi material was also becoming popular. The colours were red, white, golden yellow green and deep blue. Natural methods would be used to dye the material w such as utilising flowers. A popular method was to use the Rubia cordifolia tree known as Indian madder and Majith in Punjabi. Unspun silk thread known as patt would be used to embroider the designs using the double stitch known in Punjabi as dasuti tropa, herringbone stitch and satin stitch. Long and short stitches would be employed. No stencil would be used to embroider the designs.
Women would gather to embroider Phulkaris. Traditional folk songs would be sung by the group. Pal also gives one instance of a woman putting one grain of wheat to one side for every stitch she made. When the Phulkari was complete, the lady donated the grains away. Sometimes, different styles can be seen on one Phulkari. This is because each girl would use her own imagination to stitch a design, perhaps to remind the girl when she gets married of her friends who helped stitch the Phulkari. Thind (2005) mentions another variety: the bawan bagh where more than one bagh style is used on one cloth. Many of the varieties are part of museum exhibitions and private collections. Thind makes reference to the contributions made by Mohinder Singh Randhawa in promoting the preservation of Phulkari art. He also mentions private collections where he has seen various motifs including the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) embroidered in a Phulkari.
Bagh
Bagh is a style wherein the entire surface was embroidered. By working with darning stitch numerous designs were made by use of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal stitches. There were many kinds of Bagh depending on its usage like Ghungat (Veil) Bagh and Vari da Bagh. In many cases the designs were inspired by what the embroiderer saw around them. The kitchen provided the designs of many Baghs — Belan (rolling pin) Bagh, Mirchi (Chilli) Bagh, Gobhi (Cauliflower) Bagh, Karela (Bitter Gourd) Bagh, and Dabbi (metal container) Bagh. Others like Dilli Darwaza, Shalimar Char, and Chaurasia Baghs depicted the layout of well-known Mughal Gardens. The scattered work on the fabric is called "Adha Bagh" (half garden). The work done with white or yellow silk floss on cotton khaddar that starts from the center of the fabric and spreads to the whole fabric is called "Chashm-e-Bulbul".
Chope and Subhar
The two styles of and are worn by brides. The chope is embroidered on both sides of the cloth.
Chope traditionally is embroidered on red with yellow. Two fabric panels are joined that have similar patterns embroidered on both ends. The only motifs embroidered on both selvage are a series of triangles with the base towards the selvage and pointing inwards. The design is worked with small squares in a step-ladder fashion. Only the borders and the four edges of the cloth are embroidered in fine embroidery. The has a central motif and four motifs on the corners.
Darshan Dwar
Darshan Dwar is a type of Phulkari which was made as an offering or bhet (presentation). It has panelled architectural design. The pillars and the top of the gate are filled with latticed geometrical patterns. Sometimes human beings are also shown standing at the gate.
Sainchi
This is the only style where the outlines of the figures are drawn using black ink. It is then filled by embroidering with darn stitch. In other styles, there are no patterns drawn and the work was done only by counting the threads from the back. Sainchi was popular in Bathinda and Faridkot districts. Sainchi phulkari was also popular in and around Ferozepur.
Sainchi embroidery draws inspiration from village life and depict various scenes of everyday village life such as a man ploughing, lying on a charpai (jute cot), playing chaupar (a cross and circle board game), smoking hookah, or guests drinking sharbat (sweet cordial). Common themes also include women performing chores like churning milk, grinding wheat flour on the chakki (hand mill), and working on the charkha (spinning wheel). Women also embroidered scenes which they found interesting, such as a British official coming to a village or women carrying an umbrella and walking along with memsahib (the wife of a British official). Birds, trains, circuses as well as scenes from popular Punjabi legends like Sohni Mahiwal and Sassi-Punnun were often depicted The style also incorporates jewellery designs of bracelets, earrings, rings and necklaces. Pal (1960) believes that such designs did no form part of the traditional method of embroidering Phulkaris but expressed a woman's wish to have such items of jewellery.
Tilpatra
The til (sesame) patra has decorative embroidery which is spread out as if spreading sesame seeds. The term tilpatra means "the spreading of seeds".
Neelak
Neelak Phulkari is made of a black or red background with yellow or bright red embroidery. The color of the phulkari is mixed with metals.
Ghunghat bagh
Originating in Rawalpindi, the ghunghat bagh is heavily embroidered around the centre on the edge to be worn over the head. The embroidered centre is then pulled over the face so as to form an embroidered veil.
Chhamaas
The Chhaamas phulkari hails from Rohtak, Gurgaon, Hissar, and Delhi. The Chaamas Phulkari incorporates mirrors which are sewn into the cloth with yellow, grey, or blue thread.
Phulkari of South and Southwestern Punjab region
South and southwestern Punjab region includes the south Punjab, India, south and south west of Punjab, Pakistan. The phulkari of south and southwestern Punjab region, has wide edges upon which designs of animals and birds are embroidered. As is the case of the chope, the edges are embroidered on both sides of the cloth.
Revival and Exhibitions
Traditionally, phulkari garments were part of a girl's wedding trousseau. Its motifs were expressive of her emotions and the number of phulkari pieces defined the status of the family. The Phulkari has faced difficult times. 52 different types of Phulkari existed at one point in time. They have now been reduced to less than a handful. In olden days, women could embroider without the use of the tracing blocks. Most contemporary embroiderers can no longer do so and use tracing blocks. According to handloom and handicraft traditions expert Jasleen Dhamija, "The embroidery form became more or less extinct. Nobody promoted these." Step-motherly treatment from the Indian fashion industry has also been partially blamed for its decline.
Pal (1960) after describing the varieties of Phulkari and the methods used to create them, went onto state that despite there being a reduction in the art for the last 50 years in undivided Punjab, girls and women still continued to embroider Phulkaris in the then Punjab comprising modern Punjab, India, Haryana and parts of Himachal Pradesh to at least the 1950s. In villages far away from the cities, Phulkaris such as the Chope were still given to brides hailing from traditional families. However, he noted a marked loss of interest in the craft as a whole. Phulkaris could be seen hanging on walls using nails, being placed on the ground when religious figures attended villages, being used in the fields to collect crops and being used as rags. Phulkaris were being sold at cheap rates to collectors from overseas who would then sell them at higher rates. Women would give away lighter Phulkaris to servants. Pal believed that the Punjab is a progressive state of India but it did not value its traditional crafts. Renewed interest has only resulted from the refugee crisis after the 1947 partition whereby organisations encouraged women to embroider Phulkaris to make ends meet. Thind (2005) believes that it is Pal's chapter that triggered a serious interest in preserving the dying tradition of Phulkari. People began to take note of the folk art. Thind also noted private collectors preserving traditional Phulkaris. In his visit to the U.K. in 1980, Thind saw a private collection of Phulkaris with various motifs. He also mentions work by local organisations in Punjab (India). Various books have also been written on the subject either wholly dedicated to the subject or in chapters. The renewed interest can be seen in girls and women wearing Phulkari scarfs and carrying Phulkari bags. However, the new method of embroidering Phulkaris is distinct from the traditional method. Phulkaris are now embroidered using machines and modern materials.
In 2011, after a five-year-long legal case, Phulkari was awarded the geographical indication (GI) status in India, which means that after that only registered traders and manufacturers, from the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan would be able to use the term for the traditional craft, and the patent information centre (PIC) of Punjab State Council for Science and Technology would issue a logo or hologram to distinguish the product.
Over the years, the Indian and Punjab governments have been working towards promotion of Phulkari embroidery, by organizing special training programs, fairs, and exhibitions. Since most of the women artisans creating Phulkari are in the unorganized sector or work through middlemen, they do not make much money compared to an actual selling price of their product. To overcome this, Punjab Small Industries and Export Corporation (PSIEC) formed women self-help groups and cooperatives to sell directly and make more profits. Their products retail at PHULKARI- Punjab Government Emporiums in New Delhi, Chandigarh, Patiala, Kolktata, and Amritsar. The Patiala Handicraft Workshop Cooperative Industrial Society Ltd (Society for Rural Women Empowerment) founded a Phulkari cluster in 1997. 880 Phulkari artisans are now part of the cluster and over 10,000 women have been trained in Phulkari embroidery.
There are several non-profits in Punjab that promote Phulkari to empower women by providing a source of livelihood. The Nabha Foundation launched the Phulkari Traditional Craft Program in 2007 to "empower the marginalized rural woman, generate sustainable home based employment." The Phulkari Makers of Bassi Pathana is a financially independent self-group which evolved from the vocational training initiatives at Mehar Baba Charitable Trust in 2009. Artisan markets like Dilli Haat in New Delhi feature stalls by India several National Award winners like Mrs. Lajwanti Devi from Patiala who was awarded the Rashtrapati Award in 1995 for her embroidery. Phulkari products can also be found at occasional bazaars at Dastkar, at Diwali melas, at the Lota Shop at the National Crafts Museum in New Delhi, the Punjab Handloom Emporium in Ludhiana, and in some private chains like 1469. Garg (2017) in her study of the prevalence of the Phulkari craft in Punjab (India) notes that there are various units set up in Patiala district where mainly women reported that they have been carrying on the work set up by their mothers and grandmothers. The respondents also stated that Phulkari work was particularly carried out after the arrival of refugees in Patiala after 1947 from West Punjab.
Some modern fashion designers are incorporating this embroidery into their designs, and its use has spread beyond traditional salwar kameez and dupatta to accessories like jackets, handbags, cushion covers, table-mats, shoes, slipper, juttis, and children's clothes. Phulkaris are now sold online on popular retail and fashion websites and apps and can be found in the homes of Punjabis as well as Indian handloom aficionados. Kaur and Gupta (2016) state that the traditional khaddar material has now been replaced by fine materials such as chiffon and silk for the base. The traditional Pat thread has been replaced by synthetic silk thread. All types of dark and light colours are used. This revival can be used to design the interiors of buildings such as Phulkari style curtains or Phulkari work on lamps to enhance the use of Phulkari.
In Pakistan, Madan and Phul (2016) noted that the Phulkari work of the Punjab was revived in Hazara (of undivided Punjab but now in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) on the initiative of an NGO. However, the Phulkaris produced on a commercial level are not of the same quality as the traditional craft. But the revival has helped poor rural families. The art was revived in the village of Noorpur near Hazara by one woman learning Phulkari from an older lady 20 km away and then introducing the skill to other women.
The biggest challenge to hand-embroidered Phulkaris today is that the market is flooded with relatively inexpensive machine made Phulkaris manufactured in factories in Amritsar and Ludhiana. As consumers become less discerning and as there is improvisation and innovation in machine embroidery, even stalls at Dilli Haat have begun retailing machine made Phulkaris on synthetic fabrics along with high quality hand embroidered Phulkaris. Phulkari embroidery is a painstaking and time-consuming art that strains the eyes, and, as many women work indoors with poor lighting, it leads to the deterioration of their eyesight over time. Relatively low remunerations have made it an economically unviable option for many young women who do not want to take it up as a means of livelihood.
There are limited books on Phulkari available online or in bookstores for purchase. The library at Punjabi University, Patiala has extensive reading material on Phulkaris. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) acquired a collection of selected phulkari for its archives in 1994. The Textile Gallery at the National Crafts Museum has a very extensive collection of Phulkaris. The Philadelphia Museum of Art has a permanent exhibition featuring Phulkaris from the museum's Jill and Sheldon Bonovitz Collection and contemporary designs by Bollywood celebrity designer Manish Malhotra.
Phulkari and chowk poorana floor art
In the Punjab, temporary art using flour is drawn on the floor for ceremonial or decorative purposes. The art is known as chowk poorana. According to Bedi (2001), sometimes chowk poorana is drawn in Punjabi courtyards using flour and colours. The designs drawn are the motifs embroidered on phulkaris. Green is used for the branches and leaves, and white, red and yellow is used for the flowers. Such chowk is called the phulkari chowk. Bedi states that there are different types of chowk but the starting point is a square made with flour. However, any design can be made within the square such as circles or triangular shapes. Dots are drawn using red sindoor (vermilion).
See also
Embroidery of India
Trinjan
References
External links
Phulkari- Ancient Textile of Punjab
Phulkari exhibition, Turin, 2016
Darielle Mason (Editor, Contributor), Cristin McKnight Sethi (Contributor), Phulkari: The Embroidered Textiles of Punjab from the Jill and Sheldon Bonovitz Collection, Yale University Press (April 18, 2017),
S. S. Hitkari, Phulkari: The Folk Art of the Punjab, Phulkari Publications, 1980, https://www.si.edu/object/siris_sil_875793
Punjab Emporium Ludhiana, Punjab, India http://punjabhandloomemporium.in/
PHULKARI - Punjab Government Emporiums, India http://psiec.punjab.gov.in/phulkari.html
Phulkari Cluster, Rajpura, Punjab, India http://www.phulkariindia.com/cluster.html
Women Empowerment Through Phulkari Program, The Nabha Foundation, Punjab, India https://thenabhafoundation.org/women-empowerment/
Phulkari Makers Bassi Pathana (PMBP), Mehar Baba Charitable Trust, Punjab, India http://www.mbtrust.org/phulkari-makers.html
Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi, India http://ignca.gov.in/
National Crafts Museum & Hastkala Academy, New Delhi, India, https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/national-crafts-museum-delhi-things-to-see-6157814/
The Jill and Sheldon Bonovitz Collection, The Philadelphia Museum of Art, https://www.philamuseum.org/exhibitions/2013/768.html?page=3
Punjabi culture
Embroidery in India
Punjabi clothing
Geographical indications in India
Pakistani embroidery
Indian culture
Indian folk art
Indian fashion
Patiala
Folk art of Punjab
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Ricardo Anthony Clark (born February 10, 1983) is an American retired soccer player who played as a midfielder. He appeared for MetroStars, San Jose Earthquakes, Houston Dynamo and Columbus Crew SC in the United States, Eintracht Frankfurt in Germany, and Stabæk in Norway. Clark also appeared for the United States national team.
A native of Atlanta, Clark played two years in college at Furman before being drafted second overall in the 2003 MLS SuperDraft by MetroStars. After two seasons and nearly 100 appearances, he was traded to San Jose Earthquakes. The franchise moved from San Jose to Houston for the 2006 season, becoming the Houston Dynamo, and Clark followed along. He spent four seasons with the Dynamo, helping the club win two MLS Cups, before departing for Europe. Clark spent three years in Europe, playing for Eintracht Frankfurt and Stabæk, before returning to the United States and the Dynamo midway through the 2012 Major League Soccer season. He spent the next six years in Houston, departing at the end of 2017 with 304 appearances for the Dynamo across his two spells. Clark signed as a free agent with Columbus Crew SC, spending his final two professional seasons with the Crew before retiring following the 2019 season.
At international level, Clark appeared for the United States at the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship. He earned his first senior cap in October 2005 against Panama, and went on to score three goals in 34 caps for his country. Clark represented the United States at two CONCACAF Gold Cups, helped the U.S. to the final of the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, and played at the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He earned his final senior cap in January 2012.
Youth and college
Born in Atlanta, Georgia, Clark attended St. Pius X Catholic High School. He was a two-time state champion and state player of the year with the Golden Lions, winning GHSA titles as a sophomore and senior and State Player of the Year nods as a junior and senior. His senior season, St. Pius X went 22–1 while Clark was named as a Parade All-American. At club level, he won two state titles with AFC Lightning and was named as the MVP of the 2000 Adidas ESP Camp. Clark committed to play college soccer at Furman University, part of a recruiting class ranked fourth in the nation.
Clark played only two collegiate seasons at Furman, making 37 appearances and notching three goals for the Paladins. In just his second collegiate game, he provided an assist to John Barry Nusum as part of a 3–2 victory over Notre Dame. Clark suffered through a foot injury during the second half of his freshman season, finishing the year with 15 appearances. His first goal for Furman had to wait until his sophomore season, during a 4–3 victory in overtime against UNC Greensboro. That goal came on September 21, 2002; Clark also scored on September 27 against Fairfield and October 27 against South Carolina. He finished the season with three goals in 22 appearances, and was named as an NSCAA first team all-American. Clark was also named to the NSCAA all-South Region first team, the College Soccer News all-America first team, and as a Soccer America MVP to conclude the season.
Club career
MetroStars
Following his sophomore year at Furman, Clark signed a Project-40 contract with Major League Soccer and entered the 2003 MLS SuperDraft, where he was selected second overall by MetroStars. He stepped immediately into the starting lineup for the Metros, making his professional debut on April 12, 2003, against Columbus Crew. Clark would go on to set a club rookie record, starting the first 27 games of the season, and making 28 total appearances in MLS play. In the midst of that stretch, he had a run of three goals in four games: against Chicago Fire on June 28, D.C. United on July 5, and New England Revolution on July 12. Clark also played a large role for the club in their run to the 2003 U.S. Open Cup Final, where they were defeated 1–0 by Chicago. After appearing 35 times in all competitions with three goals, Clark was named a finalist for the MLS Rookie of the Year Award; he lost out to Damani Ralph of Chicago.
Clark started his second professional season slowly after suffering a preseason injury; he came off the bench in the season opener against Columbus, but had to wait until the end of April against New England to get his first turn in the starting lineup. He scored his only goal of the season in the regular season finale against D.C. United, a 50th minute rocket as part of a 3–2 defeat. For the second straight season, Clark started both playoff matches for the Metros as they were knocked out in the quarterfinals. He scored once in 28 total appearances on the year, bringing his total with the club to four goals in 63 games.
San Jose/Houston
Clark was traded to San Jose Earthquakes on January 14, 2005, in exchange for allocation money and a youth international roster slot. The trade occurred on the same day as the 2005 MLS SuperDraft, meaning that Clark became one of eight players that joined the Earthquakes on the day.
He jumped immediately into the starting lineup in 2005, making his club debut with a start in the season opener against New England Revolution on April 2. Playing out of a defensive midfield role, Clark found the back of the net three times on the season: July 2 away to FC Dallas, August 13 against Colorado Rapids, and September 10 against Chivas USA. He was named as the MLS Player of the Month for July, also earning a nod as the club's player of the month that month. Clark scored his first career playoff goal on October 23, in the first leg of the conference semifinals against LA Galaxy; the Galaxy would win the match, 3–1, and took the series by a 4–2 aggregate scoreline. Clark finished the season with 32 appearances and four goals across all competitions.
Due to San Jose's failure to reach a stadium agreement with AEG, Clark, along with the rest of his Earthquakes teammates, moved to Houston for the 2006 season. He started in the inaugural match for Houston Dynamo, a 5–2 victory over Colorado on April 2. Clark went on to start 31 times during the regular season, scoring twice: the first goal in Texas Derby history on May 6 and the tying goal on June 10 against New York Red Bulls. However, the second half of his season was marred by a couple of bookings. On August 26, Clark received the first red card of his career, coming in a 3–2 defeat against Chivas USA. He then picked up a pair of yellow cards in the playoffs, meaning that he would be suspended for MLS Cup 2006. With Adrian Serioux starting in his place, Houston defeated New England Revolution on penalties to win the first trophy in club history. Clark made 36 appearances on the season, scoring twice, and was named to the MLS Best XI.
Clark began 2007 by making his continental debut in the 2007 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, appearing in three of Houston's four games against Puntarenas and Pachuca. He then missed more than a month of the 2007 season on national team duty, appearing in the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup and 2007 Copa América. His play through the first half of the season, including a goal against FC Dallas on June 3, earned him a spot in the 2007 MLS All-Star Game, the second consecutive season that Clark had been selected as an all-star. Following his return from the United States squad, he scored for the second time on the season on September 16, in a 3–1 victory over LA Galaxy. However, Clark's season ended at the end of September. He missed the final two regular season and all playoff matches due to a suspension resulting from a deliberate kick aimed at a prone Carlos Ruiz in a match with FC Dallas on September 30. Clark was sent off, received a nine-game suspension, and was fined $10,000, the most severe punishment in MLS history. In his absence, Houston went on to win MLS Cup 2007, repeating as MLS Cup champions. Clark finished the season with 23 appearances and two goals across all competitions.
Clark's suspension carried over for the first two games of the 2008 season, but he jumped immediately back into the Houston lineup afterwards. He notched two goals in 25 appearances in MLS play, scoring against Chicago Fire on May 17 and Real Salt Lake on August 16. Clark also played a large role in Houston's continental competitions, playing 16 times and scoring once across the three competitions. He played every minute of the Dynamo's four matches in the CONCACAF Champions' Cup, repeated the feat across five games in the North American SuperLiga, and played in seven games of Houston's 2008–09 CONCACAF Champions League campaign. In the group stage of the SuperLiga, Clark scored his first career goal in a continental competition, coming in a 3–1 victory over D.C. United. He also converted during the penalty shootout in the final of that competition against New England, although the Revolution took the title by a 6–5 mark. Clark made a career-high 43 appearances in all competitions in 2008, scoring three times.
Clark missed time during the summer of 2009, earning a call up to the United States for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. He scored his only goal of the season following his return to from South Africa, a strike on August 9 in a 3–2 victory over Chicago. Thanks in part to his international duties, Clark only made 22 appearances in league play. He also saw his playing time in the CONCACAF Champions League decrease, appearing in two of the Dynamo's six games in the competition. Clark did play every minute in the MLS Cup Playoffs, including going 120 minutes against LA Galaxy in the conference finals on November 13. Houston was defeated 2–0 after extra time, and with Clark's contract expiring at the end of the season it would mark his final match of his first stint with the club. He announced following the season that he would pursue opportunities abroad, departing Houston with eight goals in 129 appearances across four seasons with the Dynamo.
During the summer of 2009, following his performance at the Confederations Cup, Clark had received interest from multiple European clubs. Stade Rennais of Ligue 1 and newly-promoted Serie A club Livorno both reported interest in the player, either to sign him during the summer window or once his contract with MLS expired in January. Both moves fell through, leaving Clark with Houston through the end of the season.
Eintracht Frankfurt
Clark, whose contract with MLS expired at the end of the 2009 season, signed a deal with Bundesliga club Eintracht Frankfurt for the remainder of the 2009–10 season with an option to extend the contract at the end of the season. He made his club debut on April 24, 2010, against Mainz 05, playing the full 90 minutes in a 3–3 draw. Clark started each of the last three matches on the season for Eintracht as the club finished 10th in the league. Prior to the season finale against VfL Wolfsburg, and despite the injury he had suffered after arriving in Germany, Clark inked a three-year contract with Frankfurt.
As Eintracht struggled towards relegation in 2010–11, Clark also struggled to become a mainstay in the starting lineup for the club. He made his season debut in a 4–0 victory over Borussia Mönchengladbach in early September, replacing Pirmin Schwegler in the 89th minute. Clark appeared in four of Eintracht's nine victories on the season, and six of their 16 total results, but could not prevent the club from slumping to 17th place and just the fourth relegation in club history. He did make his DFB-Pokal debut in late December, playing the full 120 minutes in a 5–3 penalty kick defeat against Alemannia Aachen that eliminated Eintracht from the competition. Clark finished the season having made just 12 appearances in all competitions for the club.
Clark made his debut appearance in the 2. Bundesliga on July 25, 2011, against FC St. Pauli, going the full 90 minutes and picking up a yellow card in a 1–1 draw. However, he was unable to build on that start and only managed to make the bench three more times through the first half of the season, never again appearing for the club. Clark would be sent on loan to Norwegian club Stabæk in February, on a deal running through the end of July. On July 18, 2012, before that loan had even expired, Eintracht confirmed that Clark's contract had been terminated by mutual consent, effective at the end of his loan spell in Norway. Clark officially departed Eintracht Frankfurt having appeared 16 times in all competitions for the club, and just once during his final season in Germany.
Loan to Stabæk
On February 22, 2012, after struggling for playing time with Eintracht, Clark was sent on loan to Stabæk of the Tippeligaen. The Norwegian club confirmed that the loan ran through the end of July. He made his club debut a little more than a month later, playing the full 90 minutes in a scoreless draw against Aalesund on March 25. Clark was a fixture in the Stabæk lineup during his time at the club, finishing his time in Norway by appearing in both legs of a Europa League first qualifying round tie against JJK as Stabæk were defeated 4–3 on aggregate by the Finnish club. He went 79 minutes in the opening leg defeat, but had to be replaced by Adnan Haidar before halftime in the second leg in what would mark his final match for the club. Clark concluded the loan spell having made 15 appearances across all competitions for Stabæk.
Return to Houston
Following his release from Eintracht, Clark returned to the United States and signed again with Houston Dynamo, who had retained his Major League Soccer rights when he moved to Germany, on August 2, 2012. He was officially added to the roster on August 8, after Geoff Cameron finalized a move to Premier League side Stoke City. Clark made his second debut for the Dynamo two days later, coming on as a second half substitute in a defeat against New York Red Bulls. His first goal since his return was scored on September 29, a 77th minute strike to hand Houston a 2–0 victory over New England Revolution. Clark started in MLS Cup 2012 against LA Galaxy, but conceded the game-winning penalty as Houston were defeated 3–1. He finished the campaign with one goal in 18 appearances in all competitions.
Clark jumped straight into the 2013 season, scoring in the season opener against D.C. United and earning a nod to the MLS Team of the Week for week one. He notched his second goal on July 6 against Philadelphia Union, providing the winner in a 1–0 game, but then missed almost a month across July and August due to an unspecified illness. Following his return to action, Clark jumped back onto the scoresheet: he snapped a four-match winless run for Houston with the winning goal against Philadelphia on September 14, then tallied the only goal of a victory over Montreal Impact on October 4. In the playoffs, Clark again played a starring role for the Dynamo, scoring his first playoff goal for the club and adding an assist although the Dynamo were denied a third-straight trip to MLS Cup. Clark finished the season with final stats of 36 appearances and five goals; for his efforts, he was named as the Dynamo Player's Player of the Year.
The 2014 season was a disappointing one for Houston, who failed to qualify for the playoffs for only the second time in club history, as well as for Clark, who appeared in only 25 games because of injury. He suffered a concussion on April 23 against New York Red Bulls, and wound up missing eleven matches before returning against Montreal on June 29. After scoring twice prior to his injury, Clark added two more goals following his return. He tallied strikes in back-to-back games against Sporting Kansas City and Montreal, sparking the Dynamo to a six-match unbeaten run. The late effort wasn't enough, however, for the Dynamo to qualify for the playoffs, as they missed out for the first time since 2010. Clark made 25 appearances on the season, scoring four times.
2015 would prove to be the most productive season of Clark's career, as he appeared in 33 matches and scored a career-high nine goals. Four of those goals came through the first half of the season, including a pair in back-to-back games against Montreal and D.C. United in mid-April. He also scored his first career U.S. Open Cup goal, coming two minutes into stoppage time of a fourth round victory over Austin Aztex. Clark continued his tear through the second half of the season, tallying match-winning goals against San Jose on July 10 and Vancouver Whitecaps FC on August 29. Although Houston won points in seven out of the eight games he scored in, the Dynamo fell nine points short of qualifying for the playoffs, missing out for the second straight season. Following the season, Clark was named as the club's Most Valuable Player, Player's Player of the Year, and Humanitarian of the Year. He also earned recognition from the fans as Midfielder of the Year. Clark became a free agent at the end of the season, but re-signed with Houston on December 8.
In his ninth season in Houston, Clark appeared in a career-high 32 league matches; that included his 275th regular season start (against Columbus in April) and his 300th career MLS appearance (against San Jose in August). Clark scored four times on the season, twice against San Jose and twice in the Texas Derby against FC Dallas. The goals against Dallas, in March and June, were his fifth and sixth in the Derby, tying Brian Ching for the most in the history of the series. Clark appeared 33 times in all competitions, augmenting his four goals with a career-high four assists.
Ahead of the 2017 season, Clark was named as the sixth club captain in Dynamo history, taking over from DaMarcus Beasley when Wilmer Cabrera was named as the head coach. Clark did not score a goal in any competition in 2017, the first time in his MLS career that he did not tally a league goal. He missed time early in the season because of tightness in his left adductor, sitting out two matches in late April due to the injury. On May 20, Clark made his professional debut in his hometown of Atlanta, entering the 4–1 defeat against Atlanta United as a substitute. The Dynamo returned to the playoffs for the first time in four seasons, with Clark appearing twice as part of the club's run to the Western Conference finals. He finished the season having appeared 30 times in all competitions. On December 5, Houston declined the option on Clark's contract, making him a free agent and ending his eleven-year affiliation with the organization. He departed the Dynamo after 175 appearances and 23 goals through his second stint with the club, bringing his all-time mark in Houston to 304 appearances and 31 goals.
Columbus Crew SC
On February 2, 2018, Clark joined his fourth MLS club, signing as a free agent with Columbus Crew SC. At 34 years old at the time of his signing, he became the oldest player on the Columbus roster.
Prior to the season, Clark was named as part of the leadership council for Crew SC, joining Federico Higuaín, Hector Jiménez, Jonathan Mensah, Zack Steffen, and Josh Williams. The six collectively served as vice-captains behind captain Wil Trapp. Clark made his Columbus debut as a late substitute on March 10, replacing Lalas Abubakar six minutes into stoppage time of a 3–2 victory against Montreal Impact. He was on the field for less than a minute before the final whistle. On his second appearance, and first start, Clark scored his first goal for the club. From a Higuaín corner kick, he powered home the winning goal in a 3–1 victory over D.C. United. Clark played sparingly across the remainder of the season, finishing the season with one goal in 13 appearances. The club declined his contract option on November 26, but stated that they would "remain in contract dialogue" with Clark. On January 17, 2019, the two sides agreed to terms and he re-signed with Crew SC for the 2019 season.
Clark officially retired from playing professional soccer on February 12, 2020. He signed a ceremonial one day contract with Houston Dynamo for the announcement.
International career
Clark received his first taste of international soccer with the United States U18 national team, earning six caps and scoring three goals during his two eligible years at that level. He was a key member of the squad that won the 2001 International Tournament of Lisbon, where he started all three matches.
Clark was bumped up to the United States U20 national team at the start of 2002, earning his first cap at that level on January 10 as part of a 1–0 victory over Canada. He was named in the squad for the 2002 C.O.T.I.F. XIX Torneig Internacional, helping the Americans to their best-ever finish; they were defeated by Brazil in the final. Clark closed out 2002 at the CONCACAF U20 qualifying tournament, helping the United States qualify for the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship. After appearing 28 times for the U20s in 2002, Clark went on to play 19 more games in 2003, including another appearance in L'Alcúdia. His final caps at U20 level came in the United Arab Emirates at the World Youth Championship, where Clark played all five games for the Americans. His 47th and final appearance for the U20s came in a quarterfinal defeat against Argentina on December 12.
While also playing for the U20s, Clark earned his first cap for the United States U23 national team in May 2003; he played the full 90 minutes against Mexico as part of a 3–1 American victory. He only appeared one other time for the U23s, in an Olympic qualifier against St. Kitts and Nevis on November 15.
Early international career and 2007 tournaments
Clark received his first senior cap for the United States on October 12, 2005, in a World Cup qualifier against Panama. He replaced Kyle Martino in the 68th minute of a 2–0 American victory. Clark was not named to the squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and thus did not earn another cap for more than a year. He returned to the team after Bob Bradley was named as the new head coach, making his first start for the U.S. in a friendly victory over Denmark on January 20, 2007. That summer, Clark was named to two American squads: the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup in the United States and the 2007 Copa América in Venezuela. He appeared four times in the Gold Cup, coming off the bench in all three knockout stage matches; in the final against Mexico, he replaced Pablo Mastroeni at halftime as part of the American comeback victory. At the Copa América, Clark appeared in all three matches as the United States was knocked out of the competition in the group stage. Against Paraguay on July 2, he scored his first international goal, a 40th minute strike that would turn out to be the only goal from open play scored by the United States on the tournament.
2009 Confederations Cup and World Cup qualifying
More than three years after earning his first World Cup qualifying cap, Clark earned his second; he started against Trinidad and Tobago on September 10, 2008, in a qualifier for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He played in just two of the six Third Round qualifiers for the United States, but found a larger role in the Hexagonal, appearing in four of the ten American matches in the final round. On September 10, 2009, Clark scored his first World Cup qualifying goal, and just his second for the United States. Away to Trinidad and Tobago, Clark's 62nd minute strike was the only score of a 1–0 victory, and guaranteed that the United States could finish no worse than fourth in the Hexagonal. He then went the distance against Honduras on October 10, as the U.S. clinched a spot in the World Cup with a 3–2 victory.
In the midst of that World Cup qualifying campaign, Clark was selected to the American squad for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. He appeared in two group stage matches for the U.S., missing only the 3–0 defeat against Brazil. Clark went the distance in the semifinal victory over Spain, helping the United States to their first-ever Confederations Cup final. Against Brazil in the final, he played 88 minutes before being replaced by Conor Casey as the Americans chased the game; they finished as runners-up after a 3–2 defeat to the Seleção.
2010 World Cup and later career
Clark was named as part of the 30-man preliminary squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Coach Bob Bradley named Clark as part of the 23-man squad that would take part in South Africa. He was one of nine midfielders selected to the team. After appearing in two tune-up matches prior to the tournament, Clark made his World Cup debut on June 12 with a start against England in the group stage. He also started in the Round of 16, a match that saw the United States defeated by Ghana after an extra time goal by Asamoah Gyan. Clark came in for criticism following the match, as he had committed the turnover that led to Ghana's opening goal in the fifth minute, picked up a yellow card in the seventh minute, and was substituted in the 31st minute.
Clark only appeared three more times for the United States following the World Cup. In Jürgen Klinsmann's debut as head coach, Clark was an 84th minute substitute against Mexico, replacing José Francisco Torres. He scored his third and final international goal on January 22, 2012, a header seven minutes into second-half stoppage time to beat Venezuela. Four days later, Clark made what would turn out to be his final appearance for the United States, playing 67 minutes in a 1–0 victory over Panama. Clark earned 34 caps for the United States, scoring three goals across his eight years with the national team.
Managerial career
On March 11, 2021, the Vancouver Whitecaps FC announced that they hired Clark as an assistant coach for the first team.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honors
International
United States
CONCACAF Gold Cup: 2007
Club
San Jose Earthquakes
Supporters' Shield: 2005
Houston Dynamo
MLS Cup: 2006, 2007
Individual
MLS Best XI: 2006
MLS All-Star: 2006, 2007, 2008
Houston Dynamo Player's Player of the Year: 2013, 2015
Houston Dynamo MVP: 2015
Houston Dynamo Humanitarian of the Year: 2015
References
External links
Houston profile
1983 births
Living people
2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
2007 Copa América players
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2010 FIFA World Cup players
African-American soccer players
All-American men's college soccer players
American expatriate soccer players
American expatriate sportspeople in Germany
American sportspeople of Trinidad and Tobago descent
American soccer players
Association football midfielders
Bundesliga players
2. Bundesliga players
Columbus Crew players
Eintracht Frankfurt players
Eliteserien players
Expatriate footballers in Germany
Expatriate footballers in Norway
Furman Paladins men's soccer players
Houston Dynamo FC players
Major League Soccer All-Stars
Major League Soccer players
New York Red Bulls draft picks
New York Red Bulls players
Parade High School All-Americans (boys' soccer)
People from Jonesboro, Georgia
San Jose Earthquakes players
Soccer players from Georgia (U.S. state)
Sportspeople from the Atlanta metropolitan area
Stabæk Fotball players
United States men's international soccer players
United States men's under-20 international soccer players
United States men's under-23 international soccer players
United States men's youth international soccer players
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Chicken Little is a 2005 American computer-animated comedy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and very loosely based on the "Henny Penny" Anglo-Saxon fairy tale. The 46th Disney animated feature film, it was directed by Mark Dindal from a screenplay by Steve Bencich, Ron J. Friedman, and Ron Anderson, based on a story by Mark Kennedy and Dindal. In this version, the title character is ridiculed by his town for causing a panic, thinking that the "sky was falling". A year later he attempts to fix his reputation, followed by an unexpected truth regarding his past being revealed. The film is dedicated to Disney artist and writer Joe Grant, who died before the film's release. This also marked the final film appearance of Don Knotts during his lifetime, as his next and final film, Air Buddies (another Disney-produced film that was released just over a year later), would be released posthumously.
Chicken Little was animated in-house at Walt Disney Feature Animation's main headquarters in Burbank, California and released by Walt Disney Pictures on November 4, 2005, in Disney Digital 3-D (the first film to be released in this format) along with the standard 2D version. It is Disney's first fully computer-animated feature film, as Pixar's films were distributed but not produced by Disney, and Dinosaur (2000) was a combination of live-action and computer animation which in turn was provided by division The Secret Lab.
Chicken Little was Disney's second adaptation of the fable after a propaganda cartoon made during World War II. The film is also the last Disney animated film produced under the name Walt Disney Feature Animation before the studio was renamed Walt Disney Animation Studios. Chicken Little received mixed reviews and grossed $314 million worldwide, making it the second-highest-grossing animated film of 2005 (behind Madagascar).
Plot
In the town of Oakey Oaks, Ace Cluck, also known as Chicken Little, rings the school bell and warns everyone to run for their lives. This sends the whole town into a frenzied panic. Eventually, the head of the Fire Department calms down enough to ask him what is going on. Chicken Little exclaims that the sky is falling, because a mysterious piece of the sky shaped like the nearby stop sign had fallen on his head when he was sitting under the big oak tree in the town square; however, he is unable to find the piece. His father, Buck Cluck, who was once a middle school baseball star, assumes that this "piece of the sky" was just an acorn that has fallen off the tree and has also hit him on the head, making Chicken Little the laughingstock of the town.
A year later, Chicken Little has become infamous in the town for being prone to ruin everything accidentally. His only friends are outcasts like himself: Abby "Ugly Duckling" Mallard, an obese and cowardly pig named Runt of the Litter, and Fish Out of Water, who wears a helmet full of tap water to breathe. Trying to help, Abby encourages Chicken Little to talk to his father, but he only wants to make his dad proud of him. He joins his school's baseball team to recover his reputation and his father's pride but is made last until the ninth inning of the last game. Chicken Little is reluctantly called to bat by the coach. Chicken Little hits the ball on his third swing and makes it past first, second, and third bases, but is met at home plate by the outfielders. He tries sliding onto the home plate but is touched by the ball. While it is presumed that he lost the game, the umpire brushes away the dust to reveal Chicken Little's foot is barely touching home plate, thus declaring Chicken Little safe and the game won; Chicken Little is hailed as a hero for winning the pennant.
Later that night back at home, Chicken Little is hit on the head yet again by the same "piece of the sky" — only to find out that it is not actually a piece of the sky, but a hexagonal panel that blends into the background, which would thereby explain why he was unable to find it last time. He calls his friends over to help figure out what it is.
When Fish pushes a button on the back of the panel, it flies into the sky, taking him with it. It turns out to be part of the camouflage of an invisible UFO piloted by two aliens in metallic armor. After "rescuing" Fish, Chicken Little and his friends are pursued by the aliens throughout a cornfield. Just as they are cornered, Chicken Little manages to ring the bell to warn everyone, but the aliens escape, leaving an orange alien child behind. No one believes the story and Chicken Little’s reputation is placed in jeopardy yet again. The next morning, he and his friends discover the alien child, whose name is Kirby, just as a whole fleet of alien spaceships descend on the town and start what appears to be an invasion. However, the invasion is a misunderstanding, as the two aliens are looking for their lost child and attack only out of concern. As the aliens rampage throughout Oakey Oaks, vaporizing everything in their path, Chicken Little realizes he must return Kirby to his parents to save the town. First, though, he must confront his father and regain his trust.
In the invasion, Buck, now regaining his pride and trust in his son, defends him from the aliens until they get vaporized. It is then discovered that the aliens were not vaporizing people but teleporting them aboard the UFO. After Chicken Little and his father return Kirby, it turns out the aliens were merely touring Earth and came across the town for its acorns. It is also revealed that the panel that fell off their ship is malfunctioning. After everything is explained, the apologetic aliens return everything to normal and everyone is grateful for Chicken Little's efforts to save the town. Another year later, Chicken Little, his father, his friends and the citizens of Oakey Oaks watch an in-universe movie depicting an extremely fanciful retelling of the events that transpired, portraying Chicken Little as an action hero also named "Ace".
Cast
Zach Braff as Ace “Chicken Little” Cluck, a young and diminutive rooster, who suffers from a reputation for being called crazy when he caused a panic when he thought that the sky was falling.
Joan Cusack as Abigail "Abby" Mallard (also known as the Ugly Duckling), a female duck (implied swan) with buckteeth. She is Chicken Little's best friend, and by the end, his girlfriend.
Dan Molina as Fish Out of Water, a goldfish who wears a scuba helmet filled with water and lives on the surface.
Steve Zahn as Runt of the Litter, a large pig who is much larger than the other children but is far smaller than the other members of his family.
Garry Marshall as Buck "Ace" Cluck, Chicken Little's widowed father and a former high school baseball star.
Amy Sedaris as Foxy Loxy, a mean fox who is a baseball star and the "hometown hero." She is also a tomboy and one of the "popular kids" at school. In the original fable, as well as the 1943 short film, Foxy is a male fox.
Mark Walton as Goosey Loosey, a dimwitted goose and Foxy Loxy's best friend and henchwoman.
Don Knotts as Turkey Lurkey, a turkey and the mayor of Oakey Oaks, who is friendly and sensible but not very bright.
Sean Elmore, Matthew Josten, and Evan Dunn as Kirby
Fred Willard as Melvin
Catherine O'Hara as Tina
Mark Dindal as Morkubine Porcupine and the Coach
Patrick Stewart as Mr. Woolensworth
Wallace Shawn as Principal Fetchit
Patrick Warburton as Alien Cop
Adam West as Ace - Hollywood Chicken Little
Harry Shearer as the Dog Announcer
Production
Writing
In September 2001, director Mark Dindal developed the idea for Chicken Little, with its title character envisioned as an overreacting, doom and gloom female chicken that went to summer camp to build confidence so she would not overreact, as well as repair her relationship with her father. At the summer camp, she would uncover a nefarious plot that her camp counselor, who was to be voiced by Penn Jillette, was planning against her hometown. Dindal would later pitch his idea to Michael Eisner who suggested it would be better to change Chicken Little into a male because as Dindal recalled, "if you're a boy and you're short, you get picked on." However, Dindal later clarified that the decision was made, in part, due to market research at the time stating, "I remember being told, 'Girls will go see a movie with a boy protagonist but boys won't see a movie with a girl protagonist,'... "That was the wisdom at the time, until Frozen comes out and makes $1 billion."
In January 2003, when David Stainton became Disney's new president of Walt Disney Feature Animation, he decided the story needed a different approach. He told the director the script had to be revised, and during the next three months, it was rewritten into a tale of a boy trying to save his town from space aliens.
During the rewriting process, Dindal, along with three credited writers and nine others, threw out twenty-five scenes to improve the character development and add more emotional resonance with the parent-child relationship. Dindal admitted that "It took us about 2½ years to pretty much get back to where we started... But in the course of that, the story got stronger, more emotional, and Amazing, too."
Casting
When originally envisioned as a female character, Holly Hunter provided the voice for the title character for eight months, until it was decided for Chicken Little to be a male. Michael J. Fox, Matthew Broderick and David Spade were originally considered for the role. Against forty actors competing for the title role, Zach Braff auditioned where Dindal noted he "pitched his voice slightly to sound like a junior high kid. Right there, that was really unique — and then he had such great energy."
In April 2002, Variety reported that Sean Hayes was to voice a character named the Ugly Duckling, but the character was rewritten into a female. Now conceived as Abby Mallard, Hunter, Jamie Lee Curtis, Sarah Jessica Parker, Jodie Foster, Geena Davis, and Madonna were considered, but Joan Cusack won the role for her natural comedy. In December 2003, it was announced Braff and Cusack were cast, along with other cast members including Steve Zahn, Amy Sedaris, Don Knotts, Katie Finneran, and Garry Marshall.
Marshall was asked to provide a voice for Kingdom of the Sun, which was re-conceived into The Emperor's New Groove and directed by Dindal, but was removed from the project for being "too New York". When he was approached to provide the voice for Buck Cluck, Marshall claimed "I said I don't do voices. You want a chicken that talks like me, fine. So they hired me and they didn't fire me, and it was like a closure on animation."
Australian comedian Mark Mitchell was hired to re-voice the character of Buck Cluck for the Australian release of the film, as a decision by Disney to get a local personality to publicize the film.
Animation
To visualize this story, Disney selected 50 percent of its 2D animation staff to put them in a CGI animation team, and placed them through a rigorous eighteen-month training program with George Lucas’ Industrial Light and Magic, which included an introductory to Alias's Maya that would serve as the main 3D animation software used on the project. This was due to Disney CEO Michael Eisner announcing that the studio would move to computer animation in response to a downturn caused by rising competition from Pixar and DreamWorks Animation computer animated features, the unsatisfactory box office performances of The Emperor’s New Groove, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, Treasure Planet (2002), and Home on the Range (2004). As some of the animators had worked on Dinosaur (2000), which used live-action backgrounds, the animation team took inspiration for its staging, coloring, and theatrical lighting from Mary Blair's background designs featured in Alice in Wonderland (1951) and Peter Pan (1953).
For the aesthetics in the background designs, the background layout artists sparingly use digital matte paintings to render out the naturalistic elements, including the trees and the baseball diamond, but they were retouched using Adobe Photoshop as background cards featured in the film. The lighting department would utilize the "Lumiere" software to enhance virtual lighting for the shading form and depth and geometric rendering for the characters' shadows, as well as use real lighting to create cucaloris.
For the characters' designs and animation style, Dindal sought to capture the "roundness" as seen in the Disney animated works from the 1940s to 1950s, by which the characters' fluidity of motion was inspired from the Goofy cartoon How to Play Baseball (1942). Under visual effects supervisor Steve Goldberg who spearheaded the department, the Maya software included the software program "Shelf Control" that provided an outline of characters that can be viewed on-screen and provided a direct link to the controls for specific autonomy, as well as new electronic tablet screens were produced that allowed for the artists to draw digital sketches of the characters to rough out their movements, which was then transferred to the 3D characters.
All of the characters were constructed using geometric polygons. For the title character, there were approximately fourteen to fifteen character designs before settling the design composed of an ovular egghead shape with oversized glasses. The final character was constructed of 5,600 polygons, 700 muscles, and more than 76,000 individual feathers, of which 55,000 are placed on his head.
Following the casting of Braff, supervising animator Jason Ryan adapted Braff's facial features during recording sessions to better combine the dorkiness and adorability the filmmakers desired. "He's got this really appealing face and eye expressions," Ryan said, adding that he was amazed by Braff's natural vocal abilities. Next, the animators would utilize the software program "Chicken Wire," where digital wire deformers were provided for the animators to manipulate the basic geometric shapes to get their desired facial features. Lastly, a software development team constructed XGen, a computer software program for grooming fur, feathers, and generating leaves.
Release
The film was originally scheduled for release on July 1, 2005, but on December 7, 2004, its release date was pushed back to November 4, 2005, the release date that was originally slated for Disney/Pixar's Cars. The release date change was also the day before DreamWorks Animation changed the release date of Shrek the Third, from November 2006 to May 2007. Cars was later released on June 9, 2006.
At the time of the release of Chicken Little, the co-production deal between Disney and Pixar was set to expire with the release of Cars in 2006. The result of the contentious negotiations between Disney and Pixar was viewed to depend heavily on how Chicken Little performed at the box office. If successful, the film would have given Disney leverage in its negotiations for a new contract to distribute Pixar's films. A failure would have allowed Pixar to argue that Disney could not produce CGI films.
On October 30, 2005, the film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre, with the cast and filmmakers as attendees, which was followed with a ballroom bash at the Hollywood and Highland Center. Along with its standard theatrical release, the film was the first Disney in-house release to be rendered in Disney Digital 3D, that was produced by Industrial Light & Magic, and exhibited via Dolby Digital Cinema servers at approximately 100 selected theaters in twenty five top markets. To describe the process, Dindal remembers that it was a last minute decision, as it was suggested just 11 months before its release. For the 3D conversion, Dindal had a specific way he wanted the film to look: he wanted it to feel like a moving View-Master. As he puts it,
Marketing
Accompanied with the theatrical release, Disney Consumer Products released a series of plush items, toys, activity sets, keepsakes, and apparel.
Home media
Chicken Little was first released on DVD on March 21, 2006, in a single disc edition. The DVD contained the film accompanied with deleted scenes, three alternate openings, a 6 part making-of featurette, an interactive game, a karaoke sing along, two music videos, and animation test footage of the female Chicken Little. The DVD sold over 2.7 million DVD units during its first week accumulating $48 million in consumer spending. Overall, consumer spending on its initial home video release grossed $142.6 million. The film was released for the first time on Blu-ray on March 20, 2007, and contained new features not included on the DVD. A 3D Blu-ray version was released on November 8, 2011.
A VHS version was also released, but only as a Disney Movie Club exclusive, presented in a rare fullscreen aspect ratio.
Reception
Box office
In its opening weekend, Chicken Little debuted at #1, being the first Disney animated film to do so since Dinosaur, taking $40 million and tying with The Lion King as the largest opener for a Disney animated film. It also managed to claim #1 again in its second week of release, earning $31.7 million, beating Sony's sci-fi family film, Zathura. The film grossed $135.4 million in North America, and $179 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $314.4 million.
This reversed the slump that the company had been facing since 2000, during which time it released several films that underperformed, most notably Fantasia 2000 (1999), Atlantis: The Lost Empire (2001), Treasure Planet (2002), and Home on the Range (2004).
Critical response
Rotten Tomatoes, reports that 36% of 163 surveyed critics gave positive reviews; the average score is 5.4/10. The critical consensus states: "Disney expends more effort in the technical presentation than in crafting an original storyline." Metacritic, gave the film an average score of 48 based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.
James Berardinelli, writing his review for ReelViews, gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four stating that "It is bogged down by many of the problems that have plagued Disney's recent traditional animated features: anonymous voice work, poor plot structure, and the mistaken belief that the Disney brand will elevate anything to a "must-see" level for viewers starved for family-friendly fare." On the syndicated television program Ebert & Roeper, critics Richard Roeper and Roger Ebert gave the film "Two Thumbs Down" with the former saying "I don't care whether the film is 2-D, 3-D, CGI, or hand-drawn, it all goes back to the story."
In his print review featured in the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert stated the problem was the story and wrote, "As a general rule, if a movie is not about baseball or space aliens, and you have to use them, anyway, you should have started with a better premise." Ebert concluded his review with, "The movie did make me smile. It didn't make me laugh, and it didn't involve my emotions, or the higher regions of my intellect, for that matter. It's a perfectly acceptable feature cartoon for kids up to a certain age, but it doesn't have the universal appeal of some of the best recent animation."
Writing in The New York Times, film critic A.O. Scott stated the film is "a hectic, uninspired pastiche of catchphrases and clichés, with very little wit, inspiration or originality to bring its frantically moving images to genuine life." Entertainment Weekly film reviewer Lisa Schwarzbaum, who graded the film a C, wrote that the "banality of the acorns dropped in this particular endeavor, another in a new breed of mass-market comedy that substitutes self-reference for original wit and pop songs for emotional content."
However, Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film a positive review saying the film was "shiny and peppy, with some solid laughs and dandy vocal performances". Olly Richards of Empire Magazine gave the film a three out of five stars, saying, "Beyond a cheeky, twisty bit of genre-tinkering, theres more here for the under-tens than over-, but it's still charming, amusing and energetic enough to win you over."
Angel Cohn of TV Guide gave the film three stars alluding the film that would "delight younger children with its bright colors and constant chaos, while adults are likely to be charmed by the witty banter, subtle one-liners, and a sweet father-son relationship." Peter Rainer, writing in The Christian Science Monitor, graded the film with a A- applauding that the "visuals are irrepressibly witty and so is the script, which morphs from the classic fable into a spoof on War of the Worlds. I prefer this version to Spielberg's."
Plugged In wrote, "A postscript for parents: A single “mistake” defines Chicken Little, and he spends “the rest of his life” trying to live it down. As he puts it, “One moment destroyed my life.” Later, another single moment—his home run—redefines him as a hero to his friends and his dad, who says, “I guess that puts the whole ‘sky is falling’ incident behind us once and for all.” Insecure (and observant) young viewers may latch on to this kind of oversimplification and use it as license to magnify the significance of their own bumblings, whatever they might be." Common Sense Media gave the film a three out of five stars, writing, "Cute, sometimes-frantic movie has peril, potential scares."
Dindal himself would express regret over the final version of the film:
Accolades
The film received four Annie Award nominations, including Best Animated Feature, Best Animated Effects, Best Character Design, and Best Production Design in an Animated Feature Production, losing all to Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit. At the 2006 Kids' Choice Awards it got nominated for Favorite Animated Movie, but lost to Madagascar. At the 2005 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards it won: Worst Animated Film.
Soundtrack
The soundtrack album contains an original score composed and produced by John Debney, who had previously worked with Dindal on The Emperor's New Groove (2000), with music by a wide range of artists, some musical veterans, such as Patti LaBelle and Diana Ross, as well as others. Uniquely for a Disney animated film, several of the songs are covers of classic popular songs, such as Elton John's "Don't Go Breaking My Heart," Carole King's "It's Too Late," and the Spice Girls' signature hit "Wannabe." However, the film does include one original song, "One Little Slip" by Barenaked Ladies. The soundtrack was released on November 1, 2005, by Walt Disney Records.
Video games
Chicken Little spawned two video games. The first, Chicken Little, is an action-adventure video game released for Xbox on October 18, 2005 by Buena Vista Games. Two days later it was released for PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube and Game Boy Advance (October 20, 2005), and later Microsoft Windows (November 2, 2005). Chicken Little for Game Boy Advance was developed by A2M, while BVG's recently acquired development studio, Avalanche Software, developed the game for the consoles.
The second video game, Disney's Chicken Little: Ace in Action, is a multi-platform video game, for the Wii, Nintendo DS, Microsoft Windows, and PlayStation 2 inspired by the "superhero movie within the movie" finale of the film. It features Ace, the superhero alter ego of Chicken Little, and the Hollywood versions of his misfit band of friends: Runt, Abby, and Fish-Out-of-Water.
Chicken Little himself appears as a summon in the video game Kingdom Hearts II. His inclusion is somewhat noteworthy as Kingdom Hearts II debuted before the film in Japan, with the character's inclusion serving as a promotion for the then-upcoming movie.
Cancelled sequel
Disneytoon Studios originally planned to make a direct-to-video sequel to Chicken Little, tentatively titled Chicken Little 2: The Ugly Duckling Story. Directed by Klay Hall, the story would involve Chicken Little in the middle of a love triangle between his childhood sweetheart, Abby Mallard, and a beautiful newcomer, Raffaela, a French sheep. Being at a great disadvantage, Abby would go to great lengths to give herself a makeover. According to Tod Carter, a story artist on the film, early screenings of the story reel were very well received, prompting Disney to think about increasing the budget to match the production quality with the quality of the story. Soon after 2006, when John Lasseter became Walt Disney Animation Studios' new chief creative officer, he called for all sequels and future sequels that Disneytoon had planned to be cancelled. According to Carter, this was a reaction to the sales figures for current projects and the overall market, adding: "The executives didn't feel that the original film had a wide enough market to draw upon to support the sequel."
References
External links
Chicken Little production notes at The Walt Disney Company Nordic
2005 computer-animated films
2005 fantasy films
2005 films
2000s 3D films
2000s American animated films
2000s children's animated films
2000s English-language films
3D animated films
Alien invasions in films
American 3D films
American children's animated comic science fiction films
American children's animated science fantasy films
American coming-of-age films
American computer-animated films
American disaster films
American films
Animated coming-of-age films
Animated films about birds
Animated films about fish
Animated films about foxes
Animated films about friendship
Disney animated birds
English-language films
Films about chickens
Films directed by Mark Dindal
Films scored by John Debney
Walt Disney Animation Studios films
Walt Disney Pictures films
| 5,765 |
doc-en-8633_0
|
The 2009–10 Los Angeles Clippers season was the 40th season of the franchise in the National Basketball Association (NBA).
The season saw the team draft Blake Griffin, but during a preseason game, he went down with a knee injury and was unable to play in what could have been his rookie season.
Key dates
June 25 – The 2009 NBA draft took place in New York City.
July 8 – The free agency period started.
Summary
NBA Draft 2009
Draft picks
Free agency
Roster
Roster Notes
Power forward Blake Griffin missed the entire season due to a left knee injury.
Guard Kareem Rush becomes the 15th former Laker to play with the crosstown rival Clippers.
Pre-season
Regular season
Standings
Record vs. opponents
Game log
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 1
| October 27
| @ L. A. Lakers
|
| Eric Gordon (21)
| Chris Kaman (16)
| Baron Davis (8)
| Staples Center18,997
| 0–1
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 2
| October 28
| Phoenix
|
| Marcus Camby (23)
| Marcus Camby (11)
| Baron Davis (12)
| Staples Center15,974
| 0–2
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 3
| October 30
| @ Utah
|
| Eric Gordon (22)
| Marcus Camby (13)
| Baron Davis (4)
| EnergySolutions Arena19,911
| 0–3
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 4
| October 31
| Dallas
|
| Chris Kaman (27)
| Chris Kaman (11)
| Baron Davis (6)
| Staples Center13,626
| 0–4
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 5
| November 2
| Minnesota
|
| Chris Kaman (25)
| Marcus Camby (15)
| Baron Davis (8)
| Staples Center13,614
| 1–4
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 6
| November 6
| @ Golden State
|
| Eric Gordon, Baron Davis (25)
| Marcus Camby (12)
| Baron Davis (7)
| Oracle Arena18,788
| 2–4
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 7
| November 7
| Memphis
|
| Chris Kaman (26)
| Chris Kaman (9)
| Eric Gordon (6)
| Staples Center15,399
| 3–4
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 8
| November 9
| New Orleans
|
| Chris Kaman, Rasual Butler, Ricky Davis (14)
| Marcus Camby (11)
| Baron Davis (8)
| Staples Center14,760
| 3–5
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 9
| November 11
| Oklahoma City
|
| Chris Kaman (20)
| Chris Kaman (11)
| Baron Davis (9)
| Staples Center14,248
| 3–6
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 10
| November 13
| Toronto
|
| Chris Kaman (25)
| Chris Kaman, Craig Smith (7)
| Baron Davis (7)
| Staples Center15,615
| 3–7
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 11
| November 15
| @ Oklahoma City
|
| Chris Kaman (25)
| Marcus Camby (9)
| Baron Davis (6)
| Oklahoma City Arena17,715
| 4–7
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 12
| November 17
| @ New Orleans
|
| Al Thornton (30)
| Marcus Camby (14)
| Baron Davis (9)
| New Orleans Arena13,116
| 4–8
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 13
| November 18
| @ Memphis
|
| Baron Davis (23)
| Al Thornton, DeAndre Jordan (7)
| Sebastian Telfair, Baron Davis (5)
| FedEx Forum10,012
| 4–9
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 14
| November 20
| Denver
|
| Rasual Butler (27)
| Chris Kaman (7)
| Baron Davis (9)
| STAPLES Center18,155
| 5–9
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 15
| November 23
| Minnesota
|
| Al Thornton (31)
| Marcus Camby (18)
| Baron Davis (6)
| STAPLES Center13,815
| 6–9
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 16
| November 25
| @ Indiana
|
| Baron Davis (25)
| Marcus Camby (21)
| Marcus Camby (3)
| Conseco Fieldhouse12,356
| 6–10
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 17
| November 27
| @ Detroit
|
| Chris Kaman (26)
| Marcus Camby (9)
| Baron Davis (10)
| The Palace of Auburn Hills18,954
| 7–10
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 18
| November 29
| Memphis
|
| Eric Gordon (29)
| Marcus Camby (14)
| Baron Davis (6)
| Staples Center14,854
| 8–10
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 19
| December 2
| Houston
|
| Baron Davis (20)
| Marcus Camby (19)
| Baron Davis (6)
| Staples Center13,836
| 8–11
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 20
| December 5
| Indiana
|
| Al Thornton (19)
| Marcus Camby (17)
| Marcus Camby (6)
| Staples Center15,305
| 9–11
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 21
| December 8
| Orlando
|
| Eric Gordon (21)
| Marcus Camby (13)
| Baron Davis (11)
| Staples Center16,750
| 9–12
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 22
| December 13
| San Antonio
|
| Baron Davis (20)
| Chris Kaman (10)
| Baron Davis (6)
| Staples Center16,464
| 9–13
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 23
| December 14
| Washington
|
| Eric Gordon (29)
| Marcus Camby (15)
| Baron Davis (12)
| Staples Center14,511
| 10–13
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 24
| December 16
| @ Minnesota
|
| Eric Gordon (25)
| Marcus Camby (18)
| Baron Davis (13)
| Target Center12,526
| 11–13
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 25
| December 18
| @ New York
|
| Chris Kaman (20)
| Marcus Camby (13)
| Baron Davis (4)
| Madison Square Garden19,763
| 11–14
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 26
| December 19
| @ Philadelphia
|
| Chris Kaman (24)
| Marcus Camby (22)
| Baron Davis (13)
| Wachovia Center13,752
| 12–14
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 27
| December 21
| @ San Antonio
|
| Chris Kaman (23)
| Chris Kaman (15)
| Baron Davis, Sebastian Telfair (6)
| AT&T Center17,451
| 12–15
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 28
| December 22
| @ Houston
|
| Chris Kaman (29)
| Marcus Camby (19)
| Baron Davis (9)
| Toyota Center17,128
| 12–16
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 29
| December 25
| @ Phoenix
|
| Rasual Butler (22)
| Chris Kaman (10)
| Baron Davis (8)
| US Airways Center16,709
| 12–17
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 30
| December 27
| Boston
|
| Chris Kaman (27)
| Chris Kaman (12)
| Baron Davis (13)
| Staples Center19,060
| 13–17
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 31
| December 30
| @ Portland
|
| Chris Kaman (25)
| Marcus Camby (11)
| Baron Davis (11)
| Rose Garden Arena20,505
| 13–18
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 32
| December 31
| Philadelphia
|
| Chris Kaman (26)
| Chris Kaman, Marcus Camby (10)
| Baron Davis (7)
| Staples Center15,257
| 14–18
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 33
| January 4
| Portland
|
| Chris Kaman (20)
| Marcus Camby (15)
| Baron Davis (9)
| Staples Center15,104
| 15–18
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 34
| January 6
| L. A. Lakers
|
| Baron Davis (25)
| Marcus Camby (14)
| Baron Davis (10)
| Staples Center19,388
| 16–18
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 35
| January 10
| Miami
|
| Chris Kaman (22)
| Marcus Camby (17)
| Baron Davis (14)
| Staples Center19,060
| 17–18
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 36
| January 12
| @ Memphis
|
| Baron Davis (27)
| Baron Davis (12)
| Baron Davis (12)
| FedEx Forum11,004
| 17–19
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 37
| January 13
| @ New Orleans
|
| Baron Davis (19)
| Marcus Camby (20)
| Baron Davis (6)
| New Orleans Arena14,348
| 17–20
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 38
| January 15
| @ Lakers
|
| Craig Smith, Eric Gordon (17)
| Marcus Camby (11)
| Sebastian Telfair (11)
| Staples Center18,997
| 17–21
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 39
| January 16
| Cleveland
|
| Rasual Butler (33)
| Marcus Camby (9)
| Baron Davis (8)
| Staples Center19,277
| 17–22
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 40
| January 18
| New Jersey
|
| Chris Kaman (22)
| Marcus Camby (14)
| Baron Davis, Sebastian Telfair (9)
| Staples Center14,533
| 18–22
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 41
| January 20
| Chicago
|
| Baron Davis (23)
| Marcus Camby (25)
| Baron Davis, Ricky Davis (6)
| Staples Center16,794
| 19–22
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 42
| January 21
| @ Denver
|
| Craig Smith (21)
| Craig Smith, Marcus Camby (6)
| Baron Davis (9)
| Pepsi Center15,343
| 19–23
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 43
| January 24
| @ Washington
|
| Chris Kaman (20)
| Marcus Camby (19)
| Baron Davis (11)
| Verizon Center12,356
| 20–23
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 44
| January 25
| @ Boston
|
| Rasual Butler (17)
| Marcus Camby (14)
| Baron Davis (7)
| TD Garden18,624
| 20–24
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 45
| January 27
| New Jersey
|
| Chris Kaman (24)
| Chris Kaman (11)
| Bobby Brown (5)
| Izod Center9,220
| 20–25
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 46
| January 29
| @ Minnesota
|
| Baron Davis (28)
| Marcus Camby (20)
| Marcus Camby, Baron Davis (5)
| Target Center13,398
| 20–26
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 47
| January 31
| @ Cleveland
|
| Baron Davis (30)
| DeAndre Jordan (13)
| Baron Davis (7)
| Quicken Loans Arena20,562
| 20–27
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 48
| February 2
| @ Chicago
|
| Eric Gordon (24)
| Chris Kaman (11)
| Baron Davis (7)
| United Center19,335
| 21–27
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 49
| February 3
| @ Atlanta
|
| Chris Kaman, Eric Gordon (17)
| Marcus Camby (20)
| Marcus Camby, Baron Davis (6)
| Philips Arena13,303
| 21–28
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 50
| February 6
| San Antonio
|
| Chris Kaman (21)
| Marcus Camby (12)
| Baron Davis (9)
| Staples Center18,258
| 21–29
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 51
| February 9
| Utah
|
| Chris Kaman (19)
| Marcus Camby (15)
| Baron Davis (9)
| Staples Center15,467
| 21–30
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 52
| February 10
| @ Golden State
|
| Al Thornton (18)
| DeAndre Jordan, Marcus Camby (8)
| Baron Davis (7)
| Oracle Arena17,230
| 21–31
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 53
| February 16
| @ Portland
|
| Eric Gordon (20)
| DeAndre Jordan (11)
| Bobby Brown (5)
| Rose Garden Arena20,265
| 21–32
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 54
| February 17
| Atlanta
|
| Chris Kaman (21)
| Chris Kaman (10)
| Steve Blake (9)
| Staples Center15,485
| 21–33
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 55
| February 20
| Sacramento
|
| Eric Gordon (30)
| Chris Kaman (16)
| Steve Blake (12)
| Staples Center17,903
| 22–33
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 56
| February 22
| Charlotte
|
| Rasual Butler (20)
| Chris Kaman (13)
| Baron Davis (10)
| Staples Center15,892
| 23–33
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 57
| February 24
| Detroit
|
| Chris Kaman (21)
| Chris Kaman (15)
| Baron Davis (7)
| Staples Center16,095
| 24–33
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 58
| February 26
| @ Phoenix
|
| Eric Gordon (25)
| Drew Gooden (9)
| Steve Blake (9)
| US Airways Center18,043
| 24–34
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 59
| February 28
| @ Sacramento
|
| Chris Kaman (18)
| Chris Kaman (11)
| Baron Davis (8)
| Power Balance Pavilion13,071
| 24–35
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 60
| March 1
| Utah
|
| Eric Gordon (24)
| Chris Kaman (14)
| Baron Davis (12)
| Staples Center15,422
| 25–35
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 61
| March 3
| Phoenix
|
| Chris Kaman (24)
| Chris Kaman (9)
| Baron Davis (11)
| Staples Center17,455
| 25–36
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 62
| March 5
| Oklahoma City
|
| Chris Kaman, Craig Smith (19)
| Chris Kaman (15)
| Baron Davis (6)
| Staples Center18,497
| 25–37
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 63
| March 6
| @ Utah
|
| Drew Gooden (20)
| Chris Kaman (13)
| Baron Davis (8)
| EnergySolutions Arena19,911
| 25–38
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 64
| March 9
| @ Orlando
|
| Baron Davis (16)
| Drew Gooden (14)
| Baron Davis (9)
| Amway Arena17,461
| 25–39
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 65
| March 10
| @ Miami
|
| Rasual Butler (31)
| Drew Gooden (9)
| Baron Davis (9)
| AmericanAirlines Arena14,785
| 25–40
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 66
| March 12
| @ Charlotte
|
| Baron Davis (24)
| Chris Kaman (11)
| Steve Blake (9)
| Time Warner Cable Arena15,835
| 25–41
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 67
| March 13
| @ San Antonio
|
| Baron Davis (24)
| Chris Kaman (11)
| Steve Blake (9)
| AT&T Center18,581
| 25–42
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 68
| March 15
| New Orleans
|
| Rasual Butler (19)
| DeAndre Jordan (11)
| Baron Davis (17)
| Staples Center15,617
| 25–43
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 69
| March 17
| Milwaukee
|
| Chris Kaman (20)
| Drew Gooden (11)
| Steve Blake (8)
| Staples Center15,241
| 26–43
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 70
| March 21
| Sacramento
|
| Eric Gordon (23)
| Chris Kaman (9)
| Steve Blake (6)
| Staples Center17,233
| 26–44
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 71
| March 23
| @ Dallas
|
| Drew Gooden (26)
| Drew Gooden (20)
| Baron Davis (13)
| American Airlines Center19,705
| 26–45
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 72
| March 25
| @ Houston
|
| Craig Smith (25)
| Drew Gooden (14)
| Baron Davis (8)
| Toyota Center15,201
| 27–45
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 73
| March 28
| Golden State
|
| Rasual Butler (21)
| Chris Kaman (13)
| Baron Davis (7)
| Staples Center17,868
| 27–46
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 74
| March 30
| @ Milwaukee
|
| Drew Gooden (20)
| DeAndre Jordan (13)
| Eric Gordon, Steve Blake (6)
| Bradley Center14,321
| 27–47
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 75
| March 31
| @ Toronto
|
| Chris Kaman (22)
| Chris Kaman (13)
| Steve Blake (12)
| Air Canada Centre16,106
| 27–48
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 76
| April 3
| @ Denver
|
| Eric Gordon (23)
| Chris Kaman (11)
| Steve Blake (8)
| Pepsi Center19,155
| 27–49
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 77
| April 4
| New York
|
| Baron Davis (23)
| Chris Kaman (16)
| Baron Davis (11)
| Staples Center16,083
| 27–50
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 78
| April 7
| Portland
|
| Rasual Butler, Chris Kaman, Steve Blake (14)
| DeAndre Jordan (11)
| Baron Davis (8)
| Staples Center16,790
| 27–51
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 79
| April 8
| @ Sacramento
|
| Chris Kaman (23)
| DeAndre Jordan (10)
| Baron Davis (10)
| Power Balance Pavilion11,418
| 27–52
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 80
| April 10
| Golden State
|
| Chris Kaman (27)
| DeAndre Jordan (15)
| Steve Blake (9)
| Staples Center17,476
| 28–52
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 81
| April 12
| Dallas
|
| Chris Kaman (17)
| DeAndre Jordan (13)
| Steve Blake (13)
| Staples Center17,838
| 28–53
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| 82
| April 14
| Lakers
|
| Steve Blake (23)
| Steve Blake, Travis Outlaw (10)
| Steve Blake (11)
| Staples Center20,044
| 29–53
Player statistics
Regular season
|-
|
| 29 || 10 || 26.3 || .443 || style=";"| .437 || .750 || 2.4 || 6.1 || .7 || .1 || 6.8
|-
|
| 23 || 0 || 8.3 || .329 || .281 || .714 || .9 || 1.8 || .3 || .0 || 3.0
|-
|
| style=";"| 82 || 64 || 33.0 || .409 || .336 || .841 || 2.9 || 1.4 || .4 || .8 || 11.9
|-
|
| 51 || 51 || 31.3 || .446 || .333 || .659 || style=";"| 12.1 || 3.0 || 1.4 || style=";"| 1.9 || 7.7
|-
|
| 43 || 0 || 10.9 || .367 || .235 || .619 || 1.2 || 1.0 || .5 || .0 || 2.6
|-
|
| 1 || 0 || 0.0 || . || . || . || .0 || .0 || .0 || .0 || .0
|-
|
| 75 || 73 || 33.6 || .406 || .277 || .821 || 3.5 || style=";"| 8.0 || style=";"| 1.7 || .6 || 15.3
|-
|
| 36 || 2 || 13.9 || .434 || .381 || .581 || 1.6 || 1.1 || .3 || .1 || 4.4
|-
|
| 24 || 22 || 30.2 || .492 || .000 || style=";"| .921 || 9.4 || .9 || .6 || .3 || 14.8
|-
|
| 62 || 60 || style=";"| 36.0 || .449 || .371 || .742 || 2.6 || 3.0 || 1.1 || .2 || 16.9
|-
|
| 70 || 12 || 16.2 || style=";"| .605 || .000 || .375 || 5.0 || .3 || .2 || .9 || 4.8
|-
|
| 76 || style=";"| 76 || 34.3 || .490 || .000 || .749 || 9.3 || 1.6 || .5 || 1.2 || style=";"| 18.5
|-
|
| 54 || 0 || 6.7 || .389 || .310 || .778 || .6 || .1 || .1 || .0 || 2.1
|-
|
| 23 || 6 || 21.7 || .400 || .378 || .800 || 3.6 || 1.1 || .5 || .4 || 8.7
|-
|
| 7 || 0 || 8.3 || .364 || .333 || . || .9 || .6 || .3 || .4 || 1.3
|-
|
| 16 || 1 || 7.7 || .400 || . || .750 || 1.7 || .0 || .2 || .3 || 1.6
|-
|
| 75 || 2 || 16.4 || .569 || .200 || .635 || 3.8 || 1.1 || .4 || .3 || 7.8
|-
|
| 39 || 1 || 14.9 || .404 || .234 || .774 || 1.1 || 2.9 || .6 || .1 || 4.3
|-
|
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Awards, records and milestones
Awards
Week/Month
All-Star
Chris Kaman selected as a reserve center for the Western Conference All-Stars. Kaman was chosen as a replacement for the injured Brandon Roy on the roster.
Season
Records
Milestones
Injuries and surgeries
Transactions
Trades
Free agents
Re-signed
Additions
Subtractions
References
External links
2009–10 Los Angeles Clippers season at ESPN
2009–10 Los Angeles Clippers season at Basketball Reference
Los Angeles Clippers seasons
Los Angeles Clippers
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Danger Man (retitled Secret Agent in the United States for the revived series, and Destination Danger and John Drake in other overseas markets) is a British television series that was broadcast between 1960 and 1962, and again between 1964 and 1968. The series featured Patrick McGoohan as secret agent John Drake. Ralph Smart created the programme and wrote many of the scripts. Danger Man was financed by Lew Grade's ITC Entertainment.
Series development
The idea for Danger Man originated with Ralph Smart an associate of Lew Grade, head of ITC Entertainment. Grade was looking for formats that could be exported.
Ian Fleming was brought in to collaborate on series development, but left before development was complete. Like James Bond, the main character is a globetrotting British spy (although one who works for NATO rather than MI6), who cleverly extricates himself from life-threatening situations and introduces himself as "Drake...John Drake."
Fleming was replaced by Ian Stuart Black, and a new format/character initially called "Lone Wolf" was developed. This evolved into Danger Man.
After Patrick McGoohan was cast, he also affected character development. A key difference from Bond traces to the family-oriented star's preferences: no firearms (with a few rare exceptions, such as episode 26, "The Journey Ends Halfway") and no outright seduction of female co-stars (though Drake did engage in low-key romance in a few episodes).
Plotline
From the first series voice-over:
The line "NATO also has its own" is not always present.
Programme overview
The first series of 39 episodes ran to 24–25 minutes each and portrayed John Drake as working for a Washington, D.C.-based intelligence organization, apparently on behalf of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), whose assignments frequently took him to Africa, Latin America, and the Far East. They were filmed in black and white.
In episode 9, "The Sanctuary", Drake declares he is an Irish-American.
Drake is sometimes at odds with his superiors about the ethics of the missions. Many of Drake's cases involved aiding democracy in foreign countries, and he was also called upon to solve murders and crimes affecting the interests of either the U.S. or NATO or both.
For the second and third series which aired several years after the first, the episode's length was extended to 48–49 minutes and Drake underwent retconning. His nationality became British, and he was an agent working for a secret British government department, called M9 (analogous to Secret Intelligence Service), though his Mid-Atlantic English accent persists for the first few episodes in production. These were also filmed in black and white.
Other than the largely nominal change of employer and nationality, Drake's mandate remains the same: "to undertake missions involving national and global security". In keeping with the episodic format of such series in the 1960s, there are no ongoing story arcs and there is no reference made to Drake's NATO adventures in the later M9 episodes.
Pilot episode
The pilot was written by Brian Clemens, who later co-created The Avengers. In an interview Clemens said:
The pilot I wrote was called "View from the Villa" and it was set in Italy, but the production manager set the shoot on location in Portmeirion, which looked like Italy but which was much closer. And obviously the location stuck in Patrick McGoohan's mind, because that's where he shot his television series The Prisoner much later.
The second unit director on the pilot, according to Clemens:
... shot some location and background stuff and sent the dailies back to the editing room at Elstree. Ralph Smart looked at them, hated them, and called up the second unit director and said "Look, these are terrible, you'll never be a film director," and then he fired him. The name of the second unit director? John Schlesinger.
Cancellation and resurrection
When American financing for a second series failed to materialise, the programme was cancelled. The first series had aired in America each Wednesday, 8:30 to 9:00 pm (Eastern Standard Time), on CBS from 5 April to 13 September 1961. It was used by the network as a late-spring replacement for Wanted Dead or Alive, which had just wrapped its third and final series. (A five-disc box set DVD release of Danger Man's first series by A&E Home Video in 2000 erroneously states on its cover notes that these first 39 episodes were never broadcast in the US.)
After a two-year hiatus, two things had changed; Danger Man had subsequently been resold all around the world, whilst repeat showings had created a public clamour for new shows. Also by this time, James Bond had become popular, as had ABC's The Avengers. Danger Mans creator, Ralph Smart, rethought the concept; the second series' (1964) episodes were 49 minutes long and had a new musical theme, Edwin Astley's "High Wire". Drake gained an English accent and did not clash with his bosses at first. The revived Danger Man was broadcast in the U.S. as Secret Agent, first shown as a CBS summer-replacement program. It had a new U.S.-only theme song, "Secret Agent Man", sung by Johnny Rivers, which became a success in its own right. In other parts of the world, the show was titled Destination Danger or John Drake.
The fourth series consists of only two episodes, "Koroshi" and "Shinda Shima", the only two episodes of Danger Man to be filmed in colour. These two separate but related episodes were recut together as a feature for cinemas in Europe and for American broadcast, as done with two-parters from other ITC series such as The Baron and The Saint. Whilst "Koroshi" retains a strong plot-line and sharp characterizations, "Shinda Shima" drew heavily on contemporary Bond movies, principally Dr. No. When the episodes were completed, McGoohan announced he was resigning from the series to create, produce, and star in a project titled The Prisoner, with David Tomblin as co-producer and George Markstein as script editor. Markstein was then the Danger Man script consultant. A number of behind-the-scenes personnel on Danger Man were subsequently hired for The Prisoner.
The two colour episodes aired (in black and white) in the UK in the time slot of The Prisoner, which could not make its scheduled broadcast dates. The European cinema film feature version, Koroshi, did not receive theatrical release in the US, but instead aired on network television as a TV movie in 1968.
Character of 'Drake'
Unlike the James Bond films, Danger Man strove for realism, dramatising credible Cold War tensions. In the second series, Drake is an undercover agent of the British external intelligence agency. As in the earlier series, Drake finds himself in danger with not always happy outcomes; sometimes duty forces him to decisions that lead to good people suffering unfair consequences. Drake doesn't always do what his superiors tell him.
Drake is rarely armed, though he engaged in fist fights, and the gadgets he uses are generally credible. In one episode ("To Our Best Friend"), Drake says, "I never carry a gun. They're noisy, and they hurt people. Besides, I manage very well without." Although the villains are often killed, Drake himself rarely does the killing. An examination of all episodes indicates that, in the entire series, he only shoots one person dead, in one of the last half-hour episodes from the 1960 season. While another shooting occurs in "The Ubiquitous Mr. Lovegrove", it is revealed to be a dream. Despite the lack of firearm violence, The Encyclopedia of 20th-Century American Television by Ron Lackmann notes Danger Man was one of the most violent series ever produced. Drake is almost never shown armed with a gun, and the episode "Time to Kill" centres on Drake's hesitancy and initial refusal to take an assassination mission (events transpire to prevent Drake from having to carry out the task). Drake's uses of non-firearm deadly force during the series number fewer than a dozen.
Agent Drake uses his intelligence, charm and quick thinking rather than force. He usually plays a role to infiltrate a situation, for example, to scout for a travel agency, naive soldier, embittered ex-convict, brainless playboy, imperious physician, opportunistic journalist, bumbling tourist, cold-blooded mercenary, bland diplomat, smarmy pop disc-jockey, precise clerk, compulsive gambler or impeccable butler.
Drake is often shown re-using gadgets from previous episodes. Among the more frequently seen are a small spy camera hidden in a cigarette lighter and activated by flicking the lighter, a miniature reel-to-reel tape recorder hidden inside the head of an electric shaver or a pack of cigarettes, and a microphone, which could be embedded in a wall near the target via a shotgun-like apparatus, that used soda siphon cartridges containing CO2 as the propellant, allowing Drake to eavesdrop on conversations from a safe distance.
As Drake gets involved in a case, things are rarely as they seem. He is not infallible—he gets arrested, he makes mistakes, equipment fails, careful plans do not work; Drake often has to improvise an alternative plan. Sometimes investigation fails and he simply does something provocative to crack open the case. People he trusts can turn out to be untrustworthy or incompetent; he finds unexpected allies.
John Drake, unlike Bond, never romanced any of the series' female characters, as McGoohan was determined to create a family-friendly show. McGoohan denounced the sexual promiscuity of James Bond and The Saint, roles he had rejected, although he had played romantic roles before Danger Man. Drake uses his immense charm in his undercover work, and women are often very attracted to him, but the viewers are left to assume whatever they want about Drake's personal life. The only exceptions to this rule were the two "linked" episodes of the series, "You're Not in Any Trouble, Are You?" and "Are You Going to be More Permanent?", in which Drake encounters two different women—both played by Susan Hampshire—and which contain numerous similarities in dialogue and set-pieces and both end with Drake in a pseudo-romantic circumstance with Hampshire's character. Drake is also shown falling for the female lead in the episode "The Black Book" though nothing comes of it; this episode is also one of the only scripts to directly address Drake's loneliness in his chosen profession. Many times the women in the show turned out to be femmes fatales, and heavily involved in the very plots Drake is fighting.
Co-stars and guest stars
In the second series, Drake displays an increasingly resentful attitude towards his superiors at M9, first answering unwillingly to "Gorton" (Raymond Adamson) and later to "The Admiral" or Hobbs (Peter Madden). In the series, "Hardy" was played by Richard Wattis.
Guest stars included Donald Pleasence, Howard Marion Crawford, Donald Houston, Maurice Denham, Joan Greenwood, John Le Mesurier, Sylvia Syms, Paul Eddington, Patsy Ann Noble and Burt Kwouk.
Episode list
Music
Theme
Series 1 "The Danger Man Theme", composed by Edwin Astley
Series 2–4 "High Wire", composed by Edwin Astley
Series 2–4 in the US as Secret Agent, "Secret Agent Man", theme composed by P. F. Sloan and Steve Barri, and recorded by Johnny Rivers.
Incidental music throughout all four series by Edwin Astley
The second Danger Man theme, "High Wire," developed during series 2–4. The original version features a subdued rhythm section with almost inaudible drums. This was replaced with a revised version with drums and bass pushed to the fore in the mix. The end credits theme tune was set to end in the same manner as the opening theme, ending on the held, questioning, lower "E". The two-note coda was added soon afterwards to make a definite ending. An audio clip from the recording session can be heard as an extra on the final disc of the DVD set from Network DVD. The revised theme featured this as a normal end to the tune. As series 4 was to be made in colour, a completely new arrangement was recorded which owed much to the arrangement on Astley's full-length version of "High Wire" (released on single the previous year – see below). The feature film Koroshi was created from the only two episodes made for series 4, "Koroshi" and "Shinda Shima", and uses this new arrangement over the closing titles only.
Singles
1961 – "Theme from Danger Man", The Red Price Combo (main theme used in the 1st Series) – Parlophone 45 R 4789
1964 – Danger Man "High Wire", The Bob Leaper Orchestra (alternative main theme, not used in any episodes. Features electric piano) – PYE 7N 15700
1965 – Danger Man "High Wire", The Edwin Astley Orchestra (not used in series, arrangement influenced series 4 theme arrangement) – RCA 1492
1965 – Danger Man "High Wire", The Ivor Slaney Orchestra (alternative arrangement, not used in any episodes) – HMV POP 1347
Programme ID
The original opening ID changed as the series progressed. The first series had McGoohan leaving a building and getting into a convertible under the opening narration reproduced earlier, and driving off.
The earlier of the two sequences for the hour-long series features a photograph of a benevolently-smiling McGoohan zooms partly out towards the right of the frame, then stops, adding the legend "Patrick McGoohan as". The three-ringed 'target' revolves round in time to the three-note orchestra hits to obscure McGoohan's photo as it reveals the programme logo on a pure black background.
The second version was in two segments. The first segment is filmed, comprising a full-length McGoohan in stark negative, menacingly taking a few paces towards the camera, before he then stops. In quick succession, the camera zooms-in fast onto his eyes, freeze-frames, then switches from negative to positive. The legend "Patrick McGoohan as" is added. This then switches to a different photo with McGoohan looking left out of picture. The familiar three-ringed 'target' then reveals the programme logo on a pure black background as before. The music was re-recorded for this version of the ident and lasted for the rest of the programme's run.
Transition to The Prisoner
McGoohan resigned from the series, forcing its cancellation. He had been working on a new project entitled The Prisoner, with David Tomblin as co-producer and George Markstein as script editor. Markstein was then the Danger Man script consultant. A number of behind-the-scenes personnel on Danger Man were subsequently hired for The Prisoner. An unused, fourth-series script was reworked as an episode of The Champions.
Secret agent John Drake and Prisoner Number Six
Prisoner fans frequently debate whether John Drake of Danger Man and Number Six in The Prisoner are the same person. Like John Drake, Number Six is evidently a secret agent, but one who has resigned from his job.
According to The Prisoner: The Official Companion by Robert Fairclough, the Prisoner episode "The Girl Who Was Death" was based upon a two-part Danger Man script that had been planned for the fourth series. In this surreal episode, Number Six meets "Potter", John Drake's Danger Man contact. Christopher Benjamin portrayed the character in both series, with the episode also featuring an actor named John Drake in a small, non-speaking role. As well as guest-starring in this show, Paul Eddington played another spy and No.6's former colleague, Cobb, in the opening episode of the Prisoner.
The first Danger Man season includes four episodes which use footage filmed in the Welsh resort of Portmeirion, which later became the primary shooting location of the Village in The Prisoner. Further inspiration came from a Danger Man episode called "Colony Three", in which Drake infiltrates a spy school in Eastern Europe during the Cold War. The school, in the middle of nowhere, is set up to look like a normal English town in which pupils and instructors mix as in any other normal city, but the instructors are virtual prisoners with little hope of ever leaving. It is often thought this episode was a precursor to The Prisoner; it was filmed in the new town of Hatfield, Hertfordshire.
Reference books disagree on whether The Prisoner was a Danger Man continuation. Vincent Terrace's The Complete Encyclopedia of Television Programs 1947–1979 postulates that John Drake's resignation reason is revealed in the "Do Not Forsake Me Oh My Darling" episode, which is a follow-up to a mission assigned to Number Six before he was sent to The Village. Richard Meyers makes the same claim in his 1981 book, TV Detectives. He further states that this connects directly to "an episode of Secret Agent never shown in this country [i.e. the United States] with John Drake investigating the story of a brain transferral device in Europe", but no such episode of Danger Man was ever made. And, indeed, he might have been confusing that plot device with the one from the "Who's Who?" episode of the contemporaneous spy-fi show The Avengers. Nigel Stock (who played "The Colonel" in "Do Not Forsake Me...") also guest-starred in the Danger Man episode "A Little Loyalty Always Pays", as Major Bert Barrington.
McGoohan stated in a 1985 interview that the two characters were not the same, and that he had originally wanted a different actor to play the role of Number Six.
In popular culture
Danger Man has remained part of pop culture consciousness. Author Stephen King alludes to John Drake's cool in his novel The Shining. The band Tears for Fears refer to the character in their song "Swords and Knives", and Dead Can Dance titled one of the songs on their Into the Labyrinth album "The Ubiquitous Mr. Lovegrove" after a Danger Man episode, although the content of the song has no apparent relationship to the episode.
The American theme song has appeared in countless movies and TV shows, including during the climax of the first Austin Powers movie, and was covered by Devo.
In 2000, the UPN network aired a short-lived spy series entitled Secret Agent Man. Due to the similarities in titles between this series and the American edition of Danger Man, Secret Agent Man, a series with no relationship to the McGoohan program, is often erroneously referred to as a spin-off or remake of Danger Man.
The British animated series Danger Mouse was largely inspired by Danger Man and is a broad parody of both this series and secret agent films and television in general.
In episode "No Marks for Servility" (season 2, episode 9, #48, broadcast 8 December 1964), Drake, who is posing as a proper English butler, rescues a kidnapping victim while wearing a bowler hat and trench coat, and carrying a rolled-up umbrella, much as John Steed did on The Avengers. Brian Clemens, who co-created The Avengers, was also involved with Danger Man.
Home releases
All four series are now available on DVD in Europe, Australasia and North America.
In Britain, Network DVD released a 13-disc "Special Edition" boxed set of the one-hour shows in June 2007. Extra features include the edited-together movie version of "Koroshi" and "Shinda Shima", the US Secret Agent opening and closing titles, image galleries for each episode, and a specially written 170-page book on the making of the one-hour series. Umbrella Entertainment has released the 24-minute series on DVD in Australia; the 49-minute series has been released by Madman.
Network Distributing Ltd Home Entertainment released the 1st (24 min) series in January 2010 on a 6-disc set with a commemorative booklet by Andrew Pixley. The Carlton 6 disc set is out of issue.
In North America, the three series of hour-long episodes of the series were released by A&E Home Video, under licence from Carlton International Media Limited, under the title Secret Agent AKA Danger Man in order to acknowledge the American broadcast and syndication title. The episodes were digitally remastered from 35MM film prints and were presented in their original UK broadcast format and original CBS broadcast order; the two episodes that constituted the aborted fourth season were also included, the first time they had been released in their original format (however this meant the transition scene filmed for the Koroshi feature-length version is omitted). The episodes retain their original Danger Man opening credits (including the original theme by the Edwin Astley Orchestra), the first time these have been seen in the U.S., with the Secret Agent credits included as an extra feature.
A&E Home Entertainment later released the first season of the original U.K. Danger Man on Region 1 DVD, newly restored and remastered, unedited, uncut and presented in its original U.K. broadcast format and order.
A&E subsequently released a single-set "megabox" containing all of the one-hour episodes; a revised megabox, released in 2007, added the half-hour episodes, and was released again in a modified slimline package in 2010. To date, no North American DVD release has occurred of the Koroshi TV movie edit of the two fourth-season episodes.
On December 9, 2014, Timeless Media Group re-released the entire series on DVD in Region 1 in a 17-disc set entitled Secret Agent (Danger Man)- The Complete Series.
As of October 2020, Danger Man is streaming on Amazon and Roku. As of February, 2022, it's also shown on Tubi.
Production
The Washington title sequence of the first Series 24-minute episodes is a composite of the United States Capitol in the background and the Castrol Building, complete with a London Bus stop, in the Marylebone Road, London as the foreground. This building is now Marathon House converted from offices to flats in 1998.
In reality, no such building is allowed to exist in Washington, D.C., as the Height of Buildings Act of 1910 limits the heights of building (except churches) to , thus giving the United States Capitol building, at , an unobstructed view from any part of the city. (This has led to the popular belief that buildings in Washington, D.C. are restricted to the height of the U.S. Capitol building.)
Original novels and comic books
Several original novels based upon Danger Man were published in the UK and US, the majority during 1965 and 1966.
Target for Tonight – Richard Telfair, 1962 (published in US only)
Departure Deferred – W. Howard Baker, 1965
Storm Over Rockall – W. Howard Baker, 1965
Hell for Tomorrow – Peter Leslie, 1965
The Exterminator – W.A. Balinger [W. Howard Baker], 1966
No Way Out – Wilfred McNeilly, 1966
Several of the above novels were translated into French and published in France, where the series was known as Destination Danger. An additional Destination Danger novel by John Long was published in French and not printed in the US or UK. At least one of the novels, The Exterminator, was later republished in the 1970s by Zenith Publications in the UK, with no direct reference to Danger Man on the cover.
The adventures of John Drake have also been depicted in comic book form. In 1961, Dell Comics in the US (whose book-publishing cousin issued the Telfair novel) published a one-shot Danger Man comic as part of its long-running Four Color series, based upon the first series format. It depicted Drake as having red hair, a trait shared with Patrick McGoohan, but which was unseen as Danger Man had been made only in monochrome at that time. In 1966, Gold Key Comics published two issues of a Secret Agent comic book based upon the hour-long series (this series should not be confused with Secret Agent, an unrelated comic book series published by Charlton Comics in 1967, formerly titled Sarge Steel). In Britain, a single Danger Man comic book subtitled "Trouble in Turkey" appeared in the mid-1960s and a number of comic strip adventures appeared in hardback annuals. French publishers also produced several issues of a Destination Danger comic book in the 1960s, although their Drake was blond. Spanish publishers produced a series titled 'Agent Secreto'. The Germans were particularly prolific, using 'John Drake' and a picture of McGoohan, as the cover for hundreds of "krimi" magazines.
Broadcasters
Australia
The Australian rights are held by the Nine Network who, over many decades, have shown numerous repeats in non-peak viewing times. From 2012 to 2017 there were numerous showings in the early hours of the morning on Gem, a Nine Network digital outlet, sometimes twice per morning. The Danger Man repeats alternate with re-screenings of other British series such as Gideon's Way, The Baron, and The Avengers.
North American
CBS broadcast some of the original format's episodes of the programme in 1961 under the Danger Man title as a summer replacement for the Western series Wanted: Dead or Alive.
Danger Man was rebroadcast on American TV in the 2000s, when STARZ!’s Mystery channel started broadcasting the one-hour episodes in its American CBS broadcast version under the Secret Agent title. Prior to this, Secret Agent was widely seen in syndication. The half-hour Danger Man episodes were not as widely distributed.
In September 2018, Charge! began airing the series in its original UK format beginning with the second season.
In Canada, the series was broadcast under its original title, 'Danger Man'.
References
External links
The Danger Man Website
1960s British drama television series
1960 British television series debuts
1968 British television series endings
CBS original programming
Espionage television series
Secret Agent
Television shows adapted into comics
Television series by ITC Entertainment
ITV television dramas
Television series by ITV Studios
The Prisoner
Black-and-white British television shows
English-language television shows
Crime thriller television series
Television shows shot at MGM-British Studios
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Richard Youngs is an English musician with a prolific and diverse output, including many collaborations. Based in Glasgow since the early 1990s, his extensive back catalogue of solo and collaborative work formally begins with Advent, first issued in 1990. He plays many instruments, most commonly choosing the guitar, but he has been known to use a wide variety of other instruments including the shakuhachi, accordion, theremin, dulcimer, a home-made synthesizer (common on early recordings) and even a motorway bridge. He also released an album which was entirely a cappella.
For many years, live performances were very occasional and almost always in Glasgow; he has stated publicly that he finds live performance "incredibly nerve-racking: stomach cramps, tension headaches...". However, in recent years, he has performed more regularly (including a tour of New Zealand in 2010 and a UK tour in support of Damon and Naomi in 2011) and many of his recent shows have been predominantly vocal - he told The Wire (issue 284) "I went to a laptop concert and decided I was going to sing".
Style
His music has been noted for its diversity, with Dusted saying that he had been "defying strict genre classifications since the early nineties, swapping labels, styles, partners, motifs, and recording techniques as the desire has struck him". He has been recording for most of his life, telling Foxy Digitalis that "I've made music as long as I can remember - ever since I was a child - and recorded the stuff as long as I've had the technology - I began with a cheap cassette player. So, it's strange to think what it'd be like not to make or record music. It seems unnatural!". When reviewing his 1996 CD Festival, Melody Maker described him as "grand-meister of contemporary British improv, spiritual son of Eddie Prevost and Maddy Prior; gentle manipulator of English hymn-notics and religious incantations; protege, challenger and radicaliser of folk, blues, rock, minimalism and improvisation; translator for the sea and the rain and the sky; ambassador to war and peace, to love and anguish".
It could be suggested his musical styles range from folk to progressive rock to improvisation to electronics. Early works were characterized by a somewhat minimalist lo-fi production quality, with Youngs working mostly on a reel-to-reel 4-track machine or recording directly to minidisc. However, he has been using professional standard computer-based recording systems for over a decade.
Collaborations
A keen collaborator, he has released albums with Matthew Bower, Brian Lavelle, Neil Campbell, Stephen Todd, Makoto Kawabata, Alex Neilson, Andrew Paine (under their given names and under the group names Ilk and Urban Parable), Telstar Ponies, and his longest standing partner, Simon Wickham-Smith. He has performed live with Heather Leigh Murray, Vibracathedral Orchestra and also with Matthew Bower's groups Sunroof! and Skullflower. He was also a member of the collective A Band.
Jandek
Youngs has also gained attention from his live performances for the notoriously reclusive American avant-folk/blues singer-songwriter Jandek. Youngs can be heard on the Glasgow Sunday, Newcastle Sunday and Glasgow Monday albums, which were recorded at Jandek's first 3 (known) live performances. He also appears on Glasgow Friday and Camber Sands Sunday. There was one further show at which Youngs appeared but drummer Alex Neilson (who completed the line-up on all these shows) has advised the Brainwashed website that this performance - at Mono in Glasgow on 18 May 2006 (the day after the performance released as "Bristol Wednesday") - did not record successfully. For some time, this left no further available live performances with Youngs as a participant available for release. However, the trio reunited in Manchester, UK on 21 April 2012 and again in Glasgow on 6 April 2013.
A Jandek studio album was released on Corwood Industries in 2011 titled Where Do You Go From Here. As with all Jandek releases, no performer credits are listed. However, some listeners have claimed that the album was recorded by the trio of Smith, Youngs and Neilson, with Youngs' voice being identified on some tracks.
Labels
He has recorded for over a dozen independent record labels, with VHF releasing much of his collaborative work and Jagjaguwar issuing many of his solo albums, their first being a reissue of Sapphie. Other labels have included Dekorder, Fourth Dimension, Freek, Fusetron, Majora, Table of the Elements, Volcanic Tongue and his own labels, beginning with Jabberwok in the 1980s, and then the self-deprecatingly named No Fans Records. In December 2015 the Revived Glass label, Glass Redux, released a new Youngs album Inside the Future on CD & Download.
No Fans Records
Richard founded No Fans Records 1990 and he releases only his own solo and collaborative work through the imprint with some items released in very small numbers. A number of No Fans releases have been reissued in larger editions by other labels.
NFR discography
NFR01 - Advent LP - (300 copies pressed, 1990)
NFR03 - New Angloid Sound LP (co-release with Forced Exposure, 300 copies pressed, 1993)
NFC02 - Tape Hiss cassette (by Tape Hiss, a trio of Youngs, Neil Campbell and Stewart Walden) (1994)
NFR04 - Zenith CD (with Ilk, 500 copies pressed, 1998)
NFR05 - Nova Scotia Breakout CDR (very limited, as few as 5 copies exist, 2005)
NFR06 - Summer Wanderer CDR (1st edition limited to around 10-20 copies, all given away by Richard - 2005, 2nd edition in alternate packaging available commercially, quantity unknown - 2006)
NFR07 - Garden of Stones CDR (limited to around 35 copies, sold at concerts in Portugal, 2005)
NFR08 - The Wood Is Barren, My Mountain Is Lonely CDR (with Andrew Paine, limited to 10 copies, 2005)
NFR09 - Multi-Tracked Shakuhachi CDR (initially limited to around 30 copies but later repressed with an amended back cover, 2006)
NFR10 - No Home Like Place CDR (distributor Volcanic Tongue stated that there were just 18 copies, 2006) nb - released after NFR11
NFR11 - (untitled) CDR (no formal title, edition unknown, 2006)
NFR12 - 20th Century Jams CDR (disc states "recorded during the 1980s and 1990s in Glasgow, Harpenden and St. Albans", edition unknown, 2007)
NFR13 - 21st Century Jams CDR (companion volume to the above with material from 2000, 2001 and 2007, c. 60 copies, 2007)
NFR14 - Somerled CDR (recorded April–May 2007, all copies come with a "No Fans" sew-on patch, edition unknown, 2007)
NFR15 - Three Handed Star CDR (limited to 50 copies, only available through Volcanic Tongue, 2008. Was listed as "Three Headed Star". No information on packaging; titles encoded on disc using CD Text)
NFR16 - Nerston Surface/First Voice To Earth CDR (limited to 50 copies in hand-painted sleeves, only available through Volcanic Tongue, no information on packaging, 2008)
NFR17 - Live in Salford CDR (limited to 50 copies, only available through Volcanic Tongue, 2008)
NFR18 - Stormcrash LP (all copies come in a "No Fans" tote bag, 2012)
NFR19 - Library Assistants cassette (by Library Assistants - a collaboration between Richard and Liam Stefani, limited to 50 copies, 2012)
Recent work
In recent years, Youngs has performed live more often, including shows in the UK, Canada and Italy. He toured New Zealand in late 2010 and the US in 2013. His release schedule is as prolific as ever, releasing 5 new albums in 2013. He now records for Ba Da Bing Records, his first album for the label being Summer Through My Mind, and Glass Records Redux in the UK, the first Glass release being Inside the Future in December 2015.
Discography
Early recordings
Youngs's 1980s recordings were mostly as Omming For Woks - principally Youngs and Andrew Trussler with Barry Lamb joining them for the Show Me A Sane Man EP. Several privately issued cassettes on their own Jabberwok label exist, including Living in Harmony (1984) and Shouting The Silent Slogan (1986) and a clutch of compilation appearances including Sympathy on "Time And Time Again" with Assorted Artists (Fragment 1985) and Marjorie Daw on Sensationnel N°5 - All with voices (Illusion Productions 1987).
Jabberwok issued several cassette compilations which featured OFW material including Fugitive Pieces (1984), The Great Difficult Music Swindle (1985), and Cars and T-Shirts (1985). There was also a 1985 collaboration - Rock and Roll Should Have Stopped With Bill Haley - with The Strolling Ones.
Two further cassettes came to light through being offered on eBay. Both are primarily solo Youngs and appear under the artist name The Creation Room - Dark Shadow Breath b/w Roog Confetti and Apricot Tree & Will To Tedium b/w 19 Used Postage Stamps (the latter being explicitly referred to by Youngs in The Wire, issue 259 and reissued on the limited edition 20th Century Jams CDR in 2007). The former features a number of collaborators, including Trussler. A further Creation Room cassette Music that Undid Him in a Japanese Minute (1985) has been listed on Discogs; again, this is primarily solo Youngs with a contribution from Simon Batley on two tracks. Other recordings issued under this name include the cassette Music From the Creation Room (1984) and a compilation song entitled "Sometimes For Him".
Solo recordings
Advent - LP (No Fans, 1990), CD (Table of the Elements 1997), CD reissue (Jagjaguwar 2004), LP reissue (Jagjaguwar 2006)
Mundanity - cassette - one side only, other side by Neil Campbell (Cakehole 1993)
New Angloid Sound - LP (Forced Exposure/No Fans, 1993)
Motorway - cassette (Chocolate Monk 1995 - some copies run out during the final track)
Festival - CD (Table of the Elements 1996)
Sapphie - CD (Oblique 1998) CD reissue (Jagjaguwar 2000), LP (Jagjaguwar 2006)
House Music - CD (Meme 1998)
Making Paper - CD (Jagjaguwar 2001)
May - CD (Jagjaguwar 2002)
Airs of the Ear CD (Jagjaguwar 2003)
171 Used Train Tickets - one sided 10"; a spoken word piece from 1990 (Fusetron 2004)
River Through Howling Sky - CD (Jagjaguwar 2004)
The Naïve Shaman - LP/CD (Jagjaguwar 2005)
Nova Scotia Breakout CDR (No Fans 2005)
Summer Wanderer - CDR (private edition - No Fans 2005), CDR reissue (No Fans 2006), LP (Gipsy Sphinx 2007)
Garden of Stones- CDR (No Fans 2005, reissued as a download by The Wire to coincide with their cover story on Youngs later the same year)
Multi-Tracked Shakuhachi - CDR (No Fans 2006)
(Untitled) - CDR (No Fans 2006)
No Home Like Place - CDR (No Fans 2006)
20th Century Jams - CDR (No Fans 2007)
21st Century Jams - CDR (No Fans 2007)
Somerled - CDR (No Fans 2007)
Autumn Response - LP/CD (Jagjaguwar 2007)
Three Handed Star - CDR (No Fans 2008)
Nerston Surface/First Voice To Earth - CDR (No Fans 2008)
Live in Salford - CDR (No Fans 2008)
High Sun Energy/States of Time - 7", limited to 300 (Dull Knife 2009)
Sleep Deprivation Single - lathe cut 7" in deluxe packaging, limited to 100 (Five Minute Association 2009)
Beyond the Valley of Ultrahits - CDR (2 editions, each of 100 numbered copies - Sonic Oyster Records 2009), LP (Jagjaguwar 2010)
Like A Neuron - LP (Dekorder 2009)
Under Stellar Stream - LP (Jagjaguwar 2009)
Fen Flowers - 7" - split with Valet, part of the 4 single "Tsuki No Seika" series (Root Strata 2010)
Inceptor - LP (300 copies, "art edition" of 10 with additional packaging and handwritten message from Richard - Volcanic Tongue 2010)
Atlas of Hearts - LP (Apollolaan 2011)
Be Brave, This World - 10" (Split with Annelies Monseré - Three:four Records 2011)
I Dream of Mezzanine/Cloudplanes - LP (The Spring Press 2011)
Amplifying Host - LP (Jagjaguwar 2011)
Long White Cloud - LP (Grapefruit 2011)
Amaranthine - LP (MIE Music, 2012)
Core to the Brave - LP (Root Strata, 2012)
Rurtain - LP (Alter, 2012 - original material by Youngs on Side 1, remixes by others on Side 2)
Chasing the Apocalypse/Quiet the Loud World- lathe cut 7", limited to 40. (MIE Music, 2013)
Barbed Wire Explosion in the Kingdom of Atlantis - LP (Sonic Oyster Vinyl, 2013)
Summer Through My Mind - LP/CD (Ba Da Bing!, 2013)
No Retreat in Comfort CD (Ba Da Bing!, 2013 - sold on his 2013 US Tour)
Calmont Breakdown CD (Fourth Dimension Records, 2013)
Regions of the Old School 2LP (MIE Music, 2013)
South Voyager LP (Atonal Industries, 2013)
S/T - 10" (The Spring Press 2014)
Red Alphabet in the Snow - LP (Preserved Sound, October 2014)
Unicorns Everywhere - LP (Sonic Oyster, 2015)
Inside the Future - CD/DL (Glass Redux, December 2015)
With Simon Wickham-Smith
Lake - credited to R!!!S!!! - 2-LP set (No Fans, 1990), CD (VHF, 2000)
Ceaucescu LP (Forced Exposure 1992)
Asthma And Diabetes LP (Majora 1994)
Kretinmuzak CD (Slask 1994)
Worried About Heaven 7" (Fourth Dimension 1994)
444D 10" (Fourth Dimension 1995)
Enedkeg LP (Majora 1996)
Knish LP (Ignivomous 1996)
Veil (For Greg) CD (Insignificant 1997), CD reissue (Jagjaguwar 2008)
Red And Blue Bear CD (VHF 1997 - credited to R!!!S!!! on CD spine)
Pulse of the Rooster CD (VHF 1998)
The Enigma of Rotons - lathe cut 7", only 50 copies exist (Hell's Half Halo 1998)
Metallic Sonatas - CD (VHF 1999)
LAmmERGEIER CD (VHF 2001)
5 Years CD (VHF 2006)
20 Years 1 LP & 3-CD set (VHF 2010 - contained an LP reworking their first ever recording and 3 previously unreleased albums - see below)
The Random Sailor (NFR 2016)
Parrots (NFR 2016)
Caro-Kann (NFR 2016)
With Andrew Paine
Zenith - as Ilk CD (No Fans 1998)
Canticle - as Ilk - CD (VHF 2005)
Mauve Dawn LP (Fusetron 2005)
The Wood Is Barren, My Mountain Is Lonely CDR (No Fans 2005)
Collodion Positives : Volume 1 CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2006)
Santos CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2006)
1958 CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2006)
Forest of Swords CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2006)
The Memory Plain CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2006)
Roman Concrete - Volume 1 CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2007)
Rock Traveller CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2007)
Collodion Positives : Volume 2 CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2007)
Collodion Positives : Volume 3 CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2008)
The Language of the Court - as Ilk CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2008)
Hot Canyon Butter CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2008)
Snapshots of Rural England CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2008)
English Channel CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2008)
Collodion Positives : Volume 4 CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2008)
Panegyric Territories : Volume 1 - as Ilk CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2009)
The Great Level CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2009)
Earth Rod CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2009)
Tokyo Garden Suite CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2009)
Guide To Music CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2010)
The Horizon Project 3" CDR (La Station Radar 2010)
Robot CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2010)
Urban Parable - as Urban Parable CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2010)
4trackcassettemachine cassette (Sonic Oyster Cassettes 2010)
Rotten Masters 7" EP (Sonic Oyster Vinyl 2012)
With the A Band
Untitled - 7" (Any Old Records 1991)
Anusol - cassette (1992) and CDR reissue (year unknown) (Chocolate Monk)
Artex/A Lot - LP, Youngs on Side 2 only (Siltbreeze 1993)
A Band - CD (private pressing- 1997. Hand-painted sleeves, Youngs part of the 18-piece line-up, recorded in Nottingham in 1991. 547 copies pressed.)
A Band - LP - some copies featured a bonus CDR entitled TV Set For Winter (note - the discs read "TV Sets From Winter" - the former title is correct), LP contains some material also found on the 1997 CD release. Youngs edited the music together for this edition (Qbico 2002)
There are several other A Band releases but only those which are confirmed to feature Richard have been included here. A discography for the A Band is included in their article.
With Neil Campbell
Tape Hiss - with Tape Hiss - Youngs, Stewart Walden and Neil Campbell - cassette (No Fans 1994)
How The Garden Is - with Neil Campbell LP (HP Cycle 2001)
Astral Social Club #10: Live at Subcurrent - with Neil Campbell and Tirath Singh Nirmala as Astral Social Club - CD-R (Astral Social Club 2006). Documents a live Astral Social Club performance at Subcurrent 2006, Glasgow, Scotland, with Youngs guesting on sound effects and electronics.
Skelp/Ginnel - by Astral Social Club. A 7" by Neil Campbell coupled with a CDR of remixes including one by Youngs (Trensmat Records 2008)
Octuplex - by Astral Social Club - Youngs appears on Track 5 - CD (VHF 2009)
With Matthew Bower
Site/Realm - with Matthew Bower LP (VHF/Insample 1995) - has been listed as a split album with a side from each, in fact, all the music is collaborative.
Adieu, All You Judges - with Skullflower, CD is split with Ramleh (Broken Flag, 1995)
Sorties - with Skullflower cassette, Youngs appears on some tracks (Broken Flag 1996)
This is Skullflower - with Skullflower, Youngs plays guitar on The Pirate Ship of Reality Is Moving Out CD (VHF 1996)
Delicate Autobahn Under Construction - with Sunroof!, Youngs appears on some tracks 2CD (VHF 1997)
Slipstream - with Sunroof!, Youngs appears on some tracks CDR (Rural Electrification Program 1999)
Mountain Tasting - with Total, Youngs appears on side one 7" (lathe-cut, edition of 50, self-released by Bower, circa 1999)
Bliss - with Sunroof! - Youngs plays guitar on Distoria CD (VHF 2001)
Relayer - with Youngsbower CD (VHF 2002)
With Brian Lavelle
Radios CD (Freek 1996)
Radios 2 CD (Freek 1997)
Radios 3,4,5 3-CD set (Freek 1997)
Radios 6 CDR (Bake Records 1998)
Radios 7 CDR (Bake Records 2000)
Radios 8 CDR (Bake Records 2000)
With Alex Neilson
Ourselves CD (VHF 2004)
Beating Stars LP (HP Cycle 2004)
Partick Raindance CD (VHF 2005)
Belsayer Time - with Neilson and Alastair Galbraith - LP, numbered edition of 900 (Time-Lag 2006)
Road Is Open Life CD (Celebrate Psi Phenomenon 2006)
Electric Lotus/Lotus Edition - LP & CD set (VHF 2007)
With Jandek
Glasgow Sunday - CD and DVD (Corwood Industries 2005)
Newcastle Sunday - 2CD and DVD (Corwood Industries 2006)
Glasgow Monday: The Cell - 2CD (2006) and DVD (2007) (Corwood Industries)
Glasgow Friday - CD (2008) and DVD (2009) (Corwood Industries)
Camber Sands Sunday - CD (2010) (Corwood Industries)
Where Do You Go From Here - CD (2011) (Corwood Industries) (uncredited - see above)
Other collaborations
St Helena/Juniper - 7" single, Juniper with Stephen Todd (Insample 1994)
Denny/Twechar - with Leather Mole 7" (Crank Automotive 1995)
Georgians - with Stephen Todd CD (VHF 1996)
Big Band Xerox - with PD cassette (Chocolate Monk, 1996) - a ten piece live incarnation of Blackburn, West Lothian-based improv/noise group Prick Decay featuring Youngs, Neil Campbell, Dylan Nyoukis, Sticky Foster and Tim Moulder amongst others. Nyoukis is the co-founder of the Chocolate Monk imprint and runs it to this day.
Brewery of Eggshells - with Telstar Ponies 12" single/CD (Fire 1996)
Voices From The New Music - with Telstar Ponies LP/CD (Fire 1996) - note that Youngs only appears on this Telstar Ponies album and the above tie-in single. He is credited throughout as a member of the band rather than as a guest artist.
Protection Spells - with Songs: Ohia CD (Secretly Canadian, 2000) - a limited edition album of improvised material recorded in various cities during a European tour in 1999. Youngs is one of the guest musicians.
eponymous - with Kawabata Makoto (of Acid Mothers Temple) CD (VHF 2001)
Bluster, Cragg, & Awe - with Tirath Singh Nirmala - Youngs appears on one track - CD (Digitalis 2006)
Richard Youngs & Tirath Singh Nirmala - with Tirath Singh Nirmala LP (HP Cycle 2007)
Yellow Gardens/Energy Pond - with Luke Fowler 7" (Fourth Dimension Records, 2012)
Electric Cactus of Mind - with Stephen Todd (NFR 2016)
All Hands Around the Moment with Raül Refree (Soft Abuse, 2021)
Miscellaneous
String Quartets, Loops, Garden Talk - by Neil Campbell - the 6-part track Garden Talk (for found tape and synthesizer) is credited as having been composed by Campbell and "assembled" by Youngs (self-released CDR - material from between 1994 and 1997).
Psychiatric Underground - by Ceramic Hobs - the track Meeting The Summertime has the credit "score by Richard Youngs" - he provided an 11 note handwritten score for the keyboard part, which spells out "ceramichobs" if you move the musical notation up the alphabet. Neil Campbell is one of 4 people credited as having provided tapes for the same track. (Pumf/Mental Guru CD, c. 1999)
Richard has also published a recipe book. Cook Vegan (Ashgrove Press) was printed in 1996 and reprinted in 2001, receiving favourable reviews.
Unreleased material
Youngs records prolifically and there are many unreleased projects.
A 10" record split between Wickham-Smith and Youngs (contributing "Papa Deo Bilong Mipela" and "Wynding Fall of Mind" respectively) was announced but has yet to be released.
Other items known to exist or to be in limited circulation include Festival of Carols, a cassette of Christmas songs from around 1990/1, given to friends in lieu of Christmas cards (The Wire, issue 236 reports that a total of 11 copies were made). Tracks included readings of "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", "The Boar's Head Carol" and "Jesus Born Today". Four other tracks from this cassette were remastered and included on the A Glasgow Wassail CDR in 2007, a compilation of Christmas songs curated by Andrew Paine (see Compilations entry).
In addition, there is a cassette of the music Richard composed for Niall Ashdown's play Hungarian Bird Festival, also featured in a later BBC radio adaption and a shelved Ilk album titled Herald, a track from which, "Carillon", was made available for download via the Sonic Oyster Records Myspace page over Christmas 2008 before appearing on the 2009 compilation The Continuing Saga of the Visiting Kitten. Richard recorded a contribution for a Resonance FM series called No Place Like Home - this formed the basis of the very limited No Home Like Place album issued in 2006. There were 2 radio sessions with Brian Lavelle; one piece from four recorded for radiotuesday has been issued (see below) and a live recording for Radio 3 made at the Purcell Room in London in 1996 remains unreleased. The Mauve Dawn album with Andrew Paine is part of a proposed trilogy but the other 2 albums have yet to appear. The website of US label Siltbreeze sees them claiming to have rejected a Youngs album (catalogued as SB-74 ) but, as no title is listed, it is not known if this was released elsewhere.
Compilations, etc
(untitled) - on In God We Trust a/k/a Nickel, a promotional 7" single also featuring Jim O'Rourke, Faust, Tony Conrad and Keith Rowe (AMM). 250 copies only (Table of the Elements 1995)
Oh Father Soil - on Waiting To Be Old CD (Opprobrium 1997)
Wofer - with Brian Lavelle on e.g. Sometime Instant, a compilation documenting a short lived Glasgow radio station radiotuesday. Lavelle & Youngs recorded 4 tracks for their session of which this is one. The remainder have not been issued. (radiotuesday, 2000)
1966 - on I Am A Photographer, a tribute album to the film "Blow Up" (Plain Recordings 2000)
The Sea Is Madness - on VPRO De Avonden XMAS 2000 CDR (VPRO 2000). A brief version recorded for the "De Avonden" programme.
Come Hear Us Now - on Festivalsampler 2001, a promotional CD for the 2001 KRAAK festival (not commercially released)
Worse Than Pug - on Freak On!, also featuring Vibracathedral Orchestra and Sunroof! CDR (VHF 2001)
Like Tigers Now - on Back into The Shadows CD - free with Comes with a Smile magazine 2002 (Volume 7 of their compilation series)
The World Is Silence in Your Head - on Song to the Siren DVD by Damon & Naomi on tour with Kurihara. Youngs supported Damon & Naomi at King Tut's Wah Wah Hut in Glasgow and is shown both backstage and performing. This is an alternate, more developed version of the song to that found on Making Paper and is performed on acoustic guitar rather than piano. He does not appear on the CD part of the package (Sub Pop 2002)
Oceanic Days - on CD given away with issue 13 of Fanzine Overdub 2003
Time of Tomorrow - on Guitars Undressed CD Marrakech Recordings 2003
The World Is Silence in Your Head - on the Routine Jazz #2 DJ mix compilation CD by Kei Kobayashi. JVC (Japan) 2003. Same version as appears on Making Paper
New Morning - on * (There Is No Hidden Meaning) - A Compilation 2CDR Kabuki Kore c. 2004
Sonar in My Soul - on Mind The Gap Volume 59, given with Gonzo Circus magazine issue dated December 2005/January 2006. Same version as appears on The Naive Shaman
House of Constant Song - with Alex Neilson - on Not Alone, a 5-CD benefit album on Jnana Records, with all proceeds donated to Médecins Sans Frontierès specifically to target their work on the AIDS epidemic in Africa - 2006
Soon It Will Be Fire - on Motion, Heat, Noise and Waste, given with Plan B issue 18, February 2007. Same version as appears on Sapphie
The Welcome Sailor - on Migrating Bird: The Songs of Lal Waterson LP/CD (Honest Jon's 2007).
Angels From The Realms, The Holly and the Ivy, A Gloucestershire Wassail, There Is A Path and Corner of the Season - on A Glasgow Wassail CDR (Sonic Oyster Records 2007 - Corner of the Season is an original composition written and performed by Youngs and Andrew Paine, all other tracks come from the Festival of Carols tape noted above).
It's All Waves - with Alex Neilson - on George Ferguson McKeating, a 2-CDR compilation by British journalist and writer Scott McKeating with all proceeds going to the Pancreatic Cancer Research Fund (Bells Hill 2009).
Boughs (For The Trees) [solo recording] and Carillon [with Andrew Paine as Ilk] - on The Continuing Saga of the Visiting Kitten a CDR compilation with all proceeds going to Cats Protection (Sonic Dust Recordings 2009).
Broke Up By Night on Heart And Soul a Jagjaguwar compilation CD given away free with Uncut Magazine (issue dated March 2010). Same version as appears on Under Stellar Stream.
Save The Happy People [solo recording] and Another Great Burst of Popular Enthusiasm [with Andrew Paine] - on SOR 50, the 50th (and, to date, last) CDR on Sonic Oyster Records (Sonic Oyster Records 2011)
References
1966 births
Living people
English male singers
English songwriters
English experimental musicians
British male songwriters
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Proas are various types of multi-hull outrigger sailboats of the Austronesian peoples. The terms were used for native Austronesian ships in European records during the Colonial era indiscriminately, and thus can confusingly refer to the double-ended single-outrigger boats of Oceania, the double-outrigger boats of Island Southeast Asia, and sometimes ships with no outriggers or sails at all.
In its most common usage, the term proa refers to the Pacific proas which consist of two (usually) unequal-length parallel hulls. It is sailed so that one hull is kept to windward, and the other to leeward. It is double-ended, since it needs to "shunt" to reverse direction when tacking. It is most famously used for the sakman ships of the Chamorro people of the Northern Marianas, which were known as the "flying proas" for their remarkable speed.
In Island Southeast Asia, the term proa may also sometimes be used, but the terms perahu, prau, prahu, paraw and prow are more common. These differ from the Pacific proas in that they are not double-ended and have a trimaran configuration with two outriggers. These are widely used in the native ships of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, and continue to be used today as traditional fishing, cargo, and transport vessels.
Proas are traditionally rigged with the crab claw and tanja sails. The modern proa exists in a wide variety of forms, from the traditional archetype still common in areas described, to high-technology interpretations specifically designed for breaking speed-sailing records.
Etymology
The term "proa" originates from Early Modern English "prow" or "praw". It probably entered the English language via Dutch prauw and Portuguese parau, similar to Spanish proa, meaning "bow". It is likely ultimately derived from Malay perahu meaning "boat", from the Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian doublets *parahu and *padaw, both meaning "sailboat". Its cognates in other Austronesian languages include Javanese prau, Sundanese parahu, Kadazan padau, Maranao padaw, Cebuano paráw, Ngadha barau, Kiribati baurua, Samoan folau, Hawaiian halau, and Māori wharau.
History
Catamarans and outrigger boats were very early innovations of the Austronesian peoples and were the first true ocean-going ships capable of crossing vast distances of water. This enabled the Austronesian peoples to rapidly spread from Taiwan and colonize the islands of both the Pacific and Indian oceans since at least 2200 BC. The first outriggers evolved from the more primitive double-hulled catamarans. There are two types of outrigger ships based on the number of outriggers: the single-outriggers (which include catamarans with unequal hulls) and the double-outriggers (sometimes called trimarans). Single-outriggers evolved first and are the dominant form of Austronesians ships in Oceania and Madagascar. They have largely been replaced by the more versatile double-outrigger ships in Island Southeast Asia. Double-outrigger forms, however, are absent entirely in Oceania.
Catamaran and outrigger technologies were introduced by Austronesian traders from Southeast Asia to the Dravidian-speaking peoples of Sri Lanka and Southern India as early as 1000 to 600 BC. This is still evident in the terms for "boat" in Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada (paṭavu, paḍava, and paḍahu, respectively), which are all cognates of Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian *padaw. Early contact by Austronesians with Arab sailors may have also influenced the development of the lateen sail in western ship traditions, derived from the more ancient Austronesian crab claw sail.
Many of these traditional vessels are now extinct. Either lost during the colonial period or supplanted in modern times by western boat designs or fitted with motor engines.
Historical descriptions of the proa
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to encounter the double-outrigger Southeast Asian ships, initially with derivative vessels from the Malabar Coast, which they called the parau. They applied the same name to similar ships in their colonies in Southeast Asia. Similarly, the Dutch encountered them when they colonized the islands of Indonesia, calling them prauw. This was rendered as "praw" by the British, later evolving to "proa". In French territories in the Pacific Islands, they were known by the more general term pirogue. Although technically restricted to outrigger sailing vessels, European sources often applied the term indiscriminately to any native ships of Southeast Asia.
The earliest written accounts of the single-outrigger Pacific proa (though not by name) were by the Venetian scholar Antonio Pigafetta, who was part of Ferdinand Magellan's 1519–1522 circumnavigation. They encountered the native sakman ships of the Chamorro people in the Islas de los Ladrones (Mariana Islands). Pigafetta describes the outrigger layout of the sakman, and ability to switch bow for stern, and also notes its speed and maneuverability, noting, "And although the ships were under full sail, they passed between them and the small boats (fastened astern), very adroitly in those small boats of theirs." Pigafetta likened the sakman to the Venetian fisolere, a narrow variety of gondola.
The accounts of Magellan's crew were the first to describe the Chamorro proas as "flying." The subsequent colonization of the Micronesia and the Philippines provided further references to proas in Spanish records. They also described double-outrigger ships from the Philippines, like the account of the karakoa in Francisco Ignacio Alcina's Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas (1668) which describes them as "sailing like birds."
During his 1740–1744 circumnavigation, Lord Anson applied the term proa to the double-ended Micronesian single-outrigger ships. His fleet captured one in 1742, and Lt. Peircy Brett of made a detailed sketch of the proa. Rev. Richard Walter, chaplain of HMS Centurion, estimated the speed of the proa at twenty miles per hour (32 km/h). Although aware of earlier Spanish accounts of the boats of the Spanish East Indies, Anson's account was the first detailed description of a Pacific proa to the English-speaking world. In the subsequent voyages of James Cook in Polynesia, he referred to the similar native single-outrigger canoes there as "proes", differentiating them from the double-hulled catamarans which he called "pahee" (Tahitian pahi).
These accounts fascinated both the British and American public, ushering in a period of interest in the design by sports sailors. Working from the drawings and descriptions of explorers, western builders often took liberties with the traditional designs, merging their interpretation of native designs with Western boat building methods. Thus this Western "proa" often diverged radically from the traditional "proa" to the point that the only shared feature was the windward/leeward hull arrangement.
The Proa darted like a shooting star
Lord Byron, "The Island", 1823
Modern variations
In the Marshall Islands, where the craft were traditionally built, there has been a resurgence of interest in the proa. People hold annual kor-kor races in the lagoon at Majuro, along with events such as a children's riwut race. The kor-kors are built in traditional style out of traditional materials, though the sails are made with modern materials (often inexpensive polyethylene tarpaulins, commonly known as polytarp).
A loose group of individuals from all over the world has formed from those interested in the proa, including people with a historical perspective and those with a scientific and engineering perspective. Many such individuals are members of the Amateur Yacht Research Society.
Early Western proas
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, many in Europe and America became interested in the proa. Western boat builders such as R. M. Munroe and Robert Barnwell Roosevelt (Theodore Roosevelt's uncle) reflected its influence. Into the 20th century, the proa was one of the fastest sailing craft that existed. The proa design is still the basis for many boats involved in speed sailing.
The first well-documented Western version of the proa was built in 1898 by Commodore Ralph Middleton Munroe of the Biscayne Bay Yacht Club. Yacht-design giant Nathanael Herreshoff, a friend of Munroe, may have also had an interest in the project. A small model of the Anson-Brett proa is collected at the Herreshoff Marine Museum in Rhode Island; its maker is uncertain.
Over the following years, Munroe built several more. They were all destroyed by the mid-1930s, when a severe hurricane leveled Munroe's bayside boatshop. At least two of his designs were documented in articles in The Rudder, as was one by Robert B. Roosevelt. Small proas may have been brought back to the United States in the late 19th century, but documentation is sparse. Munroe and Roosevelt appeared to be the first two builders to adapt the proa to Western building techniques.
Royal Mersey Yacht Club
In 1860 a member of the Royal Mersey Yacht Club in England built a copy of a Micronesian proa. He used the traditional asymmetric hull, flat on the lee side, and a decked dugout ama. While no quantitative record was made of its speed, it was noted that the proa would run at speeds that would bury the bows of any other vessel. It carried three times the ratio of sail area to immersed midships section than the fastest yachts in the club and yet drew only .
Munroe's 1898 proa
Since Munroe had no direct experience with proas, all he had to work with was the widely distributed and incorrect plan drawing from about 1742, made during Admiral Lord Anson's circumnavigation of the globe. This drawing had been circulated in the press, for example in William Alden's articles in Harper's Magazine. (These were reprinted in a small book called The Canoe and the Flying Proa.) This proa was one of several either captured or seen under sail when Anson stopped at Tinian during a Pacific crossing. Brett, the draughtsman of the plan, is thought by some to have misinterpreted one key element, showing the mast fixed vertically in the center of the boat. This view as based on the fact that other Micronesian proa masts were raked end-to-end as the vessel shunted and the fact that a raked mast shifts the center of effort of the sail which would influence helm balance. However, Brett's placing of the mast in a vertical position has found to be accurate when replicas of the "Anson" proa were built and sailed by the Marinas-based organization 500 Sails that found that in many points of sail under many conditions the proa sailed well with the mast in a vertical position. 500 Sails also found that the mast could be raked to advantage in many situations and noted that the mast step depicted in the "Anson" drawing could be interpreted as depicting a rotational point rather than a rigid mast step that would not allow raking. 500 Sails canoes employ rotational mast steps that allow mast raking.
Munroe, however, was a talented boat designer who was able to work around any problems with the drawings. His adaptations can be seen in successive proas. Rather than the deep, asymmetric hull of a traditional proa, Munroe created flat-bottomed hulls (similar to the fisolera referred to by Pigafetta), with keels or centerboards for lateral resistance. His first iteration had an iron center fin with a half-oval profile. Rather than the traditional crab-claw sail's spars which meet at the front, Munroe's sails used what could be described as a triangular lug sail or spritsail with a boom, similar to the modern lateen sail with a shorter upper spar.
Munroe's first proa was only long, yet was capable of speeds which Munroe estimated at . His article in The Rudder describes what can only be planing on the flat hull. As this was before the advent of planing power boats, this proa was one of the first boats capable of planing. This helped produce its amazing speed when most boats were limited to their hull speed—they had too little power to achieve planing speed, and yet were not designed to exceed hull speed without planing. For example, a boat with too little power to plane, and with a hull form and displacement that didn't permit it to exceed hull speed without planing, would have a maximum speed of about ; Munroe's proa could reach nearly 2.5 times that speed. This accomplishment was the nautical equivalent to the X-1 breaking the sound barrier.
It is not clear that traditional proas of the Pacific islanders could plane, though the long, slender hull would have a much higher speed/length ratio than other contemporary designs. Munroe was building a "cheap and dirty" sharpie hull made of two planks, a couple of bulkheads and a crossplanked bottom. By lucky accident he may have been the first sailor to plane his boat.
Roosevelt's Mary & Lamb
Robert Barnwell Roosevelt, uncle of American President Theodore Roosevelt, also built a proa at about the same time. He used it sailing from Long Island. It was significantly different but equally creative, and at , much longer. From his 1898 article in The Rudder, it appeared the main hull of Roosevelt's proa was an open wide scow hull; the ama was a smaller, fully decked scow which looked like it could rock on a single aka. The mast was a bipod arrangement with both masts stepped to windward, with a boomed, balanced lugsail suspended from the apex. A balanced rudder at each end managed itself by pivoting 180° when its end was the "bow", and leeboards were used.
Roosevelt's short article is accompanied by photographs showing his proa Mary & Lamb, at rest and under sail. It is not clear if the boat predated Munroe's 1898 proa.
Munroe's 1900 Proa
Since Munroe wasn't aware of the raking mast, his 1900 model used two daggerboards set fore and aft of the mast, which would allow adjustment of the center of lateral resistance to provide helm balance. From the drawings, it appears the mast is higher as well, allowing a larger sail. The sail design also changed, with the upper spar now being slightly longer than the upper edge of the sail, and projecting past the apex slightly to allow the apex to be attached to the hull. The sail was loose footed, with the boom attached to the upper spar near the sail apex, and to the clew of the sail. His article in a 1900 issue of The Rudder included more details on the construction of his second proa. A 1948 book of sailboat plans published by The Rudder includes the following specifications for the 1900 proa:
Length overall
Beam (of main hull)
Draft of hull about
Draft with boards down
Sail area
From the drawings, the distance from the center of the main hull to the center of the aka is about .
Other Western interpretations
Western designers often feel the need to tinker with the proa. They are attracted by the minimalist nature and amazing speeds that proas are capable of (they may still be the fastest sailboats per dollar spent for the home builder) but they often want the proa to do more; adding cabins, different sailing rigs, and bidirectional rudders are common changes made. James Wharram was greatly influenced by the Proa design.
For example, unconventional boat and yacht designer Phil Bolger drew at least three proa designs; the smallest one (20 ft) has been built by several people while the larger two, including his Proa 60, have not been built. For additional examples, see here.
Lee pods
The terms ama and aka have been adopted for the modern trimaran. Since trimarans are generally designed to sail with one ama out of the water, they are similar to an Atlantic proa, with the buoyant leeward ama providing the bulk of the stability for the long, relatively thin main hull. Some modern proa designers have borrowed trimaran design elements for use in proas. Trimarans often have main hulls that are very narrow at the waterline, and flare out and extend over a significant portion of the akas. This topheavy design is only practical in a multihull, and it has been adapted by some proa designers. Notable examples are the designs of Russell Brown, a boat-fittings maker who designed and built his first proa, Jzero, in the mid-1970s. He has created a number of proa designs, all of which follow the same theme.
One of the design elements which Brown used, and a number of other designers have copied, is the lee pod. The akas extend past the main hull and out to the lee side, and provide support for a cabin extending to the lee of the main hull. This is similar to the platform extending to the lee on some Micronesian proas. The lee pod serves two purposes—it can be used for bunk space or storage, and it provides additional buoyancy on the lee side to prevent a capsize should the boat heel too far. Crew can also be moved onto the lee pod to provide additional heeling force in light winds, allowing the ama to lift under circumstances when it would not otherwise. The Jzero also used water ballast in the ama to allow the righting moment to be significantly increased if needed. While Brown's proa was designed to be a cruising yacht, not a speed-sailing boat, the newer Jzerro is capable of speeds of up to .
Sail rigs
One of the issues Western designers have with the proa is the need to manipulate the sail when shunting. Even Munroe's early sails discarded the curved yards of the traditional crabclaw for the more familiar straight yards of the lateen and lug sails. Munroe's designs likely lacked the tilting mast because he was unaware of it, but many designers since have use a fixed mast, and provided some other way of adjusting the center of effort. Most sailboats are designed with the center of effort of the sails slightly ahead of the center of area of the underwater plane; this difference is called "lead." In a proa hull, and in all fore and aft symmetric foils, the center of resistance is not at or even near the center of the boat, it is well forward of the geometric center of area. Thus the center of effort of the sails needs to also be well forward, or at least needs to have a sail which is well forward which can be sheeted in to start the boat moving, allowing the rudders to bite and keep the boat from heading up when the entire sail area is sheeted in. Jzero, for example, and all of Russell Brown's other designs, use a sloop rig and hoist a jib on whichever end is the current "bow". Other designs use a schooner rig for the same effect.
One of the more practical rigs for small proas was invented by Euell Gibbons around 1950 for a small, single handed proa. This rig was a loose footed lateen sail hung from a centered mast. The sail was symmetric across the yard, and to shunt, what was previously the top end of the yard was lowered and became the bottom end, reversing the direction of the sail. Proa enthusiast Gary Dierking modified this design further, using a curved yard and a boom perpendicular to the yard. This allows a greater control of the sail shape than the traditional Gibbons rig, while retaining the simple shunting method, and is often referred to as the Gibbons/Dierking rig.
Foils
While a proa is fairly efficient at minimizing the amount of wave drag and maximizing stability, there is at least one way to go even further. The use of underwater foils to provide lift or downforce has been a popular idea recently in cutting-edge yacht building, and the proa is not immune to this influence.
The Bruce foil is a foil that provides a lateral resistance with zero heeling moment by placing the foil to either or both of the leeward and the windward sides, angled so the direction of the force passes through the center of effort of the sail. Since proas already have an outrigger to the windward side, a simple angled foil mounted on the ama becomes a Bruce foil, making the already stable proa even more stable. Bruce foils are often combined with inclined rigs, which results in a total cancellation of heeling forces. Inclined rigs are also well suited to the proa, as the direction of incline remains constant during shunting.
Another use of foils is to provide lift, turning the boat into a hydrofoil. Hydrofoils require significant speeds to work, but once the hull is lifted out of the water, the drag is significantly reduced. Many speed sailing designs have been based on a proa type configuration equipped with lifting foils.
Variations on the theme
In a non-traditional variant, first seen among Western yacht racers, the "Atlantic proa" has an ama which is always to the lee side to provide buoyancy for stability, rather than ballast as in a traditional proa. Because the Atlantic ama is at least as long as the main hull, to reduce wave drag, this style can also be thought of as an asymmetric catamaran that shunts rather than tacking. The first Atlantic proa was the Cheers, designed in 1968 by boat designer Dick Newick for the 1968 OSTAR solo transatlantic race, in which it placed third. Newkirk's designs are primarily trimarans, and the Atlantic proa's buoyant outrigger follows naturally from a conversion of a trimaran from a tacking to a shunting vessel.
Other proa designers blur the lines between Atlantic and Pacific style proas. The Harryproa from Australia uses a long, thin hull to lee, and a short, fat hull, containing the cabin, to windward. This would normally be more like an Atlantic proa, but the rig is on the lee hull, leaving it technically a Pacific design. This and other similar proas place the bulk of the passenger accommodations on the ama, in an attempt to make the vaka as streamlined as possible, and put much of the mass in the lee side to provide a greater righting moment.
Perhaps the most extreme variants of the proa are the ones designed for pure speed. These often completely discard symmetry, and are designed to sail only in one direction relative to the wind; performance in the other direction is either seriously compromised or impossible. These are "one way" proas, such as world record speed holding Yellow Pages Endeavour, or YPE. While the YPE is often called a trimaran, it would be more correct to call it a Pacific proa, because two of the planing/hydrofoil hulls are in line. This design has been considered by others as well, such as the Monomaran designs by "The 40 knot Sailboat" author Bernard Smith, and these designs been called 3-point proas by some, a reference to the 3 point hulls used in hydroplanes. A previous record holding design, the Crossbow II, owned by Timothy Colman was a proa/catamaran hybrid. Crossbow II was a "slewing" catamaran, able to slew her hulls to allow clear airflow to her leeward bipod sail. Although the hulls appeared identical, the boat had all crew and controls, cockpit etc. in her windward hull; the leeward hull was stripped bare for minimal weight.
Speed records
In March 2009, two new sailing speed records were set by vehicles based on the proa concept, one on land, and one on the water.
On March 26, 2009, Simon McKeon and Tim Daddo set a new C-class speed sailing record of over 500 meters in the Macquarie Innovation, successor to their previous record holding Yellow Pages Endeavour, with a peak speed of . The record was set in winds of 22 to , and came close to taking the absolute speed record on water, currently held by l'Hydroptère. Conditions during the record-setting run were less than ideal for the Maquarie Innovation, which is anticipated to have a top speed of – .
On March 27, 2009, Richard Jenkins set a world wind-powered speed record, on land, of 126.1 miles per hour (202.9 km/h) in the Ecotricity Greenbird. This broke the previous record by 10 miles per hour (16 km/h). The Greenbird is based on a one-way proa design, with a long, thin two-wheeled body with a third wheel to the lee acting as an ama. The aka, which is in the shape of a wing, provides a significant amount of downwards force at speed to counter the heeling force generated by the high-aspect wing sail.
See also
Austronesian languages
Kaep
Lashed-lug boat
Outrigger canoe
Tepukei
Vinta
References
External links
Sources of information on proas
Russel Brown on Proas, and interview with the builder of Kauri, Cimba, Jzero, and Jzerro, sloop rigged Pacific proas of 30 to 37 feet in length.
Guampedia, Guam's Online Encyclopedia Agadna, Chamorro Canoe Builders
The Proa File by Michael Schacht.
German proa website Information and links (mainly in German)
A summary of American proa designs can be found on Craig O'Donnell's Cheap Pages.
wikiproa a wiki dedicated to proas. Mostly home build smaller designs.
A collection of links to Proa-related websites from PacificProa.com
The University of Guam's Traditional Seafaring Society Webpage Micronesia.
Canoes in Micronesia by Marvin Montvel-Cohen; Micronesian working papers number 2, University of Guam Gallery of Art, David Robinson, Director, April 1970
Big collection of photos of ancient proas
2001 Marshall Island stamps, showing the Marshallese walap
Canoe Craze In Marshall Islands, Pacific Magazine, By Giff Johnson. Shows modern kor-kor racers in traditional boats with polytarp sails
Riwuit pictures, and detailed plans on building and tuning a riwuit
The Vaka Taumako Project page on Polynesian proas and sailing
Essay with photos of Kapingmarangi sailing canoes, Caroline Islands.
Duckworks Magazine article on the R.B. Roosevelt and Monroe proas
Waan Aelõñ in Majel (Canoes of the Marshall Islands) is a grassroots non-profit, non-government organization working with young Marshallese people.
Individual proa designs
Proagenesis.org: Hinged vector fin proa
World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Ra Marama II, Fijian Proa
Mbuli – A Pacific Proa
P5 – a 5 m multichine proa
Harryproa website, detailing history and current developments of the Harry type proas
Dave Culp's untested unidirectional, single foil proa
Slingshot and Crossbow I shunting ama trimaran/proas
Gary Dierking's T2 proa design, showing the Gibbons/Dierking rig
Cheers, the first Atlantic proa
Rebuilding Cheers, by Vincent Besin
Video of Cheers' relaunch in 2006
Video of Jeremie Fischer's proa Equilibre shunting
Video of Toroa Micronesian style proa, designed and built by Michael Toy and Harmen Hielkema
Gizmo, an "experimental" minimalist proa by designer Jim Michalak
Madness – a Proa designed by John Harris
Sailboats
Multihulls
Boats of Indonesia
Water transport in Malaysia
Water transportation in the Philippines
Outrigger canoes
Indigenous boats
Boat types
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Savannasaurus is a genus of titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous Winton Formation of Queensland, Australia. It contains one species, Savannasaurus elliottorum, named in 2016 by Stephen Poropat and colleagues. The holotype and only known specimen, originally nicknamed "Wade", is the most complete specimen of an Australian sauropod, and is held at the Australian Age of Dinosaurs museum. Dinosaurs known from contemporary rocks include its close relative Diamantinasaurus and the theropod Australovenator; associated teeth suggest that Australovenator may have fed on the holotype specimen.
At long, Savannasaurus was a medium-sized titanosaur. It is notable for its wide hips, which would have been over wide at their widest points. This would have distributed its body weight more evenly, along with a robust (upper arm bones) and possibly also the tall (ankle bone). Combined with a flexible vertebral column, these traits would have made Savannasaurus better at navigating the muddy ground of the floodplains that it lived on. Other titanosaur lineages also show some of these traits, which might have been independently acquired from similar environmental pressures.
Various traits suggest that Savannasaurus was an early-diverging (or basal) member of the Titanosauria, but not a member of the more specialized group Lithostrotia. Among these are the absence of in its vertebrae, which was one of the flexibility-enhancing traits that may have appeared in multiple titanosaur lineages. Palaeobiogeographic analyses suggest that the ancestors of Savannasaurus and Diamantinasaurus were from either Asia or one of the southern Gondwanan continents; regardless, they likely migrated to Australia through Antarctica around 105–100 million years ago.
Discovery and naming
In March 2005, the first specimen of Savannasaurus was discovered by David Elliot, founder of Australian Age of Dinosaurs (AODF), along with his wife Judy and their children. The specimen, now catalogued as AODF 660, was found on the Belmont sheep station, northeast of Winton, Queensland; the site was given the number AODF 82, and is informally called the "Ho-Hum site". Excavations by the Queensland Museum and hundreds of volunteers unearthed the specimen in July and September of that year. A siltstone concretion containing the specimen was split along gypsum-filled fractures using jackhammers and chisels, with the pieces being marked to facilitate reassembly. Preparation of the specimen took around a decade, with air scribes and micro-jacks being used. Adhesives, such as superglue and araldite, were then used to put the pieces back together. The marks allowed the orientation of the specimen as it was found to be reconstructed, which informed a three-dimensional site map constructed with photogrammetry.
AODF 660 consists of around 40 bones: one (neck), the third through tenth (trunk), at least four (hip), and at least five (tail) ; cervical and (fragmentary) dorsal ribs; portions of the shoulder girdle, including a fragmentary , a left , and both sternal plates; parts of the forelimbs, including portions of both , a fragmentary , the left , and hand bones (the left first to fifth , the right fourth metacarpal, and two ); the fused hip bones, namely both the left and the right and ; foot bones (the left and right third ); and other fragments. One of the foot bones was originally thought to have belonged to a theropod, while the metacarpals were initially also interpreted as having come from the opposite hands. The specimen is the most complete sauropod specimen known from Australia, and represents approximately 20% to 25% of the animal.
The bones were preserved over an area of less than . While the dorsal vertebrae were not articulated, they were preserved in sequence in front of the hip bones, allowing for their identification. The ribs on the left side appear to have been crushed prior to fossilization, before all of them were fragmented further. The fifth dorsal vertebra and both humeri show signs of being trampled by other dinosaurs before fossilization, which may also explain the scattered bones; however, the bones were less scattered than other dinosaur specimens from contemporary rocks. A third excavation in September 2006 discovered no additional remains, but a partial from a caudal vertebra was found on the surface in 2013.
Having been nicknamed "Wade", AODF 660 was formally described and named in 2016 by Stephen Poropat and colleagues in a paper that also described a skull belonging to Diamantinasaurus. They identified AODF 660 as the holotype of a new genus and species, Savannasaurus elliotorum; the generic name of Savannasaurus, from Taíno zavana (the root of the word "savanna"), refers to the environment in which it was found, while the specific name elliotorum honours the Elliott family and their contributions to Australian palaeontology. The preliminary anatomical description of AODF 660 in this paper was supplemented in 2020 by another paper from many of the same authors, which provided a full description of its osteology.
Description
Savannasaurus was a medium-sized titanosaur that measured about in length, with a weight of around and a shoulder height of around .
Vertebral column
As with most other members of the Titanosauriformes, the vertebrae of Savannasaurus were camellate, or by small holes created by air sacs, and they lacked that allowed neighbouring vertebrae to interlock. The cervical and dorsal vertebrae of Savannasaurus were all , or having a centrum (vertebral body) that is convex in front and concave behind. All other members of Eusauropoda have opisthocoelous cervicals, and all other members of Macronaria have opisthocoelous dorsals. Unusually, the front articulating surface of one of the caudal centra was undulating, being concave in the upper half and convex in the lower half. Poropat and colleagues suggested this as a distinguishing characteristic of Savannasaurus. The other caudals were , or having centra that are concave on both ends, which was also rare among titanosaurs save for Baotianmansaurus and Dongyangosaurus.
The only known cervical vertebra of Savannasaurus is considered to have come from the rear of the neck due to its proportions. Unlike most titanosaurs but similar to the "ancestral" (plesiomorphic) condition among sauropods, the vertebra had a subtle keel running longitudinally along its bottom surface; Mendozasaurus, Overosaurus, Austroposeidon, and Rapetosaurus also have such keels. There was a well-developed longitudinal , or excavation, along the side of the vertebra that extends for nearly its entire length, unlike in many titanosaurs where it was faint or absent altogether. In contrast to more specialized titanosaurs like the Saltasauridae, the (one of the rib articulations) was restricted to the front half of the centrum. Associated cervical rib fragments suggested that they were relatively long, extending for the length of at least three centra.
Like many titanosaurs, the articulating surfaces of the dorsal centra in Savannasaurus were shorter vertically than they were wide. The dorsals have weakly-developed ridges bordering the sides of their bottom faces, as in Diamantinasaurus and Opisthocoelicaudia (where they were better developed), but Savannasaurus lacks the keel on the bottom of the centra as in these species. Like most other members of the Somphospondyli, the sides of the centra bore teardrop-shaped pneumatic holes. The at the front of the centra known as the were connected by a sheet of bone (), the transprezygapophyseal
lamina; in the front dorsals, this sheet was V-shaped as in most titanosaurs, but it was basically flat in the rear dorsals unlike most other titanosaurs. Notably, the laminae in the dorsals of Savannasaurus were bilaterally asymmetric; the left side of the vertebrae would have been better reinforced by extra laminae. Also unlike Opisthocoelicaudia, the dorsal neural spines on top of the centra increased in height towards the rear dorsals, were not split into two, and were taller than their corresponding articular surfaces.
In addition to the undulating articulating surface in one of the front caudal centra (caudal "A"), the two front caudals (caudals "A" and "B") of Savannasaurus have another distinguishing characteristic. Like the non-titanosaur somphospondylan Padillasaurus, the front caudal centra had shallow pneumatic excavations on the sides surrounding small holes, whereas most members of the Somphospondyli have only the holes and not the excavations. This characteristic had previously been regarded as a distinguishing characteristic of the non-somphospondylan brachiosaurids. Two other caudal vertebrae (caudals "C" and "D") are known from further back in the tail. The centra of caudals B, C, and D were about the same length, suggesting that centrum length did not vary considerably. However, both articulating surfaces were wider than tall in caudal C, while the front one was taller than wide in caudal D, suggesting that it was further forward than caudal D. Like other titanosauriforms, the processes that enclose the neural canal—the pedicles—in caudals C and D were two-thirds the length of the centra, and were shifted forwards relative to the midline.
Shoulders and forelimbs
Two distinguishing characteristics of Savannasaurus are found in the sternal plates. First, they were D-shaped with straight outer margins when viewed from the bottom, instead of being kidney-shaped as in other titanosaurs. Second, they lacked the long ridges that were present on the bottom surfaces among most members of Neosauropoda. In general, the bottom surfaces were devoid of the grooves and pits on the top surfaces which are indicative of cartilage coverings. However, like most other titanosaurs, the sternal plates would have been at least 65% as long as the humeri (in Savannasaurus, the ratio was approximately 71%). The coracoid of Savannasaurus was oval-shaped in side view, unlike the characteristically quadrangular coracoids of saltasaurids, and the glenoid fossa on it (which articulated with the humerus) was much larger than that of Diamantinasaurus. Unlike most titanosauriforms save for Daxiatitan, Ligabuesaurus, and Sauroposeidon, the articulation with the scapula at the back of the bone was taller than the entire bone was long front to back.
Like Diamantinasaurus, Opisthocoelicaudia, and saltasaurids, the humerus of Savannasaurus was robust. The radius was twisted about its axis, with the long axes of the two ends being oriented in different planes, seen otherwise only in Huabeisaurus, Epachthosaurus, and Rapetosaurus. The maximum width of its top end (33% of the bone's length) and the presence of a strong ridge at the rear outer corner (the interosseous ridge) were more typical. Like all neosauropods, the hand digits of Savannasaurus were arranged like a horseshoe. Like Diamantinasaurus and Wintonotitan, the third metacarpals were the longest, followed by the second, first, fourth, and fifth. The third metacarpal was 49% the length of the radius, which was short for a titanosaur, but was at least 45% as in all macronarians. A distinguishing feature is that the bottom of the fourth metacarpal was hourglass-shaped, not trapezoidal or hexagonal. In life, the metacarpals would have been bound at the top and splayed at the bottom. The presence of phalanges is unusual; all titanosaurs but Savannasaurus and Diamantinasaurus had hands formed only by metacarpals. All digits but the first likely had phalanges, although their articulating surfaces on the bottoms of the metacarpals did not extend to the front as would be expected.
Pelvis and hindlimbs
The most distinctive feature of Savannasaurus was the width of its pelvis—its sacrum was wide, and its fused ischium-pubis complex was at least wide. Its sternal plates were around wide to accommodate this. Although titanosaurs were wide-bodied in general, these proportions made Savannasaurus extremely wide-hipped, surpassed only by Opisthocoelicaudia and saltasaurines such as Neuquensaurus. Other pelvic proportions in Savannasaurus were also unusual. The ischium's articulation on the pubis was 56% as high as the bone was long, higher than most titanosaurs. The ischium in Savannasaurus was relatively short, being 63% as long as the pubis; it was at least 70% as long in all other titanosaurs but Rapetosaurus (54%) and Opisthocoelicaudia (64%). A characteristic that distinguished Savannasaurus from every other sauropod is that the front-to-back length of the ischium was only 42% of the bone's width. On the ischium, the iliac peduncle, one of the processes surrounding the (hip joint), was only 32% of the bone's length, lower than most other sauropods. Furthermore, the front end of the ischium was 49% as wide as the bone was long; only Diamantinasaurus had a similarly high ratio (51%).
Another distinguishing characteristic of Savannasaurus is the presence of a subtle ridge that separates the front upper portion of the pubis from the rear plate. The ridge is parallel to another ridge just below the opening known as the ; this latter ridge corresponds to multiple ridges in Diamantinasaurus. Also like Diamantinasaurus, there was an expanded "boot" at the tip of the pubis. On the ischium, the ridge at the back which separated it from the pubis extended further to the side than Diamantinasaurus, but less so than Wintonotitan. Further below, in the ankle, the height of the astragalus was greater than its diameters either front-to-back or side-to-side, which is unusual among titanosauriforms. Two unusually low ratios in the astragalus are distinguishing features: the side-to-side diameter was 87% of the height, and the side-to-side diameter was 98% of the front-to-back diameter. Unlike Diamantinasaurus, there was no shelf on the astragalus below where it would have articulated with the .
Classification
For their 2016 description, Poropat and colleagues conducted a phylogenetic analysis to test the affinities of Savannasaurus and the new skull specimen of Diamantinasaurus. They added these specimens to a dataset created by Philip Mannion (one of the co-authors of the description of Savannasaurus) and colleagues for the 2013 redescription of Lusotitan. The analysis placed Savannasaurus and Diamantinasaurus together in a clade (unified group) close to the root of Titanosauria, outside the derived (specialized) group Lithostrotia. Similar results were recovered by Rafael Royo-Torres and colleagues in their 2017 description of Soriatitan; Mannion and colleagues in their 2017 description of Vouivria; Alexander Averianov and Vladimir Efimov in their 2018 description of Volgatitan; Bernardo Gonzàlez Riga and colleagues in their 2018 redescription of Mendozasaurus; and Pedro Mocho and colleagues in their 2019 descriptions of an indeterminate lithostrotian and Oceanotitan.
In 2020, Poropat and colleagues noted a number of features that support a position for Savannasaurus outside Lithostrotia: the horizontal transprezygapophyseal laminae, the lack of constriction in the vertebrae of the sacrum, the amphicoelous caudal centra, the pneumatic excavations on the front caudals, the D-shaped sternal plates, the presence of phalanges, and the lack of a longitudinal ridge on the side of the pubis. At the same time, the lack of hyposphene-hypantrum articulations in the dorsal and caudal vertebrae provides evidence against a more basal (non-specialized or rootward) position, given their presence in many non-titanosaur titanosauriforms and rarity among titanosaurs. Some titanosaurs also had these articulations; the basal Andesaurus and the lithostrotian Epachthosaurus had them in the dorsals, while the lithostrotians Epachthosaurus, Opisthocoelicaudia, Volgatitan, and Malawisaurus had them in the caudals. However, Poropat and colleagues recognized the possibility that they could have been acquired independently multiple times among titanosaurs.
Nevertheless, other phylogenetic analyses based on Mannion and colleagues' 2013 dataset have found different results. Royo-Torres and colleagues repeated their 2017 analysis after removing a titanosauriform from the Cloverly Formation, Chubutisaurus, and Angolatitan; they found instead that Savannasaurus and Diamantinasaurus were successively basal to a clade consisting of Baotianmansaurus and Dongyanosaurus. Savannasaurus shared amphicoelous caudal centra with both genera, various features of vertebral laminae with Baotianmansaurus, and unkeeled dorsal centra and the absent longitudinal ridge on the side of the pubis with Dongyanosaurus. However, unlike Savannasaurus, Baotianmansaurus had hyposphene-hypantrum articulations, and both genera had bifid dorsal neural spines (i.e., split into two).
Similarly, for a 2019 paper naming the new clade Colossosauria, Gonzàlez Riga and colleagues extended their 2018 phylogenetic analysis and found an unresolved polytomy of Savannasaurus, Baotianmansaurus, Dongyanosaurus, and a clade of more derived titanosaurs. Diamantinasaurus was placed in a more derived position as the sister group of Lithostrotia. Also in 2019, Julian Silva Jr. and colleagues extended the 2018 analysis of Gonzàlez Riga and colleagues for their redescription of Uberabatitan. They found Savannasaurus outside the Titanosauria in a polytomy with Euhelopus, Erketu, Qiaowanlong, a clade of Tangvayosaurus and Phuwiangosaurus, and more derived somphospondyls; they also found Diamantinasaurus and Baotianmansaurus to form a clade inside the Saltasauridae. Poropat and colleagues considered their results unusual in 2020. In their 2019 redescription of Jiangshanosaurus and Dongyanosaurus, Mannion and colleagues found both Savannasaurus and Diamantinasaurus inside Saltasauridae by equally weighting characteristics in their dataset, but using implied weighting eliminated this result.
The phylogenetic tree from the analysis of Poropat and colleagues in 2016 is reproduced below, at left, with emphasis on relevant clades. An alternative tree by Royo-Torres and colleagues in 2017, from the analysis that removed the Cloverly titanosauriform, Chubutisaurus, and Angolatitan, is also shown at right.
Topology A: Poropat et al. (2016)
Topology B: Royo-Torres et al. (2017)
Palaeobiogeography
As the southern supercontinent of Gondwana broke up during the Cretaceous period, dinosaur faunas became more diverse. Conventional hypotheses suggest that the faunas from the Gondwanan continents (including Australia) would be closely related, but mid-Cretaceous Australian dinosaurs have been found to be more closely related to their Laurasian (northern) counterparts in spite of the fact that Laurasia and Gondwana had already been separated by the Tethys Ocean for a significant span of time. In 2016, Poropat and colleagues tested this hypothesis by performing a palaeobiogeographic analysis using the results of their phylogenetic analysis. Using the modern geography of the continents, they found that the ancestors of the Australian sauropods Savannasaurus, Diamantinasaurus, and Wintonotitan were likely Asian. Incorporating Cretaceous geography suggested ancestral ranges also spanning the Gondwanan continents of South America, Africa, and Indo-Madagascar.
Combining their palaeobiogeographic analysis with time-calibrated phylogenies based on fossil age estimates, Poropat and colleagues inferred that somphospondylans and titanosaurs had attained a wide distribution across the world by the Barremian epoch, 131 to 125 million years ago, if not earlier. However, they ultimately diverged into a number of lineages ultimately with limited geographical ranges; they attributed this endemism to regional extinction events. They estimated that the Savannasaurus+Diamantinasaurus and Wintonotitan lineages had separately reached Australia no later than the late Albian epoch, 105 to 100 million years ago, but the exact timing depended on the models that they used. The oldest Australian titanosauriforms, Austrosaurus and the "Hughenden sauropod", date to this interval.
Although they acknowledged the possibility of sampling biases, Poropat and colleagues considered a late Albian dispersal likely because of the most probable dispersal route, which would have entailed beginning from South America and crossing through Antarctica to southeastern Australia. In the Aptian to early Albian epochs, this region of Australia would have been situated at a latitude of 70°S, with a cool, temperate climate. No sauropods have been found from these latitudes and environments, suggesting that they were adapted to warm climates and avoided these regions. Thus, they would likely have been unable to disperse across Antarctica until the late Albian, when global warming led to a smoother temperature gradient. Poropat and colleagues suggested that climate preferences could also explain the Laurasian affinities of Australian dinosaurs.
In 2020, Tai Kubo applied network analysis to a phylogenetic "supertree" of Australian dinosaurs. He found a strong connection between Australian dinosaur faunas and other Gondwanan dinosaurs, and identified Gondwanan Cretaceous dinosaurs as a distinct community. Thus, he suggested that most previous results identifying affinities between Australian and Laurasian dinosaurs were caused by insufficient sampling of Gondwanan dinosaurs and the phylogenetic instability of Australian dinosaurs. For instance, he pointed out that the megaraptoran Australovenator was thought to be an offshoot of an Asian lineage until more Gondwanan megaraptorans were found. While he suggested that the same was true of these sauropods, he also recognized the possibility that they had a different biogeographical history than smaller dinosaurs.
Paleobiology
Like all titanosaurs, Savannasaurus was likely a "wide-gauge" sauropod, meaning that it would have stood and walked with its feet far apart from the midline. In 2020, Poropat and colleagues pointed to the width of its sternal plates and sacrum as evidence for a wide-gauge stance. The robust humerus of Savannasaurus was also considered a likely adaptation to a wide-gauge stance, which would have been convergently acquired with saltasaurines. They also suggested that the unusual form of the astragalus was also an adaptation to weight-bearing, but the absence of other hindlimb bones made this unclear. Yet, Poropat and colleagues also noted traits that would have increased the flexibility of the vertebral column, namely the absence of hyposphene-hypantrum articulations and the presence of prominent excavations (the centroprezygapophyseal fossae) below the transprezygapophyseal laminae. Both of these were shared with Diamantinasaurus, but were otherwise rare among sauropods.
Poropat and colleagues noted that both Savannasaurus and Diamantinasaurus would have lived on a floodplain with clay-rich soil and high rainfall (see ), which would imply that the ground would occasionally become muddy and hazardous for large sauropods. They considered it possible that environmental pressures would have selected for individuals capable of navigating muddy ground, and that Savannasaurus might have spent more time near water than other sauropods. Flexible vertebrae (to escape bogs), barrel-like bodies similar to those of hippopotami, wide-gauge stance, and robust forelimbs (all to distribute its body weight) would all have been helpful for such a niche. They postulated that saltasaurines might have been subject to similar selective pressures, and so the "typical" titanosaur bodyplan may have been acquired convergently multiple times. While the same environment could also have selected for longer necks to provide easier access to water, Poropat and colleagues noted that Savannasaurus and Diamantinasaurus likely had relatively short necks, though overlapping cervical ribs might have improved stability in Savannasaurus.
Palaeoenvironment
The Belmont sheep station is part of the fossil-bearing rock units in the upper Winton Formation, which has been dated to around or just after the boundary between the Cenomanian and Turonian epochs of the Cretaceous—about 93.9 million years ago—based on uranium-lead dating of detritial zircons. It is the geologically youngest rock unit of the Mesozoic era in the Eromanga Basin. Six major facies, or distinct rock types, are found in the Winton Formation: two different types of sandstone-siltstone combinations (associated with meandering rivers, crevasse splays, and levees), mudstones (associated with oxbow lakes and ponds), sandy siltstones to silty mudstones (associated with tidal flats), plant-rich mudstone and coal (associated with swampy ground), intraformational conglomerates (associated with flooding). These rocks suggest that Savannasaurus lived on a freshwater floodplain covered in broad, meandering river channels with low-energy waterflow, which was subject to occasional flooding.
During the Cenomanian and Turonian, the Winton area had a latitude of around 50°S. Leaf fossils show that the climate was warm, with a mean annual temperature of , and wet, with a mean annual precipitation of over . Although the weather was seasonal, there was no extreme cycle between the wet season and dry season as is the case today. The growing season would have been eight to nine months long. However, weather patterns also appeared to have been cyclical on a multi-year basis, similar to the modern Pacific decadal oscillation; this may also have influenced the sporadic flooding. Conifers and angiosperms were the most common plants in the Winton Formation; conifers included the cypress Austrosequoia, the araucarias Araucaria and Emwadea, and the podocarp Protophyllocladoxylon, while angiosperms included Lovellea and various unnamed forms. Other plants included the ferns Phyllopteroides and Tempskya; the liverwort Marchantites; the horsetail Equisetites; the bennettitaleans Otozamites and Ptilophyllum; and the ginkgoalean Ginkgo.
Savannasaurus lived alongside a diverse vertebrate fauna in the upper Winton Formation. Contemporary dinosaurs included the sauropods Diamantinasaurus matildae and Wintonotitan wattsi, the megaraptoran theropod Australovenator wintonensis, and indeterminate ankylosaurians and hypsilophodonts. A tooth belonging to Australovenator was found near the Savannasaurus holotype, suggesting that its feeding was responsible for the specimen's disarticulation. Other archosaurs included the pterosaur Ferrodraco lentoniT and the crocodilian Isisfordia duncani, along with other undescribed pterosaurs and crocodilians. Additional vertebrates known from the Winton Formation are chelid turtles; an indeterminate varanoid lizard; the lungfish Metaceratodus ellioti and M. wollastoni; and ray-finned fish including Cladocyclus geddesi. Invertebrates were dominated by the bivalves Alathyria jaqueti, Hyridella goondiwindiensis, Megalovirgus wintonensis, and Prohyria macmichaeli, but also included the gastropod Melanoides, dragonflies, scorpionflies, and oribatid mites known from trace fossils found in silicified wood.
See also
2016 in paleontology
References
Titanosaurs
Late Cretaceous dinosaurs
Cretaceous dinosaurs of Australia
Paleontology in Queensland
Fossil taxa described in 2016
Sauropods of Australia
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James Hudson Taylor (; 21 May 1832 – 3 June 1905) was a British Protestant Christian missionary to China and founder of the China Inland Mission (CIM, now OMF International). Taylor spent 51 years in China. The society that he began was responsible for bringing over 800 missionaries to the country who started 125 schools and directly resulted in 18,000 Christian conversions, as well as the establishment of more than 300 stations of work with more than 500 local helpers in all eighteen provinces.
Taylor was known for his sensitivity to Chinese culture and zeal for evangelism. He adopted wearing native Chinese clothing even though this was rare among missionaries of that time. Under his leadership, the CIM was singularly non-denominational in practice and accepted members from all Protestant groups, including individuals from the working class, and single women as well as multinational recruits. Primarily because of the CIM's campaign against the opium trade, Taylor has been referred to as one of the most significant Europeans to visit China in the 19th century. Historian Ruth Tucker summarizes the theme of his life:
Taylor was able to preach in several varieties of Chinese, including Mandarin, Chaozhou, and the Wu dialects of Shanghai and Ningbo. The last of these he knew well enough to help prepare a colloquial edition of the New Testament written in it.
Youth and early work
Taylor was born on 21 May 1832 in Barnsley, Yorkshire, the son of a chemist (pharmacist) and Methodist lay preacher James Taylor and his wife, Amelia (Hudson), but as a young man he ran away from the Christian beliefs of his parents. At the age of 15, after reading an evangelistic tract pamphlet entitled "Poor Richard", he professed faith in Christ, and in December 1849, he committed himself to going to China as a missionary.
At this time he came into contact with Edward Cronin of Kensington—one of the members of the first missionary party of the Plymouth Brethren to Baghdad. It is believed that Taylor learned his faith mission principles from his contact with the Brethren. Taylor was able to borrow a copy of China: Its State and Prospects by Walter Henry Medhurst, which he quickly read. About this time, he began studying the languages of Mandarin, Greek, Hebrew, and Latin.
In 1851, he moved to a poor neighborhood in Kingston upon Hull to be a medical assistant with Robert Hardey, and began preparing himself for a life of faith and service, devoting himself to the poor and exercising faith that God would provide for his needs. He practiced distributing gospel tracts and open-air preaching among the poor. He was baptized by Andrew John Jukes of the Plymouth Brethren in the Hull Brethren Assembly in 1852, and convinced his sister Amelia to also take adult baptism.
In 1852 he began studying medicine at the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel, London, as preparation for working in China. The great interest awakened in England about China through the civil war, which was then erroneously supposed to be a mass movement toward Christianity, together with the glowing but exaggerated reports made by Karl Gützlaff concerning China's accessibility, led to the founding of the Chinese Evangelisation Society, to the service of which Hudson Taylor offered himself as their first missionary.
First visit to China
Taylor left England on 19 September 1853 before completing his medical studies, departing from Liverpool and arriving in Shanghai, China, on 1 March 1854. The nearly disastrous voyage aboard the clipper Dumfries through an Easterly passage near Buru Island lasted about five months. In China, he was immediately faced with civil war, throwing his first year there into turmoil.
Taylor made 18 preaching tours in the vicinity of Shanghai starting in 1855, and was often poorly received by the people, even though he brought with him medical supplies and skills. He made a decision to adopt the native Chinese clothes and queue (pigtail) with shaven forehead, and was then able to gain an audience without creating a disturbance. Previous to this, Taylor realised that wherever he went he was being referred to as a "black devil" because of the overcoat he wore. He distributed thousands of Chinese Gospel tracts and portions of Scripture in and around Shanghai. During his stay in Shanghai, he also adopted and cared for a Chinese boy named Hanban.
Scottish evangelist, William Chalmers Burns, of the English Presbyterian Mission began work in Shantou, and for a period Taylor joined him there. After leaving he later found that all of his medical supplies, being stored in Shanghai, had been destroyed by a fire. Then in October 1856, while traveling across China he was robbed of nearly everything he owned.
Relocated in Ningbo by 1857, Taylor received a letter from a supportive George Müller which led to Taylor and his co-worker John Jones deciding to resign from the problematic mission board which had sent them, and instead work independently in what came to be called the "Ningbo Mission". Four Chinese men joined them in their work: Ni Yongfa, Feng Ninggui, Wang Laijun, and Qiu Guogui.
In 1858, Taylor married Maria Jane Dyer, the orphaned daughter of the Rev. Samuel Dyer of the London Missionary Society, who had been a pioneer missionary to the Chinese in Penang, Malaysia. Hudson met Maria in Ningbo where she lived and worked at a school for girls which was run by one of the first female missionaries to the Chinese, Mary Ann Aldersey and they were married at the British Consulate there.
As a married couple the Taylors took care of an adopted boy named Tianxi while living in Ningbo. They had a baby of their own that died late in 1858. Their first surviving child, Grace, was born in 1859. Shortly after she was born, the Taylors took over all of the operations at the hospital in Ningbo that had been run by William Parker. In a letter to his sister Amelia Hudson Taylor he wrote on 14 February 1860,
Because of health problems, in 1860 Taylor decided to return to England for a furlough with his family. The Taylors sailed back to England aboard the tea clipper Jubilee along with their daughter, Grace and a young man, Wang Laijun, from the Bridge Street church in Ningbo, who would help with the Bible translation work that would continue in England.
Family and China Inland Mission
Taylor used his time in England to continue his work, in company with Frederick Foster Gough of the Church Mission Society translating the New Testament into a Romanised Ningbo dialect for the British and Foreign Bible Society. He completed his diploma (and a course in midwifery) at the Royal London Hospital with the Royal College of Surgeons in 1862, and with Maria's help, wrote a book called China's Spiritual Need and Claims in 1865 which was instrumental in generating sympathy for China and volunteers for the mission field, who began to go out in 1862, the first being James Joseph Meadows. In the book Taylor wrote:
He travelled extensively around the British Isles speaking at churches and promoting the needs of China. At home in the East End of London he also ministered at Newgate Prison. During this time he became friends with Charles Haddon Spurgeon, who pastored the Metropolitan Tabernacle and became a lifelong supporter of Taylor. Also, the Taylors hosted the young Thomas John Barnardo at their house as a potential missionary candidate between 1865 and 1866.
Their second child, Herbert, was born in London in 1861. More children were born to the Taylors, in 1862 Frederick, in 1864 Samuel, and in 1865 Jane, who died at birth.
On 25 June 1865, at Brighton, Taylor definitely dedicated himself to God for the founding of a new society to undertake the evangelisation of the "unreached" inland provinces of China. He founded the China Inland Mission together with William Thomas Berger shortly thereafter. In less than one year, they had accepted 21 missionaries and raised over £2,000 (about £181,800 in 2018 terms). In early 1866 Taylor published the first edition of the Occasional Paper of the China Inland Mission which later became China's Millions.
The following summary by Taylor came to be held as the core values of the CIM in what came to be a classic description of future faith missions:
In 1866 he and the missionaries went to China. They set out on 26 May 1866, after more than five years of working in England, Taylor and family set sail for China with their new missions team "the Lammermuir Party" aboard the tea clipper Lammermuir. A four-month voyage was considered speedy at the time. While in the South China Sea and also the Pacific Ocean the ship was nearly wrecked but survived two typhoons. They arrived safely in Shanghai on 30 September 1866.
Return to China
The arrival of the largest party of missionaries ever sent to China, as well as their intent to be dressed in native clothing, gave the foreign settlement in Shanghai much to talk about and some criticism began for the young China Inland Mission. The party donned Chinese clothing, notwithstanding, even the women missionaries, which was deemed semi-scandalous at the time. When other missionaries sought to preserve their British ways, Taylor was convinced that the Gospel would only take root on Chinese soil if missionaries were willing to affirm the culture of the people they were seeking to reach. He argued, from the example of the Apostle Paul, not sinful become like the Chinese, that by all means we may save some."
They travelled down the Grand Canal of China to make the first settlement in the war-torn city of Hangzhou. Another daughter was born to them in China (Maria Hudson Taylor). Taylor began practising much sought-after medical work and preaching every day under an exhausting schedule. Hundreds came to hear and be treated.
Conflicts within the Lammermuir team limited their effectiveness, but when Taylor's daughter Grace died of meningitis in 1867, they united for a time and sorted out their discord after witnessing Taylor place the cares of his fellow missionaries above even the concern that he had for his ailing daughter. Many of the Lammermuir crew were converted to Christianity.
Riot in Yangzhou
In 1868 the Taylors took a party of missionaries up to Yangzhou to start a new work. But problems continued in 1868, when their mission premises were attacked, looted and burned during the Yangzhou riot. Despite the violence and injuries, no one was killed. Unfortunately, the international outrage at the Chinese for the attack on these British nationals (and the subsequent arrival of the Royal Navy) caused also the China Inland Mission and Taylor to be criticised in the British press for almost starting a war. Taylor never requested military intervention, but some voices in the British Parliament called for "the withdrawal of all missionaries from China". However, the Taylors returned to Yangzhou later that year to continue in the work and many converts to Christianity were made.
In 1869 Hudson was influenced by a passage on personal holiness from a book called "Christ Is All" by Henry Law that was sent to him by a fellow missionary, John McCarthy. "The Lord Jesus received is holiness begun; the Lord Jesus cherished is holiness advancing; the Lord Jesus counted upon as never absent would be holiness complete." This new understanding of continually abiding in Christ endured for the rest of his life. At the time, he was quoted by fellow missionary Charles Henry Judd as saying: "Oh, Mr. Judd, God has made me a new man!" Taylor later sent out "How to live on Christ", a booklet by Harriet Beecher Stowe, that first appeared as an introduction to "Religion As It Should Be", a book written by Christopher Dean and published in 1847.
Loss of Maria
In 1868 another child, Charles, was born into the Taylor family, and in 1870, Taylor and his wife made the difficult decision to send their older three surviving children (Bertie, Freddie, and Maria—Samuel died earlier that year) home to England with Miss Emily Blatchley. In July, Noel was born, though he died of malnutrition and deprivation two weeks later due to Maria's inability to nurse him. Maria herself died several days later, with the official cause of death being cholera. Her death shook Taylor deeply, and in 1871, his own health began deteriorating further, leading to his return to England later that year to recuperate and take care of business items.
Back in England, Taylor was married to Jane Elizabeth Faulding who had been a fellow missionary since 1866. Hudson and "Jennie" returned to China in late 1872 aboard the MM Tigre. They were in Nanjing when Jennie gave birth to stillborn twins—a boy and a girl in 1873. Two years later, the Taylors were forced to return once again to England because of the death of the mission secretary and their children's caretaker, Emily Blatchley.
During the winter of 1874 and 1875 Taylor was practically paralysed from a fall he had taken on a river boat while in China. In this state of crippling physical hindrance, Taylor confidently published an appeal for 18 new workers to join the work. When he did recover his strength, Jennie remained with the children, (including a new son and daughter, Ernest Hamilton and Amy, as well as the orphaned daughter of fellow missionary George Duncan) while in 1876 Hudson Taylor returned to China, followed by the 18 requested missionaries. Meanwhile, in England, the work of General Secretary of the China Inland Mission was done by Benjamin Broomhall, who had married Hudson's sister, Amelia.
It was at this time that Hudson's evangelical work in England profoundly affected various members of the famous cricketing Studd family, resulting in three of the brothers converting and becoming deeply religious themselves; one of them, cricketer Charles Studd, became a missionary to China along with fellow Cambridge University converts, known as the Cambridge Seven.
From 1876 to 1878 Taylor travelled throughout inland China, opening missions stations. This was made possible by the signing on 13 September 1876 of the Chefoo Convention, a settlement between Britain and China that made it possible for missionary work to take place legally in inland China. In 1878, Jennie returned to China and began working to promote female missionary service there. Their son Ernest Hamilton Taylor joined them at the China Inland Mission in 1898 where he remained as a missionary for much of his working life. By 1881 there were 100 missionaries in the CIM.
Taylor returned to England in 1883 to recruit more missionaries speaking of China's needs, and returned to China, working now with a total of 225 missionaries and 59 churches. In 1887 their numbers increased by another 102 with The Hundred missionaries, and in 1888, Taylor brought 14 missionaries from the United States. In the US he travelled and spoke at many places, including the Niagara Bible Conference where he befriended Cyrus Scofield and later Taylor filled the pulpit of Dwight Lyman Moody as a guest in Chicago. Moody and Scofield thereafter actively supported the work of the China Inland Mission of North America.
In 1897 Hudson's and Maria's only surviving daughter, Maria died in Wenzhou, leaving four little children and her missionary husband, John Joseph Coulthard . She had been instrumental in leading many Chinese women to Christianity during her short life.
Boxer crisis
News of the Boxer Rebellion and the resulting disruption of missionary work in 1900 distressed Taylor, even though it led to further interest in missions in the area and additional growth of his China Inland Mission. Though the CIM suffered more than any other mission in China (58 missionaries, 21 children were killed), Taylor refused to accept payment for loss of property or life, to show the 'meekness and gentleness of Christ'. He was criticised by some but was commended by the British Foreign Office, whose minister in Beijing donated £200 to the CIM, expressing his 'admiration' and sympathy. The Chinese were also touched by Taylor's attitude.
Final years
Due to health issues, Taylor remained in Switzerland, semi-retired with his wife. In 1900, Dixon Edward Hoste was appointed the Acting General Director of the CIM, and in 1902, Taylor formally resigned. His wife, Jennie, died of cancer in 1904 in Les Chevalleyres, Switzerland, and in 1905, Taylor returned to China for the eleventh and final time. There he visited Yangzhou and Zhenjiang and other cities, before dying suddenly while reading at home in Changsha. He was buried next to his first wife, Maria, in Zhenjiang, in the small English Cemetery near the Yangtze River.
The small cemetery was built over with industrial buildings in the 1960s and the grave markers were destroyed. However, the marker for Hudson Taylor was stored away in a local museum for years. His great-grandson, James Hudson Taylor III, found the marker and was able to help a local Chinese church re-erect it within their building in 1999.
His re-erected tombstone reads:
In 2013 the land for the cemetery was re-developed and the demolition of the old industrial buildings revealed that the Taylors' tombs were still intact. On 28 August the graves were excavated with the surrounding soil and moved to a local church where they will be reburied in a memorial garden. Here is a picture of gravestone and stele at Xuande Church in Zhenjiang. Gravestone is underground in a pit where the church is awaiting construction of a proper memorial hall - timeline for completion of memorial hall is postponed according to church officials. Dedication marker is outside under a tarp covered up unless visitors know it is there. Currently in possession of 宣德堂(镇江市) as of July 2016.
Legacy
The beginning of "faith missions" (the sending of missionaries with no promises of temporal support, but instead a reliance "through prayer to move Men by God") has had a wide impact among evangelical churches to this day. After his death, China Inland Mission gained the notable distinction of being the largest Protestant mission agency in the world. The biographies of Hudson Taylor inspired generations of Christians to follow his example of service and sacrifice. Notable examples are: missionary to India Amy Carmichael, Olympic Gold Medalist Eric Liddell, twentieth-century missionary and martyr Jim Elliot, founder of Bible Study Fellowship Audrey Wetherell Johnson, as well as international evangelists Billy Graham and Luis Palau.
Descendants of James Hudson Taylor continued his full-time ministry into the 21st century in Chinese communities in East Asia. James Hudson Taylor III (1929–2009) in Hong Kong, and his son, James H. Taylor IV, who married Yeh Min Ke (the first Chinese member of the Taylor family), who is involved in full-time Chinese ministries. James H. Taylor V continued the family legacy by singing with a middle school choir.
Chinese tourists have started visiting his home town of Barnsley to see where their hero grew up and the town is planning a trail to guide visitors to landmarks around the town.
Theology
Taylor was raised in the Methodist tradition but in the course of his life he was a member of the Baptist Westbourne Grove Church pastored by William Garrett Lewis, and he also kept strong ties to the "Open Brethren" such as George Müller. His theology and his practice were non-sectarian.
Chronology
Birth to age 21, (1832 to 1853)
Born 21 May 1832 in Barnsley, England
Converted to Christianity June 1849 in Barnsley
Began medical studies, in hopes of going to China, May 1850 in Kingston upon Hull
Baptised 1851 in Kingston upon Hull
Moved 2 September 1852 to London
First time in China (1854)
Sailed for China aboard the Dumfries as an agent of the Chinese Evangelisation Society 19 September 1853 in Liverpool, Lancashire, England
The Dumfries arrived 1 March 1854 in Shanghai, China
Seven months with the William Chalmers Burns 1855–56
Sailed to Shantou (Swatow), Guangdong, China aboard the "Geelong" 12 March 1856
Moved October 1856 in Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
Resigned from the Chinese Evangelisation Society June 1857 in Ningbo
Ningbo Mission started after June 1857 in Ningbo
Married Maria Jane Dyer, 20 January 1858 in Presbyterian Compound, Ningbo
Grace Dyer Taylor born 31 July 1859 in Ningbo Mission House
Undertook charge of William Parker's hospital with Maria, September 1859 outside Salt Gate, Ningbo
Made first appeal to England for helpers 16 January 1860 in Ningbo
Life in London (1860 to 1866)
Sailed to England (via the Cape of Good Hope) on furlough aboard the Jubliee with Maria, Grace and Wang Laijun, 19 July 1860 in Shanghai. The Jubliee arrived 20 November 1860 in Gravesend, England
Settled 20 November 1860 in 63 Westbourne Grove, Bayswater, London
Completed the revision of a version of the New Testament in the colloquial of Ningbo for the British and Foreign Bible Society 1860–65
Herbert Hudson Taylor born 3 April 1861 in 63 Westbourne Grove, Bayswater, London
Moved after 9 April 1861 to 1 Beaumont Street, London
Earned diploma of Member of the Royal College of Surgeons 1862 in Royal London Hospital, London
Frederick Howard Taylor born 25 November 1862 in 1 Beaumont Street, Mile End Road, London
Samuel Dyer Taylor born 24 June 1864 in Barnsley, Yorkshire
Moved 6 October 1864 to 30 Coborn Street, London
The China Inland Mission is founded, 25 June 1865 in Brighton Beach, Sussex
China's Spiritual Need and Claims published, October 1865 in London
Occasional Paper of the China Inland Mission Number 1 is published, 12 March 1866 in London
Return to China (1866 to 1871)
Sailed to China (via the Cape of Good Hope) aboard the Lammermuir with Maria and four children, 26 May 1866 in East India Docks, London. Arrived aboard the Lammermuir 29 September 1866 in Shanghai, China
Settled with the Lammermuir Party, December 1866 in 1 Xin Kai Long (New Lane), Hangzhou, Zhejiang
Maria Hudson Taylor born 3 February 1867 in 1 Xin Kai Long (New Lane), Hangzhou
Daughter Grace Dyer Taylor died 23 August 1867 in a temple at Pengshan, near Hangzhou
Survived riot with Maria, 22 August 1868 in Yangzhou
Charles Edward Taylor born 29 November 1868 in Yangzhou
Entered into "The Exchanged Life": – "God has made me a new man!" 4 September 1869
Son Samuel Dyer Taylor died 4 February 1870 aboard a boat in the Yangtze River near Zhenjiang
Noel Taylor born 7 July 1870 in Zhenjiang
Son Noel died 13 days after birth 20 July 1870 in Zhenjiang
Maria Jane Dyer died 23 July 1870 in Zhenjiang
Furlough and remarriage (1871 to 1872)
Sailed to Marseilles on furlough via Saigon, Ceylon, Aden, Suez aboard the MM Ava after 5 August 1871 in Guangzhou, Guangdong, China. Arrived in England 25 September 1871 from Marseilles, France (via Paris to London)
Married to Jane Elizabeth Faulding, 28 November 1871 in Regent's Park Chapel, London
Moved 15 January 1872 to 6 Pyrland Road, Islington, London
Third time in China (1872 to 1874)
Sailed to China aboard the M M Tigre with Jennie, 9 October 1872 from Marseilles, France (via Paris from London). M M Tigre arrived 28 November 1872 in Shanghai, China
Baby son (twin) Taylor born 13 April 1873 in Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Baby daughter (twin) Taylor born 14 April 1873 in Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Fell from steps in a river boat and hurt spine May 1874 in China
Recovering in England (1874 to 1876)
Sailed to England on furlough with Jennie, 30 August 1874. Arrived 15 October 1874 in England
Paralyzed during winter 1874–75 in London
An appeal for eighteen workers published January 1875 in London
Ernest Hamilton Taylor born 7 January 1875 at 2 Pyrland Road, Islington
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Amy Hudson Taylor born 7 April 1876 in Islington
Ernest (died 1948) and Amy (died 1953) are buried in the same grave plot at the Kent & Sussex Cemetery, Royal Tunbridge Wells
Fourth time in China (1876 to 1877)
Sailed to China 8 September 1876. Arrived 22 October 1876 in China
General Missionary Conference 10 May 1877 in Shanghai, China
Sailed to England 9 November 1877. Arrived 20 December 1877 in England
Fifth time in China (1879 to 1883)
Sailed to China 24 February 1879. Arrived 22 April 1879 in China
First visit August 1880 in Guangxin River, Jiangxi
Left for England 6 February 1883 in Yantai (Chefoo)
Sailed to England on furlough 10 February 1883. Arrived 27 March 1883 in England
Sixth time in China (1885 to 1888)
Sailed to China 20 January 1885. Arrived 3 March 1885 in China
Second visit May 1886 in Guangxin (Kwangsin) River, Jiangxi
Pastor Hsi set apart 5 August 1886 in Shanxi
First meeting of China Council, Appeal for "The Hundred missionaries" 13 November 1886 in China
Sailed to England 9 January 1887. Arrived 18 February 1887 in England
Addressed the Keswick Convention after February 1887 in Keswick, England
Sailed to US aboard the RMS Etruria 23 June 1888. Arrived 1 July 1888 in New York City, attended Niagara Bible Conference and crossed the continent on the Canadian Pacific Railway.
Seventh time in China (1888 to 1889)
Sailed to China from Vancouver, Canada via Yokohama, Japan 5 October 1888. Arrived 30 October 1888 in Shanghai, China
Sailed to England via France 12 April 1889. Arrived in England 21 May 1889
Arrived 6 July 1889 in New York City
Sailed to England 17 August 1889. Arrived 24 August 1889 in England
.
Eighth time in China (1890 to 1892)
Sailed to China 17 March 1890 in Shanghai, China. Arrived 27 April 1890 in Shanghai, China
Preached opening sermon at General Missionary Conference 7 May 1890 in Shanghai, China
Sailed to Australia 26 August 1890. Sailed to China 20 November 1890. Arrived 21 December 1890 in Shanghai, China
Arrived with Jennie, March 1892 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Sailed to England via Canada with Jennie, 10 May 1892. Arrived with Jennie, 26 July 1892 in England
Addressed the Keswick Convention 1893 in Keswick, England
Union and Communion published 1893 in England
A Retrospect autobiography published 1894 in England
Provided testimony to the Royal Commission on Opium as an opponent of the trade before 14 February 1894 in England
Ninth time in China (1894 to 1896)
Sailed to China via US aboard the RMS Germanic with Jennie, 14 February 1894 in Liverpool and Queenstown, England
Arrived aboard the RMS Germanic with Jennie, 24 February 1894 in Ellis Island, New York
Spoke at Students' Conference after 24 February 1894 in Detroit, Michigan. Arrived with Jennie, 17 April 1894 in Shanghai, China
Sailed aboard the Oceania (M. M. Oceanien?) with Jennie, 2 May 1896. Arrived, 17 June 1896 in England
Addressed the Keswick Convention after 17 June 1896 in Keswick, England
Daughter Maria Hudson Taylor died 28 September 1897 in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
Sailed to US with Jennie, 24 November 1897. Arrived with Jennie, 18 December 1897 in US
Separation and Service published 1898 in England
Tenth time in China (1898 to 1899)
Arrived with Jennie, 15 January 1898 in Shanghai, China
A Ribband of Blue, and other Bible Studies published 1899 in England
Conference, 16 January 1899 in Chongqing, Sichuan, China
Attended China Council meetings 28 June 1899 in Shanghai
Sailed to Australia, New Zealand, and US with Jennie, 25 September 1899. Arrived, 5 April 1900 in San Francisco, US
Addressed the Ecumenical Missions Conference after 5 April 1900 in Carnegie Hall, New York City
Sailed to England from US with Jennie as the Boxer Uprising was beginning in China, 9 June 1900. Arrived, 19 June 1900 in England
Retired with Jennie, after 19 June 1900 in Davos, Switzerland
Resigned as Director of the China Inland Mission November 1902
Jane Elizabeth "Jennie" Faulding died 31 July 1904 in Les Chevalleyres, Switzerland
Eleventh and final time in China (1905)
Sailed to US (New York City) aboard the RMS Baltic 15 February 1905 in Liverpool, Lancashire, England. Arrived aboard the RMS Baltic March 1905 in New York City
Sailed to China from San Francisco, 23 March 1905. Arrived 17 April 1905 in Shanghai, China
Died 3 June 1905 in Changsha, Hunan, China. Buried 9 June 1905 in Protestant Cemetery (no longer existing) in Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
Re-burial
Remains re-buried at a local church in Zhenjiang, after 28 August 2013.
Works
.
China's Spiritual Need and Claims (1865)
China & the Chinese an address to the Young (1865)
China's Millions
.
A Retrospect (1894)
After Thirty Years (1895)
Separation and Service (1898)
A Ribband of Blue And Other Bible Studies (1899)
Archives
Manuscripts and letters relating to James Hudson Taylor are held as part of the China Inland Mission collection by the Archives of the School of Oriental and African Studies in London.
Honours
Taylor House in YMCA of Hong Kong Christian College, which was founded by YMCA of Hong Kong, was named in commemoration of Taylor.
References
Bibliography
.
.
.
. Has a chapter on Hudson Taylor's marriage.
.
.
External links
Christian Biography Resources
Spurgeon's "Interviews with Three of the King's Captains"
Genealogy.com: The family of James Hudson Taylor
Hudson Taylor Centre for Chinese Ministries, Tyndale University College and Seminary, Toronto, ON
Hudson Taylor Grave
1832 births
1905 deaths
Alumni of the London Hospital Medical College
Translators of the Bible into Chinese
British expatriates in China
British people of the Boxer Rebellion
British evangelicals
English evangelicals
Christian medical missionaries
Protestant missionaries in China
Christian writers
English Baptist ministers
English Protestant missionaries
Victorian writers
19th-century English medical doctors
19th-century British writers
People from Barnsley
British Plymouth Brethren
Hudson
Missionary linguists
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Whitehawk Camp is the remains of a causewayed enclosure on Whitehawk Hill near Brighton, East Sussex, England. Causewayed enclosures are a form of early Neolithic earthwork that were built in England from shortly before 3700 BC until about 3300 BC, characterized by the full or partial enclosure of an area with ditches that are interrupted by gaps, or causeways. Their purpose is not known; they may have been settlements, or meeting places, or ritual sites. The Whitehawk site consists of four roughly concentric circular ditches, with banks of earth along the interior of the ditches evident in some places. There may have been a timber palisade on top of the banks. Outside the outermost circuit there are at least two more ditches, one of which is thought from radiocarbon evidence to date to the Bronze Age, about two thousand years after the earliest dated activity at the site.
Whitehawk was first excavated by R. P. Ross Williamson and E. Cecil Curwen in 1929 in response to a plan to lay out football pitches on the site. Brighton Racecourse overlaps Whitehawk Camp, and when an expansion of the course's pulling-up ground affected part of the site, Curwen led another rescue dig in the winter of 1932–1933; similarly in 1935 the area to be crossed by a new road was excavated, again by Curwen. In 1991, during the construction of a housing development near the site, one of the ditches outside the outermost circuit was uncovered, and the construction was paused to allow an excavation, run by Miles Russell. In 2011, the Gathering Time project published an analysis of radiocarbon dates from almost forty British causewayed enclosures, including several from Whitehawk Camp. The conclusion was that the Neolithic part of the site was probably constructed between 3650 and 3500 BC, and probably went out of use some time between 3500 and 3400 BC. The site was designated as a scheduled monument in 1923.
Background
Whitehawk Camp is a causewayed enclosure, a form of earthwork that was built in northwestern Europe, including the southern British Isles in the early Neolithic from shortly before 3700 BC until about 3300 BC. Causewayed enclosures are areas that are fully or partially enclosed by ditches interrupted by gaps, or causeways, of unexcavated ground, often with earthworks and palisades in some combination. The use to which these enclosures were put has long been a matter of debate, and many suggestions have been made by researchers. They were previously known as "causewayed camps", since it was thought they were used as settlements: early investigators suggested that the inhabitants lived in the ditches, but this idea was later abandoned, in favour of any settlement being within the enclosure boundaries.
The causeways were difficult to explain in military terms, though it was suggested they could have been sally ports for defenders to emerge from and attack a besieging force; evidence of attacks at some sites provided support for the idea that the enclosures were fortified settlements. They may have been seasonal meeting places, used for trading cattle or other goods such as pottery, and if they were a focus for the local people, they may have been evidence of a local hierarchy with a tribal chief. There is also evidence that they played a role in funeral rites: material such as food, pottery, and human remains was deliberately deposited in the ditches. They were constructed in a short time, which implies significant organization since substantial labour would have been required, for clearing the land, preparing trees for use as posts or palisades, and digging the ditches.
In 1930, the archaeologist E. Cecil Curwen identified sixteen sites that were definitely or probably Neolithic causewayed enclosures. Excavations at five of these had already confirmed them as Neolithic, and another four of Curwen's sites are now agreed to be Neolithic. A few more were found over the succeeding decades, and the list of known sites was significantly expanded with the use of aerial photography in the 1960s and early 1970s.
The sites found earlier were mostly on chalk uplands, but many of the ones discovered from the air were on lower-lying ground. Over seventy are known in the British Isles, and they are one of the most common types of early Neolithic site in western Europe. About a thousand are known in all. They began to appear at different times in different parts of Europe: dates range from before 4000 BC in northern France, to shortly before 3000 BC in northern Germany, Denmark, and Poland. The enclosures in southern Britain continued to be built for at least 200 years. In a few cases enclosures that had already been built continued to be used as late as 3300 to 3200 BC.
Site and interpretation
Description
Whitehawk Camp lies on the Upper Chalk, to the east of central Brighton, on a saddle between two slight rises. The site is about . It is a little over from the coast, a distance that is probably unchanged since Neolithic times. The site consists of four circuits of ditches, and two ditches that touch the outermost circuit from outside, in the same way a tangent touches a circle. These tangent ditches lie on opposite sides of the circuits: one is at the northeastern edge of the site, and one at the southwestern edge. There are also traces of additional ditches. The four circuits of ditches were dug in the early Neolithic.
At one time there were Neolithic round barrows on the site, but these were destroyed no later than 1822, when Brighton Racecourse, which partly overlaps the site, was modified. The site is also crossed by Manor Hill Road, built in 1935; Whitehawk Hill Road, which joins Manor Hill Road in the centre of the site, and used to follow the same path as Manor Hill Road from there to the northwest, is visible on older plans. There may also have been a long barrow on the site at one time, perhaps preceding the ditches. Molluscs found in the Neolithic layers of the excavated ditches were shade-loving species, implying a woodland environment at the time the ditches were dug. The site was one of the first to be confirmed as a causewayed enclosure by excavation; the other four known by 1930 were the Trundle, Knap Hill, Windmill Hill and Abingdon.
Almost all the finds at Whitehawk Camp were recovered from three digs between 1929 and 1935, each of which investigated parts of the Neolithic camp. The investigators, Curwen and R. P. Ross Williamson, concluded that the ditches had originally all been accompanied by banks on their interior, built up from the material removed from the ditches. Some evidence of external banks in some places has since been found, and a 2016 re-evaluation by archaeologist Jon Sygrave suggested that these might be evidence of a more complex layout, or of later construction modifying the original site. There may also have been a timber palisade along some of the circuits; Curwen suggested that some of the postholes found were part of a palisade, but Sygrave considers this unproven. A causeway at the southern edge of the third ditch (counting from the middle) has large postholes on either side and four more postholes delineate a path through the bank; this is thought to indicate an entranceway. Another probable entrance is through the north-western part of the first (innermost) ditch, where there is a gap in the ditch and bank and no evidence of a palisade. Four postholes on the western side of the outermost ditch may also indicate an entrance.
The northeastern tangent ditch has never been excavated and is of unknown date, but the southwestern tangent ditch was excavated in 1991 by Miles Russell. It was found to date to the Bronze Age, though Russell suggested it may have been originally cut as part of the Neolithic site, and later recut and extended. Russell recovered some flints and a few pottery sherds/shards from the ditch. Mollusc samples recovered by Russell implied an open grassland environment at the time the ditch was dug (or recut), in contrast to the shade-loving species found in the Neolithic ditches.
Pottery from the Neolithic site
Most of the prehistoric pottery found at Whitehawk Camp is of the plain bowl or decorated bowl types; these are the earliest forms of Neolithic pottery found in England, and the style found in southern England is known as "Whitehawk style" pottery. These are considered to be contemporary with the main period of use of the enclosure. The high volume of pottery of this type found supports the conclusion that the site was heavily used or visited during this period. Whitehawk style was followed by Ebbsfleet ware, which appeared around 3500 BC; a few sherds of Ebbsfleet ware were found in upper strata. Some Bronze Age sherds from Beaker pottery were found as well, mostly from the third ditch; Beaker pottery does not appear in Britain before about 2250 BC, and since these sherds are characteristic of middle or later Beaker ware they probably date to no earlier than 2150 BC. Since there is also no evidence of Neolithic pottery types later than the Ebbsfleet ware, there was probably a long gap in occupation of the site from the late 4th millennium to at least the late 3rd millennium BC. Some late Iron Age and early Roman pottery was also found in the outermost ditch.
Interpretation of other finds from the Neolithic site
The flints found at the site were probably largely contemporary with the Neolithic use of the site, though it is possible some of the flints are of Mesolithic origin and predate the ditch construction, and a few flints may post-date the Neolithic usage. Bone and antler finds include both cattle bone and red deer antler remains that were worked with flint to create splinters: these splinters could be used to create tools such as projectile points. Antlers were also used as picks to break the chalk when digging ditches, and several bone awls were found. Almost a thousand animal bone fragments were found, most coming from cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and deer; each of these groups included some bones with marks indicating butchery.
Chalk artefacts include a cup, some blocks and pieces with holes drilled through them, and a piece measuring that was covered by regular grooves, intersecting in a grid. The piece was described by Curwen as a "chessboard", and its purpose is not known. Human bones from at least six individuals were found, though as many of the bones were found in different locations across the site the finds may well have come from many more than six people.
Antiquarian and archaeological investigations
The site was first described by John Skinner, an amateur antiquarian and archaeologist, who sketched it in 1821. Hadrian Allcroft included a discussion of the site in his 1908 book Earthworks of England, and also discussed it in a 1916 paper, with a plan drawn by Herbert Toms. The earliest Ordnance Survey map of the area, published in 1876, shows only two of the concentric ditches, overlapped by the racecourse; later maps show development over the following decades, including allotment gardens, and a stable block for the racecourse, without archaeological intervention. Eventually the site became legally protected, but some development still took place without archaeological monitoring, such as the creation late in the 20th century of a earth bank to prevent vehicles accessing the site.
Williamson and Curwen, 1929
Whitehawk Camp was listed as a scheduled monument in 1923, but the designation did not yet provide the site with legal protection against development. The race course had long overlaid the northwest of the site, and by 1928 there were also allotment gardens in some areas. A plan to lay out football pitches on the site led to the Brighton and Hove Archaeological Club, among others, protesting against the proposed development, and the club decided to excavate part of the site, "both to determine the date of the camp and to impress upon the public the importance of its preservation".
A plan of the site was made in December 1928 by Curwen, showing the location of the ditches and banks, which he detected by using a boser—a tool for detecting underground bedrock, or the lack of it, by listening to the sound made when a heavy rammer strikes the ground. The plan showed the outline of four concentric ditches with multiple causeways across each ditch where the underlying chalk had not been excavated. Work began in January 1929, initially overseen by Williamson and later by Curwen. Cuttings were made in the north-east quadrant of the site, most of the work taking place on the first and second ditch. One cutting was made through the third ditch.
Finds included a great many sherds of Windmill Hill pottery, a classification that attempted to identify individual cultures within the Neolithic that has since been overturned in favour of separating Neolithic sites into Early and Late Neolithic. Four pointed bone tools were found that Williamson suggested had been used to make ornamental marks on the pottery, or as awls to create holes in the pottery handles. Flint tools were found, including arrowheads and a probable axe head, and flint flakes were common in all the cuttings. Nine fragments of human bone were found, and many animal bones, including those of pigs and cattle, goat bones being less common, and no horse or dog bones. A few antler fragments from red deer and roe deer were identified. An analysis of the mollusk remains, correlated with similar mollusk analyses from other Neolithic sites, concluded that the climate in Neolithic times must have been wetter. Some marine shells were also found that must have been brought to the site by humans.
Williamson commented that the site's layout was remarkably similar to that of Windmill Hill and the Trundle, with multiple concentric causewayed ditches, and similar finds from excavation, particularly with regard to pottery. He argued that the site was probably occupied "by a large population for a comparatively short time". Williamson considered that the ditches showed no evidence of having been lived in (as an early theory about causewayed enclosures suggested, and as Curwen believed as late as 1954) but instead appeared to have been used as rubbish dumps. A 2016 reassessment of all three early excavations concluded that the layer of earth in the ditches that yielded most of the finds had probably washed into the ditches, having originally been deposited nearby.
Curwen, 1932–1933
When the Brighton Racecourse decided to extend the pulling-up ground of the course, permission was granted with the requirement that the affected part of the site must be excavated before the work was done. The changes to the course were required to be completed by the opening of the 1933 racing season, so the work had to be done over the winter, in December 1932 and January 1933. Parts of the third and fourth ditches were excavated, in the south-west corner of the site; a strip of ground connecting the excavated ditches was also cleared. The north side of the fourth ditch had once had an earthen rampart, and two of the cuttings across the ditch were extended ten feet to the north to span the area where the rampart had stood.
In the fourth ditch, a platform of unexcavated chalk was found that contained a hole about deep, in which lay the skeleton of a roe deer. The hole was the right size to support a post, but since the bones showed no signs of damage from the weight of a post resting on them, Curwen concluded that it was more likely that the hole was dug to put the deer in, as a ritual deposit, rather than that the deer's skeleton was deliberately placed under a post. Excavation of the third ditch revealed post-holes that appeared to indicate an entrance into the enclosure, two of the holes probably supporting gateposts. One of the two causeways that crossed this ditch was deeper than the surrounding chalk, which led Curwen to suggest that an earlier ditch had been dug along the same line as the third ditch, crossing that causeway.
Human remains were found only in the third ditch; they were analyzed for Curwen by the anthropologist Miriam Tildesley. There were two essentially complete adult skeletons. One seemed to have been simply laid in the ditch rather than in a grave dug for the purpose; this skeleton, of a woman probably between 25 and 30 years of age, was found with a fossilized sea urchin, Echinocorys scutatus. The other skeleton had clearly been deliberately buried in a grave; this was also a young woman, estimated at between 20 and 25 years. The skeleton of a baby was found in the grave, between the woman's knees and elbows, with part of the baby's skull adhering to the woman's hip. Tildesley concluded that although this made it appear likely the baby was not yet born when the woman died, the baby was large enough in comparison to the woman, who was only about tall, to make it more likely that the baby had died a few weeks after birth. The third ditch also contained multiple fragments of bone from human skulls, three of which showed signs of charring; Curwen commented that "It is difficult to avoid the view that these may be relics of cannibalism". Tildesley found there were at least five individuals represented by the skull fragments, their ages ranging from about six to under thirty.
In the third ditch, Curwen was able to identify a turf line in the sections that corresponded to the end of the Neolithic occupation, but no such clear boundary was visible in the sections across the fourth ditch. Most of the pottery found in the Neolithic occupation layer was classified by the archaeologist Stuart Piggott, who contributed the section on pottery to Curwen's account of the excavation, as Windmill Hill ware, with seven sherds showing some characteristics of Peterborough ware. These seven sherds were found associated with the other Neolithic pottery, so Piggott concluded that they represented a hybrid of the two pottery techniques. Above the Neolithic occupation layer some Bronze Age pottery sherds were found, some of which were characteristic of the Beaker culture.
Animal remains other than the roe deer included several ox-bones, many limb-bones having been split to extract the marrow. Some bones from sheep, goat, pigs, and dogs were also found. A review of the snail shells found in the ditches agreed with the 1929 analysis: conditions must have been much damper at the time of the occupation, with heavier rainfall and a higher water table. Other finds included two pendants of chalk, multiple flint tools and fragments, including a leaf-shaped flint arrowhead, and a piece of sarsen used to grind grain.
Curwen, 1935
In 1935, plans for a road to cross the site again required permission from the Inspector of Ancient Monuments, and arrangements were made for Curwen to lead another excavation. The proposed road cut the line of all four ditches twice, on both the north-west and south-east sides of the site. Curwen was assisted by some of Mortimer Wheeler's students, including Veronica Seton-Williams. Curwen also found two more small ditches further out than the fourth ditch, one of which he suggested corresponded to the tangent ditches on the sketch of the site drawn by John Skinner in 1821.
On the south-eastern half of the excavation, Curwen found some evidence of a possible palisade along the earthen ramparts inside the first and third ditches, in the form of postholes—three along the line of the innermost rampart, and two along the third ditch's rampart. Two skeletons were found on the north-western side of the site: one was a middle-aged man, found lying on the surface of the chalk, only a foot below the modern surface of the ground, between the two innermost ditches; the other was that of a child of about seven, found in a hole dug in the chalk near the third ditch. The Neolithic pottery sherds and the flint tools found were similar to those found during the previous season, and reviews of the animal remains and the snail shells came to the same conclusions as before: the bones were mostly of oxen, with some sheep, pig, goat, and deer, and the snail shells indicated that the climate must have been wetter during the Neolithic.
Russell, 1991
In early 1991, during the development of a new housing project to the south-west of the site, a planning office noticed a feature of archaeological interest as the site was being cleared. Brighton Borough Council engaged the Field Archaeology Unit of University College London (UCL) to run an archaeological rescue programme, supervised by Russell. The excavated area followed the length of a ditch, tangent to the fourth circuit, running north-west from the fourth circuit at about the point where the outer part of the 1932–1933 excavations took place. The ditch had been noted by both Williamson and Curwen in their pre-war investigations. Russell also cleared a strip of ground extending south from the ditch, along the path of one of the intended roads of the development. The ditch was found to end about 90 m from the point where it contacted the fourth circuit. It was continuous throughout the length excavated, though one section was left untouched for safety reasons as an access road used for the construction project ran across the ditch at that point. Over a thousand flints that showed signs of having been worked by humans were found, along with sixteen pottery sherds, two of which were of Neolithic date, the rest dating from the Roman occupation. Russell suggested that the ditch may have been originally dug during the Neolithic occupation of the site, and recut and extended later, and interpreted his results and the results of the pre-war excavations as evidence that the Neolithic construction of the site had occurred in two or three phases.
The molluscan fauna from the ditch indicated that when the ditch was built the site was open grassland, implying a later date for this ditch than the rest of the site. Two of Russell's bone finds from the ditch were later radiocarbon dated by the Gathering Time project, providing dates in the second millennium BC, in the Bronze Age.
Watching briefs and surveys, 1991–2010
Between 1991 and 2010 several construction-related activities around the site required archaeological monitoring to determine if any features or finds required further investigation. The first of these watching briefs was to assess six trenches that had been dug about 100 m north of the 1991 excavation. The only features of archaeological interest were a 19th-century bottle dump and some soil layers that might have come from a collapsed earth bank that was part of the fourth circuit of the main site. The later watching briefs found some worked flints, and in two cases exposed the Neolithic ditches but did not excavate the ditches far enough to find anything of interest.
Two surveys of the site were completed in 1993, by RCHME and by Geophysical Surveys Bradford, and a resistivity survey was performed by the Brighton & Hove Archaeological Society in 1996. In 2009 Thames Valley Archaeological Services evaluated the area to the east of the site, at Whitehawk Primary School, and also that year Archaeology South-East surveyed the site topography and reported on the condition of the site. Another resistivity survey and an evaluation of the site was undertaken in 2010, by Chris Butler Archaeological Services.
Gathering Time, 2011
Whitehawk Camp was one of the sites included in Gathering Time, a project to reanalyze the radiocarbon dates of nearly 40 causewayed enclosures, using Bayesian analysis. The results were published in 2011. Two radiocarbon dates on cattle femurs had been obtained in 1981, and these were included. The remaining samples were taken from finds from the earlier digs, though in many cases the animal bone samples had been lost—the roe deer skeleton found in 1929, for example, could not be located, though it had been initially put on display. Only one, poor quality, sample was available for the second circuit, and the third and fourth circuits were both recut in the Neolithic period and the dates obtained from them may only refer to the time of the recutting. The conclusion was that all four circuits were built some time between about 3650 BC and 3500 BC, the majority of the work perhaps occurring before 3600 BC; and that the site went out of use between 3500 and 3400 BC. It was also determined that there was a 95% chance the site was in use for 75–260 years, and a 64% chance that it was in use for between 155 and 230 years. Results from the south-western ditch, combined with the molluscan fauna data from the 1991 dig, implied the south-western tangent ditch was of much later date; the radiocarbon dates for two samples from that ditch were from the second millennium BC, in the Bronze Age.
Community Archaeology Project, 2014–2015
In 2014 the Heritage Lottery Fund provided a grant for a community archaeology project. The project ran from April 2014 to April 2015, and included excavation of ten trenches on the site, and a detailed re-evaluation of the finds from the previous digs. For 22 days in August 2014, volunteers participated in the excavations, each novice being paired with someone more experienced. Some Neolithic flints were found, but no other pre-medieval items. In addition to the dig, objects previously retrieved in the 1930s, which were not properly catalogued or protected, were photographed and repacked. A magnetometer survey found that the ditches had collected modern rubbish to the point that they could no longer be detected on the surface, but were still identifiable as "arcs of magnetic disturbance". Other activities included the development of an online digital game, Stone Age Quest, intended to teach children about Whitehawk Camp and the British Neolithic.
Preservation and presentation
Whitehawk Camp was listed as a scheduled monument in 1923, becoming the first in Sussex. The camp has featured in the local Brighton Museum & Art Gallery; a film installation about the site was shown in 2016, and, in 2018, the reconstructed face of the woman whose remains were found in the 1930s excavations was shown as part of a broader historical exhibition on the past inhabitants of Brighton.
See also
Explanatory notes
References
Sources
External links
Royal Pavilion & Museums Digital Media Bank: a collection of digital media including material relating to Whitehawk Camp, available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) licence.
Stone Age Quest: an online digital game developed to introduce children to Whitehawk Camp and to the Neolithic period.
Brighton and Hove
Archaeological sites in East Sussex
Causewayed enclosures
Neolithic England
Stone Age sites in England
Bronze Age sites in East Sussex
Scheduled monuments in East Sussex
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The Harvard Crimson baseball team is the varsity intercollegiate baseball team of Harvard University, located in Boston, Massachusetts. The program has been a member of the Ivy League since the conference officially began sponsoring baseball at the start of the 1993 season. The team plays at Joseph J. O'Donnell Field, located across the Charles River from Harvard's main campus. Bill Decker has been the program's head coach since the 2013 season.
The program has appeared in four College World Series and 14 NCAA Tournaments. It has won five Ivy League Championship Series, eight Rolfe Division titles, 15 EIBL regular season titles, and 12 Ivy League regular season titles. In 2019, the team won its first Ivy League title since 2005 when they defeated Columbia in the Ivy League Playoff Series.
As of the start of the 2014 Major League Baseball season, 12 former Crimson players have appeared in Major League Baseball.
History
19th century
Harvard College's first season of baseball came in 1865; the team went 6–0 that year. It played one intercollegiate game (against Williams) and five against semi-professional teams. Organized baseball at the college had begun a few years earlier, when "class nines" (the teams of each of Harvard College's four class years) were first fielded; the first of these was the '66 Baseball Club, formed in 1862 by members of that year's freshman class. Despite these early years of competition, 1865 was the school's first varsity intercollegiate season.
Along with rowing, baseball was popular at Harvard in the late 19th century. A newspaper review of the 1871 book Four Years at Yale says that the book includes "interesting accounts of the sports common in colleges, especially baseball and rowing, and the principal matches which have taken place between Harvard and Yale." An 1884 edition of the Washington Bee reprinted a Lowell Courier humor section piece that reads, "Sixty Harvard freshman have dropped their Latin, eighty their Greek and 100 their mathematics. None of them have dropped their baseball or their boating, however, and college culture is still safe."
In a game against a semi-professional team from Lynn on April 12, 1877, Harvard catcher Jim Tyng became the first baseball player to use a catcher's mask. The mask was invented by another student, Frederick Thayer, and manufactured by a Cambridge tinsmith. Tyng later became the first Harvard player to appear in Major League Baseball when he played in a September 23, 1879, game for the Boston Red Caps.
In the 1870s and 1880s, Harvard was a member of two loosely organized forerunners of the Ivy League. The Intercollegiate Base Ball Association, which it played in from 1879 to 1886, included Yale, Princeton, Dartmouth, Brown, and Amherst. The College Baseball League, which it played in from 1887 to 1889, featured Yale, Princeton, and Columbia.
The school continued to field a varsity baseball team through the end of the 19th century. It played both fall and spring regular season games in its early years, but moved to a spring-only schedule after the 1885–1886 season. The program's highest 19th-century win total was 34, a mark it reached in both 1870 (34–9–1) and 1892 (34–5). Through the end of the 1899 season, the program played without a head coach and was instead led by its captains.
Two important changes to the program occurred near the end of the 19th century– at the start of the 1898 season, Harvard began playing home games at Soldier's Field, and at the start of the 1900 season, it hired E. H. Nichols as its first head coach.
Pre-World War II
The program went .500 or better in 15 of the 17 seasons from 1900 to 1916. Its highest win total in that stretch, 23, came in 1915 under head coach Percy Haughton. Two head coaches served four-season tenures during the time period. L. P. Pieper coached from 1907 to 1910; the program's two losing records in this time period came under him. Frank Sexton also coached for four seasons (1911–1914); the program had a winning record in each.
In the early 20th century, Harvard held tryouts, usually in the spring, to select the members of the team from the student body. To start the regular season, the team often traveled to the Southern United States to play games in warm weather, a practice that began in 1898. Up until the start of World War I, its scheduled included professional and semi-professional teams, in addition to collegiate teams.
Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, then a member of the Boston Americans, served as the team's pitching coach for a brief time in 1902. Another future Hall of Famer, Willie Keeler of the Brooklyn Superbas, served alongside Young as the team's hitting coach.
William Clarence Matthews was Harvard's shortstop from 1902 to 1905. Matthews was black. A handful of black students graduated from Harvard around that time (its first black graduate, Richard Theodore Greener, was a member of the class of 1870), but Matthews one of only a few black players in major college athletics during an era in which baseball was divided by the color line. Harvard went 75–18 during Matthews's career. As a freshman, he scored the winning run in Harvard's 6–5 win in the decisive game of the Yale series; he also led the team in batting average as a sophomore, junior, and senior. Matthews faced racial discrimination while a member of the team. During his freshman season, he was held out of games against Navy and Virginia due to their objections to Harvard's fielding a black player. In 1903, the following year, Harvard canceled its annual southern trip when it faced similar objections. After Harvard, Matthews played one season of professional baseball and went on to a career in law. The trophy given to the Ivy League's baseball champion is named for Matthews. He was inducted into the College Baseball Hall of Fame in 2014.
The 1917 season was canceled because of World War I, but the program resumed play in 1918. Through the 1932 season, the program competed as an independent school. For the 1933 season, however, Harvard joined the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League (EIBL), which had been formed by several Ivy League schools for the start of the 1930 season.
Prior to the start of the 1929 season, Fred Mitchell was hired for his third stint as Harvard head baseball coach (he also led the program during the 1916 and 1926 seasons). Mitchell's third stint lasted from 1929 to 1938– Harvard's final four seasons as an independent and first six in the EIBL. Under Mitchell, Harvard won its first EIBL title; with an 8–4 league record in 1936, it tied Dartmouth for the championship. Mitchell resigned following the 1938 season and was replaced by Floyd Stahl. In Stahl's first season, Harvard won its second EIBL title, finishing with a 9–3 league record.
Because of World War II, Harvard competed as an independent in 1943 and 1946 and did not sponsor a team in 1944 or 1945.
Post-World War II
EIBL
Harvard rejoined the EIBL for the 1947 season. For the 1948 season, Brown joined the seven other Ivy League schools in the league; Army and Navy also joined, giving the league 10 members. In the immediate postwar years, under head coaches Adolph Samborski (1947–1948) and Stuffy McInnis (1949–1954), the program finished no higher than 4th in the EIBL.
Norman Shepard became the program's head coach for the start of the 1955 season. Under Shepard, Harvard won four EIBL titles (1955, 1958, 1964, 1968), going undefeated in league play in 1958 and 1964. In 1968, Shepard's final season, the team qualified for its first NCAA Tournament. In order for Harvard to play in the tournament, Shepard threatened to speed up his retirement if the NCAA did not reschedule the District 1 Regional to avoid a conflict with Harvard's final exams. His threat succeeded, and Harvard won the rescheduled District 1 Regional, defeating Boston University once and Connecticut twice to advance to the College World Series. There, it lost its opening game to St. John's, 2–0, and an elimination game to Southern Illinois, 2–1.
Loyal Park was hired as head coach prior to the start of the 1969 season. After finishing tied for 5th and tied for 2nd in the EIBL in his first two seasons, the program had its most successful four-year stretch from 1971 to 1974. Harvard won four consecutive EIBL titles and played in three College World Series. In 1971, Harvard won the EIBL outright and swept Massachusetts in a best-of-three District 1 Regional. In the College World Series, Harvard defeated BYU, 4–1, in its opening game, but was eliminated by consecutive one-run losses to Tulsa and Texas–Pan American. In 1972, Harvard tied Cornell for the EIBL title, but won a playoff to advance to that year's NCAA tournament. There, it advanced to the District 1 Regional finals, but lost to Connecticut, 11–2. In 1973, the program won the EIBL outright and went undefeated in the District 1 Regional to advance to the College World Series. There, it lost consecutive games to Southern California and Georgia Southern. In 1974, Harvard defeated Princeton in an EIBL tiebreaker playoff and won the District 1 Regional, but lost consecutive games to Miami and Northern Colorado at the 1974 College World Series. Park coached through the end of the 1978 season, in which Harvard won the EIBL and played in the NCAA tournament.
Alex Nahigian replaced Park and was the program's head coach from 1979 to 1990. Nahigian had been the head coach at Providence from 1960 to 1978. Under Nahigian, Harvard appeared in three NCAA tournaments (1980, 1983, 1984). In both 1980 and 1983, it advanced to the Northeast Regional final, but lost there to St. John's in 1980 and Maine in 1983. During Nahigian's 12-year tenure, Harvard's overall record was 249–152–3.
During the successful years under Shepard, Park, and Nahigian, many Crimson players distinguished themselves individually. The era from 1955–1990 saw 17 First-Team All-America selections and 31 Major League Baseball Draft selections. Paul del Rossi, a pitcher under Shepard from 1962 to 1964, set the EIBL/Ivy career record for wins, with 30. Future Major Leaguer Mike Stenhouse, who played for Park and Nahigian from 1977 to 1979, set single-season and career EIBL/Ivy batting average records, was twice named a First-Team All-American, and was a first-round draft pick of the Oakland Athletics in 1979. Another future Major Leaguer, Jeff Musselman, was the 1985 EIBL Pitcher of the Year.
Ivy League
During the tenure of Leigh Hogan (1991–1995), the EIBL folded, and the Ivy League began sponsoring baseball. Several northeast schools had formed the Patriot League in 1986, and the two non-Ivy members of the EIBL, Army and Navy, had joined the league in other sports– Army in 1990–1991 and Navy in 1991–1992. Both schools' baseball programs played their last seasons in the EIBL in 1992. Beginning with the 1993 season, the Ivy League sponsored baseball. Its eight teams competed in two four-team divisions: Harvard, Dartmouth, Yale, and Brown in the Rolfe Division, and Columbia, Cornell, Princeton, and Penn in the Gehrig Division. The division winners met in a best-of-three championship series to decide the conference's automatic bid to the NCAA tournament.
Hogan resigned following the 1995 season after coaching the program for its first three Ivy League seasons, and Suffolk head coach Joe Walsh was hired to replace him. Starting with Walsh, Harvard made its head baseball coaching position a full-time position.
In Walsh's first season, 1996, Harvard won the Rolfe Division, finishing three games ahead of second-place Yale, but was swept by Princeton in the best-of-three Ivy League Championship Series. Harvard then made three consecutive NCAA tournaments, after last having qualified in 1984. It defeated Princeton in the championship series in each season. As the sixth seed in the 1997 NCAA tournament, it placed third in the six-team, double-elimination Midwest Regional. After defeating first-seeded UCLA, 7–2, and fourth-seeded Stetson, 8–6, to open the regional, it lost consecutive games to host Oklahoma State and UCLA and was eliminated. As the fifth seed in the 1998 NCAA tournament, it again finished third in its regional. After losing its opening game to second-seeded Cal State Fullerton, it won elimination games against Nicholls State and Tulane before being eliminated by Fullerton. In the 1999 tournament, the first year of four-team regionals, Harvard lost consecutive games to Pepperdine and VCU.
Harvard won four more Rolfe Division titles in the early 2000s, thus appearing in four Ivy League Championship Series (2002, 2003, 2005, 2006). It won the 2002 series (over Princeton) and 2005 series (over Cornell) to advance to two NCAA tournaments. It went 0–2 in both. In the late 2000s and early 2010s, the program struggled, winning no Rolfe Division titles and finishing last in the division in 2008, 2011, and 2014.
On July 31, 2012, Walsh died of a heart attack in his Chester, New Hampshire home. He was 58 years old and had coached the program for 17 seasons, appearing in five NCAA tournaments. Beginning in 2014, the NEIBA All-Star Game was named for Walsh. In September 2012, the school hired Bill Decker to replace Walsh. Decker came from Division III Trinity (CT), where he had been the head coach for 22 seasons and won the 2008 National Championship.
Prior to the 2013 season, several players were implicated in an academic cheating scandal and were forced to withdraw from Harvard. The 2013 team's record was 10–31 (7–13 Ivy); it finished third in the Rolfe Division.
Conference affiliations
Independent (1865–1916, 1918–1932, 1943, 1946)
Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League (1933–1942, 1947–1992)
Ivy League (1993–present)
Venues
Early venues
In its first few decades, the team played at several venues around Cambridge and Boston. Besides occasionally using sites on Cambridge Common or Boston Common, the school had regular venues on campus. It spent its first two seasons (1865–1866) playing at the Delta, where Memorial Hall currently stands. From 1867 to 1883, the team's main venue was Jarvis Field, which Harvard also used for football at the time. From 1884 to 1897, the baseball team used Holmes Field, which also doubled as one of Harvard's early football venues.
Soldier's Field / Joseph J. O'Donnell Field
In 1890, Major Henry Lee Higginson donated a parcel of land on the Allston-Brighton side of the Charles River for Harvard's use. Higginson dedicated the site Soldier's Field, for six of his friends who had died fighting in the Civil War. For the start of the 1898 season, the baseball program moved to the site and shared the venue with the football and track and field teams. The venue's first game came on April 27, 1898. Harvard defeated Dartmouth, 13–7.
On May 4, 1997, the stadium was rededicated for Joseph J. O'Donnell, a Harvard alumnus, donor, and former baseball and football player. The venue has a capacity of 1,600 spectators.
Head coaches
From the program's inception at the start of the 1865 season through the end of the 1899 season, the program did not have a head coach and was instead led by its captains. In the 1900 season, E. H. Nichols became the program's first head coach. Frank Sexton, who held the position from 1911–1914, was the team's first professional coach. The position became a full-time position beginning with the 1996 season, thanks to a $2.5 million endowment from program alumnus Joseph O'Donnell.
In the early years of the position, men commonly held it for only one season. (Prior to the 1930s, the position was held for a single season 11 times.) Since then, however, five men have coached the team for at least a decade: Fred Mitchell, Norman Shepard, Loyal Park, Alex Nahigian, and Joe Walsh. Walsh, who was the program's head coach for 17 seasons (1996–2012), served the longest tenure of any coach in program history and is also its wins leader, with 347.
Current coaching staff
Harvard's coaching staff for the 2019 Season consisted of head coach Bill Decker and assistant coaches Bryan Stark, Brady Kirkpatrick, Kyle Decker and Morgan Brown.
Bill Decker
Bill Decker has been the program's head coach since the start of the 2013 season. A 1984 graduate of Ithaca College, Decker's coaching career began with assistant positions at Division III schools Wesleyan (CT) and Macalester. After these, he was named the head coach at Trinity (CT) for the start of the 1991 season. Decker spent 22 seasons at Trinity, compiling a 529–231 record. He was named New England Coach of the Year and NESCAC Coach of the Year four times each. Under him, Trinity appeared in nine NCAA Tournaments and won five NESCAC Tournament titles. In the 2008 season, the team nearly went undefeated, in the end finishing at 45–1 and winning the Division III National Championship.
Assistant coaches
Bryan Stark joined the Harvard baseball team as an assistant coach in the fall of 2014 after two seasons at Navy in the same capacity. Stark was promoted to Associate Head Coach in the summer of 2019. In 2019, Stark was a member of the staff that coached the Crimson to its first Ivy League title and NCAA appearance since 2005. Seven members of the team earned Ivy League honors, including Jake Suddelson, who was named Ivy League Player of the Year. Stark and the Harvard staff were instrumental in helping two of its players, Patrick McColl and Hunter Bigge, become MLB draft selections. In his fourth season with the Crimson, Stark accompanied a successful Harvard team to a Beanpot Championship title—its first since 2014 and fifth in program history — and its most wins since 2005 with a 22–20 overall record. Harvard tied for third in the conference with a record of 12–9, with contribution from seven All-Ivy players and four NEIBA All-New England selections. In 2018, Stark was a part of the coaching staff that helped Noah Zavolas and Simon Rosenblum-Larson become 2018 MLB Draft picks for the Seattle Mariners and Tampa Bay Rays, respectively. In addition, the team was recognized for the NCAA Academic Progress Rate Public Recognition Award, with 21 players recognized by the ECAC for academic accomplishments. In 2016, Stark helped Harvard to their most successful season since 2010, going 17–24 overall, and 9–11 in Ivy League play. Under his mentorship, John Fallon and Matt Rothenberg emerged as dangerous threats in the Harvard lineup. In his first season at Harvard, he played a key role in helping the team to an 18–24 record in the 2015 season, giving the program its most wins since 2007.
Brady Kirkpatrick was added to the Harvard baseball staff in July 2018. Kirkpatrick will primarily work with the pitching staff and comes to Cambridge after a two-year stint at Monmouth University, with prior coaching and recruiting experience at the University of Rochester and the University of San Diego. In his first season with the Crimson, Kirkpatrick helped guide the team to its first Ivy League Championship and NCAA Tournament appearance since 2005. Kirkpatrick served as the team's pitching coach, helping the team to 27 victories, the most since 2005. One of his players, Hunter Bigge, earned All-Ivy League honors after holding opponents to a .254 average and striking out 76 batters in 74.2 innings pitched. After the season, Bigge was selected by the Chicago Cubs in the 12th round of the MLB Draft. Kirkpatrick was also instrumental in helping Kieran Shaw break the Crimson saves record in 2019. Shaw totaled 13 saves, most in the Ivy League and tied for 11th in the NCAA. While at Monmouth, Kirkpatrick helped lead the Hawks to a MAAC regular season title in 2018 and coached Dan Klepchick to MAAC Rookie of the Year as well as a Collegiate Baseball News Freshman All-America recognition. Prior to his coaching career, Kirkpatrick pitched collegiately for three seasons at the University of Maryland before completing his career at the University of San Diego while obtaining his master's degree. With the Terrapins, Kirkpatrick started 11 games as a junior and held opponents to a .256 batting average, third on the team, after pitching to a 3.04 ERA as a sophomore. In total, he tossed 169 innings as a Terp, striking out 122. He was part of the 2014 South Carolina Regional championship team as well as the first Super Regional Team in Maryland history. He spent the summer of 2012 pitching for the Brewster Whitecaps in the Cape Cod Summer League, throwing to a 3.51 ERA.
Yearly records
The following is a table of the program's yearly records. From its inception at the start of the 1865 season through the end of the 1899 season, the teams had no head coaches and were instead led by captains. The university did not sponsor a program in 1917, because of World War I, or from 1944–1945, because of World War II.
Notable former players
The following is a list of notable former Crimson players and the seasons in which they played for the program, where available.
John Chase (1926–28)
Walter Clarkson (1898–1903)
Jocko Conlon (1922)
Charlie Devens (1930, 1932)
David Forst (1994–98)
Erwin Gehrke
Brent Suter
Tanner Anderson
Shawn Haviland
Percy Haughton (1899)
Frank Herrmann (2003–05)
Michael Hill (1990–93)
Robert Kernan
Tony Lupien (1937–39)
Eddie Mahan (1914–16)
Saul Mariaschin
William Clarence Matthews (1902–05)
Robert McKay (1911)
Jeff Musselman (1982–85)
George Owen (1923)
Ray Peters (1967–68)
Kevin Reilly (1949)
Jack Robinson (1899–1902)
Mike Stenhouse (1977–79)
Jim Tyng (1873–79)
Pete Varney (1968–71)
Barrett Wendell (1902)
Rick Wolff (1970–72)
Major League Baseball Draft
2008
In 2008, Shawn Haviland was selected in the 33rd round of the 2008 Major League Baseball draft by the Oakland Athletics. In 2006, Haviland was named Ivy League Pitcher of the Year. In 2005, Haviland helped Harvard win the Ivy League Baseball Championship Series, qualifying the team for the 2005 NCAA Division I Baseball Tournament.
2011
One Crimson player was selected in the 2011 Major League Baseball Draft. P Max Perlman was selected by the Oakland Athletics in the 35th round and chose to sign a professional contract.
2012
Three players were selected in the 2012 Major League Baseball Draft: P Brent Suter by the Milwaukee Brewers (31st round), P Andrew Ferreira by the Minnesota Twins (32nd round), and 3B Jeff Reynolds by the New York Mets (38th round). All three players elected to sign professional contracts with their respective clubs.
Rivalry with Yale
History
Harvard's baseball program has a long history in the school's well-known rivalry with Yale University. Overall, Harvard has a 194–178–1 record against Yale, whom they have played more than any other team.
The two schools' first athletic competition was a crew race in 1852– the United States' first intercollegiate athletic competition. Harvard first played Yale's baseball program on July 25, 1868. The Crimson won, 25–17, and went on to win the teams' first eight meetings. Yale won five of the next seven, including a 5–0 win in 1877 in which pitcher Charles Carter threw what later became known as a perfect game.
The two teams have played in nearly every season since, with a few exceptions. In 1891, Yale refused on account of Harvard's refusal to play Princeton in 1890 and 1891. The rivalry also was not played in 1917, 1944, or 1945, when Harvard did not sponsor a team due to the World Wars.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, baseball games between Harvard and Yale attracted much attention. At the end of each season, the teams played two games, one each in Cambridge and New Haven; if the teams split these games, a third was scheduled to decide that year's champion. In 1913, for example, when Yale won 2–0 in New Haven and Harvard won 4–3 in Cambridge, a third game was scheduled at Ebbets Field, the home field of Major League Baseball's Brooklyn Dodgers; Harvard won, 6–5. The games regularly drew crowds of over 10,000. The 1913 championship game at Ebbets saw an attendance mark of 15,000; a June 23, 1908, game (which Harvard lost 3–0) was attended by 14,000 spectators, including Secretary of War William Howard Taft, a Yale alumnus who had unofficially been named the Republican nominee for president only days earlier.
The two teams became conference rivals in the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League after Harvard joined for the 1933 season. Both teams were competitive in the league– Harvard won 21 titles, while Yale won 10. The teams finished 1–2 in the league standings five times (1937, 1947, 1955, 1980, and 1984). In 1980, the two teams met in the EIBL tiebreaker with an NCAA Tournament bid at stake; Harvard swept Yale in two games, 11–3 and 6–2, to advance.
Since the two teams began competing in the Rolfe Division in 1993, the teams have finished 1–2 in the division standings four times. In those four seasons, Yale won the division once (in 1993), while Harvard won it the other three times (1996, 1997, and 1998).
Format
The format of the team's yearly meetings has changed frequently. From 1868–1871, the teams played only a single game. The home-and-home format popular for much of the rivalry's early history was adopted in 1872, and the tiebreaker game was played, as necessary, starting in 1877. The home-and-home format was stretched to four games during several seasons in the late-19th century, with a fifth, tie-breaking game played on multiple occasions. When Harvard joined the EIBL for the 1933 season, the tiebreaker format was scrapped. From 1935–1940, the teams instead played a regularly scheduled third game in New London, Connecticut on the same day as the Harvard–Yale Regatta. The rivalry's schedule became irregular during the years of World War II. Following the war, formats varied until the schools began playing a regular three-game series in 1954. The rivalry consisted of three-game series from 1954–1960, two-game series from 1961–1966, and a mix of single games and doubleheaders from 1967–1980. In the last years of the EIBL (1981–1992), the two teams played one doubleheader each season, alternating home teams between seasons. Since the Ivy League began sponsoring baseball in 1993, Harvard and Yale have played a yearly four-game series, held entirely at one school, as part of Rolfe Division play.
Popular culture
"Call Me Maybe" video
During the 2012 season, the program received attention from national media outlets for a Youtube video in which members of the team dubbed the Carly Rae Jepsen song "Call Me Maybe." The video, filmed during a van ride to a road game, was viewed 2 million times in the five days after its release and led to many imitations by other sports teams. The video was choreographed and directed by senior pitcher Connor Hulse. Eight players appeared in the video: in the front row, from left to right, senior catcher Jon Smart and junior pitcher Joey Novak; in the middle row, sophomore pitcher Andrew Ferreira, senior first baseman/pitcher Marcus Way, and junior second baseman Kyle Larrow; in the back row, sophomore outfielder Jack Colton (who was asleep), senior infielder/catcher Jeff Reynolds, sophomore catcher/first baseman Steve Dill and cameraman Connor Hulse.
The Little Book
In the 2008 Selden Edwards novel The Little Book, protagonist Wheeler Burden plays baseball for Harvard in the early 1960s.
See also
List of NCAA Division I baseball programs
Notes
References
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Over the centuries of Islamic history, Muslim rulers, Islamic scholars, and ordinary Muslims have held many different attitudes towards other religions. Attitudes have varied according to time, place and circumstance.
Non-Muslims and Islam
The Qur'an distinguishes between the monotheistic People of the Book (ahl al-kitab), i.e. Jews, Christians, Sabians and others on the one hand and polytheists or idolaters on the other hand'. There are certain kinds of restrictions that apply to polytheists but not to "People of the Book" in classical Islamic law. One example is that Muslim males are allowed to marry a Christian or Jew, but not a polytheist. Muslim women, however, may not marry non-Muslim men.
The Quran told Muslims to discuss the common points between Muslims and non- Muslims. It directs Muslims not to fight with people of the Book.
.
The idea of Islamic infallibility is encapsulated in the formula, "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."
Abraham, Moses, Hebrew prophets, and Jesus were all prophets of Islam, but according to Muslim tradition their message and the texts of the Torah and the Gospels were corrupted.
And dispute not with the People of the Book, except with means better than mere disputation, unless I be with those of them who inflict wrong and injury, but say to them: "We believe in the revelation which has come down to us and in that which came down to you; Our God and your God is one; and it is to Him that we bow.
Apostasy in Islam can be punishable by death and/or imprisonment according to some interpretations but they are only found in hadiths and there is nothing in the Quran that commands death penalty for apostate so the issue of apostasy is controversial. W. Heffening states that Shafi'is interpret verse as adducing the main evidence for the death penalty in Qur'an. Wael Hallaq states the death penalty was a new element added later and "reflects a later reality and does not stand in accord with the deeds of the Prophet." He further states that "nothing in the law governing apostate and apostasy derives from the letter of the holy text." There are also interpretations according to which apostates aren't executed nor punished, and there is freedom of religion.
In the 7th century text Concerning Heresy, the Christian scholar Saint John of Damascus named Islam as Christological heresy, referring to it as the "heresy of the Ishmaelites". The position has remained popular in Christian circles well into the 20th century, by theologians such as the Congregationalist cleric Frank Hugh Foster and the Roman Catholic historian Hilaire Belloc, the latter of who described it as "the great and enduring heresy of Mohammed."
Early Muslim practice
During the thirteen years that Muhammad led his followers against the Mecca and then against the other Arab tribes, Christian and Jewish communities who had submitted to Muslim rule were allowed to worship in their own way and follow their own family law, and were given a degree of self-government.
However, the non-Muslim dhimmis were subject to taxation jizyah at a different rate of the Muslim zakat. Dhimmis also faced economic impediments, restrictions on political participation and/or social advancement based on their non-Muslim status.
Some Jews generally rejected Muhammad's status as a prophet. According to Watt, "Jews would normally be unwilling to admit that a non-Jew could be a prophet." In the Constitution of Medina, Muhammad demanded the Jews' political loyalty in return for religious and cultural autonomy. In every major battle with the Medinans, two local Jewish tribes were found to be treacherous (see ). After Badr and Uhud, the Banu Qainuqa and Banu Nadir (the latter being an ethnic Arab tribe who converted to Judaism, according to the Muslim historian al-Yaqubi), respectively, took up arms against the ummah and were subsequently expelled "with their families and possessions" from Medina.
However, this incident does not imply that Jews in general rejected Muhammad's constitution. One Yemenite Jewish document, found in the Cairo Genizah, claims that many Jews had not only accepted Muhammad as a prophet, but even desecrated Sabbath in order to join Muhammad in his struggle; historians suggest that this document, called Dhimmat an-nabi Muhammad (Muhammad's Writ of Protection), may have been fabricated by Yemenite Jews for the purpose of self-defence. Still, some Yemeni Jews considered Muhammad a true prophet, including Natan'el al-Fayyumi, a major 12th century rabbi who incorporated various Shia doctrines into his view of Judaism.
The Syriac Patriarch Ishôyahb III wrote in his correspondence to Simeon of Rewardashir, "As for the Arabs, to whom God has at this time given rule (shultãnâ) over the world, you know well how they act toward us. Not only do they not oppose Christianity, but they praise our faith, honour the priests and saints of our Lord, and give aid to the churches and monasteries."
After Muhammad's death in 632, Islamic rule grew rapidly, encompassing what is now the Middle East, Egypt, North Africa, and Iran. Most of the new subjects were Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian, the first two being considered People of the Book. (After some argument, the Zoroastrians were considered People of the Book as well.) Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians were called dhimmi, protected persons. As noted above, they could worship, follow their own family law, and own property. People of the Book were not subject to certain Islamic rules, such as the prohibitions on alcohol and pork, but were subject to other restrictions. Under the Islamic state, they were exempt from military service, but were required to pay a poll tax known as jizya. (They were, however, exempt from the zakat required of Muslims.) They could be bureaucrats and advisors, but they could never be rulers.
Later Islamic practices
Under the Ummayads and Abbasids, the Islamic community was increasingly fragmented into various sects and kingdoms, each of which had its own evolving policy towards dhimmi and towards conquered polytheists.
Later Islamic conquests
From historical evidence, it appears Tokharistan was the only area of Iran heavily colonized by Arabs, where Buddhism flourished when they arrived and the only area incorporated into the Arab empire where Sanskrit studies were pursued up to the conquest. The grandson of Barmak was the vizier of the empire and took personal interest in Sanskrit works and Indian religions. When the Barmakids were removed from power and their influence disappeared, no further translations of Sanskrit works into Arabic is known until that of Al-Biruni.
With the Ghaznavids and later the Mughals, Islam also expanded further into northern India. Will Durant, in The Story of Civilization, described this as "probably the bloodiest story in history." This approach was not uniform, and different rulers adopted different strategies. The Mughal emperor Akbar, for example, was relatively tolerant towards Hindus, while his great-grandson Aurangzeb was heavily intolerant. Hindus were ultimately given the tolerated religious minority status of dhimmi.
The Buddhists of India were not as fortunate; although Buddhism had been in decline prior to the Muslim invasions, the destruction of monastic universities in the invasions such as Nalanda and Vikramashila were a calamity from which it never recovered. According to one Buddhist scholar, the monasteries were destroyed because they were large, fortified edifices considered threats by Muslim Turk invaders.
The Almohad rulers of Muslim Spain were initially intolerant, and engaged in forced conversions ; Maimonides, for example, was forced to masquerade as a Muslim and eventually flee Spain after the initial Almohad conquest.
Comparative religion and anthropology of religion
After the Arab conquest of the Buddhist center of Balkh, a Quranic commentator was denounced for anthropomorphism, a standard attack on those sympathetic to Buddhism. Hiwi al-Balkhi had attacked the authority of Quran and revealed religions, reciting the claims of Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Judaism.
In the early 11th century, the Islamic scholar Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of religions across the Middle East, Mediterranean and especially the Indian subcontinent. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations. He carried out extensive, personal investigations of the peoples, customs, and religions of the Indian subcontinent, and was a pioneer in comparative religion and the anthropology of religion.
According to Arthur Jeffery, "It is rare until modern times to find so fair and unprejudiced a statement of the views of other religions, so earnest an attempt to study them in the best sources, and such care to find a method which for this branch of study would be both rigorous and just." Biruni compared Islam with pre-Islamic religions, and was willing to accept certain elements of pre-Islamic wisdom which would conform with his understanding of the Islamic spirit.
In the introduction to his Indica, Biruni himself writes that his intent behind the work was to engage dialogue between Islam and the Indian religions, particularly Hinduism as well as Buddhism. Biruni was aware that statements about a religion would be open to criticism by its adherents, and insisted that a scholar should follow the requirements of a strictly scientific method. According to William Montgomery Watt, Biruni "is admirably objective and unprejudiced in his presentation of facts" but "selects facts in such a way that he makes a strong case for holding that there is a certain unity in the religious experience of the peoples he considers, even though he does not appear to formulate this view explicitly." Biruni argued that Hinduism was a monotheistic faith like Islam, and in order to justify this assertion, he quotes Hindu texts and argues that the worship of idols is "exclusively a characteristic of the common people, with which the educated have nothing to do."
Biruni argued that the worship of idols "is due to a kind of confusion or corruption." According to Watt, Biruni "goes on to maintain that in the course of generations the origin of the veneration of the images is forgotten, and further that the ancient legislators, seeing that the Veneration of images is advantageous, made it obligatory for the ordinary. He mentions the view of some people that, before God sent prophets, all mankind were idol-worshippers, but he apparently does not presumably held that, apart from the messages transmitted by prophets, men could know the existence and unity of God by rational methods of philosophy." Biruni argued that "the Hindus, no less than the Greeks, have philosophers who are believers in monotheism." Al-Biruni also compared Islam and Christianity, citing passages from the Qur'an and Bible which state that their followers should always speak the truth.
Contemporary Islam
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, most Islamic states fell under the sway of European colonialists. The colonialists enforced tolerance, especially of European Christian missionaries. After World War II, there was a general retreat from colonialism, and predominantly Muslim countries were again able to set their own policies regarding non-Muslims. This period also saw the beginning of increased migration from Muslim countries into the First World countries of Europe, the UK, Canada, the US, etc. This has completely reshaped relations between Islam and other religions.
In predominantly Muslim countries
Some predominantly Muslim countries allow the practice of all religions. Of these, some limit this freedom with bans on proselytizing or conversion, or restrictions on the building of places of worship; others (such as Mali) have no such restrictions. In practice, the situation of non-Muslim minorities depends not only on the law, but on local practices, which may vary.
Some countries are predominantly Muslim and allow freedom of religion adhering to democratic principles. Of particular note are the following countries:
Indonesia and Malaysia have a significant population from the Hindu, Christian and Buddhist religions. They are allowed to practice their religions , build places of worship and even have missionary schools and organizations but with limitation of such practice.
In Syria, there are about 2.2 million Christians (10-12% of the population) from about 15 different religious and ethnic sects (Greek Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, Church of the East, Protestants, Armenians Apostolic and various Catholics, Greek, Syrian, Aremenian, Chaldean, Maronite, Latin), as well as a few dozen Jews, and they have many hundreds of independent privately owned churches and some 15 synagogues. The freedom of religion is well observed by the state law as well as the historical long record of tolerance since the Ummayde caliph days. Christmas and Easter days are official holidays for both the Catholic or Orthodox calendar.
Pakistan has different electorates for Muslims and non-Muslims, and also two chief justices of Supreme Court of Pakistan were Hindu and Christian after the formation of the country.
Other Islamic nations are not so tolerant of minority religions :
Saudi Arabia limits religious freedom to a high degree, prohibiting public worship by other religions.
The now-overthrown Taliban regime in Afghanistan was considered intolerant by many observers. Some ancient Buddhist monuments, like the Buddhas of Bamyan, were destroyed as idolatrous.
The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism as People of the Book and official religions, and they are granted the right to exercise religious freedom in Iran. Five of the 270 seats in parliament are reserved for these three religions. However, the situation of the followers of the Baháʼí Faith, the largest religious minority in the country, is far worse. State sanctioned persecution of Baháʼís allows them to be attacked and dehumanized on political, religious, and social grounds to separate Baháʼís from the rest of society. According to Eliz Sanasarian "Of all non-Muslim religious minorities the persecution of the Baháʼís has been the most widespread, systematic, and uninterrupted." See Religion in Iran and Persecution of Baháʼís. Also, senior government posts are reserved for Muslims. All minority religious groups, are barred from being elected president. Jewish, Christian and Zoroastrian schools must be run by Muslim principals. Compensation for death paid to the family of a non-Muslim was (by law) less than if the victim was a Muslim. Conversion to Islam is encouraged by entitling converts to inherit the entire share of their parents (or even uncle's) estate if their siblings (or cousins) remain non-Muslim. Iran's non-Muslim population has fallen dramatically. For example, the Jewish population in Iran dropped from 80,000 to 30,000 in the first two decades of the revolution.
In Egypt, a 16 December 2006 judgement of the Supreme Administrative Council created a clear demarcation between "recognized religions"—Islam, Christianity and Judaism—and all other religious beliefs; the ruling effectively delegitimatizes and forbids the practice of all but these aforementioned religions. The ruling leaves members of other religious communities, including Baháʼís, without the ability to obtain the necessary government documents to have rights in their country, essentially denying them of all rights of citizenship. They cannot obtain ID cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, and passports; they also cannot be employed, educated, treated in public hospitals or vote among other things. See Egyptian identification card controversy.
According to Islamic law, jizya (poll tax) is to be paid by all non-Muslims, excluding the weak and the poor, living in a Muslim state, to the general welfare of the state. Also, in his book "Al-Kharaj," Abu Yusuf says, "No Jizya is due on females or young infants." In exchange for the tax, the non-Muslims are required to be given security, provided compensation from the Muslim Exchequer when they are in need, treated on equality with Muslims, and enjoy rights as nationals of the state. Al-Balathiri comments on this saying, "Khaled Ibn Al-Walid, on entering Damascus as a conqueror, offered a guarantee of security to its people and their properties and churches, and promised that the wall of the city would not be pulled down, and none of their houses be demolished. It was a guarantee of God, he said, and of the Caliph and all believers to keep them safe and secure on condition they paid the dues of the Jizya." This poll tax is different from the alms tax (Zakah) paid by the Muslim subjects of a Muslim state. Whereas jizya is compulsory and paid by the tolerated community per head count, zakat was paid only if one can afford it. Muslims and non-Muslims who hold property, especially land, were required however to pay Kharaj.
Territorial disputes
One of the open issues in the relation between Islamic states and non-Islamic states is the claim from hardline Muslims that once a certain land, state or territory has been under "Muslim" rule, it can never be relinquished anymore, and that such rule, somewhere in history would give the Muslims a kind of an eternal right on the claimed territory. This claim is particularly controversial with regard to Israel and to a lesser degree Spain and parts of the Balkan and it applies to parts of Kashmir as well.
Islamic views on religious pluralism
Reference to Islamic views on religious pluralism is found in the Quran. The following verses are generally interpreted as an evidence of religious pluralism:
Surah Al-Ma'idah verse 48 states:
Surah Al-Ankabut verse 46 states:
And do not argue with the People of the Scripture except in a way that is best, except for those who commit injustice among them, and say, "We believe in that which has been revealed to us and revealed to you. And our God and your God is one; and we are Muslims [in submission] to Him."
The Quran criticizes Christians and Jews who believed that their own religions are the only source of truth.
Surah Al-Baqara verse 113 states:
Many Muslims agree that cooperation with the Christian and Jewish community is important but some Muslims believe that theological debate is often unnecessary:
Islam's fundamental theological concept is the belief in one God. Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Any kind of idolatry is condemned in Islam. () As a result, Muslims hold that for someone to worship any other gods or deities other than Allah (Shirk (polytheism)) is a sin that will lead to separation from Allah.
Muslims believe that Allah sent the Qur'an to bring peace and harmony to humanity through Islam (submission to Allah). Muhammad's worldwide mission was to establish universal peace under the Khilafat.
The Khilafat ensured security of the lives and property of non-Muslims under the dhimmi system.
This status was originally only made available to non-Muslims who were "People of the Book" (Christians, Jews, and Sabians (commonly identified with the Mandaeans)), but was later extended to include Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Hindus, and Buddhists.
Dhimmi had more rights than other non-Muslim religious subjects, but often fewer legal and social rights than Muslims. Some Muslims, however, disagree, and hold that adherents of these faiths cannot be dhimmi.
Dhimmi enjoyed some freedoms under the state founded by Muhammad and could practice their religious rituals according to their faith and beliefs.
Non-Muslims who were not classified as "people of the book," for example practitioners of the pre-Muslim indigenous Arabian religions, had few or no rights in Muslim society.
Muslims and Muslim theologians attend at many interfaith dialogues, for example at the Parliament of the World's Religions with whom in 1993 also Muslim theologians signed the Declaration Toward a Global Ethic.
Religious persecution is also prohibited, although religious persecution in Muslim majority states has occurred, especially during periods of cruel rulers and general economic hardships. Pre-Islamic religious minorities continue to exist in some of their native countries, although only as marginal percentages of the overall population.
Over the centuries, several known religious debates, and polemical works did exist in various Muslim countries between various Muslim sects, as well as between Muslims and non-Muslims. Many of these works survive today, and make for some very interesting reading in the apologetics genre. Only when such debates spilled over to the unlearned masses, and thus causing scandals and civil strife, did rulers intervene to restore order and pacify the public outcry on the perceived attack on their beliefs.
As for sects within Islam, history shows a variable pattern. Various sects became intolerant when gaining favour with the rulers, and often work to oppress or eliminate rival sects, for example, the contemporary persecution of Muslim minorities in Saudi Arabia. Sectarian strife between Shia and Sunni inhabitants of Baghdad is well known through history.
Views on forms of worship in other religions
The 14th century Sufi saint Abd al-Karim al-Jili stated, all religions could be summed up to principle religions and actually worship Allah in their own way:
The Infidels; they disbelieve in a lord, because they worship the essence of God which reflects there is no lord over Him.
The Physicists; worshipping the natural properties, which are actually attributes of God.
The Philosophers; worshipping the seven planets, which represents further names of God.
The Dualists; worshipping God as the Creator and the One.
The Magians; worship God in the names of Unity in which all names and attributes past just as fire destroys and transmutes them in their nature.
The Materialists; denying a creator and instead believe in the eternity of Time. Thus they just believe in his He-ness, in which God is just potentially but not actually creative.
The Jews.
The Sabians (Mandaeans).
The Christians.
The Muslims.
Although there are different ways to worship God, those who do not worship like it was ordinated by a prophet will suffer in the afterlife. This suffering causes pleasure, because they feel spiritual delight in the way of their worship until they repent and take refuge in God.
The Sunni scholar and mystic Mahmoud Shabestari holds that every religion is kind of worshipping Allah. Even idol-worshippers actually would unconsciously worship Him, but they do not recognise, that in reality, there is no other entity than Allah to worship, thus unnecessarily limiting Him.
Forced conversion
Many Muslim scholars believe that Quranic verses such as "Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error" () and () show that Islam prohibits forced conversion towards people of any religion.
The meaning of verse 9:5 has however been a subject of discussion amongst other scholars of Islam as well (see At-Tawba 5). This Surah was revealed in the historical context of a broken treaty between Muslims and a group of idolaters during the time of Muhammed. Regarding this verse, Quranic translator M. A. S. Abdel Haleem writes: "In this context, this definitely refers to the ones who broke the treaty," rather than polytheists generally. In addition, according to Sahih Al-Bukhari although clear orders were given to kill everyone who broke the treaty, Muhammed made a second treaty before entering Mecca and spared even Amar who was responsible for his daughter Rukayya's death and the person who killed his Uncle Hamza.
According to historian Bernard Lewis, forced conversions played a role especially in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and Andalusia. He is however also of the opinion that other incidents of forced conversions have been rare in Islamic history. He adds that "In the early centuries of Islamic rule there was little or no attempt at forcible conversion, the spread of the faith being effected rather by persuasion and inducement." A few well-known examples of forced conversion are:
Anusim of Meshhad, Jewish community forced on pain of death to convert in 1839 under Safawid rule. Most continued Jewish practices in secret and many of their descendants returned to Judaism in the early 20th century.
Francis Bok—Sudanese-American activist, from Christianity; later returned to his Christian faith.
Steve Centanni and Olaf Wiig—forced to convert at gunpoint by terrorists of the Holy Jihad Brigades.
Sabbatai Zevi—convert from Judaism, 17th century mystic, pseudo-Messiah and the self-proclaimed "King of Jews." Converted ostensibly of his own free will, while in prison. Although, some speculate that he may have been executed for treason had he not converted. Muslim authorities were opposed to his death.
See also
Criticism of Islam
Persecution of Buddhists by Muslims
Islam and Judaism
Christianity and Islam
Mormonism and Islam
Hinduism and Islam
Jainism and Islam
Islam and Sikhism
Islam and antisemitism
Persecution of Shia Muslims
Unilateral
Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques
Islamic Missionary Activity
Divisions of the world in Islam
Religious intolerance
Notes
References
External links
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Russian Armenia is the period of Armenian history under Russian rule from 1828, when Eastern Armenia became part of the Russian Empire following Qajar Iran's loss in the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828) and the subsequent ceding of its territories that included Eastern Armenia per the out coming Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828.
Eastern Armenia remained part of the Russian Empire until its collapse in 1917.
Background
For hundreds of years, the inhabitants of Eastern Armenia lived under the rule of successive Iranian empires. Starting from the early 16th century, up to 1828, Eastern Armenia was ruled by the Iranian Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties. Subsequent wars between the Ottoman and Safavid empires led to the destruction of many of the Armenian towns, and made Armenian life difficult. Added to this, the Christian Armenians were dhimmi subjects (forming a millet) under Muslim rulers, whether Ottomans or Persians.
In 1678, the Armenian leadership secretly conducted a congress in Echmiadzin, and decided that Armenia had to be liberated from foreign domination. At this stage, the Armenians were unable to fight against two empires at once, so they searched for help from abroad. Israel Ori, an Armenian native of Karabagh, son of an Armenian melik or prince, searched for help in many of the European capitals. Israel Ori died in 1711, without seeing the Armenian Dream realized. In 1722, the Tsar of Russia, Peter the Great, declared war against the Safavid Iranians, who were at that time in heavy decline. Georgians and Karabagh's Armenians helped the Russians by rebelling against Safavid rule. David Bek commanded the rebellion for six years, until he died on the battlefield.
The Russian annexation and Persia's ceding
A turning-point came in 1801 when the Russians annexed the Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, giving them a foothold in Transcaucasia. Over the next three decades, Russia sought to further expand its territory in the Caucasus at the expense of Ottoman Turkey and Qajar Iran. The Russian campaigns found enthusiastic support amongst the Armenians, led by the Bishop of Tbilisi, Nerses Ashtaraketsi, who took part in the fighting in person. The Russo-Persian War of 1804 to 1813 saw the Russians conquer a bit of territory in eastern Armenia only to renounce most of it at the Treaty of Gulistan.
In 1826, in violation of the Gulistan treaty, the Russians occupied parts of Iran's Erivan Khanate. This sparked the final bout of hostilities between the two; the Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828. In the subsequent war that raged, (Russo-Persian War, 1826-1828), the Qajarid Iranians suffered an even bigger disaster, as Russia occupied as far as Tabriz in mainland Iran. At the end of the war, in 1828, with the Treaty of Turkmenchay, Iran was forced to cede its territories comprising the Erivan khanate (comprising modern-day Armenia), the Nakhichevan Khanate, as well as the remainder of the Republic of Azerbaijan that had not been ceded forcefully in 1813. By this time, in 1828, the century-long Iranian rule over Eastern Armenia had thus officially come to an end.
Demographic shifts
Until the late fifteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in Eastern Armenia.
At the close of the fifteenth century, with the rise of the Safavids, Islam had become the dominant faith, and Armenians became a minority in Eastern Armenia.
Some 80% of the population of Iranian Armenia were Muslims (Persians, Turkics, and Kurds) whereas Christian Armenians constituted a minority of about 20%, mainly because of the sixteenth-century wars with the Ottomans and the early seventeenth-century forced deportations of Armenians from the region by Shah Abbas I. As a result of the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), Iran was forced to cede Iranian Armenia (which also constituted the present-day Armenia), to the Russians.
After the Russian administration took hold of Iranian Armenia, the ethnic make-up shifted, and thus for the first time in three centuries, ethnic Armenians started to form a majority once again in one part of historic Armenia. The new Russian administration encouraged the return of ethnic Armenians from Iran proper and Anatolia to their homeland. As a result, by 1832, the number of ethnic Armenians had matched that of the Muslims. Anyhow, it would be only after the Crimean War and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, which brought another influx of Turkish Armenians, that ethnic Armenians once again established a solid majority in Eastern Armenia. Nevertheless, the city of Erivan remained having a Muslim majority up to the twentieth century. According to the traveller H. F. B. Lynch, the city was about 50% Armenian and 50% Muslim (Azerbaijanis and Persians) in the early 1890s.
Establishment of Russian rule
Armenian patriots such as Bishop Nerses had hoped for an autonomous Armenia within the Russian Empire, but they were to be disappointed by the new government. Tsar Nicholas and his governor in Transcaucasia, Ivan Paskevich, had other plans. They wanted the Russian Empire to be a centralised state and when Nerses complained he was soon sent to Bessarabia, far away from the Caucasus region.
In 1836 a regulation, the Polozhenie (charter) was enacted by the Russian government that greatly reduced the political powers of the Armenian religious leadership, including that of the Catholicos, while preserving the autonomy of the Armenian Church. After 1836, in accordance with the new regulation, the Catholicos of Echmiadzin was to be elected in congresses in Echmiadzin, in which religious and non-religious dignitaries would participate. The Tsar would have a last word in the choice of the Catholicos. Armenians greatly profited from the fact that the Catholicosate retained the authority to open schools. Notable ones are Moscow's Lazarian Tiflis' Nersessian schools. Moreover, the Catholicosate opened printing houses and encouraged the publication of Armenian newspapers.
Armenians within the Russian Empire
A significant number of Armenians were already living in the Russian Empire before the 1820s. After the destruction of the last remaining independent Armenian states in the Middle Ages, the nobility disintegrated, leaving Armenian society composed of a mass of peasants plus a middle class who were either craftsmen or merchants. Such Armenians were to be found in most towns of Transcaucasia; indeed, at the beginning of the 19th century they formed the majority of the population in cities such as Tbilisi. Armenian merchants conducted their trade across the world and many had set up base within Russia. In 1778, Catherine the Great invited Armenian merchants from the Crimea to Russia and they established a settlement at Nor Nakhichevan near Rostov-on-Don. The Russian ruling classes welcomed the Armenians' entrepreneurial skills as a boost to the economy, but they also regarded them with some suspicion. The image of the Armenian as a "wily merchant" was already widespread. Russian nobles derived their income from their estates worked by serfs and, with their aristocratic distaste for engaging in business, they had little understanding or sympathy for the way of life of mercantile Armenians.
Nevertheless, middle-class Armenians prospered under Russian rule and they were the first to seize the new opportunities and transform themselves into a prosperous bourgeoisie when capitalism and industrialisation came to Transcaucasia in the later half of the 19th century. The Armenians were much more skilled at adapting to the new economic circumstances than their neighbours in Transcaucasia, the Georgians and the Azeris. They became the most powerful element in the municipal life of Tbilisi, the city regarded by Georgians as their capital, and in the late 19th century they began to buy up the lands of the Georgian nobility, who had gone into decline after the emancipation of their serfs. Armenian entrepreneurs were quick to exploit the oil boom which began in Transcaucasia in the 1870s, having large investments in the oil-fields in Baku in Azerbaijan and the refineries of Batumi on the Black Sea coast. All this meant that the tensions between Armenians, Georgians and Azeris in Russian Transcaucasia were not simply ethnic or religious in nature but were due to social and economic factors too. Nevertheless, in spite of the popular image of the typical Armenian as a successful businessman, at the end of the 19th century 80 per cent of Russian Armenians were still peasants working the land.
Russian rule until 1877
Relations between the Russian authorities and their new Armenian subjects did not begin smoothly. Since Armenia was on Russia's frontline against the rival empires of the Ottomans and Persians, it was initially treated as a military zone. Until 1840, Russian Armenia was a separate administrative unit, the Armenian Oblast, but it was then merged into other Transcaucasian provinces with no regard to its national identity. Things improved when Nerses Ashtaraketsi was recalled from Bessarabia and made Catholicos of the Armenian Church in 1843. Moreover, Mikhail Vorontsov, who ruled Russian Armenia as Viceroy of the Caucasus between 1845 and 1854, was highly sympathetic to the Armenians.
As a consequence, by the mid-19th century, most of the Armenian intelligentsia had become highly Russophile. Armenian culture flourished in these years as the new unified province under Russian rule gave Armenians a sense of their shared identity once more. Being part of the Russian Empire also turned Armenia away from the Middle East and towards Europe and modern intellectual currents such as the Enlightenment and Romanticism. A wide array of Armenian newspapers were published and there was a literary revival headed by Mikael Nalbandian, who wanted to modernise the Armenian language, and the poet and novelist Raffi. The pro-Russian outlook of the Armenian intelligentsia continued under Tsar Alexander II, who was widely praised for his reforms.
The Russo-Turkish War
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 marked a watershed in the relationship between the Russian authorities and their Armenian subjects. Armenians still living in western Armenia under the Ottoman Empire had grown increasingly discontented and looked towards Russia to free them from Turkish rule. In 1877, war broke out between the Russia and the Ottomans over the treatment of Christians in the Balkans. The Russians were keen to mobilise Armenian patriotism when they advanced on a second front against the Turks in the Caucasus, and many of the commanders they employed were of Armenian descent. The Russians made large territorial gains in western Armenia before an armistice was called in January, 1878.
The Treaty of San Stefano, signed in March, 1878, did not grant Russia the whole of western Armenia but it contained a special clause, Article 16, by which Russia guaranteed the rights of Armenians still under Ottoman rule against oppression. However, Russia's Great Power rivals, Great Britain and Austria, had been disturbed at the gains Russia had made at the expense of the Ottomans and pressed for a revision of the treaty. At the Congress of Berlin, amongst other territories, Russia was forced to give up all its Armenian gains except the regions of Kars and Ardahan and Article 16 was replaced by the "meaningless" Article 61, which stated that reforms need only be carried out in the Ottoman Armenian provinces after the Russian army had withdrawn.
The reign of Alexander III, 1881–1894
After the assassination of the reform-minded Tsar Alexander II in 1881, the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the national minorities of the empire changed dramatically.
The new tsar, Alexander III, was ultra-conservative in outlook and wanted to create a highly centralised, autocratic state. He viewed any expression of a desire for increased freedom and autonomy by his subjects as evidence of rebellion.
Russification
The last decades of the 19th century also saw a rise in Russian chauvinism with non-Russians described in increasingly racist terms. Armenians came in for particular abuse in ways which often resembled anti-Semitism. The first sign of this was the new regime's dismissal of Alexander II's leading minister, the Armenian Count Loris-Melikov. Loris-Melikov was viewed as too liberal but he was also labeled a "frenzied Asiatic" and "not a true Russian patriot". The Russian authorities also began to be suspicious of Armenian economic dominance in Transcaucasia. Ironically, such suspicions of the Armenians - who were among the most Russophile of the tsar's subjects - as an untrustworthy people prone to revolutionary conspiracy led the Russians to introduce policies which produced the very thing they were aimed at preventing, as Armenians turned more and more towards new nationalist movements.
Russification began in earnest in 1885, when the Viceroy of the Caucasus, Dondukov-Korsakov, ordered the closure of all Armenian parish schools and their replacement by Russian ones. Though the Armenian schools were reopened the following year, they were now subject to strict tsarist control and the use of the Armenian language was discouraged in favour of Russian. The Russians also began to persecute the Armenian Church, which had been separate from the Orthodox Church since the year 451. The Russian attitude to the Ottoman Empire also changed and by the 1890s, Russia and Britain had exchanged roles. Now it was Russia who supported the status quo in western Armenia, with the British urging improvement in conditions for Christians in the region. The Russian authorities were disturbed by revolutionary Armenian nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire and feared their links with eastern Armenians would increase subversion within Russian Transcaucasia too. The tsarist regime cracked down on any attempt by Russian Armenians to engage in action across the border, a leading example being the Gugunian Expedition of 1890.
The growth of Armenian nationalism
Armenians played little role in the revolutionary movements of the Russian Empire until the 1880s. Until that point, the ideas of Grigor Artsruni, the editor of the Tbilisi-based newspaper Mshak ("The Cultivator"), enjoyed great popularity among the Armenian intelligentsia. Artsruni believed that life under the Russian Empire represented the "lesser evil" for his people. Russian Armenians were deeply concerned about the plight of their compatriots under the Persian and Ottoman Empires, especially the peasants of western Armenia who were mostly ignored by Ottoman Armenian intellectuals far away in Istanbul and Smyrna. Tbilisi and Yerevan were much more obvious choices for a base for promoting revolutionary activity among Armenians in the eastern Ottoman Empire. The importance of the unity of the Armenia, divided between three empires, ensured that Armenian political movements would have little in common with other political movements in the Russian Empire.
The growth of Armenian nationalism was given impetus by the Russian authorities' anti-Armenian measures of the 1880s. In 1889, Christapor Mikaelian founded the "Young Armenia" movement in Tbilisi. Its aims were carrying out reprisals against Kurds believed to be guilty of persecuting Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, as well as smuggling arms and encouraging guerrilla action. They also established links with a new Ottoman Armenian nationalist party, the Hunchaks. In 1890, Mikaelian and his colleague Simon Zavarian replaced Young Armenia with a new party: the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, usually known as the "Dashnaks". The Dashnaks tried to get the Hunchaks to join them but the two split in 1891 and rivalry between the parties would be a major feature of subsequent Armenian nationalism. Both parties were socialist in their economic programmes. The primary focus of the Dashnaks was nationalism, however, and their chief concern was the fate of the Ottoman Armenians. They soon had branches in Russia, Persia and Turkey and after the fragmentation of the Hunchaks in the mid-1890s, they became the dominant nationalist force in Russian Armenia.
The reign of Nicholas II 1894–1917
Tsar Nicholas II, who came to the throne in 1894, continued his father's policy of Russification. Anti-Armenian feeling among the Georgians and Azeris of Transcaucasia was also on the rise, inflamed by the editor of the official newspaper Kavkaz ("Caucasus"), V.L. Velichko, who was an ardent Russian chauvinist.
Edict on Armenian church property 1903–1904
In 1897, Tsar Nicholas appointed the Armenophobic Grigory Sergeyevich Golitsin as governor of Transcaucasia, and Armenian schools, cultural associations, newspapers and libraries were closed. Armenian nationalism as practised by the Dashnaks, with their penchant for revolutionary violence and socialist economic policies, had at first had little appeal for the Armenian bourgeoisie, but Russian cultural repression gained them more sympathy. Russified middle-class Armenians began changing their names back to their Armenian form (e.g. Mirzoev became Mirzoian) and engaged private tutors to teach their children the Armenian language.
The tsar's Russification programme reached its peak with the decree of June 12, 1903 ordering the confiscation of the properties of the Armenian Church. The Catholicos of Armenia begged the Russians to overturn the decree but when they refused he turned to the Dashnaks. The Armenian clergy had previously been very wary of the Dashnaks, condemning their socialism as anti-clerical, but now they saw them as their protectors. The Dashnaks formed a Central Committee for Self-Defence in the Caucasus and organised a series of protests among Armenians. At Gandzak the Russian army responded by firing into the crowd, killing ten, and further demonstrations were met with more bloodshed. The Dashnaks and Hunchaks began a campaign of assassinations against tsarist officials in Transcaucasia and they even succeeded in wounding Prince Golitsin. In 1904, the Dashnak congress specifically extended their programme to look after the rights of Armenians within the Russian Empire as well as Ottoman Turkey.
The 1905 Revolution
Unrest in Transcaucasia, which also included major strikes, reached a climax with the widespread uprisings throughout the Russian Empire known as the 1905 Revolution. 1905 saw a wave of mutinies, strikes and peasant uprisings across imperial Russia and events in Transcaucasia were particularly violent. In Baku, the centre of the Russian oil industry, class tensions mixed with ethnic rivalries. The city was almost wholly composed of Azeris and Armenians, but the Armenian middle-class tended to have a greater share in the ownership of the oil companies and Armenian workers generally had better salaries and working conditions than the Azeris. In December 1904, after a major strike was declared in Baku, the two communities began fighting each other on the streets and the violence spread to the countryside. By the time it was over, an estimated 1,500 Armenians and 700 Azeris were dead. The events of 1905 convinced Tsar Nicholas that he must reverse his policies. He replaced Golitsin with the Armenophile governor Count Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov and returned the property of the Armenian Church. Gradually order was restored and the Armenian bourgeoisie once more began to distance itself from the revolutionary nationalists.
Tribune of People, 1912
In January 1912, a total of 159 Armenians were charged with membership of an anti-"Revolutionary" organization. During the revolution Armenian revolutionaries were split into "Old Dashnaks", allied with the Kadets and "Young Dashnaks" aligned with the SRs. To determine the position of Armenians all forms of Armenian national movement put into trial. The entire Armenian intelligentsia, including writers, physicians, lawyers, bankers, and even merchants" on trial. When the tribune finished its work, 64 charges were dropped and the rest were either imprisoned or exiled for varying periods.
World War One and independence, 1914–1918
The years between the 1905 Revolution and World War I saw a rapprochement between most Armenians and the Russian authorities. Russia became concerned when her enemy Germany began drawing closer to the Ottoman Empire, which led the Russians to take a renewed interest in the welfare of the Ottoman Armenians.
When World War I broke out in August 1914, the Russians sought to mobilise Armenian patriotic sentiment. Most Armenian troops were transferred to the European theatre of World War I (known as the Eastern Front). The Ottoman Empire did not join the world war until several months had passed and, as the possibility of a Caucasus Campaign come closer, in the summer of 1914, Count Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov consulted with the Mayor of Tbilisi Alexandre Khatsian, the primate of Tbilisi, Bishop Mesrop, and the prominent civic leader Dr. Hakob Zavriev about the creation of Armenian volunteer detachments. The volunteer units would be made up from Armenians who were not subjects of the empire or not obliged to serve in the army. These units would be employed on the Caucasus Campaign. Many of them were living in the Caucasus and many were impatient to take up arms to liberate their homeland. During the course of the war 150,000 Armenians fought in the Russian Army.
Occupation of Turkish Armenia
The Ottoman authorities embarked on the genocide of their Armenian subjects as early as April 1915 following the rapid Russian advance in the Caucasus Campaign and the Siege of Van. An Armenian provisional government within the autonomous region was initially set up around Lake Van. The Armenian government in the war zone was briefly referred to as "Free Vaspurakan", and after an Ottoman advance in June 1915. With the Ottoman advance in June 1915 250,000 Armenians from Van and the neighbouring region of Alashkerd retreated to the Russian frontier. Russian Transcaucasia was flooded with refugees from the massacres.
While it scored military successes against the Turks, the Russian war machine began to disintegrate on its front against Germany and in February 1917 the tsarist regime was overthrown by a revolution in Saint Petersburg.
Russian Armenians greeted the new government with enthusiasm, hoping it would secure Ottoman Armenia for them. The issue of the continuation of the war was a highly contentious one amongst the political parties of the new Russia, with most favouring a "democratic peace"; but since the provinces of Ottoman Armenia were under Russian military occupation at the time of the revolution, the Armenians believed that the government would agree to defend them. To help out, the Provisional Government began replacing Russian troops, whose commitment to continued fighting was in doubt, with Armenian ones on the Caucasian front. But as 1917 went on the Provisional Government lost support among Russian soldiers and workers and much of the army melted away from Transcaucasia.
Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians
The Bolshevik Revolution of October, 1917 forced the issue of independence for the peoples of Transcaucasia, since the Bolsheviks enjoyed little support in the region. In February, 1918, the Armenians, Georgians and Azeris formed their own Transcaucasian parliament. Armenians united under Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians. On April 22, 1918 it voted for independence, declaring itself to be the Democratic Federative Republic of Transcaucasia. The federation dissolved when Georgia declared its independence on May 26. Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians followed on May 28.
The Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians devised policies to direct the war efforts and the relief and repatriation of refugees. The council passed a law to organise the defense of the Caucasus against the Ottoman Empire using the vast quantity of supplies and ammunition left over from the departure of the Russian army. The congress specifically devised a local control and administrative structure for Transcaucasia. Even if the Congress did not devise specific solutions for the soldiers left in Baku, Tbilisi, Kars, and other militias under the Occupation of Turkish Armenia under the civil governor Hakob Zavriev, they did not resist the ongoing reality of these soldiers serving for the other forces. The Congress also selected a fifteen-member permanent executive committee, known as the "Armenian National Council", whose leader was Avetis Aharonyan. This committee’s first task was to set the stage for the declaration of the First Republic of Armenia.
First Republic of Armenia
The major problem confronting the new state was the advancing Ottoman army, which by now had recaptured much of western Armenia, but the interests of the three peoples were very different. For obvious reasons, defence against the invading army was of paramount importance to the Armenians, while the Muslim Azeris were sympathetic to the Turks. The Georgians felt that their interests could best be guaranteed by coming to a deal with the Germans rather than the Turks and on May 26, 1918, at German prompting, Georgia declared its independence from the Transcaucasian Republic. This move was followed two days later by Azerbaijan. Reluctantly, the Dashnak leaders, who were the most powerful Armenian politicians in the region, declared the formation of a new independent state, the First Republic of Armenia on May 28, 1918.
Republic of Mountainous Armenia
The Treaty of Batum was signed between the First Republic of Armenia and the Ottoman Empire after the last battles of the Caucasus Campaign. The Ottoman Empire initially gained a considerable portion of the South Caucasus with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed with the Russian SFSR and then following Treaty of Batum with Armenia. Andranik Ozanian rejected these new borders and proclaimed the new state, where his activities were concentrated at the link between the Ottoman Empire to the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic at Karabakh, Zanghezur and Nakhichevan. In January 1919, with Armenian troops advancing, the British forces (Lionel Dunsterville) ordered Andranik back to Zangezur, and gave him assurances that this conflict could be solved with the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. The Paris Peace Conference proclaimed the First Republic of Armenia an internationally recognized state and Republic of Mountainous Armenia dissolved.
Centrocaspian Dictatorship
The Centrocaspian Dictatorship was a British-backed anti-Soviet government founded in Baku on August 1, 1918. The government was composed by the Socialist-Revolutionary Party and the Armenian national movement which majority was from Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaks). British force the Dunsterforce occupied the city and helped the mainly Dashnak-Armenian forces to defend the capital during the Battle of Baku. However, Baku fell on September 15, 1918 and an Azeri-Ottoman army entered the capital, causing British forces and much of the Armenian population to flee. The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on November 30, 1918 and the British occupational force re-entered Baku.
Soviet rule
Eventually, the USSR annexed Eastern Armenia and rendered it the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic.
Maps
See also
History of Armenia
Timeline of Armenian history
Armenian Oblast
Erivan Governorate
Elisabethpol Governorate
Kars Oblast (since 1878)
References
Bibliography
Modern history of Armenia
Armenia–Russia relations
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Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association, 564 U.S. 786 (2011), was a landmark decision of the US Supreme Court that struck down a 2005 California law banning the sale of certain violent video games to children without parental supervision. In a 7–2 decision, the Court upheld the lower court decisions and nullified the law, ruling that video games were protected speech under the First Amendment as other forms of media.
The ruling was seen as a significant victory for the video game industry. Several of the Court's justices suggested that the issue might need to be re-examined in the future, considering the changing nature of video games and their continuously improving technology.
Background
Many video games, as early as 1976's Death Race, incorporate some aspect of violence into the gameplay mechanic, such as killing an enemy with a weapon, using explosives to destroy a structure, or engaging in dangerous vehicle races. With modern technology, representations of such violence have become more realistic. This has led to concerns that minors who play such video games will be influenced by the violence, altering their real-life behavior. Academic studies have attempted to find a connection between violent video games and the rate of violence and crimes from those that play them; some have stated a connection exists, while others find no link between the matters. Incidents such as the Columbine High School massacre in 1999 have heightened concerns of a potential connection between video games and violent actions. Accordingly, many concerned groups including politicians and parents have sought to enact regulatory controls of video games to prevent their sales to youth. Prior and during the Brown v. EMA case, parties like the Entertainment Software Association (ESA) sought to overturn similar state laws that placed limits on the sales of violent video games to minors in Michigan and Illinois. The ESA won these cases, with the laws being found unconstitutional and overly restrictive of protected speech. These states did not further challenge the court rulings. The ESA similarly defeated a Louisiana bill in the 2006 Entertainment Software Association v. Foti case that would have attempted to ban sales of violent video games to minors.
To counteract these increasing complaints and attempts at legislation, the video game industry in the United States created the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) in 1994. This was prompted by a 1993 congressional hearing over the violence in the video game Mortal Kombat and lack of consistent content ratings between publishers, with Congress threatening to pass legislation that would mandate a ratings system if the industry did not take its own steps. The industry reacted by forming the Interactive Digital Software Association, which would become the ESA, and establishing the ESRB. The ESRB, like the Motion Picture Association of America's rating system, is a voluntary and self-regulated body that examines the content of video games as provided by the publisher before distribution, and given a rating describing the content within, generally classified from being all ages-appropriate to adult audiences only. Video game distributors are similarly bound by voluntary compliance to check the age of the purchaser against the rating of the game to prevent the sale of mature titles to younger players. Most stores prevent the sale of unrated games, so virtually every video game sold at retail in the United States is rated by the ESRB. Attempts have been made to mandate the ratings system; the Family Entertainment Protection Act, a 2005 bill introduced into the U.S. Congress by Senators Hillary Clinton, Joseph Lieberman, and Evan Bayh, would have made ESRB participation mandatory with oversight by the Federal Trade Commission, and introduced fines for selling Mature or Adult-Only content to minors. The bill, however, did not clear the Senate. Though the ESRB met criticism in 2000–2005 for the ease of access of mature-rated games to minors, the Board has improved its efforts to enforce the ratings system at retailers. A 2011 report issued by the Federal Trade Commission found that the voluntary controls by the ESRB had the highest success rate of any media industry, preventing sales of mature titles to minors 87% of the time. Similar content rating systems exist in other countries, including the EU's Pan European Game Information (PEGI) system, the Australian Classification Board, and Japan's Computer Entertainment Rating Organization.
California law
In 2005, the California State Legislature passed AB 1179, sponsored by then-California State Senator Leland Yee, which banned the sale of violent video games to anyone under age 18 and required clear labeling beyond the existing ESRB rating system. The law would have a maximum $1000 fine for each infraction. The definition of "violent video game" used a variation of the Miller test, a three-pronged test used previously by the United States Supreme Court to define when obscene speech is not protected under the First Amendment. The bill was signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in October 2005. The law would have gone into effect in January 2006.
The law was a second attempt by Yee to enact restrictions for video game sales to minors. Yee's background as a child psychologist led him to assert there was a connection between video games and violence and believed that the government had strong interest in restricting video game sales to minors as was already done for pornographic works. In 2004, Yee had drafted a law that would have required mature-rated video games to be stocked separately from other titles. Though the bill ultimately passed as CA Law AB 1793, the bill's language was diluted at its passage, only requiring stores to display the ESRB ratings system and provide information to parents about it.
Legal challenges
The District Court opinion
Before the California bill was signed into law, the ESA and the Video Software Dealers Association (VSDA), now known as the Entertainment Merchants Association (EMA), were preparing a lawsuit to overturn the law, fearing that the "violent video game" definition would affect many titles that the ESRB has otherwise labeled appropriate for younger players, and threaten to harm the video game industry. The VSDA filed suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and was later joined by the ESA. The two groups succeeded in obtaining a preliminary injunction in December 2005 to block enforcement of the law during the case; U.S. District Judge Ronald M. Whyte cited in his preliminary decision: "The plaintiffs have shown at least that serious questions are raised concerning the States' ability to restrict minors' First Amendment rights in connection with exposure to violent video games, including the question of whether there is a causal connection between access to such games and psychological or other harm to children." In August 2007, Whyte ultimately ruled for the plaintiffs, holding that the law violated the First Amendment, and that there was an insufficient showing of proof that either video games differed from other media or that there was established causality between violent video games and violent behavior.
The Ninth Circuit appeal
California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger appealed the ruling in September 2007, stating that he would "vigorously defend this law" and that he and the people of California have "a responsibility to our kids and our communities to protect against the effects of games that depict ultra-violent actions". The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed Whyte's decision in 2009.
The Ninth Circuit considered the constitutionality of the law; given the timeframe of the law's passing relative to litigation, it was referred to as the "Act" in the court's opinion. The Ninth Circuit affirmed the District Court's Summary Judgment for the VSDA by holding:
The Act is a presumptively invalid content-based restriction on speech, so it is subject to strict scrutiny and not the "variable obscenity" standard from Ginsberg v. New York.
The Act violates rights protected by the First Amendment because the state has not demonstrated a compelling interest, has not tailored the restriction to its alleged compelling interest, and there exists a less-restrictive means that would further the State's expressed interest.
The Act's labeling requirement is unconstitutionally compelled speech under the First Amendment because it does not require the disclosure of purely factual information, but compels the carrying of the State's controversial opinion.
The court first addressed the VSDA's argument that the entire Act should be invalidated based on the defendant's concession on appeal that the definition of "violent video game" in the Act is unconstitutionally broad. However, the statute had a severability clause, so the court went through the severability test set forth in Hotel Employees & Rest. Employees Int'l Union v. Davis. The court held that the definition for "violent video game" is grammatically and functionally separable because, as an alternative definition of "violent video game", it can be removed from the Act without affecting the wording or function of the Act's other provisions. Further, the definitions are volitionally separable because those sections were not of critical importance to the passage of the Act and the legislative body would have adopted the Act had it foreseen the partial invalidation of the statute. These definition sections were only included to avoid the possibility that a court would rule the terms unconstitutionally vague; the court found that the legislature would still have enacted the statute without this definition section.
The court next went on to determine what level of scrutiny should be applied in reviewing the Act's prohibitions. The defendants insisted that the "variable obscenity" standard from Ginsberg v. New York should be used. However, the court held that the "variable obscenity" standard does not apply to violence. The Court in Ginsberg was careful to place substantive limits on its holding, and concern in Ginsberg regarded only "sex material", not violence. The court declined to extend the application of the "variable obscenity" standard to violence, so strict scrutiny was applied instead.
In applying the strict scrutiny standard, the court recognized that "content-based regulations are presumptively invalid", and to survive invalidation, the Act had to fulfill two qualifications:
Restrictions "must be narrowly tailored to promote a compelling Government interest".
"If a less restrictive alternative would serve the Government's purpose, the legislature must use that alternative."
The court invalidated the statute on both accounts. First, the court said that in considering its decision, the court limited the purpose of the Act to the actual harm to the brain of a child playing a violent video game. As a result, the state was required to show that "the recited harms are real, not merely conjectural, and that the regulation will in fact alleviate these harms in a direct and material way". Here, the defendants failed to do so because all of the reports they relied on in making these claims were admittedly flawed. While the state is allowed to protect minors from actual psychological or neurological harm, it is not permitted to control minors' thoughts. Second, the court held that the defendants did not demonstrate the absence of less restrictive alternative means. In fact, video games already comply with a voluntary rating system that rates video games based on their topics and age appropriateness. This is a clear example of a less restrictive means. The court noted that the least restrictive means is not the same as the most effective means.
The court also evaluated the constitutionality of the Act's labeling provision, which requires that a label be affixed to the front of every package the state deems to be a "violent video game". Generally, "freedom of speech prohibits the government from telling people what they must say". However, the court has upheld compelled commercial speech where it is the inclusion of "purely factual and uncontroversial information" in advertising. However, the labeling requirement of "violent video game" is not factual information. The Act has not clearly and legally provided a way to determine if a video game is violent so the sticker does not convey factual information. Consequently, the court found that the Act is unconstitutional.
Supreme Court appeal
Gov. Schwarzenegger again appealed to the Supreme Court, looking to overturn the Ninth Circuit's ruling, filing a writ of certiorari to the Court in May 2009. The Supreme Court agreed to hear the case, at this point filed as Schwarzenegger v. Entertainment Merchants Ass'n. The fact that the Court accepted this case was considered surprising, based on the previous case record for such violent video game laws that were unanimously overturned in other states. Analysts believed that because the Court agreed to hear this case, there were unanswered questions between the protection of free speech from the First Amendment, and the legal enforcement of protecting minors from unprotected free speech such as through restrictions on the sales of pornography to minors. Just a week prior to the acceptance of the certiorari, in United States v. Stevens the Court overturned another law that sought restrictions on depictions of animal cruelty, which some analysts felt would reflect the Court's position to likely overturn the violent video game law.
The Entertainment Consumers Association (ECA) launched an online petition along with their amicus brief to provide the Supreme Court additional information. The Progress & Freedom Foundation and the Electronic Frontier Foundation together submitted an amicus brief citing social research that declared Super Mario Bros. to be a violent video game. It was compared to Mighty Mouse and Road Runner, cartoons that depict a similar form of violence with little negative reaction from the public. Video game developers Microsoft and Activision Blizzard supported the ESA effort. Industry associations for musical works, movies, and publishing, including the National Association of Broadcasters, the Motion Picture Association of America, Recording Industry Association of America, National Cable & Telecommunications Association, and the Future of Music Coalition, also submitted briefs to the court in favor of striking down the law, fearing that should the law be found constitutional, their industries would also be affected. Associations for the protection of civil rights, including the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Coalition Against Censorship, and the National Youth Rights Association, submitted amicus briefs. Also filing amicus briefs against the State of California was a coalition of other states including Rhode Island, Arkansas, Georgia, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Utah and Washington, as well as Puerto Rico, which stated the law was unnecessary as no evidence linked video games to youth violence and the voluntary ESRB system was working well. Also submitting an amicus brief opposing the law was a coalition of 82 psychologists, criminologists, medical scientists and media researchers concerned that the State of California had misrepresented the science on video games.
The State of California was joined by eleven other States, including those that had passed laws later declared unconstitutional; the States, in an amicus brief, stated that they are "vitally interested in protecting the welfare of children and in helping parents raise them" but the District Court's decision restricts their authority to do so. Further supporting the State of California were the American Academy of Pediatrics, the California Psychological Association, Common Sense Media, and the Eagle Forum.
Oral arguments were held on November 2, 2010. To California's attorney, the Justices voiced concern on the distinction between video games and other commercial works such as films and comic books. Justice Antonin Scalia wondered if the law with its vague definition of "violence" could also be applied to Grimms' Fairy Tales. To the ESA and other trade groups, the Justices suggested that California and other states do have precedence to protect minors from certain forms of violence, though under narrower terms than the California law. Justice John Roberts argued that while companies can provide parental filters on such violent games, "any 13-year-old can bypass [them] in about five minutes". Several questions centered on the controversial game Postal 2, where the player can urinate on non-player characters and set them ablaze, among other violent acts. The Justices, in general, agreed that upholding California's law would require a "novel extension of First Amendment principles to expressions concerning violence".
With Jerry Brown winning the 2010 California Governor election, the case was renamed to Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Ass'n after the oral hearings.
Opinion
On June 27, 2011, the Supreme Court issued a 7–2 opinion striking down the California law as unconstitutional on the basis of the First and Fourteenth Amendments. The majority opinion was authored by Justice Antonin Scalia and joined by Justices Ginsburg, Kennedy, Sotomayor, and Kagan. It first held that "video games qualify for First Amendment protection":
Justice Scalia then affirmed that, while states may pass laws to block obscene material from minors as previously decided in the 1968 Ginsberg v. New York case, "speech about violence is not obscene", and California's statute was unlawful. The decision pointed to fairy tales like those of the Brothers Grimm, which are regularly given to children to read, "contain no shortage of gore" that are also present in video games. The decision further compared video games to classical works like The Divine Comedy, stating that "Even if we can see in them nothing of any possible value to society ..., they are as much entitled to the protection of free speech as the best of literature." Scalia's decision also stated that the current self-moderated industry standards like the ESRB are operated effectively to regulate the sale of more mature games to minors, and that "filling the remaining modest gap in concerned-parents' control can hardly be a compelling state interest" requiring a law to enforce. The Court's decision also determined that from the evidence, there was no "compelling" link between violent video games and its effects on children. The decision cited one medical report that asserted that cartoons like Looney Tunes generate the same effects in children as in games like Sonic the Hedgehog or imagery of guns.
Alito's concurrence
Justice Samuel Alito wrote a separate concurrence supporting the majority decision, and was joined by Chief Justice John Roberts. Though Alito agreed with the constitutional application to the California law, believing that its "threshold requirement" that guides what material would be covered by the law was too broad, he questioned the potential double standard that existed between violence and sexual content in regards to this threshold. Alito wrote that he was unsure that there was no connection between violent video games and effects on children, stating that "There are reasons to suspect that the experience of playing violent video games just might be very different from reading a book, listening to the radio, or watching a movie or a television show", referencing the book Infinite Reality which highlights the psychological effects of virtual reality, and argued that the decision "would not squelch legislative efforts to deal with what is perceived by some to be a significant and developing social problem".
Dissents
Justices Clarence Thomas and Stephen Breyer dissented, each writing a separate dissent. Justice Thomas, in his dissent, considered that historically, the Founding Fathers "believed parents to have complete authority over their minor children and expected parents to direct the development of those children", and that the intent of the First Amendment "does not include a right to speak to minors (or a right of minors to access speech) without going through the minors' parents or guardians".
Breyer wrote separately, concerned that the majority's decision conflicts with previous rulings from Ginsberg and Miller. He contrasted the previous findings regulating sales of publications containing nudity to those of violent video games: "But what sense does it make to forbid selling to a 13-year-old boy a magazine with an image of a nude woman, while protecting a sale to that 13 year-old of an interactive video game in which he actively, but virtually, binds and gags the woman, then tortures and kills her?" Breyer further argued that "This case is ultimately less about censorship than it is about education", believing that the Government has a vested interest in allowing parents to make decisions for their child as to "raise future generations committed cooperatively to making our system of government work", and that "California's law imposes no more than a modest restriction on expression." Breyer also expressed concern that the self-regulation of the industry still allowed for 20% of minors to purchase mature video games on a national average, and as high as 50% in the case of one nationwide chain, based on the aforementioned 2011 Federal Trade Commission study.
Reactions
The ruling was praised by the video game industry, which had expected the law to be ruled unconstitutional, but sought affirmation by the Court. ESA's CEO, Michael Gallagher, responded that "The Court declared forcefully that content-based restrictions on games are unconstitutional; and that parents, not government bureaucrats, have the right to decide what is appropriate for their children." Bo Anderson of the EMA stated that "there now can be no argument whether video games are entitled to the same protection as books, movies, music, and other expressive entertainment", while Electronic Arts' (former) CEO John Riccitiello asserted that the decision "affirmed the constitutional rights of game developers". Other entertainment industries, such as the Motion Picture Association of America, also showed support for the Court's decision. Former U.S. Senator and current head of the Association Chris Dodd recognized that the motion picture industry has seen similar attempts to limit its freedom of expression, and that "We applaud the Supreme Court for recognizing the far-reaching First-Amendment implications posed by the California law."
Groups that supported the California law were critical of the decision. California State Senator Leland Yee was very critical of the decision, claiming that "It is simply wrong that the video game industry can be allowed to put their profit margins over the rights of parents and the well-being of children." Yee stated he would review the opinions and attempt to reintroduce a new bill within the constitutionality of the decision, and claimed it was "disappointing the court didn't understand just how violent these games are". James Steyer of Common Sense Media also criticized the decision, citing that "If parents decide a violent game is okay for their kid, that's one thing, but millions of kids are not able to judge the impact of ultra-violence on their own." Andy Schlafly, who had submitted a brief to the court on behalf of the Eagle Forum and Legal Defense Fund, heavily criticized the majority opinion, believing that "the court's latest disregard of parental rights is on a crash course with technological advances". Tim Winter of the Parents Television Council asserted that the Court's decision "replaces the authority of parents with the economic interests of the video game industry". The Washington Post opined that the California law "did nothing to infringe on the rights of adults" while dealing with "reasonable limitations on minors' access to extremely violent games that even the video game industry acknowledges are inappropriate", and that with the high bar for any future legislation, the onus is on the video game industry to maintain its self-policing of video game sales.
Analysts believed that while this was a major victory for the video game industry, the challenge is not yet over. Dan Offner, a partner for the video game industry analysis firm Loeb & Loeb believed that similar laws and regulations will be sought by State and Federal governments, as "the regulation of mature content with respect to minors as a hot button issue for the Federal Trade Commission and the various state governments". Other analysts cited that as more game content becomes available online as opposed to retail channels, the focus may shift more towards "privacy and security" of children and preventing children from amassing large fees from pay-to-use gaming services, pointing to a $3 million settlement that Playdom had to pay for violating privacy of its younger users. Sean Bersell of the EMA noted that future debates over violent video games may involve public opinion in addition to new legislation, noting that "Retailers along with publishers and parents all have a role in keeping kids away from these games." Seth Schiesel of The New York Times proposed that the Court's decision should be a challenge to the industry to show that they can mature on the decision that video games are a form of art, asking the industry: "Will you use it as cover to pump out schlock or will you rise to the opportunity and respectability that has been afforded you?" Schiesel also considered that even if games with increased interactivity and reality may make the games more dangerous, this could also make the player more aware of the potential consequences of his or her actions, even when such an action is made with the purpose to gain points/level or to kill a "dangerous enemy" in that game.
In January 2012, the state of California agreed to pay the ESA $950,000 for reimbursing the ESA's legal fees during the Supreme Court trial, atop approximately $350,000 in fees from the previous trials at lower courts. The ESA stated that it will use an unspecified portion of this money to help create after-school programs in "underserved" communities in the Oakland and Sacramento areas to help teach students job skills. The total cost of defending the case is estimated around $1.8 million, including the State's own legal costs.
In March 2012, Kenneth Doroshow and Paul M. Smith, the lawyers for the EMA who argued the case, were presented with the Ambassador Award by the Game Developers Choice Awards. The Ambassador Award "honors an individual or individuals who have helped the game industry advance to a better place, either through facilitating a better game community from within, or by reaching outside the industry to be an advocate for video games".
In a seminar given in November 2014, Justice Elena Kagan expressed her thoughts on the decision in this case, noting that for herself, she faced a difficult decision between what she felt was right – allowing parents to decide what their children should watch and play – and what the state of the law was, and in hindsight, was still not sure if they made the right decision. She noted that she, along with four others on the court, effectively added language to the decision that would preempt any future laws that attempted to restrict game sales.
Mike Gallagher, CEO of the ESA, observed in 2017 that the same moral panic that led to concerns over video games and resulting in this case were starting to appear for newer video game systems that can further blur lines between the virtual and real world, such as virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality, and anticipates that there will be further tests of the applicability of First Amendment protection toward these new forms of media.
Public opinion
A national telephone poll conducted in the second quarter of 2011 by Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind showed that a majority of American voters (57%) agreed that states should have the "right to regulate the sale of video games [that are violent] in order to protect minors; the same way states regulate tobacco, alcohol and pornography". On the other hand, 39% of voters agreed with the Court's majority that "parents should make the decision" about what video games they purchase for their children, and what constitutes "too violent". These voters agreed with the statement "states do not have the right to decide that some video games are too violent for [minors], any more than they have the right to decide what literature or fairy tales are too violent". The poll was conducted before the Court released its decision on June 27, 2011.
See also
Video gaming in the United States
References
Further reading
External links
Supreme Court of the United States: docket for ''Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association, #08-1448
Transcript of the Supreme Court hearing on November 2, 2010
Supreme Court Blog
Arstechnica on Supreme Court Granting Cert
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court
United States Free Speech Clause case law
Video game law
Video game censorship
2011 in United States case law
Video gaming in the United States
2011 in video gaming
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WVTM-TV, virtual channel 13 (VHF digital channel 7), is an NBC-affiliated television station licensed to Birmingham, Alabama, United States. The station is owned by the Hearst Television subsidiary of New York City-based Hearst Communications. WVTM's studios and transmitter are located atop Red Mountain, between Vulcan Trail and Valley View Drive in southeastern Birmingham, adjacent to the Vulcan Statue and next to the studios of Fox affiliate WBRC (channel 6).
History
Early history
The station first signed on the air on May 29, 1949, as WAFM-TV, originally carrying a limited schedule of local programming. The station began carrying select network programming on July 1, operating as a primary CBS and secondary ABC affiliate; channel 13 began carrying an expanded schedule of programming from ABC and CBS on October 1. It was originally owned by The Voice of Alabama, Inc., along with radio stations WAPI (1070 AM), and WAFM (then at 93.3, now WJOX-FM at 94.5 FM). It is the longest continuously operating television station in Alabama. During the summer of 1949, most programs aired by WAFM-TV aired during the daytime hours, allowing radio electronics and department stores to demonstrate television set receivers to potential customers. In January 1953, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved an application to increase the station's transmitter power from 26,000 to 316,000 watts.
In July 1953, The Birmingham News bought the Voice of Alabama and changed the station's call letters to WABT (for "Alabama's Best Television"). The following year on July 4, 1954, WABT traded primary network affiliations with WBRC-TV (channel 6) and joined NBC; however it retained a secondary affiliation with ABC as did WBRC-TV, which took over the CBS affiliation as its then-new owners, Storer Broadcasting, had a strong relationship with the network (the company's founder and chairman, George B. Storer, was a member of the board of directors at CBS). On January 26, 1956, newspaper publishing company Newhouse Newspapers (now Advance Publications) purchased the News. The station changed its call letters again in 1958 to WAPI-TV (for Alabama Polytechnic Institute [now known as Auburn University], which owned WAPI radio from 1925 to 1932) to match its sister AM radio station; WAFM-FM adopted the WAPI-FM calls at the same time, and received FCC permission to move its frequency to 94.5 FM.
Channel 13 also became known for its heavy schedule of local programs during the 1950s and 1960s, most notably two popular shows aimed at younger audiences hosted by two early staples of Birmingham television. Magician Cliff Holman hosted a children's program on the station for 15 years from 1954 to 1968; originally debuting in March 1954 as The Tip Top Clubhouse (named after the Ward Baking Company's Tip Top Bread brand), the afternoon cartoon showcase featured Holman—who previously served as the voice and puppeteer of Mr. Bingle, a marionette character originated in 1949 by City Stores of New York, for a Loveman's-sponsored holiday series that aired on WAFM-TV in November 1950—in the persona of "Cousin Cliff" (which was given to him by Ward executives as the then-25-year-old was too young to fit the "uncle" image then common among other children's show hosts), and underwent three format and title changes between 1956 and 1958, first as Cliff's Clubhouse (after Ward Baking withdrew sponsorship due to corporate difficulties) and then as Cartoon Clubhouse and later, The Popeye Show, after WAPI acquired the local rights to the Fleischer Studios animated shorts. In 1969, Holman left WAPI after station management relegated Popeye to weekend mornings, after ratings declined following the show's move to weekday mornings and a switch to a pre-recorded format; he revived his program at WHMA-TV (channel 40, now WGWW) in Anniston later that year, as The Cousin Cliff Show. Benny Carle hosted Western Theatre, a showcase of western films interspersed with studio segments with local children as part of its studio audience that aired from 1953 to 1954, when Carle left to take over Bob Bandy's role as host the similarly formatted Circle Six Ranch on WBRC-TV, where he remained until 1964.
WBRC-TV became a full-time ABC affiliate on September 7, 1961, although it continued to occasionally carry certain CBS shows that WAPI chose not to carry until 1965. The WBRC deal with ABC—which was also a result of the strong relations between the network and WBRC's owner, Taft Television and Radio Company, which acquired that station in 1957—forced WAPI-TV to shoehorn both NBC and CBS programs onto its programming schedule. This was rather unusual, since in most two-station markets, ABC (which would not be on equal footing with CBS and NBC until the early 1970s) was typically relegated to a secondary affiliation on either one or both of the existing television stations. The Birmingham market then (as it is now) was a fairly large market geographically, stretching across nearly the entire width of the state from near the Alabama–Mississippi state line eastward to the Alabama–Georgia state line. The market also has areas of fairly rugged terrain—particularly in the eastern part of the state, which lies within the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains—which often created impairment issues with the over-the-air reception of UHF television stations. Both of these factors made prospective broadcasters skittish about launching a television station on one of the available UHF allocations. Although there were two other VHF channels in the market (channels 7 and 10), both had been allocated to Alabama Educational Television (now Alabama Public Television). This came after George Storer's company donated the two frequencies and accompanying transmitters to the Alabama Educational Television Commission (which were respectively signed on WCIQ and WBIQ on those channels in 1955) in a move that may have been an attempt to forestall future commercial competition in the market. As a result, while Birmingham had been large enough in terms of population to support three full network affiliates since the 1950s, it had a long wait for full-time service from all three networks.
The Birmingham market would not get a third commercial broadcast television outlet until WBMG-TV (channel 42, now WIAT) began in October 1965. Although WBMG nominally had a CBS affiliation, the network allowed WAPI-TV to continue airing its higher-rated programs. This was largely because WBMG had launched only one year after the FCC's All-Channel Receiver Act went into law, requiring that television sets manufactured from 1964 onward include all-channel tuning; relatively few households in the area at the time had sets with built-in UHF tuning capability, or expensive converter boxes that enabled older television sets to pick up UHF signals. Compounding things, channel 42 operated at a comparatively low effective radiated power, producing a signal that was considerably weaker than that of either WAPI-TV or WBRC-TV. To fill out its schedule, WBMG aired some NBC programs that WAPI-TV turned down or otherwise had no room to broadcast on its schedule (such as The Tonight Show). Both stations listed "CBS/NBC" as their affiliation, as WBMG maintained a nominal secondary affiliation with the latter network. On April 3, 1967, WAPI-TV became the first television station in Birmingham to broadcast all of its programming in color, having acquired camera, projection and slide equipment to broadcast local and acquired programming in the format, in addition to carrying NBC and CBS programs available in color.
In May 1970, WAPI-TV became the exclusive NBC affiliate for Birmingham, simultaneously resulting in the CBS programs not already carried by that station moving to WBMG. The switch to an exclusive NBC affiliation was because two of Newhouse Broadcasting's other stations, WSTM-TV in Syracuse and WETM-TV in Elmira, New York (which were then WSYR-TV [not to be confused with the current WSYR] and WSYE-TV respectively), were already affiliated with the network; in addition, the company's chairman was alleged to not have a great personal relationship with CBS president William S. Paley. At the same time that WAPI and WBMG aligned with the respective networks, WCFT-TV (channel 33, now Heroes & Icons affiliate WSES) in Tuscaloosa and WHMA-TV (channel 40, later WJSU-TV and now Heroes & Icons affiliate WGWW) in Anniston, two UHF stations respectively serving the western and eastern portions of Central Alabama, also became full-time affiliates of CBS; like WBMG and WAPI prior to becoming exclusive network affiliates, WCFT and WHMA—both of which signed on the air in the late 1960s—started as affiliates of both CBS and NBC. Prior to that time, the prime time schedules of the Tuscaloosa and Anniston stations virtually mirrored that of WBMG, because of WAPI's exclusive rights to network programming shown on that station for the entire viewing area.
Newhouse exited the broadcasting industry in the early 1980s to focus exclusively on its newspaper holdings. In 1979, the company sold its television stations, including WAPI-TV, to the Los Angeles-based Times Mirror Company; the WAPI radio stations were sold to Dittman Broadcasting. Following the completion of the sale, the station, due to an FCC rule in place at the time that stated that TV and radio stations in the same market, but with different ownership had to have differing call letters, changed its call letters to WVTM-TV (for "Vulcan Times Mirror"; the "V" referencing both the cast-iron statue in Vulcan Statue as well as its location atop Red Mountain at Vulcan Park, where WVTM's transmitter tower was located) on March 28, 1980.
New World Communications and NBC ownership
In March 1993, Times Mirror sold WVTM, along with its three sister stations (ABC affiliate KTVI in St. Louis, and CBS affiliates KDFW in Dallas and KTBC in Austin, Texas) to Argyle Television Holdings in a two-part deal. Under the structure, WVTM and KTVI were the first two stations to be sold to New World, which respectively bought the stations for $45 million and $35 million; the purchase of the entire group was completed in December of that year following securement of financing for the deal.
In May 1994, New World Communications, which would sign an affiliation deal with Fox on May 22, agreed to purchase the four outlets from Argyle – in a deal structured as a purchase option – for $717 million. However two weeks earlier on May 5, New World also decided to purchase four television stations from Great American Communications, among them WBRC, for $350 million in cash and $10 million in share warrants. New World was able to finalize its purchase of WBRC on October 12, 1994 because the transfer applications for the Argyle stations were not submitted to the FCC until after those involved in the purchase of the Citicasters (to which Great American Communications was subsequently renamed) stations was already finalized.
However, WBRC and fellow ABC affiliate WGHP in High Point, North Carolina were immediately placed in an outside trust company as Citicasters restructured its plans for both stations and decided to sell them directly to Fox's owned-and-operated station group, Fox Television Stations, once it discovered New World's plan to purchase the Argyle stations (both purchases conflicted with two aspects of the FCC's media ownership regulations; the purchases of WBRC and WVTM would have violated rules that prohibited a single company from owning both the #1 and the #2 television stations in the same market, plus both group deals would have given New World three more stations than the agency allowed at the time under its 12-station national television ownership limit). In January 1995, while the group awaited the Argyle purchase to receive approval by the FCC, New World took over the operations of the Argyle stations, including WVTM, through time brokerage agreements. The transfers of WBRC and WGHP to the trust were completed on April 3, 1995 while the New World purchase of the Argyle stations closed on April 14. New World's purchase of the remaining three Argyle stations was finalized on April 18, 1995.
As a result of New World's option to sell WBRC to Fox, WVTM retained its NBC affiliation (KNSD in San Diego was the only other New World station that remained with NBC, as Fox already had a VHF affiliate in San Diego at the time, XETV (which eventually became a CW affiliate but is now a Canal 5 station targeting Tijuana, Mexico), whereas KNSD broadcast on the UHF band; the group sold its only other station not affected by the Fox affiliation deal, WSBK-TV in Boston, to the Paramount Stations Group in November 1994); KTVI, KDFW and KTBC, meanwhile, all became Fox affiliates. Fox Television Stations operated WBRC as an ABC affiliate until August 31, 1996, as its contract with that network had one year left until its expiration when Fox formally purchased the station from the trust (WBRC's conversion into a Fox owned-and-operated station on September 1, 1996, led to a six-station affiliation swap in Central Alabama in which WCFT-TV and WJSU-TV became satellite stations of ABC affiliate low-power W58CK (channel 58, now WBMA-LD); Fox affiliate WNAL-TV (channel 44, now Ion Television owned-and-operated station WPXH-TV) in Gadsden took over as eastern Alabama's CBS affiliate and Fox affiliate WTTO (channel 21) and its Tuscaloosa satellite WDBB (channel 17) became independent stations).
On May 22, 1996, New World Communications announced that it would sell WVTM and KNSD to NBC's owned-and-operated station group, NBC Television Stations, for $425 million. This deal came two months prior to then-Fox parent News Corporation's acquisition of New World on July 17, in an all-stock transaction worth $2.48 billion, in which it would acquire New World's remaining twelve Fox-affiliated stations (which would also become owned-and-operated stations of the network); The sale of WVTM and KNSD to NBC was finalized in July 1996. In November 1996, the station changed its on-air branding from "Alabama's 13" (which it adopted in 1991) to "NBC 13".
Media General ownership
On January 9, 2006, NBC Television Stations announced that it would place four of its smaller-market owned-and-operated stations—WVTM, WJAR-TV in Providence, Rhode Island, WCMH-TV in Columbus, and WNCN in Raleigh, North Carolina—up for sale. On April 6, 2006, NBC Universal and Media General announced that the latter would purchase WVTM-TV as part of a $600 million four-station deal between the two companies. Due to clauses in the FCC's regulations for television duopolies that prohibits any broadcasting company from owning two of the four highest-rated television stations within the same media market, Media General subsequently announced that it would it seek a buyer for its existing station in the Birmingham-Tuscaloosa-Anniston market, WIAT (which it had owned since the group's merger with Park Communications in 1997, and was instrumental in that station becoming more competitive with WVTM and WBRC), choosing to keep WVTM, which at the time was the higher-rated of the two stations in terms of total day viewership.
The FCC subsequently granted the company a temporary waiver of its ownership rules that allowed it to keep both WVTM and WIAT for six months after the purchase of the former was completed; Media General's purchase of all four stations was finalized on June 26, 2006. On August 2, Media General announced that it had sold WIAT and fellow CBS affiliate KIMT in Mason City, Iowa to New Vision Television for $35 million; that sale was finalized on October 12, 2006. Under Media General, WVTM retained its existing "NBC 13" branding until 2009, when it restored "Alabama's 13" as its on-air branding.
Hearst Television ownership
On March 21, 2014, LIN Media entered into an agreement to merge with Media General in a $1.6 billion deal. Because LIN already owned CBS affiliate WIAT, due to the same FCC duopoly restrictions based on total day viewership that prompted Media General to sell WIAT to New Vision eight years earlier, the companies were required to sell either WVTM-TV or WIAT to another station owner in order to comply with the agency's ownership rules; the sales that Media General and LIN voluntarily chose to conduct in that situation were also in response to planned changes to the FCC's media ownership regulations, which would prohibit sharing agreements involving two or more television stations in the same market.
On August 20, 2014, Media General announced that it would reacquire WIAT and sell WVTM, along with WJCL in Savannah, Georgia, to Hearst Television. Media General completed its merger with LIN on December 19; Hearst closed on its purchase of WVTM and WJCL three days later on December 22. In March 2015, WVTM phased in Hearst's standardized station imaging, and dropped the "Alabama's 13" brand for the second time, in favor of branding by its call letters as "WVTM 13", similar to other Hearst-owned stations.
Programming
WVTM-TV carries the entire NBC programming schedule, although it airs the network's weekend overnight lineup on a one-hour tape delay due to paid and syndicated programming. Syndicated programming broadcast by WVTM-TV () includes Extra, Matter of Fact with Soledad O'Brien (which is produced by parent company Hearst Television), The Ellen DeGeneres Show and The Kelly Clarkson Show.
While channel 13 tried to carry the most popular NBC and CBS shows, a lot of fairly popular programs aired by either network were never seen in the Birmingham market because of this arrangement (even though WAPI carried selected CBS and NBC network programs in a 4½-hour block preceding its late-evening newscast, which then aired at 11:00 p.m.), and the lack of a third station to carry the remaining programs. One of the more popular CBS shows that WAPI-TV did not air was The Ed Sullivan Show, which resulted in Central Alabama viewers missing The Beatles' debut American performance on the variety series in February 1964, unless they were lucky enough to be able to get reception of CBS' affiliates in the adjacent markets of Atlanta (WAGA-TV, now a Fox owned-and-operated station), Huntsville (WHNT) or Montgomery (WCOV-TV, now a Fox affiliate). On a similar note, one of the NBC shows that channel 13 turned down was The Tonight Show, which WBMG aired instead until WAPI began clearing the program in September 1969; even then, due to the expanded prime time scheduling under the dual-network arrangement with CBS and NBC, it delayed Tonight to 11:30 p.m.
WAPI-TV strongly favored NBC for national news programming; as a byproduct of this, when CBS and NBC expanded their early-evening news programs to 30 minutes in 1963, the CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite did not air in Birmingham for the next two years. This was due, of course, to the fact that both networks fed their newscasts to their affiliates at 5:30 p.m. Central Time (as they continue to do today). Channel 13 aired its local newscast at 6:00 p.m., and prior to the passage of the Prime Time Access Rule by the FCC in 1971, prime time network programming began at 6:30 p.m. Central Time. This left no available room on WAPI's schedule to allow it to air the CBS Evening News, even if station management had wanted to broadcast it, clearing only The Huntley–Brinkley Report in its normal time slot (Huntley–Brinkley was the only network evening newscast that was televised in Birmingham from 1963 to 1965, as WBRC-TV did not carry ABC's evening newscasts during that period).
During the 1970s, WAPI ran a distant second to WBRC in local news and general viewership, but was far ahead of WBMG, which was one of the lowest-rated commercial television stations in the U.S. at the time. It was only in western and eastern Alabama that the CBS affiliates, WCFT and WHMA, were competitive against WBRC and WAPI, particularly in local newscasts designed specifically for those areas of the state. After it exclusively aligned with NBC, channel 13 chose to fill the now-vacated 10:00 p.m. hour with off-network syndicated reruns to serve as a lead-in to its late newscast, which itself would move to 10:00 in 1977; however, the station continued to delay The Tonight Show by one hour in favor of running syndicated programming until September 1993, when it moved the program to its network-standard 10:35 slot.
News operation
WVTM-TV presently broadcasts 44½ hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with seven hours each weekday, four hours on Saturdays and 5½ hours on Sundays).
News department history
Channel 13 launched the first full-scale television news department in Alabama in 1951. For most of the last half of the 20th century, channel 13's newscasts were a solid, if usually distant, runner-up to long-dominant WBRC. This remained the case even during the second half of the 1980s, despite having the benefit of NBC's powerful prime time programming lineup of that period (which included such series as Hill Street Blues, The Cosby Show and The A-Team) as a lead-in to its 10:00 p.m. newscast.
However, after WBMA-LP replaced WBRC as the market's ABC affiliate in September 1996, WVTM had to fend off a spirited challenge from the upstart station (to which it lost two of its well-known anchors, Pam Huff and Tracy Haynes, who were later hired to anchor that station's morning newscasts). Since the start of the new millennium, it has also had to contend with a resurgent WIAT, whose news ratings prior to the February 1998 relaunch of its news department had generally languished at a very distant fourth place for much of its history up to that point. Indeed, since 2006, WIAT has consistently beaten WVTM in the late news ratings. In contrast to WIAT's renewed performance under Media General ownership, ratings averages for WVTM's newscasts slipped to fourth place among the market's five major television news operations (ahead of WVUA-CD (channel 7) and behind WBMA-LD and WIAT) during the company's ownership of channel 13, where it remains to this day.
In 2004, WVTM began utilizing a Doppler weather radar system originally branded as "Skywatch Doppler One Million" (which was later renamed "WeatherPlus Doppler One Million" and later named "Alabama's 13 Live Doppler" which is located on Bald Rock Mountain in St. Clair County; the radar provided live Doppler radar data from the Bald Rock Mountain site at a radiated power of 1 million watts, but it is no longer in use by the station. The station also utilizes data from National Weather Service radar sites nationwide. In 2017, WVTM constructed a new dual pole Doppler radar in western Tuscaloosa County in Vance, Alabama, known as "WVTM 13 Live Doppler Radar". On October 17, 2007, WVTM-TV became the first television station in the state of Alabama to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition.
After Hearst Television purchased the station in 2014, WVTM-TV has shifted its programming focus more heavily towards local news. First on August 18, 2014, the station expanded its weekday morning newscast to 4:00 a.m. and expanded its 11:00 a.m. newscast to one hour, with the latter expansion replacing Daytime Alabama (a locally produced version of the syndicated morning talk show Daytime, produced by former Tampa sister station WFLA-TV) in the 11:30 slot. This was followed three weeks later on September 8 by the launch of an hour-long late afternoon newscast at 4:00 p.m. On April 27, 2015, the station expanded its 6:00 p.m. newscast to one hour, with the second half-hour replacing the cancelled sports talk show Alabama Tonight.
Notable former on-air staff
Sophia Choi – weekend morning anchor (1991–1996; now at WSB-TV in Atlanta)
Bill Fitzgerald – anchor/reporter (1999–2004; now at WTVR-TV in Richmond, Virginia)
Cliff Holman ("Cousin Cliff") – children's program host (1954–1969; later at WJSU-TV; deceased)
James Spann – meteorologist (1979–1983; now at WBMA-LD)
Rene Syler – weekend anchor (1990–1992; later at KTVT in Dallas–Fort Worth then at CBS as host of The Early Show)
Charlie Van Dyke – Announcer (now announcer for rival WBRC)
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
In September 2004, WVTM-TV launched a digital subchannel on virtual channel 13.2, as a charter affiliate of NBC Weather Plus; after the network formally ceased operations on November 30, 2008, it was replaced by NBC Plus, a localized default feed of the network that replaced Weather Plus on most of its affiliates. In January 2008, Media General reached an agreement with Equity Media Holdings to affiliate WVTM with the Retro Television Network; the station began carrying the network on its second digital subchannel on May 1, 2009. WVTM replaced the Retro Television Network with Me-TV on 13.2 on September 26, 2011 as part of a groupwide affiliation agreement with Media General (under that deal, Me-TV replaced RTV on some Media General-owned stations in other markets).
Analog-to-digital conversion
In November 2002, WVTM-TV signed on its digital television signal on UHF channel 52. The station shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 13, on June 12, 2009, the official date in which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal relocated from its pre-transition UHF channel 52, which was among the high band UHF channels (52–69) that were removed from broadcasting use as a result of the transition, to its former analog-era VHF channel 13 for post-transition operations. WVTM was one of more than ten television stations around the country that requested for a power increase due to problems with the reception of VHF digital signals in areas within their markets of service following the transition. The station then moved back to channel 13 for its post-transition operations. The July 2, 2020 repack will move the station to RF channel 7.
References
External links
MeTVBirmingham.com – WVTM-DT2 ("Me-TV Birmingham") official website
Birmingham TV News: Station Histories
Birmingham Rewound-Birmingham TV Memories
Huntsville Rewound-Huntsville AL TV Memories
VTM-TV
WVTM-TV
NBC network affiliates
MeTV affiliates
GetTV affiliates
Hearst Television
New World Communications television stations
Former General Electric subsidiaries
1949 establishments in Alabama
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The Imperial Guard (the so-called Superguardians) is a fictional superhero team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The Imperial Guard are a multi-ethnic group of alien beings who act as enforcers of the laws of the Shi'ar Empire; the Superguardians are the personal guard of the leader of the Empire.
Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Dave Cockrum, the original Imperial Guard characters were pastiches of prominent members of rival publisher DC Comics' superhero team the Legion of Super-Heroes. Many other characters were later added to the roster, not all of whom are based on Legionnaires.
The Imperial Guard first appeared in The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977). Since then, they have been featured periodically in the X-Men titles; crossed paths with the Starjammers, the Kree, the Skrulls, Nova Corps, the Inhumans, and the Guardians of the Galaxy; and been featured in a number of limited series, including Imperial Guard (1997), the War of Kings crossover series (2009), and Realm of Kings: Imperial Guard (2010).
More than 50 Imperial Guard Superguardians have appeared in Marvel Comics' titles; the core members number about 20, with the most notable being Gladiator, Oracle, Starbolt, Neutron, Smasher, Flashfire, Warstar, Electron, Manta, Mentor, Titan, Pulsar, Hussar, Nightside, and Fang.
Structure and organization
The Imperial Guard numbers about 300 members, and is made up of the most powerful and elite soldiers from throughout the Empire, with some of them being Shi'ar and most being from other alien races in the Shi'ar's jurisdiction. The Imperial Guard is led by a praetor.
The Superguardians (who comprise the vast majority of the named characters) are the super-powered personal guard of the Shi'ar leader. Those closest to the leader are known as the Royal Elite.
The Guard academy trains replacements — called Subguardians — for Superguardians who may be killed or incapacitated. Over time, at least twenty Superguardians have been killed in the pages of Marvel's comics, with many of them being replaced by new versions from the ranks of the Subguardians.
Imperial Guard oath of allegiance
The is the Imperial Guard's oath of allegians to the Shi'ar Empire:
Concept and creation
As X-Men creators Claremont and Cockrum were devising a team to battle the X-Men in the first part of the Phoenix Saga, Cockrum suggested modeling their powers and costumes after characters from DC's Legion of Super-Heroes. (Cockrum had had a two-year run as artist on the Legion of Super-Heroes backup feature in the Superboy comic book.)
In a 2002 interview, Cockrum said that he showed the character designs to Paul Levitz, then-current Legion of Super-Heroes writer at DC. Asked if he thought there might be trouble between the companies, Cockrum said, "Not really... I showed the designs to Paul Levitz, and he didn't say, 'You can't do that.' If anything, he said, 'Geez, these costumes are better than the ones the Legionnaires are wearing.' No, I don't think we ever once thought that we were going to get in trouble over it."
The first Guardsmen introduced (with their Legion of Super-Heroes analog in parentheses) were Gladiator (Superboy), Astra (Phantom Girl), Electron (Cosmic Boy), Fang (Timber Wolf), Hobgoblin (Chameleon Boy), Impulse (Wildfire), Magic (Princess Projectra), Mentor (Brainiac 5), Midget (Shrinking Violet), Nightshade (Shadow Lass), Oracle (Saturn Girl), Quasar (Star Boy), Smasher (Ultra Boy), Starbolt (Sun Boy), Tempest (Lightning Lad), and Titan (Colossal Boy).
Over time, for various reasons, some of the members' code-names were changed: Nightshade to Nightside, Magic to Magique, Midget to Scintilla, Quasar to Neutron, Tempest to Flashfire, and Impulse to Pulsar.
Reception and characterization
Nick Hemming of Looper.com described the Imperial Guard as perhaps "the most interesting facet of the Shi'ar," describing them as "an elite team of super soldiers who enforce the law within the empire. The Guard has played both friend and foe to Earth's favorite heroes over time, boasting a diverse roster of various species."
Fictional team history
Many centuries ago, the Phoenix Force entity ends up in Shi'ar space, where it bonds with a citizen of the Empire named Rook'shir. In conjunction with his blade, Rook'shir learns to control the Phoenix Force, but is ultimately overwhelmed by its power, becoming the first known host to succumb to and go insane from its destructive impulses. Becoming the first being known as the Dark Phoenix, Rook'shir goes on a rampage throughout the Empire, destroying many planets in the process.
T'korr, Majestor of the Shi'ar Empire, creates the Imperial Guard for the purpose of stopping Rook'shir; some of the first members are Gladiator, Magic, Mentor, and Quasar. Defeating Rook'shir, the Guard becomes the first line of defense of the Shi'ar Empire.
In The X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977), the Shi'ar empire comes into conflict with the X-Men regarding the Phoenix entity, with the Guard battling them at the command of Emperor D'Ken and his sister, the Grand Admiral, Princess Lilandra Neramani.
Some time later during "The Dark Phoenix Saga", the Guardsmen again come into conflict with the X-Men regarding Dark Phoenix, this time at the behest of Emperor D'Ken's successor, Empress Lilandra.
The Borderers division is introduced — a group of Guardsman stationed on one of the Shi'ar's conquered worlds to help its governor enforce Shi'ar law. A renegade faction of the Imperial Guard — mainly made up of Borderers, but also including Fang, Hussar, Quasar, and Warstar — become traitors, deciding to serve Lord Samédàr, Deathbird, and the Brood in a conspiracy to overthrow Shi'ar Princess-Majestrix Lilandra. The renegades battle the Guardsman who remain loyal to Lilandra and the X-Men. After defeating the Brood and the renegades, Lilandra resumes her position as the head of the Shi'ar Empire. Despite many of the Imperial Guard having joined with Deathbird against Lilandra, most team members are pardoned for their actions, although Quasar, Warstar, Hussar, and Webwing are later banished.
Some time later, Deathbird stages a successful coup and becomes the new Shi'ar Empress. She sends the Imperial Guard to Earth to battle the combined forces of the Starjammers and the superhero team Excalibur, so that she can claim the power of the Phoenix Force for herself. The Guard are forced to retreat when Deathbird realizes the Starjammers are led by Lilandra.
Later, War Skrulls impersonating Charles Xavier and the Starjammers depose Deathbird and restore Lilandra to the throne. Deathbird cedes the empire back to Lilandra as she has grown bored of the bureaucracy.
When the Shi'ar and the Kree wage an intergalactic war, the Imperial Guard are commissioned to lead the fight. The Guard steals the original Captain Marvel's Nega-Bands from the dead hero's tomb. Using Kree artifacts, including the Bands, the Sh'iar create a massive superweapon, the "Nega-Bomb." Ultimately, the Nega-Bomb device is successfully detonated, devastating the Kree Empire, with billions dying instantaneously (98% of the Kree population). The Shi'ar annex the remnants of the Kree Empire, with Deathbird becoming viceroy of the Kree territories.
Some time later, the Imperial Guard are informed about a hijacked Shi'ar craft, and join Quasar in a battle against a group of interplanetary marauders known as the Starblasters, who attempt to push the moon away from Earth’s orbit.
When many of Earth's heroes vanish (sent to the pocket universe after defeating Onslaught), Lilandra orders the Imperial Guard to help protect Earth.
Ronan the Accuser leads the Kree in a surprise attack against the Shi'ar, using the Inhumans as an army to disrupt the Shi'ar control of the Kree. Ronan seizes control in a surprise attack. Threatening to destroy the Inhumans' home of Attilan, he orders the Inhumans and their king, Black Bolt, to obey. Ronan compels Karnak, Gorgon, and Triton to covertly join the Imperial Guard, while Black Bolt and Medusa attempt the assassination of the Shi'ar ruler Lilandra at a ceremony ratifying an alliance between the Shi'ar and the Spartoi. Black Bolt manages to defeat Ronan in personal combat; the attempt on Lilandra's life fails because the Imperial Guardsman Hobgoblin dies in her place.
Cassandra Nova, in Charles Xavier's body, contacts Majestrix Lilandra, Xavier's lover. Cassandra drives Lilandra insane and uses her to make the Shi'ar fleet destroy the empire. Cassandra forces Lilandra to send the Shi'ar Superguardians to sterilize the entirety of mutantkind, starting with the X-Men. After a battle with the X-Men, the Imperial Guard come to realize Cassandra's treachery and the danger she poses. Jean Grey, using Xavier's consciousness, and with the help of the Imperial Guard, is able to force Cassandra out of Xavier's body and imprison her.
he Imperial Guard's loyalties are tested when Vulcan, a powerful mutant intent on conquering the Shi'ar Empire, comes on the scene at the start of the "Emperor Vulcan" storyline. He fights the Guard, killing and wounding a number of them, before he is defeated by Gladiator, who puts out his left eye.
Ultimately, however, Vulcan returns and assumes the Shi'ar throne, and the Imperial Guard are honor-bound to do his bidding. Emperor Vulcan and his fleet battle the Scy'ar Tal, who have devoted their culture and society to the destruction of the Shi'ar Empire. After many battles, including Vulcan fighting his brother Havok and the Starjammers, the Shi'ar prevail. Vulcan declares that he will return the Shi'ar Empire to its former glory.
Emperor Majestor Vulcan begins to expand the empire, leading to a war with the Kree. Things start off well for the Imperial Guard when they slaughter a cadre of new recruits to the Nova Corps. The Guard follows this by attacking and hospitalizing Ronan the Accuser on his wedding day. The Kree's retaliation, however, leads to the deaths of a number of Guardsmen. Two new Smashers, recruited from the ranks of the Subguardians, die, as does Warstar.
When ordered to kill former Shi'ar Empress Lilandra Neramani, Gladiator abandons his post to protect her. Nonetheless, during an attempt to return her to the throne, Lilandra is assassinated.
Vulcan is seemingly killed during a battle with the leader of the Kree, Black Bolt. With no one in line to inherit the throne, civil war threatens the Shi'ar empire. To avoid further conflict, the Imperial Guard's praetor, Gladiator, accepts the offer to become Emperor; Mentor becomes praetor in his place.
During the "Realm of Kings" storyline, the Shi'ar team up with the Starjammers to investigate "The Fault," a space-time anomaly that not only threatens Shi'ar space but all of reality. This crisis leads to another spate of Imperial Guard deaths: Starbolt is killed by a group of horrifically mutated creatures from the Cancerverse, and Black Light, Neutron, and Titan are killed in a later battle. The storyline ends with the Guardsmen Mentor and Plutonia choosing to bond with Raptor amulets; Mentor is taken over by Strel and Plutonia becomes the Raptor Kyte; both vanish.
During the "Infinity" storyline, a fourth Smasher is recruited by the Imperial Guard: a human member of the Avengers named Izzy Kane. Receiving an all-points distress signal on Earth, she comes with the Avengers to assist the Shi'ar in fighting off a new threat: the Builders. The Builders threaten all the galactic civilizations, leading the Shi'ar to join forces with the Kree, Skrulls, Spartoi, Brood, and Annihilus' Annihilation Wave to resist them.
After many battles and losses — including the death of Earthquake — the Avengers and Imperial Guard earn a convincing victory against the main Builders' fleet. Mentor helps take command of a Builder World Killer and turn it against the Builders. The Imperial Guard and the Avengers proceed to free the occupied worlds — including Earth, which has fallen to Thanos in their absence. The Imperial Guard helps retake the Peak, the S.W.O.R.D. space station headquarters.
Soon afterward, Gladiator kidnaps the time-displaced incarnation of Jean Grey, placing her on trial for the destruction done by the Phoenix Force years earlier. The All-New X-Men team up with the Guardians of the Galaxy to rescue Jean from the Shi'ar homeworld, but Jean ends up awakening a new power, enabling her to absorb massive amounts of psionic energy from others and combine her telepathy and telekinesis, which she uses to defeat Gladiator and the Imperial Guard.
When the Shi'ar find out that the reason for the "decay of the universe" is on Earth, they decide to destroy the planet. The Guardians of the Galaxy, Sunspot, A.I.M., and S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Avengers fight back, planning to use a Planetkiller against the Shi'ar. The Planetkiller, however, overheats and explodes, destroyed by Annihilus' Annihilation Wave. The Avengers are ready to meet their end, but the Illuminati intervenes, using the controller disk of a rogue planet that shares the same space with Earth, while Iron Man uses Sol's Hammer to destroy the Shi'ar fleet, including the Imperial Guards.
The Guard are resurrected, along with the rest of the universe, as part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel relaunch.
Membership
Core members
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Code Name (Original name) !! Legion of Super-Heroes analog !! Powers and abilities !! Species !! First appearance !! Notes
|-
| Astra || Phantom Girl || Phasing || Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Founding member of the Imperial Guard
|-
| Earthquake || rowspan=2 | — || rowspan=2 | Geokinesis (psionically create tremors and small quakes on the surface of a planet) || rowspan=2 | Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #137 (Sept. 1980) || Killed in Avengers vol. 5 #21 (Dec. 2013)
|-
| Earthquake II || Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 5 #1 (Dec. 2012) ||
|-
| Electron || Cosmic Boy || Magnetism manipulation, projection of bolts of electrical energy || Shi'ar || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) ||
|-
| Fang || rowspan=2 | Timber Wolf || rowspan=2 | Superhuman senses, strength, speed, stamina, durability, agility, and reflexes; claws and fangs; teleportation; flight; energy projection/matter manipulation || rowspan=2 | Lupak || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Member of the Royal Elite; transformed into one of the Brood and then killed by Wolverine in The Uncanny X-Men #162 (Oct. 1982)
|-
| Fang II || Starjammers #4 (Jan. 1996) || Alter-ego is Nev-Darr
|-
| Flashfire (Tempest) || Lightning Lad || Generate and fire bursts of light and electricity || Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || At one point engaged to marry fellow Guardsman Oracle (an analog of Saturn Girl, to whom Lightning Lad was also romantically linked); alter-ego is Grannz (Lightning Lad's alter-ego is Garth Ranzz); renamed Flashfire because of the DC Comics character Joshua Clay (Tempest)
|-
| Gladiator || Superboy (or Mon-El) || Superhuman strength, speed, stamina, agility, reflexes, and durability; psionic abilities; flight || Strontian || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Commander (praetor) of the Imperial Guard; alter-ego is Kallark
|-
| Hobgoblin || Chameleon Boy || Shapeshifting || Chameloid || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Killed posing as Lilandra Neramani in Inhumans vol. 3 #4 (Oct. 2000)
|-
| Hussar || — || Channeling of bioelectricity into other living beings to shock and paralyze || Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #137 (Sept. 1980) ||
|-
| Magique (Magic) || rowspan=2 | Princess Projectra || rowspan=2 | Ability to create realistic illusions || rowspan=2 | Shi'ar || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Killed in Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 2 #15 (June 2009)
|-
| Magique II || Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 5 #1 (Dec. 2012) || Replaced the original Magique, who died in Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 2 #15
|-
| Manta || — || Infrared and ultraviolet vision, photokinesis || Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #137 (Sept. 1980) ||
|-
| Mentor || Brainiac 5 || Instantaneous processing of vast amounts of information || Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Becomes praetor in War of Kings: Who Will Rule one-shot; taken over by Strel and vanishes at the end of Realm of Kings: Imperial Guard
|-
| Neutron (Quasar) || Star Boy || Superhuman strength, stamina, and durability; capable of increasing the mass, density or gravity of an object || Stygian || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Killed in battle in Realm of Kings: Imperial Guard #5 (May 2010)
|-
| Nightside (Nightshade) || rowspan = 2 | Shadow Lass || rowspan = 2 | Ability to tap into the Darkforce dimension, giving her the ability to conjure absolute darkness within a radius around her or her enemies; displace projectile attacks against her person by opening small apertures into the Darkforce || rowspan = 2 | Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Killed in War of Kings #1 (May 2009)
|-
| Nightside II || Avengers vol. 5 #35 (Sept. 2014) || Recruited from the Subguardians to replace the original Nightside, who was killed in War of Kings #1
|-
| Oracle || Saturn Girl || Telepathy, mind control, projection of stun bolts, psychoscopic awareness ("Mind-Sight": the ability to expand her over-consciousness to read the impressions left by events in the fabric of time and matter) || Shi'ar || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Long-time member; part of the Royal Elite; alter-ego is Lady Sybil; originally romantically linked with Starbolt; later engaged to marry Tempest/Flashfire
|-
| rowspan= 2 | Plutonia || rowspan=2 | — || rowspan=2 | Phasing || rowspan=2 | Unidentified extraterrestrial race|| New X-Men #124 (May 2002) || Alter-ego is N'zyr; romantically linked with fellow Guardsman Smasher, then romantically linked with fellow Guardsman Mentor; chose to bond with Raptor amulet at cost of her free will, becoming the Raptor Kyte; current whereabouts unknown
|-
| Realm of Kings: Imperial Guard #5 (May 2010) || Added to Imperial Guard after N'zyr became the Raptor Kyte and vanished
|-
| Pulsar (Impulse) || Wildfire || Energy being: flight, projection of energy blasts || Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Seemingly killed by Vulcan in The Uncanny X-Men #480 (Jan. 2007), but reappears later
|-
| Scintilla (Midget ) || Shrinking Violet || Shrinking from normal size to five percent of her normal size (and any size in between) || Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | Smasher || rowspan=5 | Ultra Boy || rowspan=5 | Superhuman strength via cosmic radiation absorption, ability to download additional powers (one at a time) via "Exospex," flight via anti-gravity "flight patches" || rowspan=3 | Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Romantically linked with fellow Guardsman Plutonia; alter-ego is Vril Rokk; killed by Vulcan in The Uncanny X-Men #480 (Jan. 2007)
|-
| War of Kings #1 (Mar. 2009) || Alter-ego is Salac Tuur; killed by Karnak in War of Kings #1 (May 2009)
|-
| War of Kings #3 (July 2009) || Killed by Gladiator in War of Kings #3 (July 2009)
|-
| Human || Avengers vol. 5 #1 (Feb. 2013) || Alter-ego is Izzy Kane; left the Imperial Guard to return to the Avengers
|-
| Unidentified extraterrestrial race || All-New X-Men #23 (Apr. 2014) || Replaced Izzy Kane in the Imperial Guard
|-
| Starbolt || Sun Boy or Wildfire || Projection of energy bolts from hands || Unidentified extraterrestrial race || X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Originally romantically linked with Oracle; killed in Realm of Kings: Imperial Guard #4 (Apr. 2010)
|-
| Titan || rowspan = 2 | Colossal Boy || rowspan = 2 | Expand his body to giant size, superhuman strength and mass || rowspan = 2 | Unidentified extraterrestrial race || The Uncanny X-Men #107 (Oct. 1977) || Killed by a swarm of mutated bugs in Realm of Kings: Imperial Guard #5 (May 2010)
|-
| Titan II || TK (sometime during the "Infinity" storyline) || Replaced the first Titan, who was killed in Realm of Kings: Imperial Guard #5
|-
| Warstar || — || B'nee: electricity generation; C’cil: gigantic, superhuman strength and durability || Two symbiotically linked sentient mechanoids || The Uncanny X-Men #137 (Sept. 1980) || Alter-egos are B'nee and C'cil; their names are an homage to the 1960s animated television program Beany and Cecil; killed (along with the entire Shi'ar fleet) by Iron Man using Sol's Hammer in Avengers vol. 5 #44 (June 2015), resurrected (along with the rest of the universe) in The Ultimates vol. 2 #3 (Mar. 2017)
|-
|}
Other members
Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
In an alternate reality depicted in the miniseries, Age of Apocalypse, Lilandra became the Admiral of the Shi'ar Grand Fleet and leader of the Imperial Guard. However, she was killed by her brother D'ken before she could stop him from taking control of the M'Kraan Crystal.
MC2
An older, alternate reality version of the original Lilandra appears in MC2 miniseries, Last Planet Standing, escaping the Shi'ar Empire after it is attacked and devoured by Galactus.
Heroes Reborn
In an alternate reality depicted in the miniseries "Heroes Reborn", the Imperial Guard is associated with Hyperion and most of its members were infected by the Brood.Heroes Reborn: Hyperion & the Imperial Guard #1. Marvel Comics.
In other media
The Imperial Guard appear in the X-Men animated television series episodes "The Phoenix Saga, Part III: The Cry of the Banshee" and "The Phoenix Saga, Part V: Child of Light", consisting of Gladiator, Starbolt, Flashfire, Oracle, Smasher, Titan, Hobgoblin, Warstar, Earthquake, Hussar, Astra, and Manta. They battle the X-Men in a trial by combat to determine Jean Grey's fate, only to be defeated by the Phoenix Force.
The Imperial Guard appear in the video game Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, consisting of Gladiator, Neutron, Hussar, Starbolt, and Warstar. Several members of the Imperial Guard assisted Deathbird in taking the Shi'ar Empire's throne from her sister Lilandra while others refused to take part. Meanwhile, a group of heroes come to obtain a shard of the M'Kraan Crystal and defeat the traitorous guards, Shi'ar soldiers, and Deathbird in the process.
The Imperial Guard appear in the 2006 Christopher L. Bennett novel, X-Men: Watchers on the Walls, consisting of Smasher, Manta, Flashfire, Astra, Nightside, Magique, Blackthorn, N'rill'iree, and Empress Lilandra.
See also
Shi'ar
Squadron Supreme
Notes
References
External links
Imperial Guard entry, The Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe''
UncannyXMen.net article on the Imperial Guard / Superguardians
Characters created by Chris Claremont
Characters created by Dave Cockrum
Comics characters introduced in 1977
Science fiction comics
Shi'ar
Space opera comics
Superhero comics
X-Men
X-Men supporting characters
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The Last September is a 1929 novel by the Anglo-Irish writer Elizabeth Bowen, concerning life in Danielstown, Cork during the Irish War of Independence, at a country mansion. John Banville wrote a screenplay based on the novel; the film adaptation was released in 1999.
Plot
Preface
Although The Last September was first published in 1929, a preface was written for this text decades later to be included in the second American edition of this novel. Concerned that readers unfamiliar with this particular chapter of Irish history would not fully comprehend the anxieties of these times, Bowen takes great pains to explain the particulars of both her writing process and the political reasons for the unsettled atmosphere felt throughout the text, palpable even in its most seemingly serene moments. Of all her books, Bowen notes, The Last September is "nearest to my heart, [and it] had a deep, unclouded, spontaneous source. Though not poetic, it brims up with what could be the stuff of poetry, the sensations of youth. It is a work of instinct rather than knowledge—to a degree, a 'recall' book, but there had been no such recall before." While Bowen's own beloved family home, Bowen's Court, remained untouched throughout "The Troubled Times" this preface explores the ramifications for witnesses of “Ambushes, arrests, captures and burning, reprisals and counter-reprisals” as "The British patrolled and hunted; the Irish planned, lay in wait, and struck.” "I was the child of the house from which Danielstown derives" Bowen concludes, "nevertheless, so often in my mind's eye did I see it [Bowen’s Court] burning that the terrible last event in The Last September is more real than anything I have lived through."
Part One The Arrival of Mr. & Mrs. Montmorency
The Last September opens in “a moment of happiness, of perfection” as Sir Richard and Lady Naylor welcome their long-awaited guests, Hugo and Francie Montmorency, to their country estate, Danielstown, in Cork, Ireland. Despite—or, in some characters’ cases, in spite of—the tensions produced by what Bowen obliquely refers to as "The Troubled Times", the Montmorencys, the Naylors, as well as the Naylors' niece, Lois, and nephew, Laurence, attempt to live their lives in the aftermath of The Great War while coping with the occasionally conflicting dictates of their class's expectations and personal desires. Preoccupied with the concerns of social obligations which must be met even as they are enacted against a backdrop of uncertainty and national unrest, the residents of Danielstown occupy themselves with tennis parties, visits, and dances, often including the wives and officers of the British Army who have been assigned to this region. The people of Danielstown all share a particular interest in the shifting relationship between Lois and a young British officer, Gerald Lesworth, as Lois struggles to determine precisely who she is and what it is she wants out of life.
Part Two The Visit of Miss Norton
Lois's confusion regarding her future and the state of the bond she shares with Gerald is temporarily sidelined by the arrival of yet another visitor to Danielstown, a Miss Marda Norton whose connection to the Naylor family remains strong even in the face of perpetual inconvenience and Lady Naylor's long-standing polite aversion to the younger woman. Marda's presence is, however, as much of a blessing for Lois and Laurence as it is an annoyance for Lady Naylor and Hugo Montmorency—the latter having developed a one-sided fixation on the soon-to-be-married Marda.
While Lois and Marda's friendship deepens, readers are also made aware of escalating violence as the fragile status quo established between the British Army, the Black and Tans, and local Irish resistance is threatened by Gerald's capture of Peter Connor, the son of an Irish family friendly with the Naylors. Unbeknownst to the residents of Danielstown (with the single exception of Hugo), Lois and Marda's acquaintance with Ireland's national turmoil is expanded firsthand as they are confronted by an unknown individual while on an afternoon stroll through the countryside of County Cork. Although permitted to depart with only a trifling wound to Marda's hand and Lois's promise that they will never speak of this encounter in the ruins of the old mill, this meeting and Marda's subsequent return to England signal a shift as the novel's characters’ attention return to the various topics occupying their thoughts before her arrival.
Part Three The Departure of Gerald
After Marda Norton's departure, Lois's attention is once again firmly fixed upon both Gerald and the activities organised by the British officers’ wives. But despite Lois's determination to finally come to a firm conclusion regarding her future, her relationship with Gerald is first delayed by Lady Naylor's machinations and then left forever unresolved by Gerald's death—which may have been at the hands of Peter Connor's friends. Not long after Gerald's death Laurence, Lois, and the Montmorencys leave Sir Richard and Lady Naylor, but the Naylors have little time to enjoy their solitude at Danielstown. The Naylor family estate and the other great houses are put to the torch the following February—likely by the same men who organised the attack on Gerald—their destruction reinforcing the fact the lifestyle once enjoyed by the landed Anglo-Irish gentry has been brought to an end.
Characters
Major characters
Sir Richard Naylor is the family patriarch and the master of Danielstown, Sir Richard is very much aware of the immediacy of the Troubles even though he rarely voices these concerns out loud. Instead, Bowen's readers are the persons most often made privy to his uncertainty regarding the immediacy of the escalating conflict taking place on and around his family's land.
Myra, Lady Naylor is a decisive woman who refuses to acknowledge even the possibility of changing standards in the post-war era, Lady Naylor's mind and views are entrenched in the views held by the most conservative members of her socio-economic class—especially in regard to judging the marital prospects of her friends, relations, and acquaintances.
Lois Farquar is the only child of Sir Richard's sister Laura, eighteen-year-old Lois is extremely indecisive as she continually ponders her identity as a young woman in the post-war era and her relationship with Gerald Lesworth. As she attempts to find answers to these questions Lois also serves as the readers’ primary witness to the events unfolding within the text.
Laurence is Lois's cousin is visiting with his Aunt Myra and Uncle Richard in County Cork. A reluctant participant in his Aunt Myra's social affairs and a bit of a misanthrope, Laurence makes it quite clear that he would prefer to be anywhere but Danielstown, but also lacks the funds that would make his preference feasible.
Hugo Montmorency is a friend of the Naylors who has finally returned to Danielstown. It has been twelve years since his last visit. Formerly in love with Laura Naylor Farquar, Hugo is not entirely certain how to view Lois Farquar, Laura's daughter.
Frances Montmorency is a quiet woman who is very much aware of the deep undercurrents throughout the Danielstown household. Although she is often viewed as an invalid by family and friends, there is nothing wrong with Francie's mind and Bowen makes it very clear that Francie's position as an eternal spectator permits her to see more than her companions know.
Gerald Lesworth is a British subaltern from Surrey, Gerald is attracted to Lois but not entirely confident about the direction (and detours) their relationship seems to be taking. The quintessential example of British manhood, Gerald is often uncomfortable with the Anglo-Irish view of the British Empire.
Marda Norton is a friend and visitor of the Naylor family who is loved by Lois, admired by Hugo, and cordially despised by Lady Naylor. Marda is not-quite-secretly engaged to Leslie Lawe, a stockbroker, and this revelation is rather surprising news for all the residents of Danielstown.
Minor characters
Livvy Thompson is Lois's friend, a young lady who delights in taking charge, fiancée of
David Armstrong is a soldier attached to the British regiment
Laura Naylor Farquar is the sister of Richard, mother of Lois, and former sweetheart of Hugo Montmorency, Laura died when Lois was very young. Nevertheless, she is often in the thoughts of both Lois and Hugo.
Mrs. Vermont is an English social butterfly whose primary interest is socialising, wife of
Captain Vermont is a British officer
The Hartigans is a neighbouring Anglo-Irish family possessing five unmarried daughters
Daventry is a shell shocked British soldier who is nevertheless attached to the Intelligence division
Smith is a British soldier, but such a minor character he is not even permitted a first name
Viola is Lois's friend, penpal, and occasional confidant
Mrs. Fogarty is one of the novel's few Irish Roman Catholics in favour of maintaining close ties with Britain.
The Connors are a Roman Catholic Irish family who is nominally friendly with the Naylors
Peter Connor is the Connor son captured by Gerald and his men. Although Peter is never actually physically present within the scenes of the novel, he and his political associates have a tremendous effect upon the residents of Danielstown as well as Danielstown itself.
Themes
Sterility
The sterility theme permeates the novel in characters and environment. The absence of children is conspicuous as if "children seem in every sense of the word to be inconceivable" with the exception of Hercules, who is the youngest in his family and the only boy with four girls. The Naylors and the Montmorencys do not have children. The Hartigan girls are spinsters, "There are certainly a great many unmarried women." Lois has a feeling of being barren when she is looked at, "a glance from Mr. Montmorency or Laurence would make her encounter sterile.” She seems to have feelings for both Hugo Montmorency and Gerald Lesworth. But later in the novel, she stops her affectionate feelings towards Hugo and cannot determine what she should feel about Gerald. Marda Norton remembers a story that causes her to "go dry inside to think of it now.” This human sterility extends to or emerges from the place itself i.e. Ireland: "Talking of being virginal, do you ever notice this country? Doesn’t sex seem irrelevant?” Sir Richard knows that his plantation is almost crushed and he does not want any further damage to happen to it by bringing the soldiers to look if there are buried guns in his plantation: “And why would we want to know? You’ll have the place full of soldiers, trampling the young trees. There’s been enough damage in the plantation with the people coming to sightsee…"
The big house
Danielstown is a very spacious place where most of the incidents in the novel take place. It seems to have unique characteristics and a haunting effect on its inhabitants and visitors. In Elizabeth Bowen: The Shadow Across the Page, Maud Ellmann suggests that architecture in Bowen's writings is inseparable from characters: "In her writing, architecture takes the place of psychology: character is shaped by rooms and corridors, doors and windows, arches and columns, rather than by individual experience." Lois approaches the house from a distance in the end of the first section of the novel ruminating over the scenery and she feels that the house is interacting with her:
To the south, below them, the demesne trees of Danielstown made a dark formal square like a rug on the green country. In their heart like a dropped pin the grey glazed roof reflecting the sky lightly glinted. Looking down, it seemed to Lois they lived in the forest; space of lawns blotted out in the pressure and dusk of tree. She wondered still more that they were not afraid. Far from here too, their isolation became apparent. The house seemed to be pressing down low in apprehension, hiding its face, as though it had her vision of where it was. It seemed to huddle its trees close in fright and amazement at the wide light lovely unloving country, the unwilling bosom whereon it was set.
Laurence calls it "a dreadful house." The looking-glasses of the house make Gerald sleepy. Marda Norton loses her bags and believes the reason is the place: "I don't lose things except coming here; I am efficient really. But there seems a kind of fatality…" When the Montmorencys arrive at Danielstown, the house seems to protest but silently: "Two storeys up, she [Lois] could have heard a curtain rustle, but the mansion piled itself up in silence over the Montmorencys' voices."
The movie was filmed in Dowth Hall, County Meath in the late 1990s, along the riverbanks of the River Boyne.
Oriental/colonial presence
The exotic is presented to us in the Anglo-Irish society in the first chapter: "Going through to her room at nights Lois often tripped with her toe in the jaws of a tiger….There were two locked bookcases of which the keys had been lost, and a troop of ebony elephants brought back from India by someone she did not remember paraded along the tops of the bookcases." There are also a number of instances where antiques from the Orient are part of the furniture of Danielstown. Gerald also is described as "Bedouin" by Betty Vermont: "This was not a thing she could have said to every man, because really the East had become so very suggestive. But he was the dearest boy, so absolutely nice-minded." There is an insinuation that the East carries sexual connotations but Gerald is "nice-minded" and he will not be offended by this association with the East.
The colonial project is embodied in Gerald. When Laurence asks him about the meaning of civilisation, he believes that the British Empire is very capable of delivering civilisation to people: "I mean, looking back in history – not that I'm intellectual – we do seem the only people." Maud Ellmann points out: "The British soldier Gerald Lesworth is naïve enough to think that the good guys can be firmly distinguished from the bad guys. If war were openly declared, he blusters, we could clean these beggars out in a week". In addition, the colonisation is viewed as a career. Gerald criticises Mr. Armstrong because he is not "keener on his career".
Frozen youth
The narrative insists on framing the temporal element of the novel within a fixed period of time, "In those days…" and "cancelled time". In Elizabeth Bowen and the Dissolution of the Novel, Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royle believe that this style of stasis and abeyance in the narrative is characteristic of Bowen since the opening scene of her first novel The Hotel:
Bowen’s novels are always already finished, stilled, from and by the opening of her first novel. Bowen’s novels are still lives. Any reading which can occur beyond this opening is a supplementary reading of the impossible mobilities contained within, but not by, the thought of catatonia. Bowen’s ten novels will be haunted by this opening, by the paradox of a catatonic thought-stoppage, and by the paradox that the novels are already finished, stilled by such a thought.
"In those days" and "cancelled time", Lois, the heroine, believes that she lives in a cocoon: "I might as well be in some kind of cocoon." This frozen, "intransitive" and nebulous imagery is linked with Lois throughout the novel: "She was lonely, and saw there was no future. She shut her eyes and tried – as sometimes when she was seasick, locked in misery between Holyhead and Kingstown – to be enclosed in nonentity, in some ideal no-place perfect and clear as a bubble."
National identity
The Anglo-Irish society seems nonplussed with its loyalty. It is not determined whether to be loyal to Ireland or England. This seems to be the source of its dilemma. The ultimate example is presented in Lois locked between Holyhead [Wales] and Kingstown [Ireland] in "nonentity", belonging to neither place. Ellmann elucidates:
The trouble in this country is the other plot, most of which transpires behind the scenes, while the love plot dominates the stage. Yet both are stories of paralysis: Lois Farquar, the central character, fails to fall in love with any of the men available, just as the Naylors fail to take sides in the struggle that decides their fate. Both plots conclude in disengagement, romantic in the one case, political in the other.
In Elizabeth Bowen: A Reputation in Writing, Renee C. Hoogland expounds how the relationship between the Irish and the Anglo-Irish is doomed:
The sense of dislocation Laurence and Lois have in common is placed at the center of the narrative by being reflected in the novel's sociohistorical setting, metaphorically foregrounded by the violence of the Troubles. Indicative of the gulf dividing the Anglo-Irish from the native Irish, this war will eventually lead to the destruction of the colonizing power of the Anglo-Irish landed gentry, of the Ascendency itself, and of the way of life it still barely upholds. Founded on unequal power relations embedded in an outdated class system, the Anglo-Irish community is shown to have rendered itself virtually obsolete. This in turn is intimated by Lois's and Laurence's relative indifference to the threat of the political upheavals. As the drawn-out ending of a story in which they feel they have no part, the war yet keeps them in thrall and thwarts them in their search for the meanings of their own "historical present".
Satire/comedy
Some critics like Renee C. Hoogland and Neil Corcoran believe that the novel carries satirical and comic elements that target the Anglo-Irish and English society. Hoogland states: "In traditional generic terms, The Last September can be classified as a social comedy that satirizes the manners and the morals of the Anglo-Irish landed gentry and the English upper-middle classes." Hoogland also points Myra Naylor's class “arrogance and bigoted nationalist views allow Bowen to display her exquisite talent for social satire. The main target of the Irish lady's scorn are the English upper-middle classes:
I always find the great thing in England is to have plenty to say, and mercifully they are determined to find one amusing. But if one stops talking, they tell one the most extraordinary things, about their husbands, their money affairs, their insides. They don’t seem discouraged by not being asked. And they seem so intimate with each other; I suppose it comes from living so close together. Of course they are very definite and practical, but it is a pity they talk so much about what they are doing. I can’t think why they think it should matter.
In Elizabeth Bowen: The Enforced Return, Corcoran explains the comic depiction of the Anglo-Irish society:
Constantly playing against the brightness of social comedy in The Last September, therefore – notably the comedy of edgy insinuation and misunderstanding that characterizes Anglo-Irish/English/Irish relations – is a pervasive effect of attenuation, bathos, desuetude. ‘They were delayed, deflected,’ it is said of Hugo’s and Marda’s lengthy failure to pay a return visit to Danielstown; but, in fact, this could be said more generally of the Anglo-Irish in the novel too.
Corcoran also thinks that "...The Last September maintains throughout the parity, if not the primacy, of its comic tone. Inventing the marriage of Hugo and Laura, for instance, the fastidious Laurence also, with a shudder, envisages a time when they and four sons 'all hurried out to coarsen in Canada'; on the wedding morning, he thinks, 'the four young sons jiggled in excitement among the cherubim.'"
Feminism
Hoogland reads Lois's character in an intriguing feminist context. She believes that Lois fails to fall in love completely with Gerald because she sees the futility of marriage around her:
By adopting their prescribed role in the social contract, Lois’s friends [Livvy and Viola] not only conform to but in effect reinforce the regimes of compulsory heterosexuality and phallogocentrism subtending it. Despite her need to be recognized, to "be in a pattern", our heroine is incapable of such a wholehearted embrace of her assigned place within the established power/knowledge system. Sensing the aridity of marriages around her, Lois astutely discerns the limitations imposed on the individual spouses by the institution of heterosexuality itself. Wanting no part of that, she can alleviate her fear of being "locked out" by the elder generation by deriving a "feeling of mysteriousness and destination" from the thought she will "penetrate thirty years deeper ahead into Time than they could". She cannot so easily afford to distance herself from her peers, however. Succeeding the now "lost" leading elders, Viola and Livvy are the others on which Lois depends for confirmation of her precarious sense of self. Her conscious reservation notwithstanding, she feels compelled to follow them in trying to be a "pleasant young person", which, she has learned, entails being "attractive to a number of young men". She therefore hesitatingly accepts Gerald Lesworth's persistent attentions.
Lady Naylor insists that "these early marriages ruin careers, and engagements are nearly as bad". She also believes: "There's a future for girls nowadays outside marriage…Careers –." Despite her intentions in dissuading Lois from marrying Gerald, there is a message of women's empowerment not to adhere to "the institution of heterosexuality", if we use Hoogland's phrase cited above.
Motifs
Ellipsis
The ultimate example of ellipsis of the novel is the mill scene in which Marda Norton is shot. Corcoran explains the function and effect of ellipsis in the novel:
The ruined mill is, as it were, the terrible secret of Anglo-Irish history still architecturally articulate on the land, even in its desolation; and Hugo begins to elaborate something like this before he is prevented by yet one more elision: "'Another', Hugo declared, 'of our national grievances. English law strangled the –' But Lois insisted on hurrying: she and Marda were now well ahead." That ellipsis is the gap through which along Anglo-Irish history falls: the issue is raised, as so often in Bowen, only to be turned from, but in a way that makes it in some ways all the more insistent, with the insistence of the hauntingly irretrievable.
Maud Ellmann also illustrates: "The narrative also cocoons itself, in the sense that most events occur offstage, as in Greek tragedy." A number of the conversations in the novel are full of pauses, unfinished sentences or awkward silence. The conversation that takes place between Gerald and Laurence about civilisation and its meaning eptomises how the meaning happens in interruptions and pauses which are not actual words. Just like Ellmann's analogy of the Greek tragedy where action takes place outside stage, the meaning in The Last September happens in ellipsis.
The burning of Danielstown
The novel ends with the conflagration of Danielstown. But readers are not surprised by this eventful incendiary as the narrative foreshadows this ineluctable ending. Laurence predicts the burning of Danielstown: "But I should like something else to happen, some crude intrusion of the actual. I feel all gassy inside from yawning. I should like to be here when this house burns." The Montmorencys are contemplating building a bungalow but Lady Naylor rebuffs this idea: "Don't be silly – Besides, according to that friend of the Trents, it would be blown up or burnt in a month or two." This ending refers to the IRA practice of destroying country houses in Ireland between 1919 and 1923.
Film adaptation
A film version was released in 1999. John Banville wrote the screenplay, from which Yvonne Thunder produced and Deborah Warner directed. Zbigniew Preisner provided the music and Slawomir Idziak provided the cinematography.
The film stars Maggie Smith, Michael Gambon, Keeley Hawes, David Tennant, Lambert Wilson, Jane Birkin, and Fiona Shaw.
Notes
Sources
Bennett, Andrew and Nicholas Royale: Elizabeth Bowen and the Dissolution of the Novel. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995.
Bowen, Elizabeth. The Last September. 1929. New York: Anchor Books, 2000.
---. “Preface to The Last September.” Seven Winters: Memories of a Dublin Childhood & Afterthoughts: Pieces on Writing. New York: Knopf, 1962.
Corcoran, Neil: Elizabeth Bowen: the Enforced Return. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2004.
Ellmann, Maud: Elizabeth Bowen: The Shadow Across the Page. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2003.
Hoogland, Renee C.: Elizabeth Bowen: A Reputation in Writing. New York: New York UP, 1994.
Williams, Julia McElhattan. “‘Fiction with the Texture of History’: Elizabeth Bowen's The Last September.” MFS Modern Fiction Studies 41.2 (1995): 219–242.
External links
1929 British novels
1999 films
British films
Constable & Co. books
Films based on Irish novels
Irish films
Irish novels adapted into films
Novels by Elizabeth Bowen
Novels set during the Irish War of Independence
Novels set in County Cork
Trimark Pictures films
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Elves, a word from Germanic mythology, are frequently featured in fantasy fiction. In modern fiction, particularly because of the influence from J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, elves are modeled mostly after his original description: tall, human-like creatures of otherworldly beauty, with Kings and Queens. Along with this development, Dark elves are often modeled as a more sinister counterpart to the High elves, like the Drow or the Trow, which are the fairy-like dark creatures of Orcadian and Shetland folklore. The dark elves (Dökkálfar) or black elves (Svartálfar) are presented in Germanic mythology as dwarves and gray ones.
General dark elf lore
Dark elves are known for their aggression, deceit, and stealth. They are very brutal and cruel by nature, having little mercy when it comes to cheating, battling, or anything dealing with the life of another being. They have little respect for even their own kind, at times waging war against each other. However, clans are known to band together, to combat invasions and attacks by other races. They usually do not mix blood with other races; if they do, it is often with a demon or related creature. They lurk in dark places and love the shadows. Rarely will they come into the light for needless purposes, but it is not usually believed light will harm or weaken them. Their weakness varies upon legend, and may include excessive heat, rain, nettles, or the blossoms of some plants and trees. Dark elves generally travel in pairs or groups, as their tendencies towards cheating and theft make them targets for retaliation and violence at the hands of other races.
References to drow in games & literature
Dungeons & Dragons
The drow, as they appear in Dungeons & Dragons, were created by Gary Gygax, who stated that "Drow are mentioned in Keightley's The Fairy Mythology, as I recall (it might have been The Secret Commonwealth—neither book is before me, and it is not all that important anyway), and as Dark Elves of evil nature, they served as an ideal basis for the creation of a unique new mythos designed especially for the AD&D game." ("Books Are Books, Games Are Games" in Dragon Magazine, Nov. 1979, #31.) They were first mentioned in the Dungeons & Dragons game in the 1st Edition 1977 Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Monster Manual under "Elf", where it is stated that "The 'Black Elves,' or drow, are only legend."
Video games
The Baldur's Gate series of video games feature drow as enemies and NPCs, as well as part of the game being set in the drow city of Ust Natha. The drow cleric of Shar, Viconia, features in Baldur's Gate and Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn as a party member and, in the second game, a possible romantic interest. In the Throne of Bhaal expansion, her alignment can be changed from neutral evil to true neutral if she is in a romance with a PC. The Eilistraee-worshipping drow male Solaufein plays a minor role in the second game, but his role can be expanded into a romance with a mod.
In Icewind Dale, a drow named Nym steals dwarven weapons and artifacts and sells them to the goblin and orc armies attacking the elven fortress, the Severed Hand. Since the armies are armed with dwarven weapons, the elf leader Larrel assumes the dwarves betrayed them, and ends the alliance between the two. Thus, Nym is single-handedly responsible for the fall of both the dwarves and the elves in the Dale. Nym can be found in the Svirfneblin village in the tunnels of Lower Dorn's Deep, where he will sell a number of magical artifacts and weapons to the player. Nym also appears in Icewind Dale II, where he appears to be in league with the Legion of the Chimera.
The original campaign and first expansion of Neverwinter Nights do not deal much with the drow but the second expansion, Hordes of the Underdark, does so extensively. Neverwinter Nights 2 continues to expand upon them in their story, as well as allowing drow and other Underdark races as playable characters.
The Dark Elves found in the Age of Wonders series are a species of Elf, but qualify as their own race because they are evil aligned. In the game it states that all Dark Elves were once regular elves, but since elves are immortal they suffer not death of life, but death of spirit. It is never stated why their spirit dies and the only Main Character who has that 'death' is Prince Meandor. Drow also appear in Atari's Demon Stone.
Video games
Age of Wonders
Age of Wonders II: The Wizard's Throne
Age of Wonders: Shadow Magic
Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance
Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance II
Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn
Betrayal at Krondor
Everquest (Dark Elves are one of the playable races)
Everquest II (Dark Elves are one of the playable races)
Eye of the Beholder
Forgotten Realms: Demon Stone
Forgotten Realms: Menzoberranzan
Heroes of Might and Magic V
Icewind Dale
Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning (Dark Elves are one of the playable races)
Neverwinter Nights: Hordes of the Underdark
Neverwinter Nights II
The Elder Scrolls: Arena
The Elder Scrolls II: Daggerfall
The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind (also known as "Dunmer" in the game and its expansions)
The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion (also known as "Dunmer")
The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (also known as "Dunmer")
Pools of Darkness
Kingdom Under Fire: Heroes (As "Dark Elves", although not entirely synonymous with Drow)
Kingdom Under Fire: The Crusaders (As "Dark Elves", although not entirely synonymous with Drow)
Dungeons & Dragons Online: Stormreach
Champions of Norrath (As "Dark Elves", although not entirely synonymous with Drow)
Champions: Return to Arms (As "Dark Elves", although not entirely synonymous with Drow)
Pool of Radiance: Ruins of Myth Drannor
EverQuest
EverQuest II
Materia Magica
Fight for Midgard (as one of the playable races)
God of War
Lineage II (as "Dark Elves" - one of the playable races)
SpellForce (as "Norcaine" - one of the playable races)
The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time (as "Dark Link" - a boss battle)
Etrian Odyssey V (There are playable and NPC elves, some of which are dark)
Total War: Warhammer II (two playable Dark Elf factions)
Trow in popular culture
Trows are characters in Bungie's Myth series.
Trowe appear in the flagship title of InXile, The Bard's Tale, as the prevalent enemy and a source of musical interludes.
Jeremy Grey, owner of the Grey Detective Agency is a Trow in the Merry Gentry series by Laurell K. Hamilton.
Dark elves in popular culture
The Deed of Paksenarrion
In Elizabeth Moon's trilogy The Deed of Paksenarrion, the dark elves are a sect of elves that have wandered from the path and now follow the gods of evil, rather than the "High Lord".
Middle-earth
In J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth writings, the Moriquendi or "Elves of Darkness" were a group of the Elves that did not complete the Great Journey across the continent of Middle-earth and the Sundering Seas, and thus did not behold the light of the Two Trees in Valinor. The Dark Elves were in no way more "evil" than the Light Elves; the latter just had a surpassing knowledge and skill, and were more "noble" and potent.
In one theory as to their origins, Orcs are thought to be corrupted versions of the Avari.
EverQuest
In EverQuest (EQ) the dark elves were a very key role in the game. Players played as these elves in RP Online format. Each player could customize their way of playing through the world. In the sequel, EverQuest II, dark elves (properly known as the Teir'Dal) once again play a prominent role. They are governed by Queen Cristianos Thex from her throne in the ancient subterranean city of Neriak. The city is located at the east end of the Darklight Wood northwest of Freeport on the continent of D'Lere. A number of factions vie for favor and control within Neriak. While many Teir'Dal are native to Neriak, they can be found in most corners of the world of EverQuest II, a planet called Norrath.
Mega Man Zero
The Dark Elf is a key character to the plot of Mega Man Zero 2 and Mega Man Zero 3. She was initially created as the Mother Elf, the good being which had the power to exterminate the Mavericks. However, Dr. Weil cursed the Mother Elf, and it transformed into the ominous Dark Elf, creating two evil "children" dark elves: Créer and Prier. The Dark Elf was so destructive that X sacrificed himself to seal her inside his body. However, years later, in Mega Man Zero 2 she was eventually released by Elpizo, who used her power to fight Zero. With Elpizo's defeat, the Dark Elf flew away. In the third installment, the Resistance and Neo Arcadia started to look for the Dark Elf, causing a clash between Zero and Weil. The Elf and her "children", however, were caught by Weil and merged to Omega (or the "Original Zero"). After Créer, Prier and Omega's demise, Weil's curse was finally broken and the Dark Elf became the Mother Elf once again.
Final Fantasy
The Dark Elf king Astos puts the prince of the Elven Castle to sleep for 5 years. In the game the player must find Matoya and have her make a cure to wake him.
Final Fantasy IV
A boss called the Dark Elf resides in the Lodestone Cavern. Being weak against metallic weapons, he created a strong, magnetic field within his lair. The bard, Edward, could play music which disrupted his concentration and with it the field. As a last resort he transforms into the Dark Dragon. His sentences contained odd capitalization.
Dungeons & Dragons
In the Dungeons & Dragons multiverse, especially in the worlds of Greyhawk, the Forgotten Realms and Eberron, dark elves are commonly called drow. They are dark-skinned and white-haired and are generally, but not exclusively, evil. Many other games and works of mainstream fantasy fiction derive their "dark elves" or "night elves" from the drow of Dungeons & Dragons. The drow in most Dungeons & Dragons settings are depicted as worshipers of the spider goddess Lolth and live in matriarchal societies.
In the Mystara/"Known World" setting, shadow elves are a race of subterranean elves who have been mutated via magic. In the Dragonlance setting, dark elves are not a separate subrace of elves (in fact, the drow of other worlds do not exist on this one). In this setting, "dark elf" is a label given to any elf that is outcast from elven society, typically (although not always) for evil practices.
Fighting Fantasy
In the Fighting Fantasy gamebook role-playing series, dark elves are much like their Dungeons & Dragons counterparts. However, some details of their culture have been adapted to fit the Fighting Fantasy background.
Record of Lodoss War
Some dark elves from the fictional world of Record of Lodoss War are brown-skinned and not necessarily evil, but primarily aligned with the forces of Marmo, the enemies of the story's heroes. These dark elves are capable of deep loyalty and love, as personified by the only dark elf main character, Pirotess.
Shadowrun
As with most metahuman races in the Shadowrun world, many elves are born from the same ethnic groups that normal humans come from, meaning that there are African elves, Indian elves, and Arabic elves, for example. However, the closest thing to the "dark elf" in Shadowrun is the elf metahuman variant subgroup called the Night Ones, most of which come from Europe. The Night Ones have an aversion to sunlight and are different from other elves by possessing a fine fur coat that covers their bodies, indistinguishable from their skin at a distance and usually colored black, violet, or dark blue. Popular media has dubbed them dark elves, and the group is sometimes stereotyped against as being members of a cult or an "evil" metahuman race.
Warhammer
In the fictional universes of Warhammer Fantasy and Warhammer 40,000, the generally evil Dark Elves (running parallel to the Dark Eldar in the Warhammer 40,000 universe) do not dwell underground, living instead in cities similar to those of High Elves, are not dark-skinned. Dark Elves are masters of torture and they worship the god Khaine, Lord of Murder.
The Dark Elves of Warhammer call themselves the Druchii and are ruled with an iron fist by the Witch-King Malekith and his sorcerous mother Morathi. The Druchii live in the land of Naggaroth and are cruel raiders with much disdain for all other races, especially their lighter kindred, the High Elves. The Dark Elves were actually the ones responsible for sparking "the War of the Beard", the great war that caused the rift in Dwarf and High Elf relations, though only the High Elves know this and the Dwarfs would disbelieve it if they found out.
In the Warhammer 40,000 universe, the Dark Eldar (Also known as the Drukhari) live in the extra-dimensional city of Commorragh from which they launch raids upon the rest of the galaxy to capture slaves to be brought back to Commorragh as playthings or torture victims. They are afflicted with a condition known among themselves as the Thirst, which forces them to consume the souls of other sentient creatures lest the Chaos God Slaanesh consume theirs. Dark Eldar are masters of torture, and use the anguish of their victims to satiate Slaanesh, the prince of pleasure.
The Elder Scrolls
In The Elder Scrolls series of role-playing video games, Dark Elves (often referred to as Dunmer) generally live peacefully with other races and by and large their entire race is not considered evil like many other fantasy series. They are the native and predominant race of Morrowind. They are considered generally conservative by nature and are distrustful of "outlanders" (non-natives). Dunmer culture is split between the settled people of the cities and the nomadic Ashlander tribes. Dark can easily be applied to them as "gloomy" or "morbid", for such is their temperament. Dunmer are said to have been punished with their red eyes and dark-bluish skin colour by Azura, one of the most prominent Daedra, either for disobeying her in one of the most crucial moments of their history or for turning to worship the Tribunal, along with the Tribunal killing Nerevar, the savior of the Dunmer. Many Imperial scholars prefer the theory that the bluish-grey skin is an adaptive response to the frequent volcanic eruptions on Vvardenfell. A long lifespan is common among members of the race, most living up to 200-300 years, with the exception of wizards and necromancers who may live anywhere up to the thousands.
In truth, the term Dunmer more properly means Cursed Elves than Dark Elves. However, the term Dark Elves is far more complimentary. Although conventionally civilized, the Dunmer are known to possess somewhat savage and barbaric traits, especially amongst the royal House Wars of the ruling classes. While the Tribunal (a temple centred around a trio of demigods)were once their religious pantheon, they have since fallen out of favour to be replaced by Daedric worship, which had fallen out of practice long ago due to the rise of the Tribunal centuries earlier. As a result of the Armistice allowing Morrowind to maintain many of its own laws, it was the only province under the Empire which continued to practice chattel slavery of the "lesser" races, including High Elves and Wood Elves; by the events of The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion however this practice has been abandoned. An event known as the "Red Year" occurs roughly 196 years previous to the events of The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim and 11 years after The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, the volcano Red Mountain erupted, causing a wide array of destruction and chaos in its wake, forcing many Dunmer to seek refuge in nearby Skyrim and other provinces. Following the Red Year, the nation of Argonia invaded much of the remaining habitable parts of the province in revenge for centuries of slavery, further decimating the Dunmer race.
Midkemia
Midkemian dark elves - called moredhel (incidentally, a 'literal' word from Dark and Elf from Tolkien Elvish) - resemble the elves (eledhel) and the glamredhel, the "mad ones", but have dark hair. They're quite warlike because of the 'path' they follow is towards power, 'might makes right', and 'the end justifies the means'. They mostly inhabit the Northlands, and also the continent of Triagia, and are usually only seen in the more populated parts of the world robbing and raiding. Some of the moredhel return to reside with the eledhel in a process of change inwardly and outwardly, called the Returning, but they are often killed by their kin before they reach the home of the elves, Elvandar.
The truth, known only to the elves themselves and few elf-friends, is that the moredhel and eledhel are the one race both of whom were slaves under the Valheru. When the latter disappeared the field slaves turned their back on their former masters' ways and became the eledhel, while the house slaves who had been in closer proximity to their masters sought their power and methods and became the moredhel. The eldar, keepers of lore and of the Valheru's sacred objects, left Midkemia and made their home on the world of Kelewan unbeknownst to anyone, as they kill anyone who tries to enter their forest.
They play a significant role in the novel A Darkness at Sethanon (Riftwar series) and the video game Betrayal at Krondor. The Novel 'Krondor the Betrayal' goes quite in depth to show the 'moredhel' are not evil per se, but have a very xenophobic, stubborn, and harsh culture, going so far as to commit genocide against the glamredhel, whose descendants are later discovered in a different forest on Midkemia, in a slightly barbaric state.
GURPS Banestorm
On the world of Yrth as presented in GURPS Banestorm, the dark elves are not a separate race, but are a xenophobic offshoot of the main elven culture. They think all non-elves in general, and orcs in particular, are an aberration against nature and a threat to the future of the world and the elven race, and thus conspire to either enslave or destroy those other races. They began as nothing more than a group of elves united against orcs, but over the centuries their beliefs diverged from the elven mainstream. They believe in using magic to improve on nature, guiding it actively toward union with the Eternal, the elven (and dwarven) conception of the divine. Most elves consider their belief perverted and dangerous. The dark elves are responsible for the Banestorm effect that brought humans, goblins, lizardfolk, and other non-Yrth native races to Yrth.
Might and Magic
Dark elves were part of Might and Magic VIII as one of the dominant species on the continent Jadame of the planet Enroth, available as playable characters. Portrayed as red and brown-skinned counterparts to the wood and snow elves, these dark elves are peaceful and inhabit the country of Alvar, which includes Jadame's major port city Ravenshore in the south. The lands of Alvar north of Ravenshore are troubled by aggressive ogres. There is a dark elven prophecy concerning the end of the world.
In Ashan, the world of Heroes of Might and Magic V, Dark Elves are a faction that lives in tunnels under the surface. They are descendants of the followers of Tuidhanna, originally a renegade Wood Elf Queen, whose people were blamed for burning down the Giant Tree, Brythigga, sacred to the Wood Elves.
Fading Suns
In the setting of the Fading Suns science fiction role-playing game, the fictional extraterrestrial races of the Ur-Obun and the Ur-Ukar are essentially science fiction renditions of high elves and dark elves respectively, somewhat akin to the Eldar and the Dark Eldar in the Warhammer 40000 miniature wargame. However, in contrast to the usual portrayal of dark elves, the Ur-Ukar are not inherently evil, but simply possess a predisposition for direct, sometimes violent behavior and display a certain moral ambiguity.
Rise of the Drow
Rise of the Drow is a mega-adventure and setting published by AAW Games, set in Aventyr and with versions available for Pathfinder 1st edition and Dungeons & Dragons 5th edition. The adventure takes characters across the surface and into the depths of the world where they confront the dreaded Drow.
Aventyr's drow are unique, having blue-grey skin and grey or white hair, with dark elf skin pigmentation designed with fantasy realism in mind, lacking vitamin D from the sun. Written by Jonathan G. Nelson and Stephen Yeardley, developed by Thomas Baumbach, with a foreword by Forgotten Realms creator Ed Greenwood, Rise of the Drow is 552 pages in length and designed for character levels 1-20. The original edition was nominated for an ENnie Award in 2014.
Famous dark elves in fiction
Shadowblade
Shadowblade is a warrior and is the most elite assassin in the world of Warhammer Fantasy world. He is an assassin in the society of the Dark Elves, who themselves are the masters of assassination. Even though he's still young by Dark Elf standards (a mere 150 years old) he is a legend amongst the Druchii, his exploits told as fireside tales to eager Dark Elf children. Most celebrated of all is his single-handed massacre of the entire crew of a High Elf Hawkship, whom he murdered one by one over several days, each killed in a different fashion. The mere thought of Shadowblade's murderous attempts is enough to keep all but the stupidest or brave Dark Elf from plotting against the Witch King for he is loyal only to the Hag Queen and the Witch King, although it is the Hag Queen alone that knows the true identity of Shadowblade.
Drizzt Do'Urden
Drizzt Do'Urden is a Drow in the Forgotten Realms fantasy world. Drow are dark elves that live in caverns deep beneath the surface known as the "Underdark" of the Forgotten Realms. In R. A. Salvatore's novels Drizzt renounces the Drow's Spider-Queen Lolth, goddess of treachery and deception (and later embraces Mielikki, goddess of the forests and rangers). In doing so, Drizzt angers Lolth who, in turn, demands his family sacrifice him. Drizzt leaves behind the city of his birth, Menzoberranzan escaping the wrath of his family, and consequently his former house (the house of Do'Urden) is left to bear the wrath of the evil Spider-Queen. Finding himself a renegade, Drizzt seeks sanctuary from his past on the surface world. Whereas most Drow are evil and power hungry, Drizzt is benevolent and humble. On the surface he is often wrongly persecuted for the reputation of his race, yet through the years he slowly gains a reputation for himself, allowing him acceptance without prejudice. His preferred weapons are twin scimitars, although he is perfectly capable of using a variety of other weapons should the need arise. His primary companion is Guenhwyvar, a magical panther who is summoned to Drizzt's plane of existence by means of a small onyx figurine. Along the way Drizzt has also made many important friends, such as the dwarf king Bruenor, the dwarf's adopted daughter Catti-brie and the human Barbarian Wulfgar, as well as Montolio "Mooshie" Debrouchee who revealed to the dark elf which deity his heart followed and the svirfneblin Belwar Dissengulp from Blingdenstone, the first member of a lawful race to accept Drizzt.
Gorath, Chieftain of the Ardanien
Gorath is a renegade Dark Elf (Moredhel) from Raymond E. Feist's fantasy world Midkemia. He betrayed his people to travel south across the Teeth of the World (a mountain range which separates the Moredhel from the rest of the world) in order to warn Prince Arutha ConDoin of the coming war in an effort to stop the Moredhel leader, Delekhan, and save his people from utter destruction. His story is portrayed in the video game Betrayal at Krondor and again in the novel based on the video game, Krondor: The Betrayal. This book is the first novel in The Riftwar Legacy, followed by Krondor: The Assassins, Krondor: The Tear of the Gods, Krondor: The Crawler (Not yet released), and Krondor: The Dark Mage (Not yet released).
Marvel
Dark Elves appear in both Marvel Comics and the Marvel Cinematic Universe as nemeses of Thor. They come from the world of Svartalfheim, one of the Nine_Worlds of Norse Mythology. They are ruled over by Malekith, and the most powerful amongst their ranks was Algrim the Strong. In the comics, Dark Elves first appeared in Thor #344 (June 1984). On screen they debuted in the 2013 Marvel Studios film Thor: The Dark World.
See also
The Night Elves and Blood Elves of Warcraft
References
Elves in popular culture
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The Ford Fiesta is a supermini marketed by Ford since 1976 over seven generations. Over the years, the Fiesta has mainly been developed and manufactured by Ford's European operations, and has been positioned below the Escort (later the Focus).
In 2008, the sixth generation Fiesta (Mark VI) was introduced worldwide, making it the first Fiesta model to be sold in the United States since the Fiesta Mark I was discontinued at the end of 1980.
Ford has sold over 16 million Fiestas since 1976, making it one of the best-selling Ford marques behind the Escort and the F-Series. It has been manufactured in the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Mexico, Taiwan, China, India, Thailand, and South Africa.
Development
The Fiesta was originally designed by the project "Bobcat" team headed by Trevor Erskine (not to be confused with the badge-engineered Mercury variant of the Ford Pinto) and approved for development by Henry Ford II in September 1972, just after the launch of two comparable cars – the Fiat 127 and Renault 5. More than a decade earlier, Ford had decided against producing a new small car to rival BMC's Mini, as the production cost was deemed too high, but the 1973 oil crisis caused a rise in the already growing demand for smaller cars.
The Fiesta was an all new car in the supermini segment, and was the smallest car yet made by Ford. Development targets indicated a production cost US$100 less than the current Escort. The car was to have a wheelbase longer than that of the Fiat 127, but with overall length shorter than that of Ford's Escort. The final proposal was developed by Tom Tjaarda at Ghia, overseen by Ford of Europe's then chief stylist Uwe Bahnsen. The project was approved for production in late 1973, with Ford's engineering centres in Cologne and Dunton (Essex) collaborating.
Ford estimated that 500,000 Fiestas a year would be produced, and built an all-new factory near Valencia, Spain; a transaxle factory near Bordeaux, France; factory extensions for the assembly plants in Dagenham, UK. Final assembly also took place in Valencia.
After years of speculation by the motoring press about Ford's new car, it was subject to a succession of carefully crafted press leaks from the end of 1975. A Fiesta was on display at the Le Mans 24 Hour Race in June 1976, and the car went on sale in France and Germany in September 1976; to the frustration of UK dealerships, right-hand drive versions only began to appear in January 1977. Its initial competitors in Europe, apart from the Fiat 127 and Renault 5, included the Volkswagen Polo and Vauxhall Chevette. Chrysler UK were also about to launch the Sunbeam by this stage, and British Leyland was working on a new supermini, which was launched as the Austin Metro in 1980.
The name "Fiesta" (meaning "party" in Spanish) belonged to General Motors, used as a trim level on Oldsmobile station wagons, when the car was designed, and was freely given for Ford to use on their new B-class car. Ford's marketing team had preferred the name "Bravo", but Henry Ford II vetoed it in favour of the Fiesta name.
First generation (1976)
The Fiesta was initially available in Europe with the Valencia inline-four engine (I4) with high- and low-compression options, and engines and in Base, Popular, Popular Plus, L, GL (1978 onward), Ghia, and S trim levels, as well as a van. The US Mark I Fiesta was built in Cologne, but to slightly different specifications; US models were Base, Decor, Sport, and Ghia, with the Ghia having the highest level of trim. These trim levels changed very little in the Fiesta's three-year run in the US, from 1978 to 1980. All US models featured the more powerful engine, (which was the older "Crossflow" version of the Kent, rather than the Valencia) fitted with a catalytic converter and air pump to satisfy strict Californian emission regulations), energy-absorbing bumpers, side-marker lamps, round sealed-beam headlamps, and improved crash dynamics and fuel system integrity, as well as optional air conditioning (which was not available in Europe). In the US market, the North American Ford Escort replaced both the Fiesta and the compact Pinto in 1981, competing with the Chevrolet Chevette and Chevrolet Cavalier.
A sporting derivative (1.3 L Supersport) was offered in Europe for the 1980 model year, using the Kent Crossflow engine, effectively to test the market for the similar XR2 introduced a year later, which featured a 1.6-litre version of the same engine. Black plastic trim was added to the exterior and interior. The small, square headlights were replaced with larger circular ones, with the front indicators being moved into the bumper to accommodate the change.
For the 1979 auto-show season, Ford in conjunction with its Ghia Operations in Turin, Italy, produced the Ford Fiesta Tuareg off-road car. It was touted in press materials as "a concept vehicle designed and equipped for practical, off-road recreational use."
Minor revisions appeared across the range in late 1981, with larger bumpers to meet crash-worthiness regulations and other small improvements in a bid to maintain showroom appeal ahead of the forthcoming second generation.
Second generation (1983)
The Fiesta Mark II appeared in August 1983 with a revised front end and interior, and a bootlid mirroring the swage lines from the sides of the car. The 1.3 L OHV engine was dropped, being replaced in 1984 by a compound valve-angle hemispherical combustion chamber (CVH) powerplant of similar capacity, itself superseded by the lean burn 1.4 L two years later. The 957 and 1,117 cc Kent/Valencia engines continued with only slight alterations and for the first time a Fiesta diesel was produced with a 1,600 cc engine adapted from the Escort.
The new CTX continuously variable transmission, also fitted in the Fiat Uno, eventually appeared early in 1987 on 1.1 L models only.
The Mk2 Fiesta core range (excluding special editions) was made up of these model variants; Popular, Popular Plus, L, Ghia, 1.4S (1986 onwards), and finally, the XR2.
The second-generation Fiesta featured a different dashboard on the lower-series trim levels compared to the more expensive variants.
The XR2 model was thoroughly updated with a larger body kit. It also featured a 1.6 L CVH engine as previously seen in the Ford Escort XR3, and five-speed gearbox (also standard on the 1.3 L CVH models), rather than the four-speed gearbox, which had been used on the previous XR2 and on the rest of the Fiesta range. The engine was replaced by a lean-burn variant in 1986, which featured a revised cylinder head and carburettor; it was significantly cleaner from an environmental viewpoint, but was slightly less powerful as a result ().
A truly "hot" Fiesta was never produced by the factory to avoid impacting sales of performance Ford Escort variants, but many aftermarket conversions were available, the best-known being that by the English firm Turbo Technics boosting power to a well-documented , which easily outclassed its "standard" rivals. Ford appreciated the high quality of this conversion, and was keen to look after its customers; the installation was undertaken by approved fitting centres and all the warranties remained valid after.
The facelifted Fiesta, facing competition from the Austin Metro, Fiat Uno, Nissan Micra, Peugeot 205, Toyota Starlet, Vauxhall Nova, and Volkswagen Polo, was one of the UK's top superminis. In its best-ever year, 1987, over 150,000 Fiesta models were sold in the UK, though it finished second in the sales charts to the Ford Escort. It was available in Japan, sold at Ford/Mazda dealerships called Autorama; it complied with Japanese government dimension regulations, and the engine displacement was in the more favourable Japanese road tax bracket, which helped sales.
Third generation (BE13; 1989)
The third-generation Fiesta Mark III, codenamed BE-13, was unveiled at the end of 1988 and officially went on sale in February 1989. The car was based on a new platform, ditching the old car's rear beam axle for a semi-independent torsion beam arrangement, and looked radically different, addressing the principal weakness of the previous generation – the lack of a five-door version, which was by then available in its major rivals such as the Fiat Uno, Peugeot 205 and 106, and Opel Corsa/Vauxhall Nova. The other main change was to the running gear – the improved high-compression swirl version of the Kent/Valencia powerplant. The CVH units from the second generation were carried over largely unmodified. The diesel engine was enlarged to a 1.8 L capacity.
The sports-model XR2i was launched in August 1989 with an eight-valve CVH engine with . This was the first Fiesta to have a fuel-injected engine. This was then replaced by a Zetec 16-valve version in 1992, which also had the RS Turbo being supplanted by the RS1800, as the CVH engine was being phased out. The RS1800 shared its 1.8-litre Zetec fuel-injected engine with the version of the then-current Ford Escort XR3i, and had a top speed of . The XR2i name was also dropped in early 1994, and the insurance-friendly "Si" badge appeared in its place on a slightly less sporty-looking model with either the 1.4 L PTE (a development of the CVH) or the 1.6 L Zetec engine.
With the introduction of the successor Mark IV, the Mark III was built and sold at the same time. To distinguish the car, trim levels were revised, and it was marketed as the "Fiesta Classic". This version continued until production finally ceased in 1997.
Fourth generation (BE91; 1995)
The Fiesta Mark IV (internal code name was BE91) was launched in October 1995 and became Britain's best-selling car from 1996 to 1998, when it was overtaken by the all-new Ford Focus, a replacement for the Escort.
The Mark IV benefited from new interior and exterior styling. It maintained similar dimensions to the Mark III, along with the platform and the basic body structure, most noticeably the side door openings. The RS1800 and RS Turbo models were not carried over to the updated Fiesta range.
The model featured a range of new Zetec-SE engines, available in 1.25 L and 1.4 L forms, the 1.8-litre Diesel engine was slightly modified for the Mark IV, now marketed as the "Endura DE". Lower-specification models remained available with what was the final edition of the Kent 1.3 L OHV engine, now known as Endura-E.
As an exercise in badge engineering, the Mazda 121 and Ford Fiesta Mark IV shared their design, were built on the same production lines, and used almost all the same parts. In the JD Power reliability surveys at the time, the Mazda was reported to be significantly more reliable and attracted higher levels of customer satisfaction, despite it being a slower seller than the Fiesta.
Fifth generation (BE256; 2002)
On April 1, 2002, the Fiesta Mark V was unveiled. This generation of the Ford Fiesta (Mk5) is often referred to as Mk6. This is because the previous model, the Mk4 Fiesta, was often called the Mk5 after it received a facelift in 1999. In other words, the 2002-2008 Fiesta is the fifth generation model, and what is often referred to as Mk5 is just a facelift model of the Mk4 – different looking front but still the same car. Production at Almussafes Plant started on April 29, 2002. Most engines were carried over from the previous Fiesta, but renamed "Duratec", as the "Zetec" name was now solely used for sportier models. The previous push-rod 1.3 L engine was initially available in the UK, but this was quickly replaced with a Rocam 1.3 L, both under the name Duratec 8v.
Trim levels available initially were Finesse, LX, Zetec, and Ghia, with limited-edition variants soon following. The fifth generation was also the first Fiesta to feature the antilock braking system and passenger airbags as standard. This generation became the best-selling Ford Fiesta generation to date.
Engines available include 1.25, 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, and 2.0 L petrol engines, plus 1.4 L 8v and 1.6 L 16v Duratorq TDCi common-rail diesels built in a joint venture with PSA. There was also a Supercharged 1.0 L in the Brazilian market.
This was the first Fiesta to be sold in Asia and Australasia (all 1.6 L LX three-door/five-door, Zetec three-door, Ghia five-door), replacing the Kia-based Festiva. In Brazil and Argentina, a Fiesta saloon version was introduced in late 2004. A similar Fiesta saloon model, with a different front end, was released in India in late 2005. This Fiesta generation was ergonomically and mechanically more advanced than any previous generation. The 2005 facelift came with an improved exterior.
Sixth generation (B299/B409; 2008)
The sixth-generation Fiesta, also known as Mark VI or Mark VII in the UK, was shown in concept form as the Ford Verve at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2007, and marketed in principal European markets, Australia and the United States. Developed under the project code B299 and B409, this model uses the new Ford global B-car platform.
The model was launched under the company’s new "One Ford" strategy, which called for single models to be manufactured and sold globally to achieve efficiency and economies of scale, instead of making regional models. Production started at Ford's Cologne plant in Germany in August 2008. A second plant in Valencia, Spain, started production in early 2009. Production in China, Thailand, and Mexico started from late 2008 to 2010. In Brazil, the production of the hatchback version started in 2013.
In late September 2012 at the Paris Motor Show, the facelifted Fiesta for the European market went on sale in 2013. It was the first to use Ford's latest corporate front end, which included the newly-introduced trapezoidal grille.
Seventh generation (2017)
On November 29, 2016, the seventh-generation Fiesta (Mark VII, or Mark VIII in UK) was announced in Germany, being bigger, roomier, safer, more efficient, and more upmarket. The Fiesta range expanded to include new additions - a crossover-styled variant called the Fiesta Active, and the luxury Fiesta Vignale.
The Fiesta has been withdrawn from North America, South America, Australasia, and Asia, according to Ford, due to the popularity of SUVs, and pickup trucks, such as the Ranger and Escape. However, the Ford Fiesta ST continues to be sold in Australia due to popularity.
Fiesta ST (2018–present)
On February 24, 2017, the seventh-generation Fiesta ST was announced. It features an all-new 200 PS three-cylinder, 1.5-litre Ecoboost engine with turbocharger and cylinder deactivation technology.
On March 12, 2018, Ford announced that a Quaife limited-slip differential would be offered for the first time on the Fiesta ST as part of an optional "Performance Pack". The pack also includes a "ST" shift-change light in the instrument cluster and launch control.
The all-new Fiesta ST also includes three selectable driving modes, a first for the model. These include "Normal", "Sport", and "Race Track". Each mode changes the characteristics of the car, including the steering feel, throttle response, deactivating the engine 'start-stop' feature, and opening the flap in the exhaust, which increases the sound of the car.
The Fiesta ST was released on May 7, 2018. Despite being heavier than the previous ST model, the new ST can go from zero to in 6.5 seconds. Power and torque have been increased to and , respectively, which match the figures of the limited-edition Fiesta ST200 of the previous generation. From launch, it is available in either a three-door or five-door body style, and comes standard with a six-speed manual gearbox, with no option of an automatic. On April 1, 2019, the Fiesta ST-1 was discontinued, leaving only the ST-2 and ST-3 models.
In April 2019, Ford announced a new limited-edition model to the ST range called the "Performance Edition". Although named "Performance", the Fiesta ST does not gain any power upgrades to the standard ST. The car is based on the ST-3 model and comes with multiple options that would normally be a cost option to an ST, such as LED headlights, B&O sound system, and Performance Pack. To differentiate the Performance Edition, the car comes with exclusive options, namely standard Deep Orange paint, lowered and adjustable ride height, and lighter multispoke alloy wheels.
The Ford Fiesta ST won [[Top Gear (2002 TV series)|Top Gear'''s]] Hot Hatch and Car of the Year for 2018.
2022 facelift
In September 2021, Ford announced and released images of the facelifted Ford Fiesta, and Fiesta ST due to be released at the beginning of 2022. The new models come with a new front bumper, other visual modifications and a new 'Wrong Way Alert' safety feature over the previous model. Plus, in the higher-spec models you can also get increased torque, matrix LED headlights and upgraded technology like a fully digital instrument binnacle.
Powertrain
Marketing
On July 20, 2017, Ford UK released an advertisement of the Fiesta featuring actress Keeley Hawes.
Commercial variants
All seven generations of the Fiesta have been available in sedan delivery/panel van format, although not in all markets. The Mark I, II, and III versions feature the standard three-door bodyshell with the rear side glass replaced by body-coloured metal and a flat floor pan instead of the rear seats.
In 1991, a "high-cube"-style van based on the Mark III front bodyshell, but with longer wheelbase and Renault-derived rear torsion bar suspension, was introduced and was named the Ford Courier. The Courier continued in the Mark IV style through 2002, when it was replaced by the Ford Transit Connect.
For the Mark V, the standard Fiestavan version was based on the three-door bodyshell rather than the taller five-door version. The Mark VI Fiesta van was first introduced in the European market in mid-2009, a year after the original launch.
Motorsport
Rallying
Two Ford Fiestas starred in the 1979 Monte Carlo Rally — the British entry driven by Roger Clark and aided by co-driver Jim Porter, and a German entry piloted by Ari Vatanen and co-driven by David Richards. Both cars were highly modified with special motorsport components throughout and featured pioneering limited-slip differential technology. The cars were powered by competition tuned versions of the 1,600 cc Kent crossflow engine — a later version of which appeared in the Mk 1 Fiesta XR2. The two rally cars performed well in the arduous ice and snow that year. Roger Clark did not set any records but the German car achieved 9th position overall — a very encouraging result, which sparked demand for sportier Fiestas.
Since this, sporting and "hot hatch" editions have been introduced, including Supersport, XR2, S(Sport), XR2i, Si, RS Turbo, RS1800, Zetec S, Zetec RS, and ST. All of these were powered by a range of engines from the Ford Kent to the Ford Duratec engines.
The Ford RallyeConcept in 2002 has been realised through an intensely close collaboration between Ford RallyeSport, the motorsport experts behind the Puma Super 1600 and the Focus WRC rally cars, and Ford Design Europe, the creative team responsible for the new three-door Fiesta on which the RallyeConcept is based. Ford RallyeConcept's marriage of the motorsport engineer's objective for performance functionality with the eye for detail of the designer has been so effective that Ford has committed to an engineering development programme to bring a Fiesta-based rally car to reality. Aiming for FIA homologation by mid-2003, Ford RallyeSport is hoping that it will become Ford's next success story in national and international rallying. The Fiesta Super 1600 debuted at Rally Greece 2004.
The "Fiesta Sporting Trophy" is a One Make Championship; beginning its first season in March 2006, it combines keen competition with equal performance and leaves the decision about winning or losing to the drivers and co-drivers' capabilities. The driver, co-driver, and mechanics work as a team to compete against the toughest adversary of all—the clock.
The Fiesta Sporting Trophy is based around the Fiesta ST Group N car. The car has from the 2 L Duratec ST engine, which when combined with the conversion kit from M-Sport, has been designed to provide all of the safety equipment and performance upgrades to enable the car to be competitive and reliable at any event around the world.
In March 2007, the Pirtek Rally Team introduced the Ford Fiesta Super 2000 rally car, which was to compete in the Australian Rally Championship.
On November 18, 2009, Ford with M-Sport unveiled the Ford Fiesta S2000 Mark VI. Although not due for homologation until January 2010, it was set to make its debut as course car on the final round of the IRC series, Rally Scotland. The car had been built to compete mainly in the Super 2000 World Rally Championship. In 2013, M-Sport developed the Ford Fiesta R5, the successor of the Fiesta S2000; this was based on the 1.6 litre Fiesta ST, and was designed for the Group R5 class of rallying. Fiesta R5 got Evo update in early 2016.
With new WRC regulations coming in 2011, M-Sport developed the Fiesta RS WRC, based on Fiesta S2000. It won six WRC rounds in 2011 and 2012, driven by Jari-Matti Latvala, Mikko Hirvonen and Mads Ostberg, but since M-Sport lost most of its manufacturer support for the 2013 season the car hasn't been able to win. In 2013, Thierry Neuville was the world championship runner-up, being a M-Sport junior works driver. Fiesta RS WRC has been very popular among private drivers, due to its good driveability, reasonable price and good availability.
The WRC regulations will be altered for 2017 and M-Sport has thus started developing the Mk7 Fiesta World Rally Car.
Fiesta ST Group N specifications
Rallycross
The Fiesta Rallycross Supercars version is a racecar with a 2.0 L Duratec turbocharged four-cylinder engine, running on petrol or E85 (85% ethanol/15% petrol). It produces over and . That propels the rallycross-prepped Fiesta up to sixty in 2.2 seconds. The cars were more powerful (another 200 bhp) than WRC cars.
The Fiesta Mk6 Rallycross cars made their US debuts in the 2009 Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in Colorado. Swedish team Olsbergs MSE announced the cars would later appear in ESPN's X Games 15 on 2009-08-02. The two Olsbergs MSE Fiesta Mk7 Rallycross cars were based on the Fiesta hatchback model road cars, one with 3 doors, the other one a 5-doors version, but with all-wheel drive, powered by 2.0 L Duratec Ford engines capable of more than (for PPIHC only).
British company M-Sport also builds Fiesta Rallycross Supercars to Global Rallycross Championship teams Hoonigan Racing Division, Chip Ganassi Racing and Bryan Herta Autosport.
Driving a Fiesta, Tanner Foust won the 2011 and 2012 Global RallyCross Championship and was runner-up in the 2011 and 2012 FIA European Rallycross Championship. Toomas Heikkinen won the Global RallyCross Championship in 2013 and Joni Wiman and 2014. Other notable drivers include Marcus Grönholm, Ken Block and Brian Deegan.
An Olsbergs MSE RX Supercar Lite from FIA Rallycross Lite is also based on Ford FIesta.
Circuit racing
In the UK, the Fiesta is commonly used in club level motorsport series but has its national one-make series called the Ford Fiesta Championship. During its peak in the 1980s and 1990s, it had manufacturer support and it even was a support race to the British Grand Prix and numerous British Touring Car Championship rounds. The series has gone through numerous name changes including Ford Credit Fiesta Championship, Ford Fiesta Zetec Championship and BRSCC Ford Si Challenge and is nowadays run by the BRSCC (British Racing and Sports Car Club) as a club racing championship. The organisation also run the other series that consists of Fiestas.
Ford XR Challenge, for XR2 and XR2i models, also consists of the Escort XR models.
Ford Saloon Championship, mainly for a wider range of Ford models but Fiestas are mostly seen in classes C and E with a Mk 4 example winning the title outright in 2006 at the hands of Ollie Allen.
The car has also been raced in the Touring-Light division of the Russian Touring Car Championship.
Fiesta drivers won the Super 1600 class of the European Touring Car Cup seven times from 2008 to 2016.
Sales and popularity
The Fiesta has been Britain's most popular new car in 1990, 1991, 1996, 1997, 1998, and each year from 2009–2020. By the time of the MK2 Fiesta's demise in early 1989, just under 1,300,000 had been sold in Britain since its launch 12 years earlier.
In June 2014, Ford claimed the largest market share in the UK of 12.87% – and almost half of those registrations belonged to the Fiesta. By July 2014, the Fiesta became the UK's best-selling car of all time, with 4,115,000 sold.
Awards and recognition
The 2011 Fiesta was one of the five finalists for the 2011 Green Car of the Year awarded by the Green Car Journal in November 2010, competing with two plug-in electric vehicles, the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt (the winner), and two hybrid electric vehicles.
Winner of UK Design Council Efficiency Award for "exemplary contribution to the reduction of running and maintenance costs" in 1978. The award was presented by Prince Philip.
Winner Australia's Best Small Car in 2004.
Winner of Business Standard Motoring Jury Award, 2006.
What Car's Best Used Supermini for 2006 – 1.4 Zetec 3dr 2003 – Runner Up Toyota Yaris 1.0 T2 3dr 2003.
Winner of Brazilian Auto Esporte magazine Car of the Year in 2005 (Fiesta Sedan).
Winner of Game Informer magazine Best Racing Games of the Year For Best Car in 2011 (Fiesta Gymkhana Car).
Named Scottish Car of the Year 2008 at the 11th annual Association of Scottish Motoring Writers (ASMW) awards dinner in St Andrew's, Scotland.
Named 'Car of the Year 1989' by Britain's What Car? magazine.
Named 'Car of the Year 2009' by Britain's What Car? magazine.
Named 'Semperit Irish Small car of the Year' by tyre manufacturer Semperit
Named 'Car of the Year' and 'Best Supermini' in Auto Express magazine's New Car Awards 2009.
Fiesta ECOnetic named 'Least boring green car' of 2009 by Top Gear'''s James May.
First minicar to achieve Top Safety Pick by the US Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) based on front-, side- and rear-impact crash testing and roof-strength.
Winner of the 2011 AJAC Car of the year award for Best Small Car under $21,000.
Named 'Supermini of the Year 2013' by Britain's What Car?
Named 'Used Car of the Year 2012' by UK's CAP Black Book Car Guide.
Fiesta ST chosen Top Gear's Car of the Year 2013
Best Driver's Car Award – Bloomberg-UTV Autocar India Awards
Business Standard Motoring Jury Award 2006
Fiesta ST awarded Winner 'Best Performance Car Under $100k' in 2015 by Carsales during their Car Of The Year in Australia.
Fiesta ST awarded Top Gear (TG) Magazine's car of the year 2019 –
Fiesta ST named Parker's car of the year 2019
Fiesta named as 'Car Buyer car of the year 2019' and Fiesta ST named as 'Car Buyer hot hatch of the year 2019'
See also
Ford Ikon
References
External links
Ford Fiesta official US website
Official Brochures: 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
Ford Fiesta official UK website
Ford Fiesta Van UK official website
Ford Australia Fiesta
Ford Australia Small Cars: Fiesta & Fiesta ST
Cars introduced in 1976
Subcompact cars
Hatchbacks
Sedans
Euro NCAP superminis
Hot hatches
Ford B3 platform
Rally cars
Touring cars
Cars of Spain
Vehicles with CVT transmission
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Goods manufactured in Germany
1970s cars
1980s cars
1990s cars
2000s cars
2010s cars
2020s cars
Rallycross cars
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White Swan (18501904), or Mee-nah-tsee-us in the Crow language, was one of six Crow Scouts for George Armstrong Custer's 7th Cavalry Regiment during the 1876 campaign against the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne. At the Battle of the Little Bighorn in the Crow Indian Reservation, White Swan went with Major Reno's detachment, and fought alongside the soldiers at the south end of the village. Of the six Crow scouts at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, White Swan stands out because he aggressively sought combat with multiple Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, and he was the only Crow Scout to be wounded in action, suffering severe wounds to his hand/wrist and leg/foot. After being disabled by his wounds, he was taken to Reno's hill entrenchments by Half Yellow Face, the pipe-bearer (leader) of the Crow scouts, which no doubt saved his life.
On the 27th, after the battle, Half Yellow Face made a special horse travois for White Swan and moved him down the Little Horn valley to the Far West steamship, moored at the junction of the Bighorn River and the Little Horn, so he could get medical care from army physicians. White Swan was treated in a temporary Army hospital at the junction of the Bighorn and Yellowstone rivers. At the Crow encampments on Pryor Creek, other returning scouts reported that White Swan had died, but he survived his wounds.
Following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, White Swan continued for five years (1876 to 1881) to serve as a scout with the U.S. Army, though he was disabled from wounds received in the battle, including a severely deformed right wrist and hand, and a wound in his foot/leg which caused him to limp. In photographs, White Swan also had a scar on his forehead where he had been struck with a war club in a separate battle with a Sioux warrior. Either from this blow or from other sources, White Swan could not hear and thus was unable to speak in his later life. Eventually, he was awarded a small army pension.
In White Swan's later life, he lived at the Crow Agency, after it had been moved in 1884 to its present site in the Little Bighorn valley in Montana, close to the site of the battlefield. When he could no longer be an Army scout, White Swan began to produce drawings that represented key events in his life, including events of the Battle of the Little Bighorn. These drawings were bought by visitors to the Crow Agency and the nearby Custer Battlefield, providing White Swan with a welcome source of income. These drawings have now been discovered by collectors and their artistic value has been recognized. They have recently become the subject of collectors, exhibitions, books and university theses, and prints of his drawings are now commercially produced.
While living at Crow Agency, White Swan was painted by the artist J.H. Sharp, who knew him and described him as "Jolly, good natured and a general favorite." White Swan was also photographed by Frank Rinehart, and by William A. Petzolt, producing photos included in this article. White Swan's wife had died when he was only 23 before he became an army scout, and he did not remarry. He lived for a time with an aunt, "Strikes By The Side Of The Water" who was also the mother of Curly, another Crow scout, and he and Curly were known in the Crow Agency community as brothers, though their personalities were said to be the opposite of each other.
He died in 1904, leaving no direct descendants. He is buried in the National Cemetery at the Little Bighorn Battlefield at a location described below. Although his early death and his inability to hear and speak left him out of the limelight that later fell on the other surviving Crow scouts, his outstanding bravery during the battle and his artistic ability established an enduring legacy.
Biography
Early life, names
White Swan was born in approximately 1851 though some sources state his birth date was in 1850 or 1852. He had been raised in the traditional manner of his tribe, and would have acquired warrior status in his early teens through deeds of bravery.
White Swan married, but his wife died in 1873, before his enlistment as an army scout. He never remarried.
In historical references White Swan is also referred as "Strikes Enemy" and "White Goose" or Mee-nah-te-hash in the Crow language.
Army service as a Crow scout in the Great Sioux War of 1876
Background of the Great Sioux War
From 1870, the Crows had complained about hostile Lakotas encroaching from the east on Crow Indian reservation lands.
The Crows requested that the U.S. Army take actions against these Sioux trespassers. From the point of view of the Crow Tribe, in 1876 finally something was going to be done.
However the Great Sioux War of 1876 that engulfed the life of White Swan, started because the U.S. Government also had its own larger agenda. Gold had been found in 1873 in the Black Hills on reservation lands granted the Sioux tribe by the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868). The gold strike had been made public in 1874 and by 1875 a full scale gold rush was underway. Motivated by growing unemployment caused by the Panic of 1873 ever-increasing numbers of gold seekers poured the Black Hills, establishing mining centers and boom towns. Being on the Sioux Reservation, these towns and mines were completely outside the usual framework of laws and jurisdictions for U.S. Territories, which generated chaotic conditions resulting in, among other things, no reliable base of organized law enforcement owing to the absence of federal law jurisdiction, as well as no federal marshals, courts or judges. Another important factor was the economic impact of the panic of 1873 which had left workers unemployed and the dollar devalued by a return to a de facto gold standard, augmenting a national priority for continued and increasing production from gold mines in the Black Hills.
The U.S. Government had tried unsuccessfully in 1875 to bring the Sioux living on the reservations to a conference to consider modifying the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty by the U.S. repurchasing the Black Hills back from the tribe. However in Article XII of that treaty any modification of treaty lands required the agreement of 3/4 of the tribe's adult males, and there were large bands of "off-reservation" Sioux (including influential leaders Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Crow King, Rain in the Face, Gall and many others) who did not reside on the reservations and who also did not want to cede the Black Hills back to federal control. These bands lived year round in their traditional migratory way on the huge hunting preserve in the “unceded Indian Territory” in Wyoming, Nebraska and South Dakota given the Sioux by Article XVI of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) which included the vast area extending westward from the Black Hills across the entire Powder River Basin to the crest of the Big Horn Mountains. In the fall 1875, the U.S. Government gave up on fair or equitable methods and sent out messengers to each band with an impossible ultimatum — to leave their winter camps in the hunting preserve and immediately return to their agencies in the Dakota Territories by January 31, 1876. When this predictably did not occur, as deep winter restricted travel of migratory bands, in February of 1876 the Government directed army columns to converge from the south, east and west on these "off-reservation" Sioux bands in their remote encampments, with orders to bring them back to their agencies, by force if necessary.
Enlistment with the 7th Infantry, early skirmishes
One such military column commanded by Col. John Gibbon was instructed to proceed from Ft. Ellis, near present day Bozeman, Montana and march eastward, down the Yellowstone River and take up a position in southern Montana Territory to block the "off reservation" Sioux from crossing north of the Yellowstone River. In furtherance of this mission, on April 9, 1876, Col. John Gibbon went with Lt. James Bradley to the Crow Indian Agency, which was then located on the Stillwater River Drainage in Montana, to recruit Indian scouts. In an embarrassing two-hour council the chiefs of the Mountain Crows expressed their reluctance to help the expedition. They pointed out that Indian warriors traveled light and fast and struck quickly, whereas the soldiers marched slowly with wagons and thus never found the enemy.
Fortunately for Gibbon, the young Crow braves did not follow the elders' advice, and sought adventure. On April 10, 1876 some twenty five Crows were enlisted for six months in the 7th Infantry by Lt. James Bradley, chief of scouts, including White Swan and Half Yellow Face. On April 13, 1876, the Crow Scouts went with Gibbon's 7th Infantry force of 477 persons, as they marched down the north side of the Yellowstone, arriving opposite mouth of the Bighorn River on April 20. Gibbon then moved eastward again along the north bank of the Yellowstone to
a camp opposite the mouth Rosebud Creek. The Crow Scouts ranged across (south) south of the Yellowstone, and located the main Sioux village in the process of moving from Tongue River valley to the Rosebud valley in May 1876. In the course of this move, the Crow scouts skirmished with Sioux scouts.
Meanwhile, General Alfred Terry's column was marching east from Fort Lincoln, in the Dakota territory, and Terry rendezvoused with Col. Gibbon's column opposite the mouth of Rosebud Creek on June 21, 1876. General Terry's command included the 7th Cavalry under General George A. Custer.
Scouting activities with Custer's 7th Cavalry leading up to the Battle of the Little Bighorn
On June 21, White Swan was detached from the 7th Infantry to go with the 7th Cavalry, along with five other Crow Scouts who were Half Yellow Face (leader of the Crow Scouts), White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, Hairy Moccasin, and Curley. The 7th Cavalry, under the command of Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer was ordered by General Terry to follow the trail of the large encampment of "off-reservation" Sioux who lived nomadic lives off the Great Sioux Reservation in present South Dakota. This group was making an annual westward spring migration from their camp on the Powder River valley to the Tongue and then to the Rosebud Valley, and on to the Little Bighorn. Custer was ordered to locate the encampment of these "off-reservation" Sioux on the Rosebud Creek, or in the adjacent Little Bighorn Valley, around 20 miles (30 km) inside the eastern border of the Crow Indian reservation.
The six Crow Scouts shared duties with 26 Arikara (Ree) Scouts, under a Chief of Scouts Lt Charles A. Varnum,. However, the Crow scouts knew the Rosebud country much better than the Arikara because this had been traditional Crow country for centuries. As far back as 1805 records indicated that fur trader Francois-Antoine Larocque had camped with a band of Crows in what was later determined to be Little Bighorn River. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 gave the Crows a large reservation running west from the Powder River that including the river drainages of the Tongue, the Rosebud, and the Little Bighorn river valleys. The repeated aggressive westward incursions of Sioux bands beyond the Powder River in the 1850s and 1860s led to another treaty, the later 1868 Crow Treaty of Fort Laramie, which established a new western boundary for the Sioux/Crow reservations at the 107 Meridian, which ran north-south and generally separated the Rosebud drainage on the east from the Little Bighorn (aka Greasy Grass) drainage on the west. This boundary area was a sort of no-man's land with both Sioux and Crows hunting on it, and warriors from both tribes crossing it to raid and steal horses from each other.
The six Crow scouts joined Custer on June 21. "They are magnificent-looking men, so much handsomer and more Indian-like than any we have ever seen, and so jolly and sportive ... " wrote Custer to his wife, Elizabeth B. Custer. He also pointed out why it was important to get them connected to the U.S. Army, "I now have some Crow scouts with me, as they are familiar with the country." Charles A. Varnum spelled it out in his reminiscences, "These Crows were in their own country."
Since this was their ancestral homeland, the Crow scouts were relied on to undertake important scouting assignments for Custer in the days after June 21 leading up to the Battle of the Little Bighorn on June 25.
When Custer struck the trail of the "off-reservation" Sioux, the scouts' count of 400 to 450 lodges in the encampment confirmed army sources of an "off-reservation" nomadic group of about 800 warriors. This compared favorably to Custer's force of about 600 troopers. However this initial assessment on June 21 was made on encampments dating back to May 21, when the Sioux/Cheyenne crossed from the Tongue River to the Rosebud Valley. As the scouts followed this trail up the Rosebud, past Lame Deer Creek and then on to the divide with the Little Horn Valley, they found the older trail increasingly joined and overlaid by many newer trails. These newer trails were left by many other bands of Sioux/Cheyenne coming from the reservations to join the original "off-reservation" Sioux for their yearly summer gathering. Although it was not appreciated at the time, these late arriving bands of Sioux/Cheyenne swelled the encampment from 400 to about 960 lodges, able to field close to 2000 warriors.
Custer's prior experience in pursuing other Indian bands indicated that an Indian group would scatter if they knew they were being pursued. Custer used the Crows to check these trails to rule out a dispersal of the encampment he was following. Custer tended to disregard the Crow scouts' intelligence that more and more Indians were gathering together.
On the early morning of June 25, 1876, White Swan and other Crow Scouts ascended a high point on the divide between the Little Bighorn River and Rosebud Creek. From this lookout point (which later became known as the "Crow's Nest") the scouts saw very large horse herds on the western margins of the Little Bighorn Valley, some 15 air miles away. These large horse herds indicated an unexpectedly large Sioux/Cheyenne encampment. The encampment itself was out of sight on the valley floor.
The Crow scouts questioned the wisdom of attacking such a large encampment. However, Custer was focused on his concern that his force had been detected that morning by Sioux scouts, and he feared that if he did not attack at once, the large encampment would break up into many smaller bands which would scatter in all directions, thus escaping and avoiding the decisive engagement the army hoped for. Custer accordingly made plans for an immediate attack, and as he proceeded down Reno Creek toward the Little Bighorn Valley, he created four separate detachments, intended to prevent the encampment from scattering, and to strike the village from different directions. Reno with three troops would attack the south end of the village. Custer with five troops would attack the north end of the village, and Benteen with three troops would scout briefly to the south and then join the battle to assist the other detachments; Lt. McDougall's remaining troop would act as rear guard protecting the pack train.
Wounded in action at the Battle of the Little Bighorn
As the Battle of the Little Bighorn unfolded, White Swan and the chief Crow Scout Half Yellow Face, along with Arikara scouts accompanied the detachment under Major Reno. The Indian scouts were told to stampede the horse herd on the western margins of the camp. Reno's detachment charged the south end of the village as ordered, but as warriors poured out to defend the village Reno ordered the troops to dismount and form a skirmish line. This outpouring of Sioux warriors frustrated the plan of the scouts to stampede the horse herd, and the scouts, including White Swan and Half Yellow Face began to fight alongside the cavalrymen. They were soon engaged in furious combat with swiftly increasing numbers of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors. At one time, White Swan was faced by six warriors.
As more warriors swarmed out of the village, Reno's detachment pulled back into a patch of nearby timber along the river. After taking more losses in the timber, Reno ordered a retreat out of the timber and across the river and up onto the bluffs on the east side of the valley. By the time Reno had ordered the retreat across the river, White Swan had suffered severe bullet wounds in the right hand or wrist and in the foot, knee or leg (reports differ), and also could not hear, either from being hit on the head with a war club or because a rifle was fired close to his ear (reports differ).
The soldiers' retreat from the timber disintegrated into a rout, and the Sioux closed in on the now disorganized mass of retreating troopers, killing the stragglers and the disabled. Back in the timber, Half Yellow Face got the wounded White Swan on a horse and shielded by the timber, waited until the mass of Sioux warriors had turned their attention to Custer's column, now approaching the north end of the village, after which Yellow Face led the horse across the river and up the bluffs to the location where the Reno detachment was digging in, and where they were later reinforced by the other detachments under Captain Benteen and Lieutenant McDougall. This action by Half Yellow Face probably saved White Swan's life. Troopers with Reno later recounted how White Swan, though wounded, wanted to continue fighting, and disabled though he was, tried to crawl back to the firing lines.
After Reno's men fled across the river, the now thoroughly aroused and mobilized Sioux and Cheyenne drew back, and then launched a fresh attack to the north on Custer's separate detachment of five companies (about 210 men) who were now firing into the north end of the village. At this point the Sioux outnumbered Custer's men by about 8 to 1. Custer's detachment was first driven back to a low ridge east of the valley, and then overwhelmed and killed to the last man. This intense engagement lasted about an hour during the afternoon of June 25, 1876, after which the warriors returned to press the attack on Reno's entrenched position on the bluffs. The next day, June 26, the Sioux continued the attack on the beleaguered Reno contingent, where White Swan lay in the section for the wounded. However, Sioux scouts reported the approach from the north of the large army column under Generals Terry and Gibbon. In the late afternoon and evening, the Sioux and Cheyenne ended their siege of Reno and Benteen and hastily broke camp and withdrew south, up the Little Bighorn Valley.
Medical care following the battle, disability
The next day, June 27, 1876, Half Yellow Face made a horse travois designed to carry the wounded White Swan in a sitting position, and used this to carry him about 12 miles from the battle site to the steamer Far West on the Bighorn River so White Swan could get more medical care. White Swan was carried on the Far West about 40 to 50 river miles down the Bighorn to the Yellowstone, where he was left in a temporary hospital facility with some of the less seriously wounded soldiers.
Almost immediately after the battle, the three scouts White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead and Hairy Moccasin left for the main Crow encampment which was "two sleeps" away on the mouth of Pryor Creek, and Gibbon's other Crow scouts went with them. At the village they reported that both White Swan and Half Yellow Face had been killed.
Curly and Half Yellow Face had not gone with the other scouts to the Crow Village, and had returned with Gibbon to the mouth of the Big Horn where White Swan was in the temporary army hospital. On July 4, Col. Gibbon gave Curly and Half Yellow Face leave, but kept White Swan in the hospital so that he could continue to get medical treatment and recover.
White Swan was sufficiently badly wounded that his recovery was delayed. When he finally returned to his relatives and friends at the Crow village, they said it was like having the dead return. Records show that White Swan was discharged from Army scout duty in September 1876, but reenlisted in the Army for scouting activities in November 1877, through it is unlikely his wounds were healed by this time. He continued a recovery from his wounds, but suffered disabilities from them for the rest of his life.
Later life, after the Battle of the Little Bighorn
Although disabled, White Swan managed to remain an Army scout for much of the remaining five years (1876-1881) following the Battle of the Little Bighorn. When the Crow Reservation was further limited in size, the Agency was moved in 1884 from the site of present-day Absorakee, Montana on the Stillwater River to its present location at present-day Crow Agency in the Little Bighorn Valley, very close to the site of the battle. White Swan also moved to the new agency site.
White Swan continued to be limited by his battle wounds. White Swan had lost the lower half of his right hand, and he had a right wrist that was permanently deformed to bend sharply inward. (See photo above taken from the right side, showing injured wrist). He also limped from the bullet wound in his leg and/or foot. He was deaf and dumb, reportedly from a blow to his forehead by a war club in a battle with a Sioux warrior, probably at a time different than the Little Bighorn Battle.
J.H. Sharp, the noted western painter, came to know White Swan while he was living at Crow Agency, Montana and painting the Crow people. Sharp painted White Swan. He made this note to accompany the painting.
Reno's scout in Custer battle, wounded many times, picked up in battlefield two days later -- deaf and dumb from stroke of war club in forehead. A good artist in Indian picture-writing. Jolly, good natured and a general favorite. A full brother, and direct opposite in character of 'Curley', Custer's scout."
Although White Swan was quite limited in speech, probably owing to his deafness, he could still communicate by using the sign language of the Plains Indians.
Statements from White Swan's army pension file indicate that his wife had died in 1873, before he enlisted as an Army scout, and he never remarried. The 1885 Census recorded him as living with a widowed aunt named "Strikes By The Side Of The Water". This aunt was the mother of Curley, another Crow Scout, which would make White Swan and Curley cousins, though the artist, J.H. Sharp knew White Swan as the brother of Curley.
In 1894 White Swan was crippled and unable to hear or speak. In 1897 he applied for and received a pension of $17.00 a month for his military services. The 1900 census lists White Swan as "widowed" and the only member of his household. White Swan's only other relative was Sage Woman, a half sister on his father's side, which meant she was from another Crow tribal clan than White Swan, since clan relations are passed down through mothers. These facts indicate that White Swan lived in a more isolated fashion than he would have otherwise done, had he had a larger base of Crow relatives, either by blood or by clan. He died leaving no direct descendants and there were no indication of adoptive children, further indicating a limited group of close Crow relatives, by blood or clan, unusual in the Crow culture.
Artistic abilities
White Swan was known for his artistic abilities. While living at the Crow Agency in the Little Bighorn valley, he made drawings to illustrate key events in his life, including his role in the Battle of the Little Bighorn. At least fifteen drawings have been attributed to White Swan, and others remain to be discovered. Though not signed, his drawings can be identified by the many scenes they share, and by similarities in style with the few for which his authorship is definitely known.
In addition to his separate drawings, sources indicate that White Swan, though disabled, created drawings and paintings on pages from accounting ledgers to depict his role in the famous battle. White Swan also drew and painted on larger sheets of muslin canvas, showing multiple deeds from his life.
In White Swan's later recollection of the Battle of the Little Big Horn, before the battle started he watched the Lakota camp through a handheld telescope with his warhorse standing close by - this recollection would later become a favorite scene of the artist White Swan to illustrate his role in the battle.
Over the years since White Swan died, his artistic abilities have been recognized and his drawings have been collected. White Swan has emerged in Crow history as a talented artist. White Swan would have needed income after he had ceased to be an army scout and living at Crow Agency, just a few miles from the site of the famous battle, he found a ready market for this art. The famous battlefield drew visitors, and to a lesser extent so did the Crow Agency. These visitors included military men, government employees and other persons interested in the history of the famous battle, or simply interested in the Crow culture. Though White Swan could not serve as a guide or interpreter for visitors of the battle field as the other scouts did, owing to his speech impediment, his art allowed him to provide something unique to visitors who wanted to return home with an illustration that genuinely represented their encounter with Indians of the West. White Swan's art showing his war deeds ideally captured the essence of the Indian warrior tradition based on heroic acts.
In addition to his drawings, White Swan's craftsmanship is shown in his personal items, and particularly his tomahawk, pictured (a) in the photo above (which may be enlarged) and (b) further shown and described at this footnoted web source. A tomahawk in the Northern Plains warrior culture could evolve from being a weapon to an item carried primarily to count coup, which transformed the item into one possessing spiritual significance. Adornments to White Swan's tomahawk (see item pictured in footnoted source, or in the photo above), probably indicated brave war deeds, and/or instructions of critical spiritual import, received through visions or through the intervention of a spiritual leader/mentor (a "medicine man").
When living at Crow Agency on the Little Bighorn river, White Swan had a tepee which had drawings around the lower portion that depicted the Custer battle. A picture of the tepee is at the footnoted citation.
In his later life, White Swan was photographed by Frank Rinehart, and by William A. Petzolt. See photos provided above.
White Swan's tomahawk and his drawings remain today as a legacy of his time. White Swan's art is now drawing increasing attention from collectors, and they have been the subject of exhibits, and the subject of University thesis. and collections. Some of White Swan's works were collected as part of the Paul Dyck collection of Plains Indians art and artifacts, and are now part of the collection at the Buffalo Bill Historical Center in Cody, Wyoming.
Death and burial
White Swan died on August 12, 1904, at the age of 53 or 54. Having never remarried after the death of his wife when he was 23, White Swan left no direct descendants to carry on his name or his legacy.
White Swan was buried at the Little Bighorn National Cemetery in the section set apart for veterans. See the photos which indicate his grave marker and his grave site.
Places or things named after White Swan
The White Swan Memorial Library at the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument also houses the office of the park historian, and is located in the historic stone house (the original superintendent's headquarters). According to the National Park Service, this facility contains the finest collection of research materials available on the battle of the Little Bighorn, as well as other related historical events. Visits to the library and to the park historian are by appointment.
See also
Half Yellow Face
White Man Runs Him
Hairy Moccasin
Goes Ahead
Curley
George Armstrong Custer
Marcus A. Reno
Battle of Little Bighorn
Great Sioux War of 1876
Crow Nation
References
External links
Description of White Swan's Tomahawk, containing facts about White Swan. Collection of the National Museum of the American Indian
Crow Scouts at the Little Big Horn
White Swan -- Crow Has photos of White Swan in 1899, and also paintings of White Swan by Joseph Henry Sharp, and Elbridge Ayer Burbank.
Father Lindesmith's Collection Includes photos of drawings by White Swan on Muslin, and comments on White Swan's life.
1850 births
1904 deaths
Crow tribe
People of the Great Sioux War of 1876
Native American United States military personnel
United States Army Indian Scouts
People of pre-statehood Montana
Burials in Montana
Battle of the Little Bighorn
People from Crow Agency, Montana
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The 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks were part of the Israeli–Palestinian peace process. Direct negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians began on 29 July 2013 following an attempt by United States Secretary of State John Kerry to restart the peace process.
Martin Indyk of the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C. was appointed by the US to oversee the negotiations. Indyk served as U.S. ambassador to Israel and assistant secretary of state for Near East affairs during the Clinton administration. Hamas, the Palestinian government in Gaza, rejected Kerry's announcement, stating that Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas has no legitimacy to negotiate in the name of the Palestinian people.
The negotiations were scheduled to last up to nine months to reach a final status to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict by mid-2014. The Israeli negotiating team was led by veteran negotiator Justice Minister Tzipi Livni, while the Palestinian delegation was led by Saeb Erekat, also a former negotiator. Negotiations started in Washington, DC and were slated to move to the King David Hotel in Jerusalem and finally to Hebron. A deadline was set for establishing a broad outline for an agreement by 29 April 2014. On the expiry of the deadline, negotiations collapsed, with the US Special Envoy Indyk reportedly assigning blame mainly to Israel, while the US State Department insisting no one side was to blame but that "both sides did things that were incredibly unhelpful."
Pre-peace talk compromises
Before the peace talks began, both sides offered concessions. The Palestinian Authority offered to put on hold international recognition as a state by applying to international organizations while Israel offered the release of 104 Palestinian prisoners, 14 of whom are Arab-Israelis and all of whom had been in Israeli jails since before the 1993 Oslo I Accord. The prisoners were responsible for killing, in all, 55 Israeli civilians, 15 Israeli security forces personnel, one French tourist and dozens of suspected Palestinian collaborators.
Commenters have however pointed out that Israel had already promised to release these same 104 Palestinians, back in 1999 under the Sharm el-Sheikh Memorandum, but never did. Critics also worry that Israel will simply quietly re-arrest the potentially released Palestinians, and state that Israel is using the slow release to hold the negotiations hostage and that the main goal of the release is to bolster Israel's image. According to the Sharm el-Sheikh Fact-Finding Committee Report, Israel's decision not to release the prisoners at the time was due to significantly increased violence against Israel by their partner in the memorandum, the PLO, leading up to the Second Intifada. In the time leading up to the planned release, Israel perceived "institutionalized anti-Israel, anti-Jewish incitement; the release from detention of terrorists; the failure to control illegal weapons; and the actual conduct of violent operations" as a sign that "the PLO has explicitly violated its renunciation of terrorism and other acts of violence, thereby significantly eroding trust between the parties."
Discussions
Over the 9 months period, John Kerry met with the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas on 34 occasions, and Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu roughly twice as many times.
On 29 July 2013, as Israeli and Palestinian negotiators met for a second day in Washington to discuss renewing peace talks, Mahmoud Abbas said "in a final resolution, we would not see the presence of a single Israeli – civilian or soldier – on our lands." His comments drew immediate condemnation from Israeli officials, who accused him for discriminating against Jews.
On 13 August, the first day, the Palestinian team leaders were Saeb Erekat and Muhammed Shtayyeh while their Israeli counterparts were Tzipi Livni and Yitzhak Molcho. The US mediators were Martin Indyk and Frank Lowenstein. On 13 August, Israel released the first batch of 26 Palestinian prisoners. On 19 August, Mahmoud Abbas called for the US to step up its involvement in the talks, saying its role should be proactive and not merely supervisory. On 20 August, Israel urged the United States to back Egypt's military government, saying failure to do so would risk derailing the peace talks. On 22 August, Mahmoud Abbas said that no progress had been made in the first four talks. He also said that the Palestinian right of return would likely have to be waived in the event of any peace agreement. He also walked back his earlier statement that he wanted a Palestinian state without a single Israeli; he said that what he meant was no Israelis who were "part of the occupation", but that he wouldn't have a problem with Jews or Israelis coming to Palestine for business or tourism reasons, as long as they were not an occupying force.
On 5 September 2013, Palestinian negotiator Nabil Shaath said that Israel has yet to put any new offers on the table, that Israel has only allowed Martin Indyk to attend one of the six talks so far, and that the Palestinian leadership would not accept "temporary solutions", only a permanent peace deal. On 8 September, Israel accused the Palestinians of leaking information about the talks, which are supposed to be kept secret, to the press. An Israeli official also stated that some of the information leaked by Palestinians was not true. On 25 September, both Israel and the Palestinians agreed to intensify peace talks with an increased United States role.
On 26 September, Mahmoud Abbas spoke in front of the UN Security Council, and welcomed the resumption of peace talks while at the same time criticizing Israel's settlement building. The Israeli delegation was not present for Abbas' speech, because they were observing the holiday of Sukkot. Hamas and the Islamic Jihad called for a third intifada, and a spokesman for Hamas' armed wing said that the current peace talks were "futile".
On 17 October 2013, Abbas reiterated his view that he would not accept any Israeli military presence on Palestinian territory. On 22 October, Israel and the Palestinians are reported to have discussed the issue of water. On 27 October, Israel prepared to release another round of Palestinian prisoners to create a positive climate for the ongoing peace talks. On 28 October, Netanyahu categorically rejected the Palestinian right of return and said that Jerusalem must remain undivided. On 29 October, the second stage of the Palestinian prisoners' release was completed as 26 prisoners were released.
On 6 November, Israeli negotiators said there will not be a state based on the 1967 borders and that the Separation Wall will be a boundary. On 14 November, the Palestinian team quit the negotiations blaming the "escalation of settlement-building."
On 4 December 2013, Saeb Erekat told John Kerry that the peace talks with Israel were faltering and urged Kerry to salvage them. Also, an Israeli newspaper reported that Israel was prepared to hand 2000 hectares (5000 acres, or 7 sq. mi.) of land to the Palestinians to show that it was prepared to allow Palestinian projects on these lands. The land had been privately owned by Palestinians but militarily occupied by Israel. On 26 December, Likud ministers led by Miri Regev began pushing a bill to annex the Jordan Valley, which would prevent Netanyahu from accepting the American proposal for the Jordan Valley and border crossings into Jordan to be placed under Palestinian control, with border security provided by IDF soldiers and the US. On 30 December, Saeb Erekat said that the peace talks had failed, citing the aforementioned Israeli bill to annex the Jordan Valley. Erekat said that denying the Palestinian state a border with Jordan would be a clear step toward apartheid, and that the PA should instead unilaterally seek international recognition and membership in organizations. Erekat also said that "Israel wants to destroy the two-state solution through its daily practices." The PLO senior official also rejected the idea of extending the peace talks beyond their nine-month deadline. On 30 December, Israel released its third set of prisoners, consisting of 26 Palestinian security prisoners.
On 1 January 2014, Maariv reported that Israeli and American leaders had been discussing, and seriously considering, the possibility of ceding parts of the Arab Triangle to the Palestinians in exchange for Jewish settlements in the West Bank. The residents of the Triangle would automatically become Palestinian citizens if this happened. This idea is similar to the Lieberman Plan. Rami Hamdallah also said that despite Erekat's insistence that the talks had failed, the Palestinians would continue participating in the talks until the April deadline. On 5 January, hardliners in Netanyahu's coalition threatened to withdraw from the government if he accepted the 1967 borders as a baseline for talks. Dovish opposition parties, such as Labor, said they would join if this occurred, in order to prevent the coalition from breaking up completely. On 9 January, according to insiders, support for a two-state agreement within the Knesset stood at 85 in favor to 35 opposed. In addition to the Labor Party, American negotiators were also attempting to persuade Haredi parties Shas and United Torah Judaism, both of which are generally supportive of the peace process, to join the government to keep negotiations alive.
On 10 January 2014, Israel approved plans for 1,400 settler homes. Saeb Erekat responded by saying "The recent announcement shows Israel's clear commitment to the destruction of peace efforts and the imposition of an apartheid regime". Tzipi Livni, who also opposed new settler homes, was responded by Israeli politician Ze'ev Elkin, who suggested the settlements were vital for Israel's security: "The path that Livni recommends means we will have to say goodbye to our security," he said. On 14 January, Israel's defense minister Moshe Ya'alon rejected the negotiations and insulted John Kerry, saying he was acting based upon "messianic feeling", and that "The only thing that can 'save' us is that John Kerry will get a Nobel Peace Prize and leave us alone." Yuval Steinitz, another members of the Likud, expressed general agreement with Ya'alon's views, but disagreed with the personal insult. However, Yaalon later issued an official apology in a written statement sent to media from the Defense Ministry. On 18 January, Israel's finance minister Yair Lapid threatened to take his party, Yesh Atid, out of the coalition if peace talks did not advance. This would have toppled the government and forced either the formation of a new coalition, or early elections.
On 21 January 2014, Israel announced plans for 381 new settler homes in the West Bank. The Palestinians condemned this move, and also ruled out the possibility of the peace talks extending beyond the nine-month deadline. On 22 January, Abbas said he would like Russia to take a more active role in the negotiations. On 27 January, the Palestinians said they would not allow "a single settler" to remain in a Palestinian state, but that this did not stem from anti-Jewish attitudes. Rather, Jews living in the West Bank would have the option of remaining if they renounced their Israeli citizenship and applied to be citizens of Palestine. A poll has shown that 4.5% of Jewish settlers would consider becoming Palestinian citizens under such an arrangement. On 31 January, according to Martin Indyk, the framework for the US-backed Middle East peace deal will allow up to 80 per cent of Jewish settlers to remain in the West Bank. The deal would redraw borders so that some 80 per cent of settlers' homes would be redesignated as being in Israel, while other parcels land would be handed back to Palestinian control in a proposed land-swap deal. Another key point of the framework would be that Israel would be allowed to retain a role in maintaining security along the West Bank's border with neighbouring Jordan. The new security arrangements would see a zone created with hi-tech fences equipped with sensors and drone surveillance planes flying overhead. Also the final peace treaty could also provide compensation for victims on both sides of the historic conflict.
On 3 February 2014, Abbas suggests that US-led NATO troops patrol a future Palestinian state instead of Israeli troops having a presence in Jordan Valley, but Israeli settlers and soldiers have five years to leave Palestine once the state is formed. On 6 February, Israel reportedly sought to annex 10 percent of the West Bank, but Palestinian negotiators insisted that they keep at least 97 percent. On 9 February, ministers voted down a proposal by Likud legislator Miri Regev to annex certain West Bank settlements and the roads leading to them.
During the course of negotiations, Netanyahu followed the precedent of Israel's former Prime Minister Ehud Olmert and made recognition of Israel as a Jewish state a requirement for peace. Some news sources falsely reported that Netanyahu was the first Israeli Prime Minister to make such a requirement. Urging Abbas to recognize Israel as the Jewish-nation state, he reportedly said:
'it's time for the Palestinians to stop denying history. Just as Israel is prepared to recognize a Palestinian state, the Palestinian leadership must be prepared to recognize the Jewish state. In doing so you will tell your people that, though we have a territorial dispute, Israel's right to exist is beyond dispute. You would finally make it clear that you are truly prepared to end the conflict."
To that end, he announced his intention to introduce such a definition of Israel in a Basic Law. The proposed law would be in addition to Israel's declaration of independence of May 1948 which defines Israel as a Jewish state. Justice Minister Tzipi Livni expressed concern over the proposal. Although she was in favor of defining Israel more clearly in law as "the national home of the Jewish people and a democratic state", she has expressed opposition to "any law that gives superiority" to the Jewish nature of state over the country's democratic values. Livni also said she could only support legislation where "Jewish and democratic would have the same weight, not more Jewish than democratic, nor more democratic than Jewish".
Abbas dismissed this demand, pointing out that the Palestinians had already extended recognition of the State of Israel, both in 1988 and in the 1993 Oslo Accords. He added that, neither Jordan nor Egypt, with whom Israel had made peace treaties had been asked to recognize Israel's Jewish character. The Palestinians would never accept Israel as a 'religious state' since, it would damage the rights of Israel's Palestinian minority and'to accept it now as a Jewish state would compromise the claims of millions of Palestinian refugees whose families fled the fighting that followed Israel's creation in 1948 and were not allowed to return."Jack Khoury/Associated Press 'Arab League rejects Israel as Jewish state,' Haaretz 26 March 2014. On 28 March 2014, Israel failed to release the fourth tranche of 26 Palestinian prisoners, as scheduled, in what Palestinian sources say was a violation of the original terms for the peace talks, According to Israeli officials, the Palestinians had publicly claimed that they would break off peace talks once the final batch of prisoners were released. Israel reportedly demanded an extension of the April 29 deadline before the release. The agreement had included a Palestinian undertaking not to sign up for international conventions. After Israel withheld the prisoners' release, Mahmoud Abbas went ahead and signed 15 conventions regarding adhesion to human and social rights. Israel then demolished several EU funded humanitarian structures in E1 and stated the prisoners' release depended on a Palestinian commitment to continuing peace talks after the end of April deadline. Some days later, Israel approved tenders for 708 more Israeli residential units beyond the Green Line, in Gilo, followed by various sanctions against Palestinians in retaliation for their joining of international conventions.
At the end of March, Haaretz reported that the United States, Israel and the Palestinian Authority were negotiating a "grand bargain" to "salvage peace talks". Kerry and Netanyahu discussed a possible deal to extend them until the end of 2014 and to ensure the Palestinians didn't make unilateral moves at the United Nations. The Israeli proposal conditioned the release of the fourth tranche of 26 Palestinian prisoners on an extension of the negotiations beyond the current deadline of 29 April and included the release about 400 low-profile Palestinian prisoners, as well as the 26 high-profile prisoners, including 14 Israeli Arabs. It excluded the high-profile prisoners Marwan Barghouti and Ahmad Saadat who Israel categorically refused to release. Israel also offered to put an unofficial freeze on most settlement construction outside of East Jerusalem for the next eight months. Israel said it would resolve the status of family reunification requests submitted by some 5,000 families in the West Bank and Gaza. According to Israeli officials, the United States would release Jonathan Pollard as a concession to Israel. On 23 April 2014, The Jerusalem Post reported that Abbas listed 3 conditions for extending peace talks beyond the 29 April deadline; that the borders of a future Palestinian state be dealt with during the first three months of the extended talks, a complete freeze on all settlement construction, and the release without deportation of the fourth batch of Palestinian prisoners, including Israeli-Arabs.
2014 Fatah–Hamas Reconciliation
Israel reacted angrily to the Fatah–Hamas Gaza Agreement of 23 April 2014 whose main purpose was reconciliation between Fatah and Hamas, the formation of a Palestinian unity government and the holding of new elections. Israel halted peace talks with the Palestinians, saying it "will not negotiate with a Palestinian government backed by Hamas, a terrorist organization that calls for Israel's destruction", and threatened sanctions against the Palestinian Authority, including a previously announced Israeli plan to unilaterally deduct Palestinian debts to Israeli companies from the tax revenue Israel collects for the PA. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu accused Abbas of sabotaging peace efforts. He said that Abbas cannot have peace with both Hamas and Israel and has to choose. Abbas said the deal did not contradict their commitment to peace with Israel on the basis of a two-state solution and assured reporters that any unity government would recognize Israel, be non-violent, and bound to previous PLO agreements. Shortly after, Israel began implementing economic sanctions against Palestinians and canceled plans to build housing for Palestinians in Area C of the West Bank. Abbas also threatened to dissolve the PA, leaving Israel fully responsible for both the West Bank and Gaza, a threat that the PA has not put into effect.
Notwithstanding Israeli objections and actions, a Palestinian Unity Government was formed on 2 June 2014.
Conference on Peace
On 8 July 2014, in David Intercontinental Hotel (Tel Aviv) took place Haaretz's "Israel Conference on Peace". Among participants: Members of Knesset, President Shimon Peres, Minister Naftali Bennett and representatives of Israelis and Palestinians peace organizations.
Barack Obama. Peace is the only path to true security for Israel and the Palestinians, an exclusive article for Haaretz's Israel Conference on Peace // This article was written before 30 June 2014. Published in Haaretz, 8 July 2014 | 4:00 AM
Mahmoud Abbas. Palestine's vision of peace is clear // Haaretz, 7 July 2014 | 6:00 PM
Turki Al Faisal. Peace would be possible with the Arab Peace Initiative at its core // Haaretz, 7 July 2014 | 9:17 PM
A critical opinion,
Michael Coren. Obama misfires with Israel // Posted as op ed Columnists Opinion in Toronto Sun, 12 July 2014 04:00 PM.
Break-down of the talks and post-mortem assessments
On 2 May 2014, the Hebrew daily Yedioth Ahronoth, cited an anonymous senior American official as placing the blame for the break-down in talks mainly on Israel's settlement stance, directly quoting the remark: 'Netanyahu did not move more than an inch." Israeli sources in Jerusalem later reported that the remarks came from the US Special Envoy Indyk himself, who was reportedly preparing to hand in his resignation. Whoever the source of the comment, the White House cleared the interview in which the remarks were made. In this the officials appeared to be referring to the Israeli government announcement of a record 14,000 new settlement housing units. Mark Landler has written that the remark attributed to Indyk reflected the President's own views:
Publicly, Mr. Obama has said that both sides bear responsibility for the latest collapse. But the president believes that more than any other factor, Israel’s drumbeat of settlement announcements in the West Bank and East Jerusalem poisoned the atmosphere and doomed any chance of a breakthrough with the Palestinians.
In a talk later given at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Indyk stated that Netanyahu had shown enough flexibility to come within the zone of an agreement. However, Indyk also stated that Netanyahu was undermined by members of his coalition, who kept making announcements of new settlements. Although Israeli sources insisted that Netanyahu negotiated in good faith. In an interview with The New York Times, Indyk further added that his impression was that, 'For Israelis . .(t)The Palestinians have become ghosts,' citing what he felt was the most meaningful personal moment in the talks, when the Palestinian Director of Intelligence, Majid Faraj, told his Israeli counterparts across the table, "You just don't see us." He also said that "there is so much water under the bridge... the difficulties we faced were far more because of the 20 years of distrust that built up".
Pope Francis during his three-day pilgrimage to the Middle East, intervened in the collapsed peace process, endorsing the State of Palestine, calling the situation "increasingly unacceptable" and issuing an invitation to both the Israeli and Palestinian presidents to join in a prayer summit at his home in the Vatican. A meeting was scheduled to that effect for 6 June.
In June 2014, a leaked recording from an unknown date showed that chief Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat believed the reason Netanyahu entered the peace talks was to build more settlements and disliked how President Mahmoud Abbas had committed to not go to international bodies.
However, Israeli national security adviser Joseph Cohen revealed a 65-page document that chief Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat submitted to Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas on 9 March, three weeks before Israel was to release the final batch of Palestinian prisoners. In it, Erekat proposed a strategy for the PA during the final month of negotiations and after 29 April, when the talks were originally scheduled to end before their premature collapse. Erekat recommended applying to join various international conventions, informing the U.S. and Europe that the Palestinians wouldn't extend the talks beyond 29 April, demanding that Israel nevertheless release the final batch of prisoners, intensifying efforts to reconcile with Hamas to thwart what he termed an Israeli effort to sever the West Bank from Gaza politically, and various other diplomatic and public relations moves. Cohen concludes that even while the Palestinians were talking with Washington about the possibility of extending the peace talks, they were actually planning to blow them up, and had been planning to do so even before Abbas met with U.S. President Barack Obama on 17 March.
According to Peace Now, during the nine months of peace talks Israel set a new record for settlement expansion at nearly 14,000 newly approved settler homes. Despite freezing settlements was not a precondition to restart peace talks, Palestinian official Nabil Shaath condemned settlement construction, saying "the settlement activities have made negotiations worthless." For its part, Israeli spokesman Mark Regev condemned sporadic Palestinian incitement, saying "the terrorist attacks against Israelis over the last few days are a direct result of the incitement and hatred propagated in Palestinian schools and media." According to B'Tselem, during this same period forty-five Palestinians and six Israelis were killed.
Reactions
US Secretary of State John Kerry said that if the peace talks failed, there would likely be a third intifada. Despite all efforts of John Kerry, Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas blamed Israel for the lack of progress, saying "the problem is with the Israeli side and not with us," In January, a PLO member reported that the US implied a threat to cut all aid to the Palestinian Authority and a future inability to control Israeli settlement expansion if a peace agreement was not reached.
EU Ambassador to Israel, Lars Faaborg-Andersen said if peace talks fail, Israel will likely be blamed for the break down. Yair Lapid said that the country could be targeted by an economically costly boycott if peace talks with the Palestinians fail, signalling that concerns about growing international isolation have moved centre stage in Israel's public discourse.
Some critics believe that Israel is only trying to "put on a show," claiming the Israelis do not seek a peace agreement, but are using these peace talks to further other goals, including improving their image, strengthening their occupation of the West Bank, and decreasing the viability of Palestine as a state free of Israeli occupation. Henry Siegman faults the United States, arguing that it is 'widely seen as the leading obstacle for peace' for its repeated failure to use leverage against Israel, and for failing to impose red lines for an agreement, and leading Israeli leaders to believe no consequences would ensue were Israel to reject American proposals.
Danny Danon stated that the Palestinians failed to make concessions during the negotiations period and that they were only interested in seeing militants released from prison. Netanyahu told Kerry "I want peace, but the Palestinians continue to incite, create imaginary crises and avoid the historical decisions necessary for a real peace."
Reactions to Israeli settlements approvals
Israel was accused by Palestinian officials of trying to sabotage the peace talks by approving nearly 1200 new settlement homes shortly before the negotiations were due to start. Israeli settlements are considered illegal under international law, though Israel disputes this. Israeli government spokesman Mark Regev stated that these settlements would "remain part of Israel in any possible peace agreements."
The British Foreign Office Minister Alistair Burt said: "We condemn the recent decisions taken by the Israeli authorities to advance plans for 1096 settlement units in the West Bank, and to approve the construction of 63 new units in East Jerusalem. Israeli settlements are illegal under international law, undermine trust and threaten the viability of the two-state solution."
On 13 August, Israel approved another 900 settler homes in East Jerusalem in addition to the 1,200 settlements announced on the 10th. On 30 October, Israel stated it would go ahead with plans to build 3,500 more homes for settlers. Netanyahu then said "any further settlement construction may stir unnecessary clashes with the international community".
See also
2014 Fatah–Hamas Gaza Agreement
2014 kidnapping and murder of Israeli teenagers
Kidnapping and murder of Mohammed Abu Khdeir
2014 Israel–Gaza conflict
References
External links
Israeli–Palestinian peace process
2013 in international relations
2014 in international relations
2013 in Israel
2014 in Israel
2013 in the State of Palestine
2014 in the State of Palestine
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The human skin is the outer covering of the body and is the largest organ of the integumentary system. The skin has up to seven layers of ectodermal tissue and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs. Human skin is similar to most of the other
mammals' skin, and it is very similar to pig skin. Though nearly all human skin is covered with hair follicles, it can appear hairless. There are two general types of skin, hairy and glabrous skin (hairless). The adjective cutaneous literally means "of the skin" (from Latin cutis, skin).
Because it interfaces with the environment, skin plays an important immunity role in protecting the body against pathogens and excessive water loss. Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, synthesis of vitamin D, and the protection of vitamin B folates. Severely damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue. This is often discoloured and depigmented.
In humans, skin pigmentation(affected by melanin) varies among populations, and skin type can range from dry to non-dry and from oily to non-oily. Such skin variety provides a rich and diverse habitat for bacteria that number roughly 1000 species from 19 phyla, present on the human skin.
Structure
Human skin shares anatomical, physiological, biochemical and immunological properties with other mammalian lines, especially pig skin. Pig skin shares similar epidermal and dermal thickness ratios to human skin; pig and human skin share similar hair follicle and blood vessel patterns; biochemically the dermal collagen and elastic content is similar in pig and human skin; and pig skin and human skin have similar physical responses to various growth factors.
Skin has mesodermal cells, pigmentation, such as melanin provided by melanocytes, which absorb some of the potentially dangerous ultraviolet radiation (UV) in sunlight. It also contains DNA repair enzymes that help reverse UV damage, such that people lacking the genes for these enzymes suffer high rates of skin cancer. One form predominantly produced by UV light, malignant melanoma, is particularly invasive, causing it to spread quickly, and can often be deadly. Human skin pigmentation varies among populations in a striking manner. This has led to the classification of people(s) on the basis of skin colour.
In terms of surface area, the skin is the second largest organ in the human body (the inside of the small intestine is 15 to 20 times larger). For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of from . The thickness of the skin varies considerably over all parts of the body, and between men and women and the young and the old. An example is the skin on the forearm which is on average 1.3 mm in the male and 1.26 mm in the female. of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than 1,000 nerve endings. The average human skin cell is about 30 micrometres (μm) in diameter, but there are variants. A skin cell usually ranges from 25–40 μm2, depending on a variety of factors.
Skin is composed of three primary layers: the epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis.
Epidermis
Epidermis, "epi" coming from the Greek meaning "over" or "upon", is the outermost layer of the skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body's surface which also serves as a barrier to infection and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying basal lamina.
The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air and to a far lesser degree by blood capillaries extending to the outer layers of the dermis. The main type of cells that make up the epidermis are Merkel cells, keratinocytes, with melanocytes and Langerhans cells also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following strata (beginning with the outermost layer): corneum, lucidum (only in palms of hands and bottoms of feet), granulosum, spinosum, and basale. Cells are formed through mitosis at the basale layer. The daughter cells (see cell division) move up the strata changing shape and composition as they die due to isolation from their blood source. The cytoplasm is released and the protein keratin is inserted. They eventually reach the corneum and slough off (desquamation). This process is called "keratinization". This keratinized layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and pathogens out, making skin a natural barrier to infection.
The epidermis contains no blood vessels and is nourished by diffusion from the dermis. The main type of cells that make up the epidermis are keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. The epidermis helps the skin regulate body temperature.
Layers
The epidermis is divided into several layers, where cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with keratin. After reaching the top layer stratum corneum they are eventually 'sloughed off', or desquamated. This process is called keratinization and takes place within weeks.
It was previously believed that the stratum corneum was "a simple, biologically inactive, outer epidermal layer comprising a fibrillar lattice of dead keratin". It is now understood that this is not true, and that the stratum corneum should be considered to be a live tissue. While it is true that the stratum corneum is mainly composed of terminally differentiated keratinocytes called corneocytes that are anucleated, these cells remain alive and metabolically functional until desquamated.
Sublayers
The epidermis is divided into the following 5 sublayers or strata:
Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale (also called "stratum germinativum")
Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis and are linked to an arteriole and a venule. Arterial shunt vessels may bypass the network in ears, the nose and fingertips.
Genes and proteins expressed in the epidermis
About 70% of all human protein-coding genes are expressed in the skin. Almost 500 genes have an elevated pattern of expression in the skin. There are less than 100 genes that are specific for the skin, and these are expressed in the epidermis. An analysis of the corresponding proteins show that these are mainly expressed in keratinocytes and have functions related to squamous differentiation and cornification.
Dermis
The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by a basement membrane. It also harbours many nerve endings that provide the sense of touch and heat. It contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, apocrine glands, lymphatic vessels and blood vessels. The blood vessels in the dermis provide nourishment and waste removal from its own cells as well as from the stratum basale of the epidermis.
The dermis is structurally divided into two areas: a superficial area adjacent to the epidermis, called the papillary region, and a deep thicker area known as the reticular region.
Papillary region
The papillary region is composed of loose areolar connective tissue. It is named for its finger-like projections called papillae, which extend toward the epidermis. The papillae provide the dermis with a "bumpy" surface that interdigitates with the epidermis, strengthening the connection between the two layers of skin.
In the palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the influence of the papillae projecting into the epidermis forms contours in the skin's surface. These epidermal ridges occur in patterns (see: fingerprint) that are genetically and epigenetically determined and are therefore unique to the individual, making it possible to use fingerprints or footprints as a means of identification.
Reticular region
The reticular region lies deep in the papillary region and is usually much thicker. It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue, and receives its name from the dense concentration of collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibres that weave throughout it. These protein fibres give the dermis its properties of strength, extensibility, and elasticity.
Also located within the reticular region are the roots of the hairs, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, receptors, nails, and blood vessels.
Tattoo ink is held in the dermis. Stretch marks, often from pregnancy and obesity, are also located in the dermis.
Subcutaneous tissue
The subcutaneous tissue (also hypodermis and subcutis) is not part of the skin, but lies below the dermis of the cutis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.
Cross-section
Development
Skin colour
Human skin shows high skin colour variety from the darkest brown to the lightest pinkish-white hues. Human skin shows higher variation in colour than any other single mammalian species and is the result of natural selection. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate the amount of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.
The actual skin colour of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance determining human skin colour is the pigment melanin. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes and it is the main determinant of the skin colour of darker-skinned humans. The skin colour of people with light skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the dermis and by the haemoglobin circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red colour underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of physical exercise or the stimulation of the nervous system (anger, fear), arterioles dilate.
There are at least five different pigments that determine the colour of the skin. These pigments are present at different levels and places.
Melanin: It is brown in colour and present in the basal layer of the epidermis.
Melanoid: It resembles melanin but is present diffusely throughout the epidermis.
Carotene: This pigment is yellow to orange in colour. It is present in the stratum corneum and fat cells of dermis and superficial fascia.
Hemoglobin (also spelled haemoglobin): It is found in blood and is not a pigment of the skin but develops a purple colour.
Oxyhemoglobin: It is also found in blood and is not a pigment of the skin. It develops a red colour.
There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of UV radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that highlight higher amounts of UVR reflect darker-skinned populations, generally located nearer towards the equator. Areas that are far from the tropics and closer to the poles have lower concentration of UVR, which is reflected in lighter-skinned populations.
In the same population it has been observed that adult human females are considerably lighter in skin pigmentation than males. Females need more calcium during pregnancy and lactation, and vitamin D which is synthesized from sunlight helps in absorbing calcium. For this reason it is thought that females may have evolved to have lighter skin in order to help their bodies absorb more calcium.
The Fitzpatrick scale is a numerical classification schema for human skin colour developed in 1975 as a way to classify the typical response of different types of skin to ultraviolet (UV) light:
Ageing
As skin ages, it becomes thinner and more easily damaged. Intensifying this effect is the decreasing ability of skin to heal itself as a person ages.
Among other things, skin ageing is noted by a decrease in volume and elasticity. There are many internal and external causes to skin ageing. For example, ageing skin receives less blood flow and lower glandular activity.
A validated comprehensive grading scale has categorized the clinical findings of skin ageing as laxity (sagging), rhytids (wrinkles), and the various facets of photoageing, including erythema (redness), and telangiectasia, dyspigmentation (brown discolouration), solar elastosis (yellowing), keratoses (abnormal growths) and poor texture.
Cortisol causes degradation of collagen, accelerating skin ageing.
Anti-ageing supplements are used to treat skin ageing.
Photoageing
Photoageing has two main concerns: an increased risk for skin cancer and the appearance of damaged skin. In younger skin, sun damage will heal faster since the cells in the epidermis have a faster turnover rate, while in the older population the skin becomes thinner and the epidermis turnover rate for cell repair is lower, which may result in the dermis layer being damaged.
Functions
Skin performs the following functions:
Protection: an anatomical barrier from pathogens and damage between the internal and external environment in bodily defence; Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the adaptive immune system. Perspiration contains lysozyme that break the bonds within the cell walls of bacteria.
Sensation: contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury; see somatosensory system and haptics.
Heat regulation: the skin contains a blood supply far greater than its requirements which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection and conduction. Dilated blood vessels increase perfusion and heat loss, while constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat.
Control of evaporation: the skin provides a relatively dry and semi-impermeable barrier to fluid loss. Loss of this function contributes to the massive fluid loss in burns.
Aesthetics and communication: others see our skin and can assess our mood, physical state and attractiveness.
Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage centre for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of vitamin D by action of UV on certain parts of the skin.
Excretion: sweat contains urea, however its concentration is 1/130th that of urine, hence excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation.
Absorption: the cells comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40 mm of the skin are "almost exclusively supplied by external oxygen", although the "contribution to total respiration is negligible". In addition, medicine can be administered through the skin, by ointments or by means of adhesive patch, such as the nicotine patch or iontophoresis. The skin is an important site of transport in many other organisms.
Water resistance: The skin acts as a water-resistant barrier so essential nutrients are not washed out of the body.
Skin flora
The human skin is a rich environment for microbes. Around 1000 species of bacteria from 19 bacterial phyla have been found. Most come from only four phyla: Actinobacteria (51.8%), Firmicutes (24.4%), Proteobacteria (16.5%), and Bacteroidetes (6.3%). Propionibacteria and Staphylococci species were the main species in sebaceous areas. There are three main ecological areas: moist, dry and sebaceous. In moist places on the body Corynebacteria together with Staphylococci dominate. In dry areas, there is a mixture of species but dominated by b-Proteobacteria and Flavobacteriales. Ecologically, sebaceous areas had greater species richness than moist and dry ones. The areas with least similarity between people in species were the spaces between fingers, the spaces between toes, axillae, and umbilical cord stump. Most similarly were beside the nostril, nares (inside
the nostril), and on the back.
Reflecting upon the diversity of the human skin researchers on the human skin microbiome have observed: "hairy, moist underarms lie a short distance from smooth dry forearms, but these two niches are likely as ecologically dissimilar as rainforests are to deserts."
The NIH conducted the Human Microbiome Project to characterize the human microbiota which includes that on the skin and the role of this microbiome in health and disease.
Microorganisms like Staphylococcus epidermidis colonize the skin surface. The density of skin flora depends on region of the skin. The disinfected skin surface gets recolonized from bacteria residing in the deeper areas of the hair follicle, gut and urogenital openings.
Clinical significance
Diseases of the skin include skin infections and skin neoplasms (including skin cancer). Dermatology is the branch of medicine that deals with conditions of the skin.
The skin is also valuable for diagnosis of other conditions, since many medical signs show through the skin. Skin color affects the visibility of these signs, a source of misdiagnosis in unaware medical personnel.
Society and culture
Hygiene and skin care
The skin supports its own ecosystems of microorganisms, including yeasts and bacteria, which cannot be removed by any amount of cleaning. Estimates place the number of individual bacteria on the surface of of human skin at 50 million, though this figure varies greatly over the average of human skin. Oily surfaces, such as the face, may contain over . Despite these vast quantities, all of the bacteria found on the skin's surface would fit into a volume the size of a pea. In general, the microorganisms keep one another in check and are part of a healthy skin. When the balance is disturbed, there may be an overgrowth and infection, such as when antibiotics kill microbes, resulting in an overgrowth of yeast. The skin is continuous with the inner epithelial lining of the body at the orifices, each of which supports its own complement of microbes.
Cosmetics should be used carefully on the skin because these may cause allergic reactions. Each season requires suitable clothing in order to facilitate the evaporation of the sweat. Sunlight, water and air play an important role in keeping the skin healthy.
Oily skin
Oily skin is caused by over-active sebaceous glands, that produce a substance called sebum, a naturally healthy skin lubricant. A high glycemic-index diet and dairy products (except for cheese) consumption increase IGF-1 generation which in turn increases sebum production. Overwashing the skin does not cause sebum overproduction but may cause dryness.
When the skin produces excessive sebum, it becomes heavy and thick in texture. Oily skin is typified by shininess, blemishes and pimples. The oily-skin type is not necessarily bad, since such skin is less prone to wrinkling, or other signs of ageing, because the oil helps to keep needed moisture locked into the epidermis (outermost layer of skin).
The negative aspect of the oily-skin type is that oily complexions are especially susceptible to clogged pores, blackheads, and buildup of dead skin cells on the surface of the skin. Oily skin can be sallow and rough in texture and tends to have large, clearly visible pores everywhere, except around the eyes and neck.
Permeability
Human skin has a low permeability; that is, most foreign substances are unable to penetrate and diffuse through the skin. Skin's outermost layer, the stratum corneum, is an effective barrier to most inorganic nanosized particles. This protects the body from external particles such as toxins by not allowing them to come into contact with internal tissues. However, in some cases it is desirable to allow particles entry to the body through the skin. Potential medical applications of such particle transfer has prompted developments in nanomedicine and biology to increase skin permeability. One application of transcutaneous particle delivery could be to locate and treat cancer. Nanomedical researchers seek to target the epidermis and other layers of active cell division where nanoparticles can interact directly with cells that have lost their growth-control mechanisms (cancer cells). Such direct interaction could be used to more accurately diagnose properties of specific tumours or to treat them by delivering drugs with cellular specificity.
Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles 40 nm in diameter and smaller have been successful in penetrating the skin. Research confirms that nanoparticles larger than 40 nm do not penetrate the skin past the stratum corneum. Most particles that do penetrate will diffuse through skin cells, but some will travel down hair follicles and reach the dermis layer.
The permeability of skin relative to different shapes of nanoparticles has also been studied. Research has shown that spherical particles have a better ability to penetrate the skin compared to oblong (ellipsoidal) particles because spheres are symmetric in all three spatial dimensions. One study compared the two shapes and recorded data that showed spherical particles located deep in the epidermis and dermis whereas ellipsoidal particles were mainly found in the stratum corneum and epidermal layers. Nanorods are used in experiments because of their unique fluorescent properties but have shown mediocre penetration.
Nanoparticles of different materials have shown skin's permeability limitations. In many experiments, gold nanoparticles 40 nm in diameter or smaller are used and have shown to penetrate to the epidermis. Titanium oxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and silver nanoparticles are ineffective in penetrating the skin past the stratum corneum. Cadmium selenide (CdSe) quantum dots have proven to penetrate very effectively when they have certain properties. Because CdSe is toxic to living organisms, the particle must be covered in a surface group. An experiment comparing the permeability of quantum dots coated in polyethylene glycol (PEG), PEG-amine, and carboxylic acid concluded the PEG and PEG-amine surface groups allowed for the greatest penetration of particles. The carboxylic acid coated particles did not penetrate past the stratum corneum.
Increasing permeability
Scientists previously believed that the skin was an effective barrier to inorganic particles. Damage from mechanical stressors was believed to be the only way to increase its permeability.
Recently, simpler and more effective methods for increasing skin permeability have been developed. Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) slightly damages the surface of skin and causes a time-dependent defect allowing easier penetration of nanoparticles. The UVR's high energy causes a restructuring of cells, weakening the boundary between the stratum corneum and the epidermal layer. The damage of the skin is typically measured by the transepidermal water loss (TEWL), though it may take 3–5 days for the TEWL to reach its peak value. When the TEWL reaches its highest value, the maximum density of nanoparticles is able to permeate the skin. While the effect of increased permeability after UVR exposure can lead to an increase in the number of particles that permeate the skin, the specific permeability of skin after UVR exposure relative to particles of different sizes and materials has not been determined.
There are other methods to increase nanoparticle penetration by skin damage: tape stripping is the process in which tape is applied to skin then lifted to remove the top layer of skin; skin abrasion is done by shaving the top 5–10 μm off the surface of the skin; chemical enhancement applies chemicals such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and oleic acid to the surface of the skin to increase permeability; electroporation increases skin permeability by the application of short pulses of electric fields. The pulses are high voltage and on the order of milliseconds when applied. Charged molecules penetrate the skin more frequently than neutral molecules after the skin has been exposed to electric field pulses. Results have shown molecules on the order of 100 μm to easily permeate electroporated skin.
Applications
A large area of interest in nanomedicine is the transdermal patch because of the possibility of a painless application of therapeutic agents with very few side effects. Transdermal patches have been limited to administer a small number of drugs, such as nicotine, because of the limitations in permeability of the skin. Development of techniques that increase skin permeability has led to more drugs that can be applied via transdermal patches and more options for patients.
Increasing the permeability of skin allows nanoparticles to penetrate and target cancer cells. Nanoparticles along with multi-modal imaging techniques have been used as a way to diagnose cancer non-invasively. Skin with high permeability allowed quantum dots with an antibody attached to the surface for active targeting to successfully penetrate and identify cancerous tumours in mice. Tumour targeting is beneficial because the particles can be excited using fluorescence microscopy and emit light energy and heat that will destroy cancer cells.
Sunblock and sunscreen
Sunblock and sunscreen are different important skin-care products though both offer full protection from the sun.
Sunblock—Sunblock is opaque and stronger than sunscreen, since it is able to block most of the UVA/UVB rays and radiation from the sun, and does not need to be reapplied several times in a day. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are two of the important ingredients in sunblock.
Sunscreen—Sunscreen is more transparent once applied to the skin and also has the ability to protect against UVA/UVB rays, although the sunscreen's ingredients have the ability to break down at a faster rate once exposed to sunlight, and some of the radiation is able to penetrate to the skin. In order for sunscreen to be more effective it is necessary to consistently reapply and use one with a higher sun protection factor.
Diet
Vitamin A, also known as retinoids, benefits the skin by normalizing keratinization, downregulating sebum production which contributes to acne, and reversing and treating photodamage, striae, and cellulite.
Vitamin D and analogues are used to downregulate the cutaneous immune system and epithelial proliferation while promoting differentiation.
Vitamin C is an antioxidant that regulates collagen synthesis, forms barrier lipids, regenerates vitamin E, and provides photoprotection.
Vitamin E is a membrane antioxidant that protects against oxidative damage and also provides protection against harmful UV rays.
Several scientific studies confirmed that changes in baseline nutritional status affects skin condition.
The Mayo Clinic lists foods they state help the skin: fruits and vegetables, whole-grains, dark leafy greens, nuts, and seeds.
See also
Acid mantle
Anthropodermic bibliopegy
Artificial skin
Callus, thick area of skin
List of cutaneous conditions
Cutaneous structure development
Fingerprint, skin on fingertips
Hyperpigmentation, about excess skin colour
Intertriginous
Meissner's corpuscle
Pacinian corpuscle
Polyphenol antioxidant
Skin cancer
Skin lesion
Skin repair
References
External links
MedlinePlus Skin Conditions National Library of Medicine retrieved 12 November 2013.
Organs (anatomy)
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Rachel Anne Notley (born April 17, 1964) is a Canadian politician who served as the 17th premier of Alberta from 2015 to 2019, and has been the leader of the Opposition since 2019. She sits as the member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) for Edmonton-Strathcona, and is the leader of the Alberta New Democratic Party (NDP). The daughter of former Alberta NDP leader Grant Notley, she was a lawyer before entering politics; she focused on labour law, with a specialty in workers' compensation advocacy and workplace health and safety issues.
Notley was first elected to the Legislative Assembly in the 2008 provincial election, succeeding former NDP leader Raj Pannu. Six years later on October 18, 2014, Notley won the Alberta New Democratic Party leadership election on the first ballot with 70% of the vote and went on to lead the party to a majority victory in the 2015 provincial election, ending 44 years of rule by the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta. In the 2019 provincial election, the NDP government was defeated by the United Conservative Party, making Notley the Opposition leader.
Background
Notley was born on April 17, 1964, in Edmonton, Alberta, and was raised outside of the town of Fairview, Alberta, the daughter of Sandra Mary "Sandy" (Wilkinson) and Alberta NDP Leader and MLA Grant Notley. She is the first Alberta premier to be born in Edmonton. Notley is the sister of Paul Notley and Stephen Notley, author and illustrator of Bob the Angry Flower. Her mother, a devout Anglican, was born in Concord, Massachusetts, and moved to Alberta as an adult.
Notley was unafraid to challenge older political leaders as a college student, even asking her father at an Alberta NDP public meeting on poverty and student debt for his advice to a "poor student whose parents made too much money for her to get a loan while at the same time being too cheap to give her enough money to buy food."
Notley credits her mother Sandy with getting her involved in activism, taking Notley to an anti-war demonstration before she was even ten years old. She remained unsure about whether or not to enter public office until she was in her 30s. Alongside her own family background, Notley has also cited her high school social studies teacher Jim Clevette as having made a lasting impact when it comes to her interest in politics. She has also claimed Jack Layton as being a personal hero.
Notley was a twenty-year-old undergraduate at the University of Alberta when her father died on October 19, 1984. After attending a large party she received a call at four in the morning from Tom Sigurdson, her father's executive assistant, stating that there had been a plane crash and that she should return home. This was not the first accident her father had been in; as part of his frequent trips across the province he had already been in several other plane accidents as well as an automobile collision with an elk. Fellow NDP MLA and future Alberta NDP leader Ray Martin later called to confirm to Notley that her father was indeed dead. It was then left up to Notley to inform her mother of the news. A day after her election as Alberta NDP leader, she would lead the 30th anniversary memorial of her father's death.
Notley earned a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in Political Science at the University of Alberta, and a law degree at Osgoode Hall Law School. While at Osgoode Hall she became active in the 1989 federal NDP leadership convention where she endorsed second-place finisher and former BC premier Dave Barrett.
She is married to Lou Arab, a communications representative for the Canadian Union of Public Employees (CUPE) and a campaign strategist for the party. She lives with him and their two children in the historic district of Old Strathcona located in south-central Edmonton.
Notley is a cyclist, jogger, and skier, as well as a reformed smoker.
Activism
After law school, Notley articled for Edmonton labour lawyer Bob Blakely, and went on to work for the Alberta Union of Provincial Employees representing members with Workers' Compensation cases.
In 1994, Notley moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, where she worked for the Health Sciences Association of BC as their occupational health and safety officer. During her time in BC, she worked for one year as a ministerial assistant to Attorney General Ujjal Dosanjh. In this role, she was part of the team that first expanded the application of BC's family relations laws to same sex couples, several years before the Government of Canada took similar initiatives.
Notley acted as a representative of the provincial labour movement in the negotiation and drafting of new workplace health and safety standards.
During her time in Vancouver, Notley was active with "Moms on the Move", an organization that advocated for the rights of special needs children. She is also a past board member of the Vancouver Community College. Notley returned to Edmonton in 2002. She worked for a short time for the National Union of Public and General Employees (NUPGE), worked at Athabasca University, acted as volunteer co-ordinator for the Friends of Medicare "Romanow Now" campaign, and finally as a labour relations officer for the United Nurses of Alberta.
Notley did volunteer work with the Strathcona Community League in 2006, assisting with a drive to garner support for the installation of sidewalks in east Strathcona.
Early political career
Entry into provincial politics
Notley headed the election-planning subcommittee for the Alberta NDP in 1991, two years before the 1993 provincial election which shut the party out of the legislature. She became involved again with Alberta provincial politics in 2000 following the resignation of Pam Barrett as both Alberta NDP leader and the MLA for Edmonton-Highlands. Notley traveled to Edmonton to help Brian Mason successfully retain the seat for the Alberta NDP in the face of a concerted effort by the Alberta Liberal Party to take it back.
In October 2006, she was nominated by acclamation as the Alberta NDP candidate in the provincial constituency of Edmonton-Strathcona, succeeding former Alberta NDP leader Raj Pannu. The event was attended by then Federal NDP leader Jack Layton. Notley had previously considered running in the 2004 provincial election, but had refrained from doing so because her two children were still toddlers at the time. She was subsequently elected as an MLA in the 2008 Alberta provincial election. She was re-elected in the 2012 Alberta provincial election with the highest share of the vote of any MLA in Alberta at that time.
One month after her election in 2008 two Greenpeace protesters sneaked into the Shaw Conference Centre in Edmonton during a fundraising dinner for then Progressive Conservative premier Ed Stelmach to unfurl a banner that read "Stelmach: The Best Premier Oil Money Can Buy" in protest of his government's environmental policies. One of the protesters, a woman by the name of Denise Ogonoski, worked two days a week in Notley's constituency office. Notley described the issue as being a "personnel matter", saying that it was something she was "going to discuss with her in person and not through the media."
During her early days in office, Alberta NDP leader Brian Mason found her to be quick on her feet with an outgoing and warm personality. He also described her as being very nervous immediately after she was first elected as an MLA, not wanting to be left alone as the party's sole member in the legislature even when Mason was only leaving to go to the washroom. Despite these initial problems, Mason said she would go on to become "an articulate and passionate politician, a parliamentarian and a very, very effective communicator."
On October 18, 2014, Notley won the leadership of Alberta's New Democratic Party with 70% support, succeeding Brian Mason and becoming the 9th leader of the party. She defeated fellow MLA David Eggen and union leader Rod Loyola on the first ballot.
In addition to serving as party leader, Notley was critic for Health, International and Intergovernmental Relations, Status of Women, Justice, and Executive Council.
2015 election
Notley's first leadership test was in the May 5, 2015 provincial election. Following the reveal of a budget that slashed social spending, raised taxes and fees, and held the line on low corporate taxes, the incumbent Progressive Conservative premier, Jim Prentice, called the election. With the Official Opposition Wildrose Party reeling from a series of floor crossings and mass defections, most pundits and commentators felt that the PCs had a good shot at winning their thirteenth consecutive majority in the Legislature. With strong polling in Edmonton, some felt the Alberta NDP would form the official opposition.
By the middle of the campaign, however, pollsters began predicting a three-way race between the Progressive Conservatives, the Alberta NDP, and the Wildrose Party. Notley had managed to capitalize on the unpopularity of the PCs' budget, stating that she would instead raise corporate taxes and rollback fees and cuts. The sole televised leaders' debate proved to be a turning point, with Notley largely viewed as having the best performance. Jim Prentice also came under fire for saying "I know math is difficult" to Notley, in reference to the embarrassing miscalculation in the proposed NDP budget released two days prior, a remark which was widely seen as sexist and patronizing. Despite her strong performance, Notley herself admitted to having been extremely nervous leading up the event.
By the final week, the NDP emerged as the front runner. Notley herself said that she first realized she would be Alberta's next premier when she took a break in her hotel room a week before the election to read a credible poll that put the NDP solidly in first place. While she initially planned a whirlwind schedule to close out the campaign, she realized that this would have not only left her looking extremely haggard during her victory speech, but also would have left her without time to make plans for a transition.
On election night, the NDP won 54 seats, re-electing their four incumbents as well as 50 new members to the Legislative Assembly. The NDP had been expected to make a strong showing in Edmonton, which has traditionally been much friendlier to centre-left candidates than the rest of Alberta. However, they took every riding in the capital, all by very large margins—a result that exceeded even the most optimistic NDP projections. Even more surprisingly, the NDP took 15 seats in Calgary, long reckoned as the power base for both the provincial and federal Tories. This was mainly due to massive vote splitting between the Tories and Wildrose—a phenomenon which allowed the NDP to sweep Red Deer. The NDP also swept the city of Lethbridge in its own right and won 16 seats in the rest of Alberta, mostly in the northern and central parts of the province.
Premiership
Notley held her first caucus meeting as Premier-designate on May 9, 2015. Three days later, Notley announced that she would be retaining the previous head of the Alberta public service, Richard Dicerni, as well as appointing NDP party strategists Brian Topp and Adrienne King as her chief of staff and deputy chief of staff, respectively. She also met with outgoing Premier Jim Prentice that same day, in addition to extending the deadline for the province's school boards to submit their budgets, her first major deviation from the previous Progressive Conservative government's financial commitments as Premier-designate.
On May 22, 2015, Notley suspended Calgary-Bow MLA Deborah Drever from the Alberta NDP caucus after a series of controversial postings by Drever were discovered on social media websites such as Instagram and Facebook. Notley had previously announced that she had directed Drever, as a result of the media attention, to create a plan to improve education on violence against women, particularly outreach to groups working with vulnerable young women. This was before a later image surfaced which was considered to be homophobic, something which Notley apologized for on behalf of the party.
Swearing-in
Notley was sworn in as the 17th premier of Alberta along with her cabinet on May 24, 2015. When she took office she ended an 80-year streak of centre-right governments in Alberta (Social Credit from 1935 to 1971 and the Tories from 1971 to 2015). Her twelve-member cabinet was the smallest in the country, containing only 14% of the legislature's members. The slimmed down cabinet was met with a mixed response from pundits; some said it showed the NDP's lack of experienced people while others felt that it brought a much needed sense of economy and individual importance to the various positions.
The swearing-in ceremony was an unusually public event, held on the steps of the Alberta Legislature Building in front of a large crowd of spectators while a folk band played the national anthem and free popsicles and food were distributed from food trucks. The Alberta NDP was criticized, though, for using the event as a part of its party fundraising, for which they later apologized. The ceremony cost $19,298; more expensive than the swearing-in ceremonies of the previous two premiers, but still less than the expenditure for the swearing-in of Alison Redford in 2011.
Speech from the Throne
The government's first throne speech was read by newly appointed Lieutenant Governor Lois Mitchell on June 15, 2015. The speech announced three bills intended to ban corporate and union donations to political parties and to increase taxes on large corporations and high income earners, ending the flat tax rate that had been in place since the premiership of Ralph Klein. Both of these proposals were promised as part of the Alberta NDP's election platform. That same day Notley also announced the creation of a seventeen-member all-party committee tasked to look into ways to improve government accountability in areas such as whistleblower protection, electioneering, and conflicts of interest. The government also reached out to the Opposition benches by having the committee be initiated through a joint motion with Wildrose Party leader Brian Jean, with Liberal leader David Swann also being tasked with helping conduct a review of provincial mental health policy along with NDP MLA Danielle Larivee.
Aboriginal relations
On June 22, 2015, Notley apologized to the Aboriginal community of Alberta for a long history of neglect by prior governments. In particular she apologized for the province not addressing the issue with decades of abuse at government- and church-operated residential schools. Notley pledged that her government would engage and improve living conditions of Alberta's Aboriginal community.
Notley joined the chorus of Canadian premiers demanding a federal inquiry into the issue of missing and murdered Aboriginal women. The inquiry is intended to prevent abductions with early intervention and investigations of root issues affecting high-risk Aboriginal females. On December 8, 2015, Notley tweeted out her support of Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's announcement that a national inquiry into missing and murdered indigenous women and girls would be immediately launched. On December 15, 2015, Notley expressed her support for the recommendations outlined in the Truth and Reconciliation Committee's final report.
The budget of 2017 included $100 million to upgrade the provincial and federal waterworks facilities that provide drinkable water for Albertan First Nations Communities. Thirteen communities have endured chronic boil water advisory conditions for two decades.
In 2018, the Albertan government sold 150 hectares of land to the Fort McKay First Nation for $1.6 million. The dealing was a precedent-setting event for the Métis.
Climate change and environment
On November 22, 2015, Notley unveiled Alberta's updated climate change strategy, in time for the COP 21 conference in Paris. In doing so, Notley acted upon one of the NDP's central campaign promises: for years, the NDP had criticized the PC government's inaction on the climate change file. The plan was described in multiple media outlets as bold and far-reaching. This policy shift came about partly because of the characterization of Alberta oil as 'some of the dirtiest in the world' by US President Barack Obama, which the premier likened to a "kick in the teeth".
The plan included an economy-wide carbon tax starting in 2017 and a cap on emissions from the oil sands. The plan also included a phase-out of coal-fired electricity by 2030, a 10-year goal to halve methane emissions, as well as incentives for renewable energy. The plan won plaudits from both environmental groups and oil executives, who were present behind Notley at the announcement in Edmonton. The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers also applauded the plan, saying it "provides direction that will allow the oil and natural gas industry to grow, further enhance its environmental performance through technological innovation, and is expected to improve market access to allow Canadian oil to reach more markets." The carbon tax was expected to raise $3 billion annually by 2018. Although Notley initially indicated that the carbon tax would be revenue neutral, similar to the structure imposed in neighbouring British Columbia, the plan did not cut any personal taxes, bringing into doubt Notley's assertion of revenue neutrality. Notley acted on the recommendations of a five-member panel appointed by Shannon Phillips, the minister of environment.
In November 2016, $1.4 billion was paid to compensate three major Albertan power producers (ATCO, Capital Power, and Transalta) to expedite the transition caused by the closure of six coal-fired power plants. The compensation was derived from the carbon tax and was to be paid over a period of 14 years.
In 2017, the Notley government resumed addressing the proliferation of abandoned wells by budgeting $235 million for the Orphan Well Association to begin land reclamation and rehabilitation of thousands of abandoned wells in the province. The plan was expected to carry through three years and create jobs.
A partnership between the provincial government, the Tallcree First Nation, and conservation group 'Nature Conservatory of Canada' created the Birch River Wildland Provincial Park adjacent to the south of Wood Buffalo National Park. The park is the largest territory of protected boreal forest in the world. Syncrude contributed $2.3 million to the project.
Public health and welfare reforms
The NDP made revisions reforms and implemented new services to public health and well-being services. In 2018, the NDP proposed legislature Bill 9 ('The protecting choice for women accessing healthcare act') to enforce 50 m buffer zones around abortion clinics in Alberta to ban harassment by pro-life activists against users and personnel of these facilities.
Coverage for the abortion drug 'Mifegymiso' was made public in 2018.
Notley's government enacted campaign promised pilot project to fund $25/day per child into 18 Early Learning Child Care services (ELCC) for daycare services. It is expected that 1,000 spaces and 230 professional jobs for ELCC trained staff will be available by 2017. The project also seeks to research ways to provide for children with specialized needs. If the economy improves Notley intends to expand the program with additional $10 million in funding.
After a successful pilot project, in 2018 the NDP continued to expand the Daycare services by increasing capacity for 6,000 additional children and 100 additional ELCC centers. The expansion was made possible by a funding grant from the Federal government investing $136 million over 3 years as well from the Albertan government investing $14.5 million.
Albertans with a higher risk of HIV will be provided coverage for the Anti-HIV drug PrEP.
The proposed Bill 24 designed to protect LGBTQ rights will uphold anonymity among members of gay–straight alliance (GSA) clubs in public schools. Additionally gay conversion therapies will be banned in Alberta.
In 2019, Bill 26 was enacted which aims to combat poverty for Albertans suffering from poverty. Among the provisions are an increase of benefits for the elderly and AISH recipients connected to the consumer price index.
Economy and labour
Alberta's minimum wage was raised incrementally from $10.20 an hour in 2015 to $15.00 an hour in 2018.
Notley's government revised labour regulations with the implementation of the 'Fair and Family-friendly Act' (Bill 17), which came into effect in 2018. The revisions were the first overhaul of Alberta's labour laws in three decades.
In 2017, Saskatchewan Premier Brad Wall's government instigated a moratorium on vehicles with Albertan licence plates at government project sites in Saskatchewan. The Saskatchewan government initially said the ban was in response to reports that vehicles with Saskatchewan plates were being barred from Alberta sites, but did not provide evidence for these claims. Wall later claimed the ban was due to what he described as a "disturbing pattern of protectionist behaviour", citing, among other things, Alberta's $1.25-per-litre mark-up on beer prices in 2016. Notley's government responded by enacting the arbitration clause of the New West Partnership inter-provincial trade agreement. In January 2018, Saskatchewan rescinded the 'plate wars' moratorium in what it called a measure of good faith in advance of a decision on Alberta's beer prices by the Agreement on Internal Trade appeal panel.
In early 2018, an inter-provincial trade dispute between the BC NDP and Alberta NDP hampered the export of resources. Alberta's AGLC ceased to export wine produced in BC. Notley's government chose this as retaliation for Hogan's government decision to limit export of Bitumen from Alberta as protest to ongoing discussion of the proposed Trans Mountain Pipeline expansion. In 2017, Alberta imported $72 million of BC wine. However hospitality service businesses in Alberta worry their industry could be harmed with a prolonged embargo.
The government's Bill 31 of 2017 'A Better Deal for Consumers and Businesses Act' enacted a number of reforms to enhance consumer protections. Such as the abolition of purchasing bots to purchase blocks of online tickets for popular demanded events to prevent their inflated resale by the operators of such applications. The abolition of purchasing bots was enacted in August 2018. Consumers are empowered to sue the operators of bots if they have been financially injured should sellers and promoters of shows inadvertently fail to detect clandestine online bots.
The act also requires auto repair mechanics to provide a warranty for repair services, an estimate for the work. Consumers will also be empowered to litigate violators of consumer rights. High interest lenders and money transaction services will be regulated.
In 2019, the Albertan government agreed to lease 4,400 oil cars from Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway. The service will resume in the summer of 2019 with an initial capacity of 20,000 barrels per day. The potential revenue expected is $6 billion over three years.
Education
In 2015, Notley's government froze tuition fees for post-secondary students. The freeze was initially meant to last two years, but it was extended until 2018. The NDP government also reversed a 1.4 per cent cut to post-secondary institutions and instead increased base funding by two per cent.
In 2016, to fulfill her campaign promise, Notley's government implemented a pilot program aimed at providing Alberta's neediest children with nutritious sustenance lunch programs. The program is expected to expand in coming years.
Key events in premiership
In 2016, a wild fire devastated Fort McMurray. In October 2016 Notley visited the construction site of the first rebuilt house. She rededicated an overpass crossing Highway 63, where first responders had welcomed residents home, as 'Responders Way Bridge'.
Notley welcomed former PC MLA Sandra Jansen into her party in November 2016. Jansen withdrew her membership and party leadership candidacy which she took to challenge the candidacy of Jason Kenney. She claimed that she was harassed over her position on human rights issues such as LGBTQ rights and abortion by Kenney's supporters. She warned of a hostile take over of democratic values by Kenney's campaign. Notley granted Jansen with a security detail as reports of vulgar death threats threatened Jansen.
Notley and Ma Xingrui, governor of Guangdong Province of China signed a provincial sistering agreement in 2017 during an economic trade mission to Asia.
Oil curtailments
On December 2, 2018, Notely announced the Alberta government would be instating oil production curtailments. The curtailments were meant to minimize lost revenue due to oil being sold at a lower market value as a bottleneck in transportation. The Alberta government rarely utilized this power, the last time was during the National Energy Program to limit federal revenues. Curtailments took effect in January 2019, under the Oil and Gas Conservation Act with the Alberta Energy Regulator monitoring the program.
Opiate Fentanyl epidemic
Since 2016, Notley's government was tasked with a fatal opiate epidemic as fentanyl emerged on the street narcotic market. Notley's government responded with harm reduction counter measures such as the distribution of naloxone injection kits and naloxone spray for the Edmonton and Calgary police and paramedic services.
Alberta Liberal Party leader David Swann petitioned the Notley government to issue a state of emergency. Neighbouring province British Columbia issued a state of emergency as did the Blood Tribe and Nakota nations as frequent and close succession fatal overdoses on these First Nations communities as well throughout Alberta. However, as of November 2016 the Notley government views the measure inappropriate as Albertan medical facilities were already established and gained experience through epidemics such as SARS. However the health ministry is showing great interest in the prospect of establishing safe sites in Edmonton and is reviewing the data for the harm reduction approach. Associate health minister NDP MLA Brandy Payne granted $230K to the 'Access to Medically Supervised Injection Services Edmonton' to apply for permission to establish a 'safe site' in Edmonton. Increased funding was allocated to treatment and for the communities to explore the prospect of operating 'safe sites'. However, fentanyl is usually ground and inhaled or ingested and not injected.
To further compound and aggravate the situation more potent opiates such as W-18 and carfentanil are emerging on the menu of illicit narcotics in Alberta. These compounds may be resistant to harm reduction counter measures such as the antidote naloxone.
Threats against Notley
After becoming Premier, Notley started to encounter abuse from Albertans who did not align with her values. As stated by the Edmonton Sun, "The statistics show that from 2003 to 2015, Alberta Sheriffs recorded 55 security incidents involving six premiers. 19 of those came in the last half of 2015, which happened to be Notley's first months in office. At least three of those incidents required police intervention." Most of the threats against Notley proliferated online with photos and posts, encouraging violence against the premier. According to statistics in 2016 from Alberta Justice, Notley is the Alberta premier with the most death threats. She was the subject of 412 harassment communiques, of which 26 were investigated by law enforcement. A professor argued that there have been growing trends of violence against female politicians. Most of these threats had been attributed to the NDP government's controversial farm safety legislation, Bill 6, which made Worker Compensation Board coverage mandatory on Alberta farms with paid, non-family employees, leading to thousands of protesters. Official Opposition leader and Wildrose Party Leader Brian Jean, despite criticizing Bill 6, made a call for the abuse directed at Notley to cease or else he would alert authorities. In late August 2016, Jean joked "I've been beating this drum for 10, 11 years. I will continue to beat it, I promise. But it's against the law to beat Rachel Notley", for which he apologized immediately for what he called “an inappropriate attempt at humour.”
Defeat
Following Notley's win in the 2015 provincial election, the Opposition Wildrose Party and third-place Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta, both right-of-centre, began contemplating forming a united right-wing party. Following referenda in both parties, they merged in 2017 into the United Conservative Party (UCP), with former federal minister and former PC leader Jason Kenney elected as leader later that year.
In the 2019 provincial election, the UCP won a majority of seats and about 55% of the popular vote. While the NDP retained all but one of their seats in Edmonton, significant losses in Calgary and rural Alberta reduced them to Official Opposition status. Notley pledged on election night to continue serving as Leader of the Opposition. The NDP government's defeat was the first time a governing party in Alberta had been defeated after a single term in office. The NDP opposition caucus with 24 seats will be the largest in Alberta since Laurence Decore's Liberals won 32 seats in 1993. Notley will be the first New Democrat to serve as Leader of the Official Opposition since Ray Martin (1984–1993). Her father, Grant Notley, held the same office from 1982 until his death in 1984.
In December 2019, Notley announced that she intended to lead the Alberta NDP into the next general election, due no later than May 2023.
Election results
2019 general election
2015 general election
2012 general election
2008 general election
References
External links
Legislative Assembly of Alberta Members Listing
Rachel Notley
1964 births
Premiers of Alberta
Alberta CCF/NDP leaders
Alberta New Democratic Party MLAs
Living people
Politicians from Edmonton
Women MLAs in Alberta
Canadian people of American descent
Canadian women lawyers
University of Alberta alumni
Osgoode Hall Law School alumni
Lawyers in Alberta
Female Canadian political party leaders
Canadian female first ministers
21st-century Canadian politicians
21st-century Canadian women politicians
Members of the Executive Council of Alberta
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Cheshire Crossing is a fantasy webcomic written and originally illustrated by Andy Weir from 2006 to 2008, and later illustrated by Sarah Andersen for Tapas from 2017 to 2019. The latter version was published as a graphic novel by Ten Speed Press, an imprint of Random House, in 2019. The story, taking place in the early 1900s, takes characters from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, The Wizard of Oz, and Peter Pan, and follows Alice Liddell, Dorothy Gale, and Wendy Darling after they are united at "Cheshire Crossing" by the mysterious Dr. Ernest Rutherford and Miss Mary Poppins (renamed Miss Poole in some versions) to study their abilities to travel between worlds before facing the combined forces of the reconstituted Wicked Witch of the West and Captain Hook.
The graphic novel was adapted into an audio drama, and has also been optioned for a movie adaptation.
Plot
Overview
Wendy Darling, Dorothy Gale, and Alice Liddell are all teenagers who have been diagnosed with "dissociative psychosis" following their respective travels to other worlds. The three have been committed to various wards and sanitariums, including Dorothy receiving electroshock therapy. By 1910, the characters are teenagers and are no longer sweet or naive as in the original works. The three are all sent by their parents to Cheshire Crossing, an English boarding school and research facility where they are the only patients. Dr Rutherford, who leads the institution, genuinely believes the girls can travel between worlds and wants to help them with their powers, and has appointed a nanny to care for them who carries an umbrella and has some powers of her own. Alice uses Dorothy's slippers to travel to Oz; Wendy is taken along with her while trying to stop her.
Their adventures continue between Earth, Neverland, Wonderland, and Oz, dealing with the Wicked Witch of the West and Captain Hook, who team up both for villainy and love. Many other characters from the original works appear, including the Cheshire Cat, the Knave of Hearts, The Mad Hatter, Tinkerbell, munchkins, flying monkeys, and Peter Pan, who ages up during the story and obsesses over Alice.
Detailed synopsis
There are some small changes between the various versions of the story. Most notably, the name of the nanny was changed from Mary Poppins to Ms. Gwendolyn Poole. The plot summary below describes the original version, with any changes marked with footnotes.
Issue 1
In 1904, Alice Liddell's parents discover her unconscious on the grounds their estate, after she was missing for six days. After having her see a doctor, they ponder aloud where she was for that time and what happened to her, as Alice sits silently in her bed.
Six years later, Alice is brought to the apparent mental institution "Cheshire Crossing" by Mary Poppins, where she meets Wendy Darling and is told to await a third girl. Alice finds the windows are locked while Wendy practices throwing knives. Both briefly discuss their diagnoses of "dissociative psychosis" (described in the comic as meaning "crazy by means of creating an imaginary world"), talking of "Neverland" and "Wonderland" and their histories in similar institutions, both seeing the other as mad. After the arrival of the third girl, the American Dorothy Gale, Poppins brings them before Dr. Ernest Rutherford, who reveals Cheshire Crossing is a research facility and that he knows all three girls are sane and capable of travelling to other worlds. He informs them that experiments will begin the following day, to Alice's dismay, who expresses her not wanting to be a lab rat. They are then sent to shared sleeping quarters by Poppins, who Rutherford says will be their nanny and tutor.
That night, Dorothy asks Alice and Wendy about Wonderland and Neverland, revealing she first travelled to Oz in a tornado, but now can go any time using a pair of ruby slippers and calling out "There's no place like Oz". After prompting, Alice reveals she can travel to Wonderland via any reflective surface, most commonly mirrors, while Wendy states Neverland is located at "the second star to the right". After Alice attempts to escape, thwarted by Poppins, Alice takes Dorothy's slippers while she is asleep and uses them to flee to Oz, inadvertently taking Wendy with her.
After waking in Oz, Alice's arrival is detected by the Wicked Witch of the West with her crystal ball. West is surprised to see the slippers on someone other than Dorothy and sends a squad of flying monkeys to retrieve them. Both West and Alice are shocked when, after the flying monkeys lift her up into the air, Wendy flies into the air and rescues Alice. Wendy and Alice land in the poppy field which puts Wendy to sleep, but Alice resists due to a high laudanum tolerance. Alice flees to Wonderland through a nearby pond, where she is greeted by the Cheshire Cat.
Issue 2
In a flashback, Dorothy is informed by Glinda the Good in Oz how to use the slippers to return to her home in Kansas, before she realizes Glinda could have told her earlier and had manipulated her into killing the Wicked Witch of the West for her. In the present, at Cheshire Crossing, Dorothy tells Poppins and Rutherford of Alice's actions. Rutherford says that Dorothy's "powers are inherent" and tells her to go to Oz. After saying "There's no place like Oz", Dorothy is transported to Oz with Poppins, who explains to her that rather than the slippers providing her the power to travel to Oz, she herself had provided the power to the shoes, having subconsciously brought herself and her house to Oz previously during the previous tornado. Dorothy and Poppins follow the Yellow Brick Road to the Munchkin Village, where Dorothy is surprised to learn from its mayor that the Wicked Witch of the West is alive again, having returned a few months prior, and has captured "a girl from afar". Dorothy is berated for "sheer carelessness" by Poppins upon revealing she had previously accidentally killed both the Wicked Witch of the West and her sister.
In Wonderland, Alice is greeted by Jack the Knave of Hearts and his playing card soldiers, who hail her as a hero for having previously stood up to the Queen of Hearts. Grateful for her having previously saved him at his trial, Jack introduces her to the rebel troupe she inspired (including the Hatter). Alice offers to bring Jack and his troupe to Oz in exchange for helping to find and save Wendy. In West's castle, a shackled Wendy attempts to escape before being knocked unconscious by West. West examines Wendy and finds she is a "conduit to another world". After consulting dark spirits about this world, West learns its name, Neverland, and that it has fairies. Now viewing the slippers as unimportant, West has Wendy brought to her casting chamber, and uses her to create a gate to Neverland.
Outside the castle, in the mountains of Oz, Dorothy and Poppins encounter Alice and Jack's troupe after being led to them by Glinda after Alice had re-entered Oz with Jack's troupe. After returning Dorothy's slippers, Alice uses a shrinking potion she acquired from Wonderland to sneak past the Winkies, West's personal guards, then grows again with a magic cake and opens the castle's door from the inside. After overcoming the guards, the troupe reaches the Witch's casting room as she opens a portal to Neverland. Upon seeing Dorothy, West attempts to disintegrate her, but Poppins protects her with her umbrella. As Poppins battles West, the Cheshire Cat frees Wendy and she saves Alice and Dorothy from King Nikko of the flying monkeys. Recognizing Poppins as a fellow witch, and citing the "strange rules" of Oz, West splashes Poppins with a bucket of water, melting her. Enraged, Dorothy punches West through the portal to Neverland, closing it behind her. Dorothy believes Poppins can be restored, given that West had returned from Dorothy previously melting her, and Alice gathers Poppins' remains into a bucket to return her to Rutherford. Meanwhile, in Neverland, West wakes on the pirate ship of Captain James Hook, and explains to him that she had designed the portal to bring her to "the most evil being in Neverland".
Issue 3
One month later, on his ship, Captain Hook and his crew have raided half the fairy villages of Neverland, and presents the fairies to the Wicked Witch of the West as Smee sends word of Peter's and "Tink" Tinker Bell's arrival to rescue them. West hits Peter with lightning, rendering him unconscious, while Tink flees, all according to Hook's plan.
At Cheshire Crossing, Rutherford and his assistant, Lem (unidentified, but probably Lemuel Gulliver) examine Poppins' remains to find that she is slowly reforming to her original configuration, but it would take her years to completely reform if left on her own. Meanwhile, while doing her hair, Dorothy finds she can now pass through mirrors like Alice. She tells Alice this who warns Dorothy not to do it again. Tink then crashes through the window and relays the circumstances of Peter's and the fairies' kidnapping to Wendy. After informing Alice and Dorothy of the situation, they agree to join her in rescuing them, and Tink provides the pair with fairy dust to allow them to fly like Wendy, powered by "happy thoughts". To fly, Dorothy thinks of her aunt, while Alice thinks of a man named Richard, which she is teased for. While flying to Neverland, Dorothy draws up a plan to rescue Peter, deciding that she will confront the Witch while Wendy distracts the pirates and Alice shrinks herself to rescue the fairies.
Upon arriving in Neverland and approaching Hook's ship, the trio put their plan into motion. While Hook and West are becoming romantically involved as he teaches her to how to pilot his ship, Wendy flies in above to distract them, while Dorothy throws a bucket of water at West from behind her, but it has no effect – witches are only weak to water in Oz. After Dorothy dodges West's lightning, West uses a spell to disable flight in the area, grounding both girls and Tink. After embarking in a duel with Hook, Wendy is stabbed in the gut and falls overboard. Elsewhere, a cornered Dorothy also throws the slippers overboard to keep them from West and tricks her into burning her own face, before being taken prisoner by Hook. Meanwhile Alice, having snuck into Hook's quarters, is unable to open the orb in which the fairies are imprisoned and hides in Wonderland through Hook's mirror before he and West enter. After they leave the room again, Alice returns and drags the unconscious Peter through the mirror into Wonderland. After waking Peter and explaining the situation, Alice decides they will require stronger magic to defeat West and ventures into the Tumtum Forest with Peter to retrieve the Vorpal Sword, while avoiding the Jabberwock.
Wendy is rescued by a mermaid, who delivers her and the slippers to the Neverland tribe of Tiger Lily, who knows Wendy as "Pan-Mother". After waking, Wendy is surprised that Tiger Lily has healed her, despite her wound having been a fatal one. After attempting to leave, Wendy feels woozy. Tiger Lily tells her that she needs a day of sleep to fully recover, and Wendy falls asleep again. The next day, Alice wakes in Wonderland to find Peter, having been eating the size-altering berries of Tumtum Forest, to have physically grown up. Peter now finds Alice pretty, and her chest "interesting", although he has no idea why. As Peter continues discussing his "weird feelings" with Alice, he remarks that he sees Wendy as his mother, as she had agreed to raise him and his friends.
Meanwhile, on Hook's ship, West punches Dorothy for having killed her sister, declaring that she will kill her over the course of several days. Hook, however, advises West not to do so given "beating prisoners is bad form", and so that she can serve as "alive and kicking" bait for a trap for Wendy and Alice. Hook and West announce that they will be invading the shores of Neverland once again to capture more fairies; subsequently, Dorothy calls out "There's no place like Oz.", taking not just her but all off Hook's ship to Oz. Hook's ship aground in the fields and Dorothy is knocked unconscious. While unconscious, Hook and West delight in Dorothy having fallen for their plan to get the ship to Oz, and West uses the power of the captured fairies to make the ship fly. Hook orders Smee to sail it to West's castle to reclaim it for her. Recognizing Hook as "evil and honorable", she hugs him, welcoming him to Oz. In Cheshire Crossing, Rutherford instantly causes Poppins' reconstitution using a teaspoon of table sugar as a catalyst.
Issue 4
In a flashback, Dorothy has saved Emerald City for the seventh time. To repay her, King Scarecrow and Tik-Tok (the two smartest people in Oz) agree to teach Dorothy to be smart and "view every problem from every angle". In the present, as West insists Hook not use his cannons against her castle in reclaiming it, Tink sneaks on board and unties Dorothy. Dorothy decides to remain and pretend to still be bound and gagged while Tink warns the castle of West's return with Hook. After preventing the Cheshire Cat from eating her, Tink warns Jack, who prepares his troops for battle. Elsewhere, Wendy, having returned to Oz after recovering and being informed of the situation by mermaids that had been surrounding Hook's ship, encounters a Munchkin by the hole where the ship landed, who expresses his intent to turn it into a farm on behalf of his new ruler, "Prince Jack", and directs Wendy in the direction as the ship, towards Castle West, who flies after it.
As Hook and West invade the castle, Dorothy sneaks away to. As Hook duels Jack, he stabs him in the chest and is surprised by him not dying; Jack explains that as he is a living playing card, poking holes in him won't kill him, disappointing Hook. Meanwhile, in Wonderland, Peter and Alice face the Red Bishop, keeper of the Vorpal Sword, who offers to give it to them if they can solve his riddle. While Alice attempts to solve the riddle, Peter instead punches the bishop and flees with the sword. As the pair subsequently fly towards the portal which Alice left open to Hook's ship and Peter remarks his new urges are making it "harder and harder to fly" due to him being unable to "think straight", Alice promises to help him see to his "physical needs" later on. Upon entering the portal and finding the fairies gone, Alice is surprised to find they are in Oz, and Peter immediately runs outside to attack West with the sword, who apprehends both him and Alice from a distance with giant fists made of magic. Elsewhere, Dorothy finds herself surrounded by two pirates, and is rescued by an arriving Wendy, who knocks them out and hands Dorothy a sword, who in turn requests her slippers back for a plan of her own.
At Cheshire Crossing, Poppins discovers the girls are gone, and ascertains their current location as Oz after consulting "the spirits of naughty children", proceeds there through a drawing of Castle West given to her by Dorothy (inferring they had already known each other prior to Alice's and Wendy's arrival). Landing on Hook's ship, Poppins informs West that she as "been very naughty and must be punished", and sets the spirits upon her, having promised them her soul, only for them to be quickly banished to "the light" by West. Recognizing that Poppins is much more powerful than her, West amplifies her power using the fairies and knocks Poppins off the ship in a wave of magical fire. After challenging Hook to a "duel-thingy, Dorothy cuts the ropes surrounding them, causing Hook to fall to his apparent death while Dorothy remains flying thanks to the slippers, having realized that the actual power of the slippers to be mimicry of the inherent powers of whoever wore them last, being Wendy's flight. Dorothy is complimented by the Cheshire Cat as she flies away. Elsewhere, while Poppins recovers in a crater, she encounters Tink, who provides her with a plan to face West. Returning to the ship and announcing "Say hello to my little friend!", Poppins amplifies her own power with Tink's to partially negate that of the fairies West is using, leaving the pair evenly matched. Alice awakens on the ship, and, picking up the Vorpal Sword, breaks open the orb containing the fairies, engulfing West in fire. Recognizing herself to be defeated, West flees by teleporting in a puff of smoke. Elsewhere, rather than taking Hook's crew prisoner, Jack offers to make them his officers and requests use of Hook's still-flying ship, employing Smee as captain, while the Hatter, finding Hook alive, steals his hat and has him hidden away in the castle dungeon.
Later that evening, Wendy hugs Poppins upon seeing her alive, while Alice and Peter each drink a glass wine as they prepare to "see to [Peter's] physical needs" as he had requested; Peter shrinks, as Alice has slipped him shrinking potion in the wine. She says that Peter is "blind to things that are obvious to any woman" and that she "know[s] a woman in love when [she] see[s] one", placing Peter before Tink. Peter remarks he never noticed how good she looked before; Peter and Tink subsequently kiss, while Alice walks away. After Wendy inquires as to Peter's whereabouts, Alice assures her that he is "busy" and "doesn't have a scratch on him. Yet", before leaving to confront Poppins after being told she is looking for her.
Meanwhile, in Wonderland, the Knave of Spades reports Alice's theft of the Vorpal Sword to the Queen of Hearts, and that her court wizard, the Ace of Clubs, has discovered from studying Alice from afar that her body generates a weakness between her world and Wonderland, and were they to enter the rabbit hole that served as her initial entry point to Wonderland, it would take them to her general vicinity. Consequently, the Queen orders the Knave of Spades and the Ace of Clubs to track down Alice and decapitate her.
Development
In a 2008 interview, Weir said that he noticed Peter Pan and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz were both published in 1904 (though The Wonderful Wizard of Oz was actually published in 1900) and he imagined Wendy and Dorothy interacting. After thinking about other children who travel between worlds, Weir said that he thought of Alice, though had to move her story forward from the 1850s. At first he considered a story about girls would be uninteresting, but decided that "women are way more interesting than girls" so set the story several years after the respective books. Weir's comic used characters, settings, and premises from these three series, as well as from P. L. Travers' Mary Poppins series and Gulliver's Travels. Weir has described the comic as "nothing more than a fanfic if you think about it", aiming the comic at "readers of all ages... anyone who felt the magic of those original stories and would be intrigued at seeing the characters from them older, a little more jaded, and interacting with each other."
Weir, who was working as a computer programmer at the time, put his webcomic Casey and Andy on hold to create Cheshire Crossing, publishing the webcomic on a personal website from June 2006 to January 2008. Comics were published when an issue was completed, rather than in strips. Weir said in an interview that while publishing Cheshire Crossing as a webcomic allowed him total control over the creative process, he still took feedback from his fanbase. Weir also criticized his own artistic skills, calling his art "utter crap", and said, "art is not at all an enjoyable part of the process. It's an annoying and necessary evil that is required for me to tell my story." The poor reception of the comic, Weir’s difficulties with drawing, and the criticism of his artwork led him to end Cheshire Crossing after the first story arc of four issues. He turned to other forms of writing, including science fiction, and published The Martian in 2011.
After the success of The Martian, publishers looked at Weir's older works. Weir talked with the syndicate Tapas about publishing some written fiction, during which Cheshire Crossing came up. Tapas proposed that Sarah Andersen illustrate a new version of the comic; Weir had already been a fan of Andersen's Sarah's Scribbles and Andersen was a fan of The Martian. The two worked through Tapas and did not communicate directly when producing the comic. Colors were done by Alison George. Cheshire Crossing was published serially on Tapas from 2017 to 2019. The Andersen-illustrated comic was then published as a stand-alone graphic novel in July 2019 by Ten Speed Press, an imprint of Random House.
Due to copyright restrictions from the estate of P. L. Travers, the character of Mary Poppins from Weir's original version was called Miss Gwendolyn Poole in the printed version. Other differences from the original version include the skin colors of Dorothy Gale, Captain Hook, and the Wicked Witch of the West; Lemony Snicket only being known as "Lem"; (in the audio play only) Jack the Knave of Hearts being alternatively known as Jack of Knaves and Jack of Hearts; and reduced swearing. In the published graphic novel's foreword, Weir expressed interest in collaborating further with Andersen on the script in addition to her serving as illustrator in potentially developing sequels to Cheshire Crossing.
Reviews
The printed version of Cheshire Crossing received mixed to positive reviews. Some reviewers considered Weir's writing in this story to be worse than his other works, and some thought the story jumped around a lot or was moving too fast. Others considered the story clever and funny and a fresh take on the characters. Andersen's illustrations were generally received well. Several reviewers questioned if the novel, with swearing, sexual references, and references to past trauma, was appropriate for the target age group.
Kirkus Reviews gave the printed version a starred review, describing it as "deliciously funny" and "a shrewd and spirited adaptation". The review describes each main character as each being "a fully three-dimensional protagonist with a distinctive personality that enables her to feel both timeless and timely", and saying that "Andersen’s delightful cartoon drawing style meshes perfectly with Weir’s prose, allowing the work to broaden its appeal beyond middle graders to young adults and adults." It rated the book as suitable for ages 12 to adult.
Reviewing the print comic for ICv2, Nick Smith gave it four stars out of five. He said that stories about kids coming back from magical adventures and then growing up in the real world was not a new theme, and that the writing was not the best that Andy Weir has done, with many unanswered questions and plot holes. However, he said that "it does give a delightful new side to Andy Weir’s writing". He praised Sarah Andersen's artwork as being more detailed than her webcomic work, "and although still not perfect, it was just right for some truly weird moments in the story, which bounces from one world to another at a dizzying pace." He also felt that "the violence, mild sexual innuendo and fake cursing may put this into the middle school collection range".
Publishers Weekly's review was more mixed, saying: "Andersen’s large-eyed characters are reminiscent of manga and scenes convey the crux of each world, but Captain Hook is portrayed as the lone protagonist of color, and the story retains stereotypical images of Native Americans in Neverland." (Unlike Publishers Weekly, Kirkus considered Dorothy to have brown skin.) "Other elements—Dorothy’s history undergoing 'electric shocks' in sanitariums, a Peter Pan aged to his teenage years and feeling 'physical needs'—seem aimed at an audience older than the stated age range."
The Children's Book and Media Review, run by the Harold B. Lee Library, calls the novel "a complete departure from Andy Weir’s Martian and Artemis" and says "his masterful crafting of plot did not quite translate into this work. There are times when the plot of Cheshire Crossing is a little confusing, jumping between different places and at times, losing some intensity. It is also a disappointment that the nanny ends up coming to the rescue of these girls, who in their own original stories, have enough strength to rescue themselves." However it adds that "seeing these characters as older, edgier versions of themselves in graphic novel format and romping through their fantasy worlds is still a lot of fun. The illustrations offer a fresh approach to these characters while still maintaining enough familiarity to be recognizable. Despite its shortcomings, the book is a still an amusing, fresh take on these characters."
Annie McCann, writing for The Nerd Daily, called the story "very clever" and said "this isn’t like anything you would have read before". McCann said that the characters are very different, both in mannerisms and appearance, to how they were originally portrayed. She concluded: "The plot is fast paced and the story flowed quickly, it was easy to follow the dialogue in each box. The illustrations didn’t look extravagant but were simplistic and elegant. The artwork is suitable for a younger audience, however, the dialogue does include coarse language so please exercise discretion if you choose to read this graphic novel. If you’re a fan of graphic novels that features retellings of the classics then definitely give this one a go!"
Writing for her website Comics Worth Reading, Johanna Carlson offered one of the most negative reviews. Carlson said the book "sounds quite promising but turns out to be terrible." She criticized how the story "spends more time on explaining how various magic spells work than developing any of the characters", felt that "the girls all sound alike", and said that there was "battle after battle" where "the action scenes are flat, lacking suspense or a good movement flow." She disliked the aging up of Peter Pan into a horny teenager, and advised against buying it for kids, saying "it’s inappropriate, with unsuitably adult topics (what with all the violence and sex jokes), thoroughly unpleasant, and overall, a muddled mess."
Adaptations
Audiobook
On July 12, 2019, Penguin Random House Audio released an audio drama version of Cheshire Crossing. It was produced by Nick Martorelli and performed by an ensemble cast including Rebecca Soler, Lisa Flanagan, James Monroe Iglehart and Pete Bradbury.
Sophie Amoss as Alice Liddell
Brittany Pressley as Wendy Darling
Kristen DiMercurio as Dorothy Gale
Rebecca Soler as Miss Poole and the Queen of Hearts
Lisa Flanagan as the Wicked Witch of the West
James Monroe Iglehart as Captain Hook
Neil Hellegers as Dr. Ernest Rutherford, the Cheshire Cat and Smee
Sean Patrick Hopkins as Lem and Jack, the Knave of Hearts
Peter Coleman as Peter Pan
Pete Bradbury as the Narrator
Film
On November 15, 2019, Amblin Partners was announced to be developing a film adaptation, to be produced by Michael De Luca and written by Erin Cressida Wilson.
See also
Lost Girls by Alan Moore, another comic using the same three main characters
List of characters in the Oz books
List of minor characters in the Alice series
Characters of Peter Pan
List of A Series of Unfortunate Events characters
Notes
References
External links
, providing the original comic as illustrated by Andy Weir
Cheshire Crossing at Tapas, providing the comic as illustrated by Sarah Andersen
, providing information on the in-development movie adaptation
2019 graphic novels
Fiction set in 1910
Comics set in the 1910s
Comics based on fiction
Comics based on Alice in Wonderland
Comics based on Oz (franchise)
Works based on Peter Pan
Mary Poppins
LGBT-related graphic novels
Crossover fiction
Concluded webcomics
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The Dark Knight Returns (alternatively titled Batman: The Dark Knight Returns) is a 1986 four-issue comic book miniseries starring Batman, written by Frank Miller, illustrated by Miller, and Klaus Janson, with color by Lynn Varley, and published by DC Comics. It tells an alternative story of Bruce Wayne, who at 55 years old returns from retirement to fight crime and faces opposition from the Gotham City police force and the United States government. The story also features the return of classic foes such as Two-Face and the Joker, and culminates with a confrontation against Superman, who is now a pawn of the government.
When originally published, the series was simply titled Batman: The Dark Knight, with a different subtitle for each issue (The Dark Knight Returns, Dark Knight Triumphant, Hunt the Dark Knight, and The Dark Knight Falls), but when the series was collected into a single volume later that year, the title of the first issue was applied to the entire series, and has remained so ever since. Some of the earliest collected editions also bore the shorter series title. The story introduces Carrie Kelley as the new Robin and the hyper-violent street gang known as the Mutants. In the Pre-Flashpoint DC Multiverse, the events of The Dark Knight Returns and its associated titles were designated to occur on Earth-31.
The miniseries, the first of a trilogy of limited series based on this version of Batman, was followed by The Dark Knight Strikes Again and The Dark Knight III: The Master Race.
The Dark Knight Returns is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential Batman stories ever published, as well as one of the greatest works of comic art in general, and has been noted for helping reintroduce a darker and more mature-oriented version of the character (and superheroes in general) to pop culture during the 1980s. Various elements of the series have since been incorporated into depictions of Batman in other media, while a direct animated adaptation of the story, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, was released as a two-part film across 2012 and 2013.
Plot
The Dark Knight Returns is set in a dystopian version of Gotham City in 1986. Bruce Wayne, aged 55, has given up the mantle of Batman after the death of Jason Todd ten years prior. Crime is running rampant throughout the city and a gang calling themselves "The Mutants" has begun terrorizing the people of Gotham. After watching news reports about the Mutants' crimes, Wayne decides to return to his role as a vigilante. On his first night as Batman, stops multiple assaults – including one on two young girls, Carrie Kelley and her friend Michelle – and targets the Mutants.
While foiling an armed robbery, Batman learns that the criminals are working for Harvey Dent. Previously known as Two-Face, Dent underwent extensive therapy and plastic surgery to reenter society before disappearing. Batman informs nearly-retired Commissioner Gordon that Dent may be planning a larger scheme. Soon after, Dent announces his intention to hold Gotham ransom with a bomb. After Batman defeats Dent and his goons, he discovers that Dent's mind has completely warped into his Two-Face persona.
Inspired by Batman, Kelley buys an imitation Robin costume and searches for him. Batman defeats the Mutants at the city dump with the Batmobile's advanced weaponry, but the Mutant Leader goads him into a hand-to-hand fight. Batman, due to his age and a decade of physical inactivity, is beaten and almost killed. Kelley creates a diversion which allows her and Batman to return to the Batcave, where Wayne's butler Alfred Pennyworth tends to his wounds. Impressed with her bravery, Wayne decides to make Kelley his new protegee. Batman strategically defeats the Mutant Leader in a fight surrounded by the Mutants. Seeing Batman defeat their leader, the Mutants disband into smaller gangs. One of these gangs renames themselves the "Sons of the Batman", using excessive violence against criminals.
At the White House, Superman and president Ronald Reagan discuss the events in Gotham, with the latter suggesting that Batman may have to be arrested. Clark Kent talks with Wayne, and is then deployed by Washington to the Latin American country of Corto Maltese, where he fights Soviet combat forces in a conflict that may ignite World War III.
Gordon's successor as commissioner, Captain Ellen Yindel, declares Batman a wanted criminal for his vigilante activities. Batman's return stimulates his archenemy, Joker, to awaken from catatonia at Arkham Asylum. Joker manipulates his caretakers to allow him onto a television talk show, where he murders everyone with Joker venom and escapes. Batman and Robin (Kelley) track him to a county fair while evading a police pursuit. Batman fights Joker, vowing to stop him permanently, feeling responsible for every murder the villain has committed. Batman paralyzes the Joker, but is unable to take his life. Disappointed with Batman's refusal to kill him, Joker breaks his own neck and dies. Batman and Robin escape from Gotham police.
A citywide manhunt on Batman begins. Elsewhere, Superman diverts a Soviet nuclear warhead which detonates in a desert, nearly killing him in the process, and survives only by absorbing the sun's energy. The United States is hit by an electromagnetic pulse as a result and descends into chaos during the following blackout. In Gotham, Batman and Robin turn the remaining Mutants and Sons of the Batman into a non-lethal vigilante gang, making Gotham the safest city in the country. The U.S. government orders Superman to take Batman into custody. Superman demands to meet Batman, and Wayne chooses Crime Alley.
Superman tries to reason with Batman, but Batman uses his technological inventions to fight him on equal ground. During the battle, Superman compromises Batman's exoframe. However, an aging Oliver Queen manages to shoot Superman with a kryptonite-tipped arrow to weaken him. Before he can fully defeat Superman, Batman has a sudden heart attack, apparently dying. Alfred destroys the Batcave and Wayne Manor before suffering a fatal stroke, exposing Batman as Bruce Wayne, whose fortune has disappeared. After Wayne's funeral, it is revealed that his death was staged using a chemical that suspended his vital life signs. Clark attends the funeral and winks at the disguised Carrie after hearing Wayne's heartbeat. Some time afterwards, Bruce Wayne leads Robin, Queen, and the rest of his followers into the caverns beyond the Batcave and prepares to continue his war on crime.
Characters
Bruce Wayne / Batman: Bruce Wayne is 55 years old and has been retired from his Batman persona for a decade. When he sees violence becoming more common not just in Gotham City but also the world, he feels a strong desire to return as Batman and emerges from his depression.
Alfred Pennyworth: Wayne's trusted butler, medic, and confidant; now in his 80s.
Carrie Kelley / Robin: A 13-year-old girl with absentee parents, who later becomes Batman's sidekick, Robin. Throughout the story, she is frequently mistaken for the former "Boy Wonder". After she saves the Dark Knight's life, the aging Batman places his trust in her against Alfred's wishes.
James Gordon: The elderly Commissioner of the Gotham City Police Department, who retires on his 70th birthday. He is aware of Batman's true identity.
Harvey Dent / Two-Face: Now in his 50s, and having spent 12 years in Arkham Asylum, Harvey Dent has been treated by Doctor Wolper for three years and his face has been repaired with plastic surgery. Dent's doctor gives him a clean bill of mental health, but he is still Two-Face in his mind. Dent terrorizes the city with his face swathed in bandages as he now perceives both sides of his face as scarred.
Joker: Batman's archenemy who, now 60 years old, awakens from a catatonic state upon learning of Batman's re-emergence. He plans a brutal crime spree to draw out Batman, setting in motion the events leading to a final confrontation.
The Mutant Leader: The cunning, brutal, and albino head of the Mutants, who seeks to control Gotham and kill anyone who opposes him.
Dr. Bartholomew Wolper: Two-Face and Joker's psychiatrist and opponent of Batman's "fascist" vigilantism. Wolper is convinced that the Joker and Two-Face are both victims of Batman's crusade. He is killed when the Joker floods a television studio with poisonous gas; Wolper's neck is snapped by the robot Bobbie.
Ellen Yindel: James Gordon's successor as Commissioner. A captain in the Gotham City Police Department, she is a critic of Batman, but begins to doubt herself after the Joker's crime spree.
The Mayor of Gotham City: The unnamed mayor of Gotham City. He tries to negotiate peace with the Mutant Leader at the time he was in police custody, only to be killed by him.
Deputy Mayor Stevenson: The deputy mayor of Gotham City, who later becomes the new mayor after the former mayor is killed by the Mutant Leader. He states that Commissioner Ellen Yindel will make the decision of how to act with Batman.
Ronald Reagan: The President of the United States. He instructs Superman to deal with Batman in Gotham City.
Oliver Queen: After superheroes are outlawed, Queen, now in his late 50s, undertakes a clandestine rebellion against government oppression, including the sinking of a nuclear submarine. He lost his left arm after an encounter with Superman. Despite this disability, Queen is still a highly skilled marksman.
Kal-El /Clark Kent / Superman: Superman is now an agent of the U.S. government and his secret identity as the former Daily Planet reporter Clark Kent is publicly known. In his inner thoughts he despises being a government tool, but he believes it is the only way he can save lives in this day and age. Appearing in his 30s, because of his Kryptonian physique, his aging process is slower than his former allies', which is one of the reasons of why he is no longer able to hide his secret identity. In the final climax, Superman battles Batman in a final attempt to rid the government of his opposition, but is weakened by a Kryptonite arrow fired by Queen, allowing an armored Batman to stand up to him.
Selina Kyle: No longer the Catwoman, Selina Kyle, now in her early 50s, runs an escort business.
Lana Lang: The managing editor of the Daily Planet who is an outspoken supporter of Batman, appearing on a series of TV debates in which she argues with others over his methods and influence.
Dave Endochrine: A late-night talk show host who invites the Joker and Dr. Wolper on his show; he and his audience are later killed by the Joker's poisonous gas. He is a characterization of David Letterman.
Lola Chong: A Gotham City news anchor who serves as the story's main talking head, providing exposition and narration in the form of her reporting.
Bruno: The leader of a group of neo-Nazi criminals. Working for the Joker, she battles Batman and Robin but is caught by Superman.
Abner: The Joker's hulking henchman. He builds two robotic dolls, Bobbie and Mary, to kill the Joker's TV audience; he later attempts to kill Robin at a funfair, but is decapitated by a roller coaster instead.
The Sons of Batman (S.O.B.): A group of teenagers who were formerly part of the Mutants. They have become followers of Batman since the defeat of the Mutant Leader, although they are too unruly and corrupt, taking severe measures to control the streets and even Batman. They end up following Batman for good intentions instead of bad ones.
Background and creation
Since the 1950s, when the Comics Code Authority was established, the character of Batman had drifted from his darker, more serious roots. It was not until the 1970s when the character began to feature in darker stories once again; however, Batman was still commonly associated with the campy theme of the 1960s Batman TV series, and was regarded more as a father figure to Robin rather than as his original identity as a vigilante.
In the early 1980s, DC Comics promoted Batman group editor Dick Giordano to editorial director for the company. Writer-artist Frank Miller was recruited to create The Dark Knight Returns. Giordano said he worked with Miller on the story's plot, and said, "[t]he version that was finally done was about his fourth or fifth draft. The basic storyline was the same but there were a lot of detours along the way."
"With Batman, you've got a character that you can describe in just a few seconds: His parents were murdered by criminals; he's warring on crime for the rest of his life," Miller explained in the documentary Comic Book Confidential. "He was created in 1938, and the character was just ruthless in his methods, terrifying to criminals. Over the years, that got softened and softened, because people started thinking that comics had to be just for kids... and Batman had to be made much nicer. And eventually, no kid could relate to him anymore."
During the creation of the series, fellow comics writer/artist John Byrne told Miller, "Robin must be a girl", and Miller agreed. Miller said that the comic series' plot was inspired by Dirty Harry, specifically the 1983 film Sudden Impact, in which Dirty Harry returns to crime-fighting after a lengthy convalescence. The series employed a 16-panel grid for its pages. Each page was composed of either a combination of 16 panels, or anywhere between sixteen and one panel per page. Giordano left the project halfway through because of disagreements over production deadlines. Comics historian Les Daniels wrote that Miller's idea of ignoring deadlines was "the culmination of the quest towards artistic independence".
While the comic's ending features Batman faking his death and leading up the Sons of Batman to continue with his crusade against crime, symbolizing that Bruce Wayne dies but Batman lives on, this wasn't the original intention. During the MCM London Comic Con 2018, Miller revealed that in his original plans for the ending of The Dark Knight Returns, Batman was going to be gunned down by the police while fighting them, but the story got away from him and changed his mind.
The issues of The Dark Knight Returns were presented in packaging that included extra pages, square binding and glossy paper to highlight the watercolor paintings by colorist Lynn Varley.
Reception
Despite the cost of the single-issue packaging, The Dark Knight Returns sold well. Priced at $2.95 an issue, DC Comics promoted The Dark Knight Returns as a "thought-provoking action story". Time said the series' depiction of a "semi-retired Batman [who] is unsure about his crime-fighting abilities" was an example of trying to appeal to "today's skeptical readers". More than 1 million comics in print were issued.
Retrospectively, the series is today widely considered one of the greatest works in the comics medium. IGN Comics ranked The Dark Knight Returns first on a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels and called The Dark Knight Returns "a true masterpiece of storytelling" with "[s]cene after unforgettable scene." In 2005, Time chose the collected edition as one of the 10 best English language graphic novels ever written. Forbidden Planet placed the collected issue at number one on its "50 Best of the Best Graphic Novels" list. Writer Matthew K. Manning in the "1980s" chapter of DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle (2010) called the series "arguably the best Batman story of all time." It was placed second in a poll among comic book academics conducted by the Sequart Organization.
The series also garnered some negative reviews. In April 2010, Nicolas Slayton from Comics Bulletin ranked The Dark Knight Returns second in his Tuesday Top Ten feature's Top 10 Overrated Comic Books behind Watchmen. Slayton wrote, "[t]here is no central plot to the comic, leaving only a forced fight scene between Superman and Batman as an out of place climax to the story." "Gone are the traits that define Batman," also citing "misuse of the central character." The New York Times gave the 1987 collected release of the series a negative review.
Influence
The immense popularity of The Dark Knight Returns served both to return the character of Batman to a central role in pop culture, but also (along with Watchmen) started the era known as the Dark Age of Comic Books (also known as the Modern Age and the Iron Age). The grim, seedy versions of Gotham and Batman updated the character's identity from the campy Adam West version from the 1960s Batman TV series, and proved critically and commercially successful enough that a new wave of "dark" superheroes were either created or re-popularized, and preexisting heroes were redesigned or retooled to fit this new trend.
The Dark Knight Returns was one of the two comic books, alongside Watchmen, that inspired designer Vincent Connare when he created the Comic Sans font.
Sequels, prequels and spin-offs
A three-issue sequel written and illustrated by Miller, The Dark Knight Strikes Again, was published in 2001. A nine-issue third installment, The Dark Knight III: The Master Race, co-written by Miller and Brian Azzarello, was published approximately bi-monthly starting in late 2015. In addition, a 64-page Prestige Format one-shot co-written by Miller and Azzarello, Dark Knight Returns: The Last Crusade, which serves as a prequel to the original series, was released on June 15, 2016. Additionally, Spawn/Batman was released in 1994 as a companion to The Dark Knight Returns, and, according to Miller, the unfinished series All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder can be considered a prequel, as can the four-issue story Batman: Year One.
In 1994, this version of Batman appeared in the Zero Hour: Crisis in Time crossover event playing a small role. In March 2018, he appeared in a brief cameo in the sixth and final issue of the Dark Nights: Metal event. The three-issue miniseries Superman: Year One was revealed by Frank Miller to be set in the same universe as the Dark Knight Returns series, serving as an origin story for that universe's version of Superman. Younger versions of Batman and Wonder Woman appeared in the third issue of the series, marking their first meeting with Superman.
In 2019, Miller announced the name of the fourth chapter of the series, a Prestige Format one-shot entitled Dark Knight Returns: The Golden Child, released under DC Black Label. The first issue by Miller and Rafael Grampa was released December 2019.
In 2018, it was announced that this version of Robin, Carrie Kelly, would be getting a spin-off in the form of a young adult graphic novel. It will be written by Miller with art from Ben Caldwell. There was very little information until November 2021, when Miller said "[The Carrie Kelly book] is shaping up great; Ben is just a powder keg of talent. It'd probably be out now but it just keeps growing, due to his enthusiasm and output. I'm already kind of tugging at his sleeve about doing something else after this."
In other media
Television
Live action
Stephen Amell appears as an older Oliver Queen in the Legends of Tomorrow episode "Star City 2046", with a grey goatee and missing his left arm, a nod to the portrayal of the character in The Dark Knight Returns. This version of Oliver appears again in the crossover "Crisis on Infinite Earths" which designates the events of "Star City 2046" not just as an alternate timeline but taking place on Earth-16.
In the episode "The Gentle Art of Making Enemies" of Gotham, the show's first Proto-Joker, Jerome Valeska (played by Cameron Monaghan), confronts Bruce Wayne in a house of mirrors after the GCPD raid Jerome's carnival populated by his cult followers, which pays homage to Batman and Joker's final confrontation in The Dark Knight Returns. In addition, Monaghan's performance as the second Proto-Joker, Jeremiah Valeska, took some influence from the Joker in the comic.
In the Batwoman episode of the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" crossover, Kevin Conroy appears as Bruce Wayne from Earth-99. This version is more violent to the point of killing, as Joker is dead. While confronting Supergirl, Bruce quoted the comic while talking about how Clark always said "yes" to anyone with a badge or a flag, giving them too much power. Bruce says "Life only makes sense if you force it to" before attacking Supergirl with Kryptonite.
Animation
In the episode "Legends of the Dark Knight" of The New Batman Adventures, a scene is directly based on both of Batman's fights with the Mutants' leader, who was voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson. Michael Ironside voiced The Dark Knight Returns version of Batman.
Two members of the Mutant gang are shown throwing snowballs at an elderly Beast Boy in a cage in the episode "How Long Is Forever?" of Teen Titans.
The Batman episode "Artifacts", set in a future Gotham, mostly references Miller's work, with the future Batman depicted as a tall, muscular man and Mr. Freeze going so far as speaking the sentence "The Dark Knight returns" upon meeting his nemesis.
There are some references in Batman: The Brave and the Bold. In the season 2 episode "The Knights of Tomorrow!", the Mutant gang is seen robbing a bank in a future where Bruce Wayne's son, Damian, is the new Batman. The battle between Batman and Superman is featured in the season 3 episode "Battle of the Super-Heroes!", where Batman wears a similar armored suit as well as some moments of the fight taken straight out of the comic.
In the episode “Play Date”, from Justice League Action, Batman's entrance uses the iconic cover pose.
Film
Live action
In the 1995 film Batman Forever, director Joel Schumacher uses some references of the comic: when Bruce remembers falling into the cave as a kid, and in a deleted scene when GNN News makes a bad reputation of Batman after his fight with Two-Face in the Gotham Subway and before when he follows Two-Face in a helicopter.
According to Schumacher, he proposed a film adaptation of The Dark Knight Returns when Warner Bros. commissioned him and writer Akiva Goldsman to create a sequel to Batman Forever, but the idea was shelved in favor of Batman & Robin. After the cancellation of Batman Unchained, Schumacher proposed an adaptation of The Dark Knight Returns, which Warner considered during their attempts to revamp the character. Michael Keaton (who portrayed Batman in Batman and in Batman Returns) and Clint Eastwood were considered to play Batman while singer David Bowie was considered again to play The Joker. However, the project was finally cancelled in favor of the also shelved Batman: DarKnight.
The Tumbler in Batman Begins (2005) was inspired by the Batmobile in The Dark Knight Returns. Both Batmobiles are designed as large, military vehicles built for special purposes.
The "copycat" Batman vigilantes in The Dark Knight (2008) were inspired by the Sons of Batman in The Dark Knight Returns. Like the Sons of Batman, the "copycats" are a gang who are inspired by Batman's actions and decided to follow his example by using violence against criminals.
In the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises, director Christopher Nolan used a number of stories including The Dark Knight Returns as influence for the film. After the death of Rachel Dawes, Bruce Wayne retires from Batman and spends the next eight years in a depressed state caused by his experiences as a vigilante. Bruce decides to return as Batman when he realizes that The League of Shadows has returned to Gotham; Bruce uses a special brace for his arm to compensate his frail physicality. While in the film, Bruce uses a brace to support his damaged leg; During a police chase, two cops witness Batman's unexpected return. The older cop comments to his younger partner, "You're in for a show, kid"; The fight between Batman and Bane was influenced by the two separate fights between Batman and the Mutant Leader. Due to years of inactivity, Batman fails to beat the Mutant Leader and gets badly beaten. In the second time, Batman brutally fights the Mutant Leader while his followers watch in silence. After Harvey Dent dies in The Dark Knight, Batman is falsely accused for his death and becomes a fugitive. At the end, Bruce abandons his personal life and persona as Batman by faking his death so he can have a fresh start with his crime-fighting career. In the film, Bruce fakes his death so he can finally move on from Batman and start a new life with Selina Kyle in Florence.
Director Zack Snyder stated that although the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice features an original premise, the film does borrow some elements from The Dark Knight Returns, like an older and hardened Batman, who is in his mid 40s unlike the comic book where he is in his mid 50s who lost Jason Todd (a later retcon reveals that it is instead Dick Grayson) in his younger years, being less averse to using lethal force to the point of using guns to dispatch enemies, Batman's fateful confrontation with Superman, who in this instance is forced to fight him although he is coerced by Lex Luthor instead of the U.S government as in the comics and the Batsuit and the armored suit both closely resembling the ones shown in the comic. There are also a few shots in the film directly taken from the pages of Miller's work.
The talk show host David Endochrine from The Dark Knight Returns served as inspiration for the character Murray Franklin in the 2019 film Joker, played by Robert De Niro. His interview with the Joker is somewhat similar to the one in the comic.
The 2021 film Zack Snyder's Justice League featured a version of the Batmobile similar to the one from The Dark Knight Returns. In the film's epilogue, Batman is seen standing on a Batmobile (as it is seen in Miller's miniseries) after apprehending the Mutants.
Animation
DC Entertainment produced a two-part animated film adaptation, starring Peter Weller as the voice of Batman. Part 1 was released on DVD/Blu-ray on September 25, 2012, and Part 2 on January 29, 2013.
The 2018 animated film Teen Titans Go! To the Movies had Robin dream up a sequence which seems to parody The Lion King, where he is lifted up by the Batman from The Dark Knight Returns continuity. Later on, Robin appears in a musical sequence where he parodies the iconic Dark Knight Returns cover where Robin poses against a lightning effect with the title: "Robin: The Dark Hero Returns."
Comic books
Carrie makes her first canonical appearance in the mainstream DC Universe in The New 52 's Batman and Robin (vol. 2) #19 (titled Batman and Red Robin). She is a college student and the late Damian Wayne's drama instructor. As a homage to The Dark Knight Returns, she wears an imitation Robin costume as a Halloween costume in her first appearance.
Batman/Bruce Wayne and Carrie Kelley/Robin appear in a one-page article in Comics Collector #8 (Krause Publications, summer 1985), predating their first comic book appearance.
Merchandise
In 1996, to commemorate the 10th anniversary of the graphic novel, DC released a new hardcover and a later softcover release. These included original rough script text for issue #4 with some sketches by Miller. There was also a limited edition slipcased hardcover that included mini poster prints, collected media reviews, and a sketchbook by Miller. DC Direct released a limited edition statue of Batman and Robin designed by Miller. It was released in full size and then later as a mini sized statue. DC Direct released a series of Batman action figures based on The Dark Knight Returns in 2004. It included figures of Batman, Robin, Superman, and The Joker. Later, a Batman and Joker Gift Set was released, including both characters with new color schemes to reflect earlier points in the story, and a 48-page prestige format reprint of The Dark Knight Returns #1 was also released. An action figure of Batman as he appears in The Dark Knight Returns was released by Mattel in 2013, as part of their Batman Unlimited line of action figures.
Miscellaneous
In the episode "Girl Meets the New Teacher" of Girl Meets World, the new English teacher Harper Burgess gives out copies for her class to study, which creates controversy with the principal who disapproves of the comic.
Notes
References
External links
The plot in more detail at darkknight.ca
Deconstructing Dark Knight Returns - an ongoing analysis of The Dark Knight Returns and related works
Batman: The Dark Knight Returns and Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again discussed at sequart.com
Batman: The Dark Knight Returns – a retrospective and review at Batman-On-Film.com
Adult comics
Comics by Frank Miller (comics)
American comics adapted into films
Comics set during the Cold War
Neo-noir comics
1986 comics debuts
Fiction set in 1986
1986 in comics
Dystopian comics
Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan
Comics adapted into films
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Perth Airport is an international airport serving Perth, the capital city of Western Australia.
It is the fourth busiest airport in Australia measured by passenger movements and falls within the boundaries of the City of Belmont, City of Kalamunda and the City of Swan. Perth Airport and Jandakot Airport, the other civilian airport within the Perth metropolitan area, recorded a combined total of 362,782 aircraft movements in 2017.
Since 1997, it has been operated by Perth Airport Pty Ltd under a 99-year lease from the Commonwealth Government.
Location
The airport is located approximately east of the Perth central business district. It is one of two civilian airports within the Perth metropolitan area, the other being Jandakot Airport. Besides the civilian airports, there are also two military airports within the Perth metropolitan area. The larger of the two is RAAF Base Pearce, to the north of Perth Airport, at Bullsbrook. The other is south west of Perth Airport, and is a part of the military base of HMAS Stirling on Garden Island.
Growth and impact
The airport saw strong passenger growth from 2000 to 2012, primarily due to the state's prolonged mining boom and an increase in traffic from international low-cost carrier airlines. By the end of June 2012, Perth Airport experienced passenger growth of 11.7% internationally and 6.9% domestically, resulting in an overall increase of 10.3%. Passenger numbers trebled in the 10 years from 2002 to 2012 with more than 12.6 million people travelling through the airport in 2012. Since 2012, the winding down of the mining boom has seen the demand for both intra- and interstate services contract, with domestic passengers falling from a peak of 9.9 million (as of June 2013) to 9.5 million by the end of June 2016. The growth in passenger numbers since 2012 has been wholly due to expansion of international services from the city. The first mining boom in 1979 had 679,000 passengers use the airport. This number now travels through the airport every eighteen days.
As well as passenger movements however, complaints about the impact of the airport on the residents of Perth have grown. The City of Canning, one area that is affected, accepts that “aircraft noise is an important issue” and that “aircraft noise does impact heavily on those suburbs under the flightpaths.” Another affected area, the City of Swan, “has experienced significant issues.” Indeed, planning policy adopted by the Government of Western Australia recognises that some aircraft noise is “not compatible with residential or educational” land use, two fundamental uses of land in any conurbation that is home to over two million residents—such as Greater Perth.
History
Early days
Prior to the opening of the Perth Airport, civilian air services for the city were provided from Maylands Aerodrome as well as on the city's foreshore at Langley Park. By the end of the 1930s, it became clear that the Maylands Aerodrome was limited in the size and speed of aircraft it was able to handle thus causing them to seek an alternative site for a future airport.
Site selection and preparation of the original plans was undertaken by Mr N M Fricker of the Department of Civil Aviation. In 1938, land was selected and purchased for the new aerodrome. The site selected in what was at the time Guildford, was an area of land granted by Governor James Stirling to local man John Scott, which later became the long disused Dunreath Golf Course.
A plaque located on a roadside wall of the old International terminal remains in permanent memory of Scott:
Military operations
Even before civil aviation operations could commence at the new site, the onset of World War II saw the facility being redesigned for military purposes as a temporary base for the Royal Australian Air Force and United States Navy, known as "RAAF Station Guildford", primarily to supplement RAAF Base Pearce. Royal Australian Air Force No. 85 Squadron was based there from February 1943.
Despite military use of the airfield, civil services operated by Qantas Empire Airways and Australian National Airways (ANA) commenced from the location in 1944. This was despite bitter protest from military authorities who felt civilian operations would undermine the defence and camouflage needs of the location.
The move was agreed to by the government, as the larger types of aircraft of the day being operated by the two airlines could simply not be handled at Maylands, notwithstanding the small grass airfield, lack of passenger facilities, and approaches being difficult due to surrounding industrial infrastructure. Using Douglas DC-3 aircraft, ANA flew the first commercial service from the aerodrome to Adelaide. On 17 June 1944, Qantas made its inaugural flight to Ceylon via Exmouth using a modified Consolidated B-24 Liberator, arriving in Perth on 3 June 1944 having been released to the airline by the British Government.
Early civilian operations
Full civilian operations at the Guildford Aerodrome commenced in 1944. Civil operations at Maylands continued albeit reduced until 30 June 1963, when the airport closed and its function as a secondary airport was taken over by Jandakot Airport the very next day.
Guildford Aerodrome was at best only a basic airfield. On a large open airfield with plenty of space, an unobtrusive control tower was hidden away amongst a collection of buildings inherited from the wartime operations at the site. The Department of Civil Aviation inherited a large number of operating vehicles from the former military occupants, including an assortment of vehicles including Blitz wagons, Dodge command cars and weapon carriers, large trucks and various makes of fire tenders, jeeps and ambulances. Boarding aircraft at Guildford was described as being a bit like boarding a bus given the lack of passenger facilities at the time.
In 1948, the Horrie Miller owned MacRobertson Miller Airlines (MMA) relocated from Maylands to Guildford. followed by newly formed government airline Trans Australia Airlines (TAA) on 2 December of that same year, operating Douglas C-54 Skymasters on its Perth – Melbourne – Sydney route. Due to the lack of road transportation across the Nullarbor Plain, it was at this time that Guildford became the scene of very busy cargo operations. Fresh fruit, vegetables and manufactured goods were being flown from east to west and back again.
The airport was granted international status in September 1952, and renamed from Guildford Aerodrome to Perth Airport in March 1953. Officiated by the Federal Minister for Civil Aviation, Hubert Anthony, the official ceremony for the renaming took place on the main apron in front of a converted Bellman hangar used by TAA as its passenger terminal. At the time, a new international terminal building was under construction but had not been completed in time for the ceremony. This new terminal was being constructed using steel and cladding recycled from American-built military quonset buildings being dismantled and shipped over from Manus Island.
It was also on this day that Qantas commenced its Wallaby service using Lockheed Constellations from Sydney to South Africa via Perth, the Cocos Islands and Mauritius.
The jet age
Towards the mid-1950s, airline travel was still being used by only a small percentage of the population. At that time, only 8% of the population had ever flown, but as the marketplace evolved, so did the types of people and their reasons for flying.
It was at this time the airport began to experience the full effects of the jet age. Although both Air India and Qantas commenced operating Boeing 707s in the mid to late 1950s from Perth to Singapore and the sub continent the aircraft of the day grew faster and more demanding due to their sophistication, facilities at the airport continued to improve to accommodate them. By the mid-1960s the airport commenced seeing its first domestic pure jet engine aircraft, commencing with a Boeing 727 in 1964, and the Douglas DC-9 in 1967, both types operated by TAA and Ansett ANA. It was at this time that the airport was one of the few major airports in the country which operated without curfews, and due to the increased number and frequency of flights operating from the airport it gave birth to what was then referred to as the midnight horror or red-eye special, known in more recent history as the red-eye flight.
Demise of the hangar terminals
In 1960, the then international terminal previously constructed from steel and cladding from Manus Island was dismantled and then re-erected in the suburb of Cannington. Known as The Alco Building, it was re-designed for use as a commercial facility.
The removal of the steel structure made way for the construction of an entirely new combined domestic and international passenger terminal, constructed on the northern side of the airfield. It was in 1962 that airlines were able to move from their hangars into a new combined passenger terminal, designed by the Commonwealth Department of Works and opened just in time to handle 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games traffic increases. The new combined terminal was opened that same year by then Minister for Civil Aviation, Senator Shane Paltridge; it was built in an area positioned between the present Terminals 3 and 4 and is currently used as the crew base for both Qantas and Skywest, and offices for airlines and support firms.
International terminal development
From 1962 onwards, both the domestic and international passenger operations at the airport were provided by a single terminal. However, by the arrival of the Boeing 747 on 3 September 1971, the existing terminal had reached its capacity, and modelling of future passenger numbers showed it would be unable to handle any further increases in passenger demand.
In November 1980, the Federal Transport Minister, Ralph Hunt, announced that a new international terminal would be built in Perth at a cost of $26 million (1980). Design of the new International Terminal commenced in 1982, with one of the key principles of the design being the allowance for easy future expansion as the needs of the airport dictated. The project called for the construction of a new terminal, apron, airside roads, access roads, car parks and other passenger facilities.
Construction of the new International Terminal and control tower commenced in March 1984 on the south-eastern side of the airfield. In 1984, the road leading to the new terminal, Horrie Miller Drive was named in honour of local aviation pioneer Horrie Miller. The terminal was officially opened on 25 October 1986 by Prime Minister Bob Hawke, with the new terminal receiving passengers just days after. The newly built control tower was the tallest in Australia at its time of construction, and remains the tallest in Australia.
Upon completion, the terminal was able to process up to five Boeing 747 aircraft per hour and accommodated a peak passenger volume of 6,000 passengers per hour. Twenty years later, in the 12 months to June 2006 the terminal processed over 2.027 million passengers, surpassing a 1996 projection of 1.016 million passengers in that period.
1988 onwards
In the late 1980s the Federal Government, as a prelude to eventual privatisation, formed the Federal Airports Corporation (FAC). In 1988, the FAC took over as manager of Perth Airport (and many other Australian airports).
At this time also, airline operators Qantas and Ansett set about on ambitious capital works programs to construct new domestic terminals for their respective airlines on the northern side of the terminal, where they still stand to this day. In 2001, after the financial collapse of Ansett, the Ansett terminal became a multi-user terminal, catering for flights from former Ansett-subsidiary Skywest, as well as Virgin Australia and now charter airlines including Alliance Airlines and previously Air Australia.
In July 1997 Perth Airport Pty Ltd took up a 99-year lease as part of the Federal Government's push to privatise airports. As at February 2021, Utilities Trust of Australia (38%) and Future Fund (30%) were the major shareholders.
From 2003 to 2004, the International terminal underwent major internal refurbishments to provide an increased array of passenger services, including increased space for duty-free stores and food and beverage concession stands. Further upgrades valued at $25 million (2006) were made to the terminal across 2005 and 2006 which added an additional of floor space, additional check-in counters, and an improved baggage handling and screening system.
The airport commemorated its 60th anniversary in 2004, with an event that opened the new Taxiway Sierra, a new taxiway supporting larger aircraft such as the Boeing 747, Airbus A340 and Airbus A380.
On 11 October 2007, Perth International Airport received the first test flight out of Terminal 3 at Changi International Airport, Singapore. The test flight was a Singapore Airlines flight that departed Changi Airport at 5:30 pm, landing in Perth at 11:30 pm.
On 14 October 2008, the Airbus A380 made its first visit to the airport as a part of Qantas' A380 promotional tour around Australia. The second A380 to visit the airport was an Emirates aircraft which made an emergency landing on 15 August 2009, after a passenger on a Dubai to Sydney flight suffered a stroke.
In 2012, the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC) released a report rating the Perth Airport as the worst in Australia, as judged by airlines. The same report rated it below satisfactory for the second year in a row. However, due to recent expansions and projects, the airport was awarded Capital City airport of the year by the Australian Airports Association at their national conference in 2016. In 2018, Perth Airport was named the best airport in Australia for overall service quality by the ACCC after the completion of a $1 billion redevelopment project over the span of 5 years.
On 1 February 2013, Qatar Airways was due to commence the first commercial service of the Boeing 787 aircraft into Australia on its daily services from Perth to Doha. However, due to the worldwide grounding of the 787 this was delayed indefinitely. In 2016, Qatar stated that it intended to introduce the Airbus A350 aircraft on flights to Perth once they receive enough of the aircraft. However, at the end of 2017 Qatar withdrew the plan, announcing that from May 2018 Perth would receive A380 services instead, making Qatar the second airline to operate scheduled A380 flights to Perth.
Terminal 2 was officially opened on 28 February 2013, with the first flights operating out of the terminal on 2 March 2013. The single story terminal was designed to provide;
At-grade access to terminal building,
16 common use check-in counters, including space for self-service and bag drop technologies,
Centralised passenger security screening zone,
Three baggage reclaim belts,
Dedicated pick-up and drop-off lanes at the front of the terminal,
14 aircraft bays, accessible from enclosed walkways and serviced by 8 boarding counters, and
36 additional aircraft parking bays.
Philippine Airlines commenced flights from Manila to Perth on 2 June 2013, but were later withdrawn in September 2013. On 6 December 2019, it was announced that the route will be resumed on 30 March 2020 using the airline's Airbus A321neos.
In 2015 Emirates commenced the first Airbus A380 service to Perth from Dubai following the completion of a dual level boarding gate, an expanded check-in hall, a refurbished departure area and other expansions to Terminal 1 including a new Emirates business class lounge. In August 2017, Emirates replaced its last the remaining Emirates Boeing 777-300ER service with an Airbus A380, tallying the total Emirates A380 daily services to two.
On 22 November 2015 the domestic pier of Terminal 1 was opened; the pier became the exclusive home to Virgin Australia. Virgin Australia's partner, Etihad Airways began daily direct services from its hub in Abu Dhabi on 16 July 2014; the pier ensures quick and seamless transfers between the two airlines. The pier will also be connected to Terminal 2 via an elevated walkway allowing seamless transfer to Virgin's regional services without having to be re-screened.
On 15 May 2016, the world's largest commercial jet airliner, the Antonov An-225 Mriya landed at Perth Airport, making its first visit to Perth and Australia.
On 11 December 2016, Qantas announced that it would commence non-stop flights from Perth to London Heathrow with one of its newly acquired Boeing 787 Dreamliners. To achieve this the Qantas domestic terminal at T3/T4 was upgraded during 2017 to cater for international flights. Once completed the existing Qantas flights to Singapore and Auckland also migrated to the same terminal. Services started in March 2018. However these flights are in danger of switched out with Darwin due to Western Australia's border restrictions which could cost Perth its direct Heathrow flights when international travel returns.
On 22 February 2018, Singapore Airlines announced Perth would be the second destination, after Osaka, to receive services operated by the Boeing 787-10 Dreamliner, with flights starting from May 2018 Once launched, Perth will be one of the first airports in the world to operate all three variants of the Boeing Dreamliner.
On 10 April 2018, Etihad Airways announced that they would be ceasing Perth services from 1 October 2018. From 14 April 2018 Etihad Airways would downgrade the service from a Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner to an Airbus A330-200.
Qantas CEO Alan Joyce also stated that more direct flights to Europe will follow after its Perth to London flights begin which include Paris, Frankfurt, Berlin and Rome. The airline might also include Perth in their new ultra long-haul flight plan dubbed "Project Sunrise", where flights between Perth and North American cities such as Los Angeles and Vancouver are possible.
Facilities and services
Perth Airport has four main terminals and one minor terminal:
On the eastern side of the airport (location of the future consolidated terminal precinct) is,
Terminal 1 (T1), the international terminal, caters for flights originating or departing outside Australia, with five jetways and a total of eight gates including a Multi Access Ramp System which allows dual boarding of aircraft including the Boeing 777 and Airbus A380. There are four airline lounges: the Emirates lounge; Singapore Airlines Silver Kris lounge; the Air New Zealand Lounge and Qantas Captains Club. The Emirates lounge has a second level and offer direct boarding on their flagship Airbus A380 aircraft. In November 2015, a new domestic pier opened at the west end of T1 to service Virgin Australia domestic flights.
Terminal 2 (T2) is located to the immediate south west of T1. Virgin Australia Regional and Alliance commenced operations from T2 in 2013. Regional Express Airlines uses T2 for its services to Esperance and Albany.
On the western side of the airport is the domestic terminal building, which is divided into two terminals,
Terminal 3 (T3) has five jetways and a total of nine gates. Since 23 November 2015, it is currently used by Jetstar, although some Qantas services also operate from the terminal. It was the previous location for Virgin Australia and had a recently expanded member lounge, which utilised the space from the former Ansett Golden Wing Club / Alliance Airlines Lounge. The Qantas Group has exclusive use of both T3 and T4 since the movement of Virgin Australia to T1. From 24 March 2018 Qantas international departures will move from the International terminal to terminal 3
Terminal 4 (T4), the Qantas terminal, is operated by Qantas Group and is dedicated to the domestic operations of Qantas, QantasLink and fellow budget subsidiary Jetstar. The terminal has four jetways and a total of nine gates. It has two member lounge: The Qantas Club, which was expanded in March 2013 to cater for an additional 140 passengers; and the Qantas Domestic Business Lounge, which opened in 2014. In 2018 Qantas opened a new international area in T4 as it had started flights from Perth to London. The Perth Airport Master Plan outlines these terminals will ultimately be demolished and replaced by new domestic facilities east of T1.
A northern general aviation terminal, used primarily by charter aircraft, mainly for mining companies as fly-in fly-out services to remote operations.
Runways
Flights are serviced by two runways – the main 03/21 runway, and 06/24, .
In 1965, Runway 03/21 was extended from to to accommodate Boeing 707s.
After a 10-month project, a reconstructed cross runway was opened on 21 October 2005. The upgrades involved significant strengthening works and enlargement of turning nodes to accommodate regular operations by wide bodied aircraft, including the Airbus A380.
Meteorological services
Meteorological services for Perth Airport commenced in May 1944, provided by the Guildford Meteorological Office situated at Ivy Street, Redcliffe.
In March 1988, surface observations were moved to the recently vacated old airport tower on the northern side of the airfield (near what is now Terminal 3). The Ivy Street location was retained for a time for radar services and the launching and tracking of weather balloons. In October 1997, all operations from the Ivy Street Office and Old Control Tower were transferred to a newly constructed office on the Northern Perimeter Road in Belmont, in the north-eastern corner of the airfield.
Landing patterns and approach
Perth Airport resides within the Melbourne FIR, which is managed by Melbourne Centre and operated by Airservices Australia.
Transport
Road access to Terminals 3 and 4 from the city centre is via Tonkin Highway and Dunreath Drive. Terminals 1 and 2 are accessed via Tonkin Highway and Airport Drive. All terminals are serviced by a number of private charter bus operators that can normally be accessed through most major hotels in the city centre.
Transperth operates route 935 to Kings Park via Belmont Forum and Perth City, and route 40 to the Elizabeth Quay bus station via the Great Eastern Highway and Victoria Park bus station, both from Terminal 4. Terminal 1 is serviced by route 380 to Perth City via Belmont Forum. A large number of taxi companies have set up operations in the past, and provide transport facilities from the airport to other parts of the city.
The airport is not currently serviced by rail, however the construction of the Airport line will connect the airport to the Midland Line in 2021.
Observation areas
There are two dedicated spotting areas at Perth Airport. The T1 International Terminal houses an Observation Deck on Level 3 to view departing and arriving aircraft. It has vending machines, toilets and FIDSs.
The second spotting area is to the west side opposing the threshold of Runway 03 located along Dunreath Drive. The public viewing area has a shelter in the shape of the body section of a Boeing 747, and displays of information about the history of aviation.
Other services
The Australian Transport Safety Bureau has its Perth regional office on Level 2 of the Hkew Alpha Building on the property of Perth Domestic Airport.
Since May 2014, terminals T1 International, T2 Regional and T3 Domestic have a free Wi-Fi connection currently powered by iiNet. It is accessible throughout the entirety of the departure and arrival areas. Currently, T4 Qantas Domestic also has a free Wi-Fi service provided by Qantas.
The Royal Automobile Club of Western Australia (RAC) had a purpose-built driver training facility at Perth Airport, the only one of its kind in the state. It was located towards the east of the current T1 International Terminal on Grogan Road.
Airlines and destinations
Perth Airport is served by 34 scheduled airlines flying to over 50 destinations in Australia, Oceania, Asia, Africa and Europe. A total of 1258 scheduled domestic and regional flights arrive and depart from Perth Airport each week. On the international front, a total of 213 scheduled international flights arrive and depart from Perth Airport each week.
The following carriers operate to the following destinations:
Passenger
Cargo
Many major cargo airlines operate regular visits to Perth Airport as Charter Flights. These include: Singapore Airlines Cargo, Emirates SkyCargo, Korean Air Cargo and Atlas Air.
Charter and mining airlines
These airlines provide regular charters for mining companies in Western Australia:
Ad Astral Aviation
Alliance Airlines
AvWest
Cobham
Formula Aviation
Maroomba Airlines
Network Aviation
Skippers Aviation
Virgin Australia Regional Airlines
Star Aviation
Casair
Penjet
Aerohire
Operations and statistics
Total
Total passengers using the airport has increased on average by 5.8% annually since 1998–99, with 70% of passenger traffic at the airport attributed to domestic travel.
Domestic
International
Accidents and incidents
During construction
On 13 April 1987, a Hiller 12E helicopter was being used for the installation of a rotating beacon atop the control tower, then under construction. The beacon was attached to the helicopter for lifting by a chain sling. After the beacon had been lifted into place, workers disconnected the chain sling from it. As the helicopter was departing, The hook on the sling became snagged on the tower guard rail ... causing it to pitch nose down and roll to the right. With the cable being tensioned by the pull of the helicopter the hook freed itself [and sprang] while crashing the strike side of the tower towards the helicopter. The cable flew up around the tail boom and became entangled in one of the main rotor blades. The other main rotor blade severed the tail boom which fell free of the helicopter striking the side of the tower on its way to the ground. The major section of the helicopter then fell to the ground at the base of the tower, caught fire and was burnt out.The accident resulted in the death of the helicopter pilot. The subsequent investigation conducted by the Australian Transport Safety Board, found that the pilot's licence was not endorsed for sling loading operations and he was not sufficiently current on the aircraft type to undertake such a job.
Accidents en route
On 2 July 1949 a Douglas DC-3, named Fitzroy, departed from Perth Airport for Carnarvon. Moments after takeoff it crashed about a mile north of the airport, killing all 18 people on board.
On 26 June 1950 a Douglas DC-4 Skymaster, named Amana, departed from Perth Airport for Adelaide. It crashed 22 minutes later, near York, Western Australia, killing 28 of the 29 occupants. The sole survivor died in a Perth hospital six days later. This accident and the TAA Fokker Friendship disaster remain Australia's worst civil aviation accidents.
Emergency alternative airports
There are three emergency alternative airports for Perth, used usually in the case of fog or bad weather affecting Perth. In 2013, the state government flagged the need for a new emergency alternative airport, with Exmouth's Learmonth Airport and Adelaide Airport being inconvenient due to their significant distance from Perth. In 2017, plans for Cunderdin Airport to become a diversion airport for Perth were put in place. In 2018, it was proposed that Kalgoorlie-Boulder Airport would be a better alternative than Cunderdin. In 2019, Busselton Margaret River Airport had its bid to become a designated alternate international airport approved.
Redevelopment plans
Consolidation of terminals
The Perth Airport Master Plan 2014 aims for the domestic and international terminals to be consolidated into a single terminal on the south-eastern side of the airfield by 2024. In 2008, Westralia Airports announced their intention to complete a A$1 billion upgrade project which addresses key elements of the Master Plan while complete the upgrade project key elements of the 2014 Master Plan.
Third runway
The construction of a new runway (03R/21L) is planned. The new runway will be long and wide, while it was the running parallel to the existing main runway and located between Terminal 1 and Abernethy Road. Although Perth Airport plans for the runway to open by 2027, if demand is high enough in the coming years, the airport will set a 2024 opening instead, the same year the terminals are expected to be consolidated.
Rail Link
On 3 November 2016, a commuter rail link started construction, with the Airport Central station linking the consolidated terminal with the Transperth railway network, while it was connecting with the Midland Line between Bayswater station and Ashfield station. The rail link will be underground for much of its length.
References
Further reading
External links
Official website
Airservices Aerodromes & Procedure Charts
Transport in Perth, Western Australia
Airports in Western Australia
World War II airfields in Australia
Buildings and structures in Perth, Western Australia
Airports established in 1938
1938 establishments in Australia
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The Natchez revolt, or the Natchez massacre, was an attack by the Natchez Native American people on French colonists near present-day Natchez, Mississippi, on November 29, 1729. The Natchez and French had lived alongside each other in the Louisiana colony for more than a decade prior to the incident, mostly conducting peaceful trade and occasionally intermarrying. After a period of deteriorating relations and warring, Natchez leaders were provoked to revolt when the French colonial commandant, Sieur de Chépart, demanded land from a Natchez village for his own plantation near Fort Rosalie. The Natchez plotted their attack over several days and managed to conceal their plans from most of the French; colonists who overheard and warned Chépart of an attack were considered untruthful and were punished. In a coordinated attack on the fort and the homesteads, the Natchez killed almost all of the Frenchmen, while sparing most of the women and enslaved Africans. Approximately 230 colonists were killed overall, and the fort and homes were burned to the ground.
When the French in New Orleans, the colonial capital, heard the news of the massacre, they feared a general Indian uprising and were concerned that the Natchez might have conspired with other tribes. They first responded by ordering a massacre of the Chaouacha people – who had played no role in the revolt – and wiped out their entire village. The French and their Choctaw allies then retaliated against the Natchez villages, capturing hundreds of Natchez and selling them into slavery, although many managed to escape to the north and take refuge among the Chickasaw people. The Natchez waged low-intensity warfare against the French over the following years, but retaliatory expeditions against Natchez refugees among the Chickasaw in 1730 and 1731 forced them to move on and live as refugees among the Creek and Cherokee tribes. By 1741, the Natchez had established a town in the northern parts of the Upper Creek Nation. There, with permission from the Abihka, they reconstituted their town and were signatories in the 1790 Treaty of New York and the 1796 Treaty of Colerain. They remain a constituent tribe of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation.
The attack on Fort Rosalie destroyed some of the Louisiana colony's most productive farms and endangered shipments of food and trade goods on the Mississippi River. As a result, the French state returned control of Louisiana from the Company of the Indies to the crown in 1731, as the company had been having trouble running the colony. Louisiana governor Étienne Perier was held responsible for the massacre and its aftermath, and he was recalled to France in 1732.
Background
While descending the Mississippi River in 1682, Robert de La Salle became the first Frenchman to encounter the Natchez and declared them an ally. The Natchez were sedentary and lived in nine semi-autonomous villages; the French considered them the most civilized tribe of the region. By 1700 the Natchez' numbers had been reduced to about 3,500 by the diseases that ravaged indigenous populations in the wake of contact with Europeans, and by 1720 further epidemics had halved that population. Their society was strictly divided into a noble class called "the Suns" (Natchez: ) and a commoner class called in French "the Stinkards" (Natchez: ). Between 1699 and 1702, the Natchez received the explorer Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville in peace and allowed a French missionary to settle among them. At this time, the Natchez were at war with the Chickasaw people, who had received guns from their British allies, and the Natchez expected to benefit similarly from their relationship with the French. Nonetheless, the British presence in the territory led the Natchez to split into pro-British and pro-French factions. The central village, called Natchez or the Grand Village, was led by the paramount chief Great Sun (Natchez: ) and the war chief Tattooed Serpent (Serpent Piqué in the French sources, Natchez Obalalkabiche), both of whom were interested in pursuing an alliance with the French.
First, Second, and Third Natchez Wars
The first conflict between the French and the Natchez took place in 1716, when the governor of Louisiana, Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, passed through Natchez territory and neglected to renew the alliance by smoking the peace calumet. The Natchez reacted to this slight by killing four French traders. Cadillac sent his lieutenant Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to punish the Natchez. He deceived the Natchez leaders by inviting them to attend a parley, where they were ambushed and captured; he then forced the Natchez to exchange their leaders for the culprits who had attacked the French. A number of random Natchez from the pro-British villages were executed. This caused French–Natchez relations to deteriorate further. As part of the terms of the peace accord following this First Natchez War, the Natchez promised to supply labor and materials for the construction of a fort for the French. The fort was named Fort Rosalie, and it was aimed at protecting the French trade monopoly in the region from British incursions.
By 1717, French colonists had established the fort and a trading post in what is now Natchez, Mississippi. They also granted numerous concessions for large tobacco plantations, as well as smaller farms, on land acquired from the Natchez. Relations between Natchez and colonists were generally friendly—some Frenchmen even married and had children with Natchez women—but there were tensions. There were reports of colonists abusing Natchez, forcing them to provide labor or goods, and as more colonists arrived, their concessions gradually encroached on Natchez lands.
From 1722 to 1724, brief armed conflicts between the Natchez and French were settled through negotiations between Louisiana governor Bienville and Natchez war chief Tattooed Serpent. In 1723, Bienville was informed that some Natchez had harassed villagers, and he razed the Natchez village of White Apple and enslaved several villagers, only to discover that the alleged harassment had been faked by the colonists to frame the Natchez. One of the later skirmishes in 1724 consisted of the murder of a Natchez chief's son by a colonist, to which the Natchez responded by killing a Frenchman named Guenot. Bienville then sent French soldiers from New Orleans to attack the Natchez at their fields and settlements, and the Natchez surrendered. Their plea for peace was met following the execution of one of their chiefs by the French.
Chronicler Le Page du Pratz, who lived among the Natchez and was a close friend of Tattooed Serpent, records that he once asked his friend why the Natchez were resentful towards the French. Tattooed Serpent answered that the French seemed to have "two hearts, a good one today, and tomorrow a bad one", and proceeded to tell how Natchez life had been better before the French arrived. He finished by saying, "Before the arrival of the French we lived like men who can be satisfied with what they have, whereas today we live like slaves, who are not suffered to do as they please." The most faithful ally of the French, Tattooed Serpent died in 1725, another blow to the relations between the Natchez and the colonists.
In August 1726, the arrival of the new governor, Étienne Perier, sparked new tensions. Perier broke with Bienville's policy of diplomatic engagement with neighboring tribes, including the Natchez, and refused to recognize Native American ownership of their traditional lands. To oversee Fort Rosalie and the Natchez settlement, Perier appointed the Sieur de Chépart (also known as Etcheparre and Chopart), who was described by as "rapacious, haughty, and tyrannical," abusing soldiers, settlers, and the Natchez alike. Perier and Chépart entered a partnership to develop a large plantation on Natchez land.
According to archaeologist Karl Lorenz, who excavated several Natchez settlements, another factor that complicated relations between the Natchez and the colonists was the fact that the French did not understand the Natchez's political structure. The French assumed that the Great Sun, the chief of the Grand Village, held sway over all other Natchez villages. In truth, each village was semi-autonomous and the Great Sun's power only extended to the villages of Flour and Tioux (with which the Grand Village was allied) and not to the three pro-British villages of White Apple, Jenzenaque and Grigra. When the Great Sun died in 1728 and was succeeded by his inexperienced nephew, the pro-British villages became more powerful than the pro-French villages centered at Natchez.
Commandant Chépart
In 1728, Chépart, the commandant of Fort Rosalie, was brought to New Orleans and put on trial before the Superior Council for abuse of power. Chépart was saved from punishment, according to Horatio Bardwell Cushman, by "the interference of influential friends," and Governor Perier pardoned Chépart, restoring him to his command. Chépart returned to Fort Rosalie and continued to oppress and abuse the Indians.
Looking to further his and Perier's business ambitions, Chépart told the Natchez in spring 1729 that he wished to seize land for a plantation in the center of White Apple, where the Natchez had a temple of their people's graves, planting a missionary cross on the land to indicate he was acting on Perier's orders. By this point, most of the colonists disapproved of Chépart's actions, including Jean-François-Benjamin Dumont de Montigny, a French historian who wrote that Chépart's demand marked the first time that a French colonial leader had simply claimed Natchez land as his own, without prior negotiation.
When the Natchez began to protest the seizure of their land for the plantation, Chépart said he would burn down the temple that contained their ancestors' graves. In response to this threat, the Natchez seemed to promise to cede the land, wrote Dumont de Montigny, but only if they were given until after the harvest to relocate their temple and graves. Chépart agreed to give them the time in exchange for pelts, oil, poultry, and grain — a request the Natchez promised to fulfill later.
Attack
After Chépart announced to the Natchez the complete removal of the tribe from their land in the near future, the Natchez began to prepare for a strike on the French at Fort Rosalie, borrowing firearms from some French colonists with promises to go hunting and to share the game with the guns' owners. Some French men and women overheard the Natchez planning such an attack. According to Le Page du Pratz, it was the Natchez female chief Tattooed Arm who attempted to alert the French of an upcoming attack led by her rivals at White Apple. When colonists told Chépart, he disregarded them and placed some in irons on the night before the massacre, when he was drunk.
On the morning of November 29, 1729, the Natchez came to Chépart with corn, poultry, and deerskins, also carrying with them a calumet — well known as a peace symbol. The commandant, still somewhat intoxicated from drinking the night before, was certain that the Natchez had no violent intentions, and he challenged those who had warned of an attack to prove that the rumors were accurate.
While Chépart was accepting the goods, the Natchez started firing, giving the signal for a coordinated attack on Fort Rosalie and on the outlying farms and concessions in the area now covered by the city of Natchez. Chépart ran to call his soldiers to arms, but they had already been killed. The details of the attack are mostly unknown, as chroniclers such as Le Page du Pratz, who talked with several eyewitnesses, stated that the events were "simply too horrific" to recount.
The Natchez had prepared by seizing the galley of the Company of the Indies anchored on the river so that no Frenchmen could board it and attempt to escape. They had also stationed warriors on the other side of the river to intercept those who might flee in that direction. The commandant at the Yazoo trading post of Fort St. Pierre, Monsieur du Codère, was visiting Fort Rosalie with a Jesuit priest when they heard gunshots. They turned around to return to their ship, but warriors caught up with them, killing and scalping them.
The Natchez killed almost all of the 150 Frenchmen at Fort Rosalie, and only about 20 managed to escape. Most of the dead were unarmed. Women, children, and enslaved Africans were mostly spared; many were locked inside a house on the bluff, guarded by several warriors, from where they could see the events. According to Dumont de Montigny's account of the attack, women seen defending their husbands from the violence, or trying to avenge them, were taken captive or killed. One woman's unborn baby was reportedly torn from her before she herself was killed. A year after the event, the tally of dead was put at 138 men, 35 women, and 56 children, or approximately 230 overall. Some scholars argue that the Natchez spared the enslaved Africans due to a general sense of affinity between the Natchez and the Africans; some slaves even joined the Natchez, while others took the chance to escape to freedom. A group of Yazoo people who were accompanying Commandant du Codère remained neutral during the conflict but were inspired by the Natchez revolt. When they returned to Fort St. Pierre, they destroyed the fort, killing the Jesuit priest and 17 French soldiers.
The Natchez lost only about 12 warriors during the attack. Eight warriors died attacking the homestead of the La Loire des Ursins family, where the men had been able to prepare a defense against the intruding Natchez.
Chépart himself was taken captive by the Natchez, who were at first unsure what to do with him, but finally decided that he should be killed by a stinkard — a member of the lowest caste in the tribe's hierarchy. The Natchez kept two Frenchmen alive, a carter named Mayeux who was made to carry all the goods of the French to the Great Village, and a tailor named Le Beau who was employed by the Natchez to refit the colonists' clothing to new owners. They set fire to the fort, the store, and all the homesteads, burning them to the ground. Just as Governor Bienville had done with the executed Indians in 1717 and 1723, the Natchez beheaded the dead Frenchmen and brought the severed heads for the Great Sun to view.
French response
News of the Fort Rosalie attack reached New Orleans in early December, and the colonists there began to panic. The city depended upon grain and other supplies from the Illinois settlement, and shipments up and down the Mississippi River would be threatened by the loss of Fort Rosalie.
After the Natchez attack on Fort Rosalie, Perier decided that the complete destruction of the Natchez people was required to ensure the prosperity and safety of the colony. He forbade the entry of a delegation of Choctaw people into the city, for fear that they were using the pretext of a friendly visit to launch an attack, but he secured the neutrality with the Choctaws and then he engaged in the prosecution of the war of extermination against the Natchez.
Perier ordered slaves and French troops to march downstream and massacre a small village of Chaouacha people who had played no part in the uprising in Natchez. His superiors in Paris reprimanded the leader for this act, which may have been intended to prevent any alliance between slaves and Native Americans against the French colonists.
More serious retaliation against the Natchez began late in December 1729 and January 1730, with expeditions led by Jean-Paul Le Sueur and Henri de Louboëy. The two commanders besieged the Natchez in forts built near the site of the Grand Village of the Natchez, a mile or so east of Fort Rosalie, which had been rebuilt. They killed about 80 men and captured 18 women, and released some French women who had been captured during the massacre of Fort Rosalie. The French relied on allied support from Tunica and Choctaw warriors. The Choctaw attacked the Natchez without the French, killing 100 and capturing women and children. This ruined the element of surprise for the French as the Natchez had already scattered. At first, the Natchez were well prepared for French retaliatory strikes, having stocked up several cannons as well as the firearms that they had used in the massacre two months earlier. The Natchez captured by the Choctaw and Tunica allies of the French were given over to the governor and sold into slavery, and some were publicly tortured to death in New Orleans.
In late February 1730, with Louboëy seeking to catch the Natchez by surprise, the Natchez negotiated a peace treaty and freed French captives, but the French planned an attack on the Natchez fort the following day. The Natchez then brought gifts to Louboëy, but left their fort that night and escaped across the Mississippi River, taking enslaved Africans with them. The next day, Louboëy and his men burned down the abandoned Grand Village fort as the Natchez hid in the bayous along the Black River.
A subsequent expedition was led by Perier in January 1731 to dislodge the Natchez, capturing many of the Natchez and their leaders, including Saint Cosme, who was the new Great Sun, and his mother, the Female Sun Tattooed Arm. On January 21, Perier with the troops of the Colony and two battalions of marines commanded by his brother Antoine-Alexis Perier de Salvert, attacked the stronghold of the Natchez. On January 24, the Natchez made propositions of peace and some chiefs met Perier who proposed them to enter into a cabin which seemed to be deserted, but as soon as they crossed its threshold, they were made prisoners. On January 25, 45 men, and 450 women and children surrendered and were taken as prisoners but the rest of the Natchez and their chiefs escaped in the night. The next morning, only two sick men and one woman were found in the fort. Perier burned the fort and on the 28th, the French began their march back to New Orleans. As soon as he reached New Orleans, Perier sent the chiefs Great Sun, the Little Sun, the 45 other male prisoners and 450 women and children to Saint-Domingue, where they were sold as slaves.
Although significantly weakened by the defeat, the Natchez managed to regroup and make one last attack on the French at Fort St. Jean Baptiste in October 1731. With reinforcements from Spain and Native American allies, the French under the fort's commander Louis Juchereau de St. Denis mounted a counter attack and defeated the Natchez.
Many Louisiana colonists — Dumont de Montigny in particular — blamed Chépart (who was killed by the Natchez) and Perier for the massacre at Fort Rosalie and the subsequent Natchez war. To answer for his actions and the instability in the colony, Louis XV, the French king, ordered Perier back to France in 1732. Perier's replacement was his predecessor, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, whom the French state thought to be more experienced at dealing with the Native Americans of the region. A year earlier, the Company of the Indies had given up control of the colony to Louis XV because it had been costly and difficult to manage even before the rebellion.
The French continued to press for the destruction of the Natchez who now lived among the Chickasaw, traditional allies of the British — this sparked the Chickasaw Wars. The Chickasaw at first agreed to drive out the Natchez from among them, but they did not keep good on the promise. In the Chickasaw Campaign of 1736, the French, under Governor Bienville, attacked the Chickasaw villages of Apeony and Ackia, and then retreated, suffering significant casualties, but inflicting few. In the Chickasaw Campaign of 1739, Bienville summoned more than 1,000 troops to be sent over from France. Bienville's army ascended the Mississippi River to the site of present-day Memphis, Tennessee, and attempted to build a military road westward toward Chickasaw villages. After waiting for months in the winter of 1739–40, the French never mounted an attack and retreated back to New Orleans. After having suffered the attacks against the Chickasaw, the remaining Natchez moved on to live among the Cherokee and Creek people. By that time the Natchez, reduced to scattered refugees, had ceased to exist as a political entity.
Historical interpretations
The Natchez revolt figured as an event of monumental significance in French historiography and literature of the 18th and 19th centuries. In France, the massacre and its aftermath was described in numerous historical works and inspired several works of fiction. Eighteenth-century historians generally attributed the Natchez uprising to oppression by Commandant Chépart.
In the French sources, one important discussion has centered on the question of whether the Natchez planned a simultaneous attack on the French with the other major tribes of the region. French colonial governor Étienne Perier, in a report to superiors in France written one week after the revolt, claimed that many of the Indian nations in the lower Mississippi Valley had plotted with the Natchez to attack the French on the same day and that even the Choctaw, who had been close allies of the French, were part of the plot. Perier then cancelled a meeting with the Choctaw planned for the first two days of December in New Orleans, contending that it was to be the occasion for an attack. Perier in this way defended his actions as governor by insinuating that the results of the massacre could have been worse if not for his prompt action. However, historians Gordon Sayre and Arnaud Balvay have pointed out that Jean-Baptiste Delaye, a militia commander in the French retaliations following the massacre, wrote in a 1730 unpublished narrative that Perier's claims were groundless, and that the Tioux, Yazoo, and other nations were not complicit and had no foreknowledge of the attack. Another document in French, of anonymous authorship, asserted that the Natchez revolt was a British plan to destroy a new French tobacco business in Louisiana.
To describe the details of the attack and its background, Dumont de Montigny and Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz, the leading 18th-century historians of Louisiana, drew on information collected from French women taken captive during the massacre. They explained that the Natchez had conspired with other nations but had attacked a few days earlier than the date agreed upon and that they had used a system of bundles of sticks held by each of the conspiring tribes in order to count down the number of days remaining until the strike. The undetected destruction of a couple of the sticks in the Natchez Grand Village derailed the count, although the reason for the lost sticks differed in each historian's account. The other nations called off their participation in the plot because of the Natchez' premature attack, and therefore the very existence of the conspiracy remained conjectural.
François-René de Chateaubriand depicted the massacre in his 1827 epic Les Natchez, incorporating his earlier best-selling novellas Atala and René into a longer narrative that greatly embellished the history of the French and the Natchez in Louisiana. In Chateaubriand's work, the grand conspiracy behind the massacre implausibly included native tribes from all across North America. Chateaubriand saw the Natchez Massacre as the defining moment in the history of the Louisiana colony, a position consistent with the views of other 18th-century historians, such as Le Page du Pratz and Dumont de Montigny.
The 19th-century Louisiana historian Charles Gayarré also embellished the story of a conspiracy behind the Natchez revolt, composing in his book a lengthy speech by the Great Sun in which the leader exhorted his warriors to invite the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Yazoo to join in the attack on the French. In his 2008 book on the Natchez revolt, Arnaud Balvay wrote that more likely than not, the conspiracy claim was false because of incoherence in primary sources.
In contrast to the French tradition, the Natchez and their conflicts with the French have been mostly forgotten in contemporary American historiography. Historian Gordon Sayre attributes this to the fact that both the French and the Natchez were defeated in colonial wars before the birth of the United States.
See also
American Indian Wars
Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands
List of Indian massacres
References
Bibliography
(Translation by Gordon Sayre)
(Translation by Gordon Sayre)
External links
Description of the massacre from Gettysburg College
"Massacre at Fort Rosalie" – description and list of known survivors from Adams County, Mississippi Genealogical and Historical Research
"A Failed Enterprise: The French Colonial Period in Mississippi" from the Mississippi Historical Society
1729 in North America
18th century in New France
Conflicts in 1729
Events in New France
Massacres by Native Americans
Natchez people
Native American history of Louisiana
Native American history of Mississippi
Rebellions in North America
1729 in New France
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The New South Wales Waratahs ( or ;), referred to as the Waratahs, are an Australian professional rugby union team representing the majority of New South Wales in the Super Rugby competition. The Riverina and other southern parts of the state, are represented by the Brumbies, who are based in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory (ACT).
The "Waratahs" until 2019, played their home games at Sydney Football Stadium in Sydney. With this closed for demolition and rebuilding, since 2019 home games are played at either the Sydney Cricket Ground or CommBank Stadium.
History
Amateur era
The NSWRU (or then, The Southern RU – SRU) was established in 1874, and the very first club competition took place that year. By 1880 the SRU had over 100 clubs in its governance in the metropolitan area. In 1882 the first New South Wales team was selected to play Queensland in a two-match series. NSW would go on to win both the games. That same year the first NSW touring squad was selected to go and play in New Zealand.
In 1907, several of the New South Wales rugby union team's players defected to play for the New South Wales rugby league team against a visiting rebel New Zealand rugby team. This was essentially the birth of rugby league in Australia.
During World War I, the NSW (and QLD) Rugby Unions ceased senior competition. The Queensland body however would not reform until 1929, which saw NSW have more responsibilities for Australian rugby. In 1921 the Waratahs toured New Zealand again, and out of their 10 fixtures, won nine games, including the Test.
The most famous Waratah team was the 1927/28 Waratahs who toured the United Kingdom, France and North America, introducing a style of open, running rugby never seen before, but which has been the stamp of the Australian game ever since. They won 24 and drew two of their 31 official matches. Seven members of this 1927/8 side were from the Drummoyne Rugby Club. Upon returning home, were greeted with a parade through Sydney and a reception at Town Hall. Matches against Queensland would soon resume also.
The 1930s were a particularly successful time for NSW. The height of the success of NSW is best represented by the defeat of the South African Springboks in 1937 at the SCG. NSW Rugby Union would also perform strongly throughout the following decades as well, which included the emergence of footballers such as Trevor Allan, David Brockhoff, Tony Miller, Nick Shehadie, Eddie Stapleton, Ken Catchpole, John Thornett, Peter Crittle and Ron Graham.
In 1963 the Sydney Rugby Union was established for the growth of the game in the city area. The NSW Rugby Union would celebrate its 100th anniversary in 1974. As part of the anniversary celebrations, a match was played at the SCG on 18 May against the All Blacks, though the Waratahs lost nil to 20.
Professional era
Super 12: 1996–2005
In their inaugural Super 12 season of 1996, the Waratahs won just under half of their games, finishing mid table, with the two other Australian teams finishing above them. The following season of 1997 saw the Waratahs end in a 9th place, winning four fixtures.
In the 1998 season the Waratahs won a best six out of 11 games, ending up in 6th position on the ladder at the end of the season, despite obvious improvements the team had still yet to make a finals appearance. The Waratahs won four fixtures the next season. They won five games in the 2000 season and the 'Tahs finished their season in 9th place.
In 2001 after replicating their 2000 performance, the Waratahs were still out of reach of finals contention, in 8th position. 2002 was a record breaking season for the Waratahs, as the team won eight out of their 11-season games and finished in second place behind the Crusaders – making the semis. However, in the final game of the regular season the Waratahs lost 96–19 (a Super Rugby record). They were defeated by their Australian rivals the Brumbies, 51–10, in the Waratahs' first ever semi-final. The combined score over the two weeks was Brumbies/Crusaders 147 v. Waratahs 29.
In the 2003 season the Waratahs missed a place in the finals, finishing in 6th position on the ladder at the end of the regular season. In 2004 the Waratahs made a promising start to their season with three straight wins. The team finished 8th on the Super 12 table, six points out of the finals. That year coach Ewen McKenzie re-introduced the end of season tour, taking place in Argentina that year. In 2005, they had their best regular season, finishing second in the table, before losing to the Crusaders in the 2005 Super 12 Final.
Super 14: 2006–2010
The Waratahs finished 3rd on the regular season table for the 2006 Super 14 season, in which two new teams entered the expanding tournament, the Force and Cheetahs. In the last home match of the regular season, the Waratahs hosted the Hurricanes, which they lost 14 to 29. The news that star league recruit Wendell Sailor had tested positive to an illegal substance and thus faced a career ending ban from the game was an unwelcome intrusion on the Waratahs semifinal build up. The following week, the semi-finals, they again faced the Hurricanes, though away in Wellington. The Waratahs made their exit, losing 16 to 14. Wendell Sailor later received a two-year ban from the game, marring a season that had promised so much.
The 2007 Super 14 season was the most disappointing for the team and its supporters with the Waratahs winning only three games, against the lions, the wooden spoon winning Reds, and the Hurricanes in the final round gaining a final placing of 13th out of 14. Despite the poor performance the 2007 season saw the emergence of teenage rugby prodigy Kurtley Beale and proved to be a vital rebuilding stage in the Waratahs super 14 championship run.
The 2008 season began well for the NSW Waratahs, with solid pre-season wins and a solid opening game victory against the Hurricanes 20–3. The 'Tahs secured their 500th win since their formation in their Fourth Round match against the . After starting the season in a slow but solid manner the 'Tahs began to play their best rugby in their mid season match with the Blues, scoring their first four try bonus point of the season. The Waratahs then continued on a roll finishing their home season with another impressive 4 try bonus point win against title front runners the Sharks, advancing to second place on the ladder. An average South African trip saw the team slip to third on the ladder after only notching up 3 competition points, due to a loss to the (7 or less BP) and a satisfactory draw against other title contenders the Stormers. The Waratahs faced the Reds in the final round with a win securing second place, combined with a home semi-final win over the Sharks, moved them up to their first Super 14 final against the Crusaders, which they later lost 12–20.
In the last two seasons of the Super14 format, the Waratahs failed to make the final on both occasions after narrowly missing the finals (on points difference) in 2009 and qualifying for the semi-final in 2010. They finished 5th and 3rd in respective years, losing to the in the semi-final of the 2010 season.
Super Rugby: 2011–present
In the 2011 season, the Waratahs again failed to reach the final. On this occasion, their season ended when they were eliminated by the in the qualifying final after finishing 5th in the overall standings in the revamped competition. The following two seasons were very bleak by comparison. Coach Chris Hickey parted ways with the club at the end of the season with Michael Foley taking over the reins for 2012. The Waratahs finished well outside finals contention in 2012 in 11th place. This brought about another change in the coaching department with Michael Cheika for 2013. His impact was not immediate as the Waratahs failed to make the finals for a second consecutive season finishing 9th overall.
Championship season 2014
The 2014 season of the super rugby competition was undoubtedly the Waratahs greatest season so far. The Waratahs not only overcame the Curse of the Tahs, a commonly held superstition, but they were also able to post the greatest super rugby season yet. The second season under coach Michael Cheika saw a new expansive style of rugby implemented which gave birth to exciting running rugby, bringing dwindling crowds back in force with home games averaging at around 19,152 people in attendance .
The running intent of Michael Cheika was quickly revealed after the team saw two fly halves announced in the starting game against Western Force. The Waratahs opening match not only saw Kurtley Beale's return, scoring one try and having a hand in several others, but it was also a showcase to reveal the Tahs new weapon; Israel Folau. Israel highlighted Michael's intent scoring a hat-trick of tries in what was soon to be a season of all-out attack by the Waratahs. Not only did the Waratahs score the most points in the opening match out of any team with a 43–21 score, but they also had the second largest winning margin of 22 points.
The Waratahs went on to win the Australian conference with 13 more points than the team that came in at second place, the Brumbies, and came in as the number one team 7 points ahead of the competition. The Waratahs were in the driver's seat advancing straight through to the semi-finals; the club's 8th semi-final appearance. After the Brumbies defeated the Chiefs 32–30, the Brumbies advanced to compete against the Waratahs. The Waratahs displayed a show of force in their performance against an in-form Brumbies team, decimating them 26-8 granting the Waratahs a home final. The final, held at Stadium Australia, was host to 61,823 spectators who bore witness to one of the greatest spectacles of sport. With two tries a piece, six penalties each, and the Crusaders up 32–30, only one conversion made the difference. The turning point in the game was a penalty at the 79th minute by the famous New Zealand flanker, Richie McCaw 45 metres out. Bernard Foley's penalty 45m out right in front of the post gave the Waratahs' a lead 33–32. Maintaining possession till the siren sounded and the ball is placed out of bounds. The Waratahs had finally won a Super Rugby Championship.
Logo and colours
The "Waratahs" name has historically been the name for the New South Wales Rugby Union (NSWRU) representative team, and became the name for the New South Wales team when it entered the Super Six, Super 10 and Super 12 competitions. The name and emblem comes from the waratah, the state flower for New South Wales.
The New South Wales Waratahs commonly play in a Cambridge Blue jersey and navy blue shorts, blue having a long sporting association with the state and a famous rivalry with the red/maroon colour of Queensland. Longtime sponsors HSBC feature on the front of the jersey. The Waratahs wore the HSBC logo for the final time when they played Argentina in August 2013.
The 2014 season saw Volvo as the Waratahs new major sponsor, after a number of years being minor sponsors with 'sleeve presence' on the previous jersey. An alternative white strip is also used. In pre-season of 2006, the Waratahs donned a New Jersey scheme in a trial game against the Crusaders. This system saw traditional rugby playing numbers on the back of jerseys replaced with the initials of the player. The current jersey is made by ISC and is Cambridge blue with navy side panels, collar and cuffs, with the alternate strip being white with five Cambridge blue hoops, collar and cuffs.
Until 1885, New South Wales wore 'heather green' strips. From 1891 to 1897, New South Wales played in scarlet jerseys. The following season, the team adopted Cambridge blue jerseys. The light blue jersey and navy blue pants were established in 1897 and have been in effect ever since.
Sponsorship
In Super Rugby the Waratahs have featured the following sponsors:
Stadium
Until 2019, the Waratahs played at Sydney Football Stadium (SFS) in Sydney's Moore Park. The capacity for the stadium was 45,500. The Waratahs shared the ground with Sydney FC and the Sydney Roosters.
In 2009, the Waratahs signed a multimillion-dollar deal with Stadium Australia which saw them play at least one game per season at the Sydney Olympic Park stadium until 2015.
As well as the SFS, the Waratahs have on occasion played fixtures at other stadiums throughout the state. During the Australian Provincial Championship, in which the Waratahs had two fixtures, the games were taken to the Central Coast Stadium in Gosford, and the other to Bathurst. The Waratahs also played trial matches at Campbelltown Stadium in 2008 and 2015. During the 2018 Super Rugby season, the Waratahs played one home game at Brookvale Oval and one at the Sydney Cricket Ground.
With the SFS closed for demolition and rebuilding as the Sydney Football Stadium (2022), home games are split between the new CommBank Stadium, the Sydney Cricket Ground, Brookvale Oval and even outside of Sydney at Hunter Stadium in Newcastle.
Team song
At the end of every winning game, the Waratahs sing the following song:
"We are the mighty Waratahs
Rough and tumble rugby stars
We play the game as it should be played
Famous when we run the ball
We can scrum and ruck and maul
Playing the game as it should be played
Waratahs, Waratahs
We play the game as it should be played
Famous when we run the ball
We can scrum and ruck and maul
Playing the game as it should be played
We are the mighty men in blue
We will take the game to you
We play the game as it should be played
We’ve got talent
We’ve got heart
We will tear your team apart
Playing the game as it should be played
Waratahs, Waratahs
We play the game as it should be played
We’ve got talent
We’ve got heart
We will tear your team apart
Playing the game as it should be played"
—Waratahs website, Team song
Development teams
The New South Wales Waratahs own and manages two National Rugby Championship teams, the Sydney Rays and NSW Country Eagles. These NRC teams draw on a range of players ranging from full-time professionals to those on incentive contracts. These teams are closely aligned with the Waratahs and are based at Moore Park, the training venue used by the Waratahs.
Outside of the NRC season, many of these players are retained in the Gen Blue (NSW A) team, which is the Waratahs elite development squad just below full-time professional level. The Sydney Rays and NSW Country Eagles also field Under 19 teams.
Gen Blue (NSW A)
The Gen Blue team plays matches against interstate and international representative teams, and has also competed in tournaments such as the Pacific Rugby Cup. Known by various names over the years including NSW A, Waratahs A, Gen Blue, and Junior Waratahs, the team is selected from the best emerging rugby talent in New South Wales. The squad is composed of Waratahs contracted players, extended training squad members, New South Wales Under 19s, and selected Shute Shield club players.
Under 19
Two New South Wales teams, Sydney Rays U19 and NSW Country Eagles U19, play in the national URC competition. Prior to 2008, state colts teams at under 21 and under 19 age levels were fielded in national tournaments and competitions such as the Trans-Tasman Trophy. These colts teams were consolidated as under 20s ahead of the inaugural World Rugby U20 Championship. In 2018, an under 19 age limit was reinstated for the national colts team competition.
Season standings
{| class="wikitable"
|- border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=0
! style="width:20px;"| Season
! style="width:40px;"|Pos
! style="width:30px;"|Pld
! style="width:25px;"|W
! style="width:25px;"|D
! style="width:25px;"|L
! style="width:35px;"|Bye
! style="width:40px;"|F
! style="width:40px;"|A
! style="width:35px;"|+/-
! style="width:25px;"|BP
! style="width:35px;"|Pts
! style="width:200px;"|Finals results
|- align=center
|align=left|1996
|align=left|6th
|11||5||0||6||NA||312||290||+22||8||28||
|- align=center
|align=left|1997
|align=left|9th
|11||4||0||7||NA||255||296||−41||4||20||
|- align=center
|align=left|1998
|align=left|6th
|11||6||1||4||NA||306||276||+30||4||30||
|- align=center
|align=left|1999
|align=left|8th
|11||4||1||6||NA||246||248||−2||6||24||
|- align=center
|align=left|2000
|align=left|9th
|11||5||0||6||NA||273||258||+15||5||25||
|- align=center
|align=left|2001
|align=left|8th
|11||5||0||6||NA||306||302||+4||5||25||
|- align=center
|align=left|2002
|align=left|2nd
|11||8||0||3||NA||337||284||+53||7||39||Lost Semi-final to
|- align=center
|align=left|2003
|align=left|5th
|11||6||0||5||NA||313||344||−31||7||31||
|- align=center
|align=left|2004
|align=left|8th
|11||5||0||6||NA||342||274||+68||7||27||
|- align=center
|align=left|2005
|align=left|2nd
|11||9||0||2||NA||322||174||148||5||41||Lost Final to
|- align=center
|align=left|2006
|align=left|3rd
|13||9||0||4||NA||362||192||170||9||45||Lost Semi-final to
|- align=center
|align=left|2007
|align=left|13th
|13||3||1||9||NA||266||317||−51||7||21||
|- align=center
|align=left|2008
|align=left|2nd
|13||9||1||3||NA||255||186||+69||5||43||Lost Final to
|- align=center
|align=left|2009
|align=left|5th
|13||9||0||4||NA||241||212||+29||5||41||
|- align=center
|align=left|2010
|align=left|3rd
|13||9||0||4||NA||385||288||+97||7||43||Lost Semi-final to
|- align=center
|align=left|2011
|align=left|5th
|16||10||0||6||2||407||339||+68||9||57||Lost Qualifying-final to
|- align=center
|align=left|2012
|align=left|11th
|16||4||0||12||2||346||407||−61||11||35||
|- align=center
|align=left|2013
|align=left|9th
|16||8||0||8||2||411||371||+40||5||45||
|- align=center
|align=left|2014
|align=left|1st
|16||12||0||4||NA||481||272||+209||10||58||Defeated in Final
|- align=center
|align=left|2015
|align=left|3rd
|16||11||0||5||NA||409||313||+96||8||52||Lost Semi-final to
|- align=center
|align=left|2016
|align=left|10th
|15||8||0||7||NA||413||317||+96||8||40||
|- align=center
|align=left|2017
|align=left|16th
|15||4||0||11||NA||396||522||–126||8||19||
|- align=center
|align=left|2018
|align=left|3rd
|16||9||1||6||NA||557||445||+112||6||44||Lost Semi-final to
|- align=center
|align=left|2019
|align=left|12th
|16||6||0||10||NA||367||415||−48||6||30||
|}
Note: Byes (worth 4 points) were added to the competition between 2011 and 2013
Current squad
The squad for the 2022 Super Rugby Pacific season is:
Players and awards
John Ballesty
Al Baxter
Matt Burke
David Campese
Brendan Cannon
Ken Catchpole
Tony Daly
Sydney Deane
Rocky Elsom
Nick Farr-Jones
Phil Kearns
Simon Poidevin
Ray Price
Mat Rogers
Wendell Sailor
Morgan Turinui
Lote Tuqiri
Phil Waugh
Chris Whitaker
Award winners
The Matthew Burke Cup is awarded to the best Waratahs player at the end of each season:
2004 – Phil Waugh
2005 – Nathan Grey
2006 – Adam Freier
2007 – Rocky Elsom
2008 – Wycliff Palu
2009 – Wycliff Palu
2010 – Tatafu Polota-Nau
2011 – Kurtley Beale
2012 – Dave Dennis
2013 – Michael Hooper
2014 – Michael Hooper
2015 – Michael Hooper
2016 – Michael Hooper
2017 – Michael Hooper
2018 – Israel Folau
2019 – Michael Hooper
2020 – Michael Hooper
Coaches
All head coaches of the NSW Waratahs in the professional Super Rugby era, listed by order of the first game in charge of the team are:
Notes: Official Super Rugby competition matches only, including finals.
Les Kiss and Steve Tuynman also coached the New South Wales development team on a short off-season tour of the U.K. in September and October 2006, winning two of four matches.
Honours
Professional era
Super 12/14 (1996–2010):
Runners-up (2): 2005, 2008
Play-off Appearances (3): 2002, 2006, 2010
Super Rugby (2011–present): / Super Rugby AU (2020–present): / Super Rugby Trans-Tasman (2021):
Champions: 2014
Australian Conference Champions (3): 2014, 2015, 2018
Play-off Appearances (4): 2011, 2014, 2015, 2018
Statistics
Statistics in this section include only those pertaining to Super Rugby matches (1996–present). They do not include any matches prior to this period (1882–1995). Records for "in a season" include finals games unless otherwise stated.
Correct as of 26 November 2014.
Team
Biggest winning margin: 62 v Southern Kings, Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium, 2013.
Biggest win: 72–10 v Southern Kings, Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium, 2013.
Biggest loss: 19–96 v Crusaders, Lancaster Park, 2002.
Highest team score: 77 v , Sydney Football Stadium, 2018.
Most regular season wins: 12, in 2014.
Most consecutive wins in a season: 9, in 2014.
Most consecutive defeats in a season: 8, in 2012.
Most tries in a season: 81, in 2018.
Most conversions in a season: 68, in 2018 – Bernard Foley.
Most penalty goals in a season: 50, in 2014.
Most drop-goals in a season: 3, in 2014.
Most points in a season: 613, in 2018.
Most tries scored in a match: 12 v Sunwolves, Sydney Football Stadium, 2018.
Most conversions in a match: 9 v , Sydney Football Stadium, 2010.
Most penalty goals in a match: 7 v , Sydney Football Stadium, 2001 – v , Stadium Australia, 2014.
Most drop-goals in a match: 1 on 12 occasions
Individual
Most caps: 151, Benn Robinson. Kurtley Beale
Most caps as captain: 56, Phil Waugh.
Most wins as captain: 35, Phil Waugh.
Most points: 1,172, Matt Burke, (1996–2004).
Most tries: 58, Israel Folau (2013–present).
Most conversions: 160, Matt Burke (1996–2004).
Most penalty goals: 173, Matt Burke (1996–2004).
Most drop-goals: 3, Kurtley Beale (2007–present) and Berrick Barnes (2010–2013).
Most points in a season: 252, Bernard Foley, in 2014.
Most tries in a season: 15, Taqele Naiyaravoro, in 2018.
Most conversions in a season: 68, Bernard Foley, in 2018.
Most penalty goals in a season: 44, Bernard Foley, in 2014.
Most drop-goals in a season: 3, Berrick Barnes, in 2010.
Most points in a match: 34 (3t; 2c, 5p), Peter Hewat, v , Sydney Football Stadium, 2005.
Most tries in match: 4, Drew Mitchell, v , Sydney Football Stadium, 2010.
Most conversions in match: 9, Berrick Barnes v , Sydney Football Stadium, 2010.
Most penalty goals in a match: 7, Matt Burke v in 2001 and Bernard Foley v in 2014.
Most drop-goals in a match: 1, (on 12 occasions – Kurtley Beale & Berrick Barnes on 3 occasions – and 6 others players on 1 occasion each).
Women's team
In 2017 it was announced that a 15-a-side Australian women's rugby competition was to be played from 2018 and beyond, with the New South Wales Waratahs to have a women's team. On 20 April 2018, the women's New South Wales Waratahs made history by winning the first season of women's 15-a-side rugby, with captain Ashleigh Hewson kicking the winning penalty goal in the ninety-second minute. New South Wales Waratahs Women's were victorious over the Queensland Reds 16–13 at Stadium Australia.
On 9 February 2022, the squad for the 2022 season was announced.
Season standings
Super W
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=0
! style="width:20px;"|Year
! style="width:20px;"|Pos
! style="width:20px;"|Pld
! style="width:20px;"|W
! style="width:20px;"|D
! style="width:20px;"|L
! style="width:20px;"|F
! style="width:20px;"|A
! style="width:40px;"|+/-
! style="width:20px;"|BP
! style="width:20px;"|Pts
! style="width:25em; text-align:left;"| Play-offs
|-
|2020
|1st
| 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 || 131 || 21 || +110 || 3 || 19
|align=left| Playoffs cancelled due to COVID-19
|-
|2019
|1st
| 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 || 138 || 24 || +114 || 3 || 19
|align=left| Defeated Reds in final
|-
|2018
|1st
| 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 || 131 || 15 || +116 || 2 || 18
|align=left| Defeated Reds in final
|}
See also
Dan Vickerman Cup
National Rugby Championship
References
External links
NSW Rugby website
War
Rugby clubs established in 1882
Rugby union teams in Sydney
Super Rugby teams
1882 establishments in Australia
Super Rugby champions
Super W
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In the European Union (EU), enhanced cooperation (previously known as closer cooperation) is a procedure where a minimum of nine EU member states are allowed to establish advanced integration or cooperation in an area within EU structures but without the other members being involved. As of October 2017, this procedure is being used in the fields of the Schengen acquis, divorce law, patents, property regimes of international couples, and European Public Prosecutor and is approved for the field of a financial transaction tax.
This is distinct from the EU opt-out, that is a form of cooperation between EU members within EU structures, where it is allowed for a limited number of states to refrain from participation (e.g. EMU, Schengen Area). It is further distinct from Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification and permanent acquis suspensions, whose lifting is conditional on meeting certain benchmarks by the affected member states.
History
Enhanced cooperation, at that time known as closer cooperation, was introduced by the Treaty of Amsterdam for community, judicial cooperation and criminal matters. The Treaty of Nice simplified the mechanism and forbade opposition to the creation of enhanced cooperation. It also introduced cooperation for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, except for defence matters. At the same time, it stipulated that acts adopted within an enhanced cooperation do not form part of the Union acquis that new member states have to adopt. It also renamed closer cooperation to enhanced cooperation. The Treaty of Lisbon extended cooperation to include defence and additionally envisions the possibility for establishment of a permanent structured cooperation in defence. A minimum requirement of nine member states was also introduced. The provisions governing enhanced cooperation are now detailed in the Treaty on European Union (Article 20) and Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Article 326-334).
The Schengen Agreement adoption is considered a historical inspiration for formalising the mechanism of Enhanced cooperation. It was created by European Communities member states only, but outside of its structures, in part owing to the lack of consensus amongst all members over whether it had the competence to abolish border controls, and in part because those ready to implement the idea did not wish to wait for others. As there was no Enhanced cooperation mechanism back then it was impossible to establish it inside the Community structures from the start, but afterwards the Schengen Agreement was subsumed into European Union law by the Treaty of Amsterdam as the rules of the Schengen Area.
Usage
Enhanced cooperation allows for a minimum of nine member states (which amounts to almost one-third at the moment) to co-operate within the structures of the EU without all member states. This allows them to move at different speeds, and towards different goals, than those outside the enhanced cooperation area. It is designed to overcome paralysis, where a proposal is blocked by the veto of an individual state or a small group who do not wish to be part of the initiative. It does not however allow for an extension of powers outside those permitted by the treaties of the European Union and is only allowed as a last resort where objectives cannot be achieved normally. It may not discriminate against members, it must further the objectives in the treaties and may not fall within an area which is of exclusive competence of the EU.
The mechanism needs a minimum of nine Member States, who file a request with the European Commission. If the Commission accepts it then it has to be approved by a qualified majority of all member states to proceed. A member may not veto the establishment of enhanced cooperation except for foreign policy.
Currently in force
Schengen acquis
The Schengen acquis was originally established on an intergovernmental basis, but was later on integrated as an enhanced cooperation (at that time known as closer cooperation) into the framework of the European Union by the Treaty of Amsterdam. Ireland and the United Kingdom obtained opt-outs from the Schengen cooperation, allowing them to opt out from legal acts that build upon the Schengen acquis on a case-by-case basis. Formally speaking, the other member states are authorized to establish an enhanced cooperation among themselves and make use of the treaty provisions on such cooperations whenever Ireland (and previously also the United Kingdom) choose to opt out from a legal act that build upon the Schengen acquis.
However, the provisions on enhanced cooperation for the Schengen acquis differ somewhat from the provisions for other enhanced cooperations. For instance, the member states are automatically authorized to initiate an enhanced cooperation as soon as Ireland opt out; no separate decision has to be made in the Council. Furthermore, the Schengen acquis forms an integral part of the Union law that every acceding member state has to adopt, reflecting the provisions on enhanced cooperations in force before the Treaty of Nice.
Applicable law to divorce (Rome III)
With the rise in cross border divorce in the EU, common rules were put forward to settle the issue of under which law trans-national couples can divorce in the EU. However, Sweden blocked the new rules, fearing the loss of its liberal divorce law (divorce law differs strongly, with Nordic liberalism with relatively "easy" procedures, being in contrast to more conservative countries such as Malta which has only recently permitted it). To allow those willing states to proceed without Sweden, in July 2008 nine countries put forward a proposal to use enhanced cooperation: Austria, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, Romania, Slovenia and Spain. Belgium, Germany, Lithuania and Portugal were considering joining them.
At a meeting of the justice ministers on 25 July 2008, the nine states decided to formally seek the measure of enhanced cooperation; eight states (the nine states above minus France) formally requested it from the European Commission on 28 July 2008. On 24 March 2010, when the law was formally proposed by the commission, Bulgaria was the tenth state to join the aforementioned eight and France. Belgium, Germany and Latvia formally joined them on 28 May 2010, while Greece withdrew.
MEPs backed the proposal in June 2010 with fourteen states willing to adopt the proposed cooperation: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia and Spain. These states were then authorised by the council to proceed with enhanced cooperation on 12 July 2010. Following the adoption of Council Regulation (EU) No 1259/2010 on 20 December 2010, also known as the Rome III Regulation, came into force in the 14 participating states on 21 June 2012. Other EU Member state are permitted to sign up to the pact at a later date. Lithuania became the first state to join the agreement when they were approved by the commission on 21 November 2012. The provisions of the agreement applied to Lithuania as of 22 May 2014. Greece's participation was approved by the commission on 27 January 2014, making them the 16th country to join the regulation, which applied to it as of 29 July 2015. Estonia's participation was approved by the Commission in August 2016, and the regulation applied to the country as of 11 February 2018.
Unitary patent
The unitary patent, formally a "European patent with unitary effect", is the second case of enhanced cooperation adopted by the European Commission and Parliament. 26 Member States, all except Spain and Croatia (which acceded to the EU following the unitary patents adoption), participate in the unitary patent. Towards the end of 2010, twelve states proposed enhanced cooperation to work around disagreements with Italy and Spain over what languages a European patent would be translated into. The unitary patent would be examined and granted in one of the existing official languages of the European Patent Office – English, French or German. Following the Commission approval of the plan on 14 December 2010, the Council of the European Union requested the European Parliament's consent to use of enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent on 14 February 2011 with the participation of 25 member states (all but Italy and Spain). The Parliament approved it the next day and the Council authorised enhanced cooperation on 10 March 2011. On 13 April 2011 the Commission adopted a proposal for a Council Regulation implementing enhanced cooperation. During the European Council of 28–29 June 2012, agreement was reached on the provisions between the 25 member states and the necessary EU-legislation was approved by the European Parliament on 11 December 2012. Following a request by the government of Italy, it became a participant of the unitary patent regulations in September 2015.
The enhanced cooperation measures entered into force in January 2013, and will apply to a participating member states from the date when the related Agreement on a Unified Patent Court enters into force for the state. The UPC agreement has been signed by 25 EU member states, including all states participating in the enhanced cooperation measures except Poland; while Italy, on the other hand, signed the UPC agreement prior to joining the enhanced cooperation measures for a unitary patent. Poland decided to wait to see how the new patent system works before joining due to concerns that it would harm their economy. Entry into force of the UPC will take place for the first group of ratifiers on the first day of the fourth month after at least 13 states (including Germany, France and the United Kingdom as the three states with the most European patents in force) have ratified the UPC agreement.
Property regimes of international couples
In June 2016, the Council of the European Union authorised 18 Member States of the European Union to initiate an enhanced cooperation in the area of jurisdiction, applicable law and the recognition and enforcement of decisions on the property regimes of international couples, covering both matters of matrimonial property regimes and the property consequences of registered partnership. Later that month, enhanced cooperation was implemented through Regulations EU 2016/1103 for married couples and EU 2016/1104 for registered partnerships, both of which will fully apply from 29 January 2019.
European Public Prosecutor
The European Public Prosecutor's Office (EPPO) is an independent body of the European Union (EU) to be established under the Treaty of Lisbon between 20 of the 28 members of the EU. It will be based in Luxembourg alongside the European Court of Justice and the European Court of Auditors. The role of the EPPO is to investigate and prosecute fraud against the EU budget and other crimes against the EU's financial interests including fraud concerning EU funds of over €10,000 and cross-border VAT fraud cases involving damages above €10 million. Previously only national authorities could investigate and prosecute these crimes and could not act beyond their borders.
The European Commission proposed a regulation for the establishment of the EPPO on 17 July 2013. After no consensus could be reached among all EU member states, the states which wished to participate notified the European Parliament, the Council and the commission on 3 April 2017 that they would proceed with establishing the EPPO by the use of enhanced cooperation. This was done under TFEU Article 86, which allows for a simplified enhanced cooperation procedure which does not require authorization from the council to proceed. The participating member states agreed on the legislative text to establish the EPPO on 8 June. On 12 October 2017 the regulation was given final approval by the 20 participating states. The EPPO will not have authority to begin investigating or prosecuting crimes until a decision of Commission approves this, which per the terms of the Regulation cannot take place until 3 years after the entry into force of the Regulation in November 2017.
The Netherlands officially requested to join EPPO on 14 May 2018, which was approved by the commission on 1 August 2018. Malta requested to join on 14 June 2018, and their participation was approved on 7 August 2018.
On 6 May 2021 the Commission's decision launching operations was adopted, with a starting date of 1 June 2021.
Proposals
Financial transaction tax
After discussions to establish a European Union financial transaction tax (FTT), which would tax financial transactions between financial institutions, failed to establish unanimous support due objections from the United Kingdom and Sweden, a group of states began pursuing the idea of utilising enhanced cooperation to implement the tax. Nine states (Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain) signed a letter in February 2012 requesting that a FTT be implemented. After their parliamentary election in March 2012, Slovakia joined the list of states supporting the FTT. On 16 July 2012, Hungary introduced a unilateral 0.1 percent FTT to be implemented in January 2013. In October 2012, after discussions failed to establish unanimous support for an EU-wide FTT, the European Commission proposed that the use of enhanced cooperation should be permitted to implement the tax in the states which wished to participate. The proposal, supported by 11 EU member states (Austria, Belgium, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain), was approved in the European Parliament in December 2012 and the Council in January 2013. On 14 February, the European Commission put forward a revised proposal for the details of the FTT to be enacted under enhanced cooperation. The proposal was approved by the European Parliament in July 2013, and must now be unanimously approved by the 11 initial participating states before coming into force.
The legal service of the Council of the European Union concluded in September 2013, that the European Commission's proposal would not tax "systemic risk" activities but only healthy activities, and that it was incompatible with the EU treaty on several grounds while also being illegal because of "exceeding member states' jurisdiction for taxation under the norms of international customary law". The Financial Transaction Tax can no longer be blocked by the Council of the European Union on legal grounds, but each individual EU member state is still entitled to launch legal complaints against a finally approved FTT to the European Court of Justice, potentially annulling the scheme. On 6 May 2014, ten out of the initial eleven participating member states (all except Slovenia) agreed to seek a "progressive" tax on equities and "some derivatives" by 1 January 2016, and aimed for a final agreement on the details to be negotiated and unanimously agreed upon later in 2014. With negotiations ongoing into 2016, Estonia formally withdrew from the FTT enhanced cooperation procedure on 16 March 2016, leaving 10 participating states.
Other arrangements between European Union members
A number of other agreements between a subset of EU member states to deepen integration have been concluded outside the framework of EU law. Some of these have subsequently been replaced by EU regulations, such as the Brussels Convention and the Rome Convention. The European Commission proposed in July 2015 to also integrate the Euro Plus Pact, European Fiscal Compact and the Single Resolution Fund into EU law by June 2017, while planning for the European Stability Mechanism to make the same transition by 2025.
Permanent Structured Cooperation in Defence
The European Defence Initiative was a proposal for enhanced European Union defence cooperation presented by France, Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg in Brussels on 29 April 2003, before the extension of the coverage of the enhanced cooperation procedure to defence matters. The Treaty of Lisbon added the possibility for "those Member States whose military capabilities fulfill higher criteria and which have made more binding commitments to one another in this area with a view to the most demanding missions [to] establish permanent structured cooperation within the Union framework".
Those states shall notify their intention to the Council and to the High Representative. The Council then adopts, by qualified majority a decision establishing permanent structured cooperation and determining the list of participating Member States. Any other member state, that fulfills the criteria and wishes to participate, can join the PSCD following the same procedure, but in the voting for the decision will participate only the states already part of the PSCD. If a participating state no longer fulfills the criteria a decision suspending its participation is taken by the same procedure as for accepting new participants, but excluding the concerned state from the voting procedure. If a participating state wishes to withdraw from PSCD it just notifies the Council to remove it from the list of participants. All other decisions and recommendations of the Council concerning PSCD issues unrelated to the list of participants are taken by unanimity of the participating states.
The criteria established in the PSCD Protocol are the following:
co-operate and harmonise requirements and pool resources in the fields related to defence equipment acquisition, research, funding and utilisation, notably the programs and initiatives of the European Defence Agency (e.g. Code of Conduct on Defence Procurement)
capacity to supply, either at national level or as a component of multinational force groups, targeted combat units for the missions planned, structured at a tactical level as a battle group, with support elements including transport (airlift, sealift) and logistics, within a period of five to 30 days, in particular in response to requests from the United Nations Organization, and which can be sustained for an initial period of 30 days and be extended up to at least 120 days.
capable of carrying out in the above timeframes the tasks of joint disarmament operations, humanitarian and rescue tasks, military advice and assistance tasks, conflict prevention and peace-keeping tasks, tasks of combat forces in crisis management, including peace-making and post-conflict stabilisation
On 7 September 2017 an agreement was made between EU foreign affairs ministers to move forward with PESCO with 10 initial projects. The agreement was signed on 13 November by 23 of the 28 members states. Ireland and Portugal notified the High Representative and the Council of the European Union of their desire to join PESCO on 7 December 2017. Denmark does not participate as it has an opt-out from the Common Security and Defence Policy, nor did the United Kingdom, which withdrew from the EU in 2020. Malta opted-out as well.
Open Method of Coordination
The Open Method of Coordination is a method of governance in the European Union, based on the voluntary cooperation of its member states. The open method rests on soft law mechanisms such as guidelines and indicators, benchmarking and sharing of best practice. This means that there are no official sanctions for laggards. Rather, the method's effectiveness relies on a form of peer pressure and naming and shaming, as no member state wants to be seen as the worst in a given policy area.
Euro Plus Pact
The Euro Plus Pact is an arrangement for cooperating in economic measures adopted on 25 March 2011 by the European Council through the Open Method of Coordination and includes as participants the Eurozone member states, plus Bulgaria, Denmark, Poland and Romania.
Related intergovernmental treaties
Although not formally part of European Union law, several closely related treaties have been signed outside the framework of the EU and its predecessors between the member states because the EU lacked authority to act in the field. After the EU obtained such autonomy, the conventions were gradually replaced by EU instruments. Examples are the Brussels Convention of 1968 (on jurisdiction in civil matters, replaced by the Brussels I Regulation), the Rome Convention on Contractual Obligations of 1980 (on choice of law in contractual matters, replaced by the Rome I Regulation except in Denmark), the Dublin Convention of 1990 (on asylum seekers, replaced by the Dublin II Regulation) as well as the Europol Convention of 1995 (came under the EU's competence with the Lisbon Treaty and replaced by a Council Decision.) Furthermore, several treaties have been concluded between a subset of EU member states due to a lack of unanimity. The Schengen Treaty was agreed to in 1985 in this manner, but was subsequently incorporated into EU law by the Amsterdam Treaty, with the remaining EU member states that had not signed the treaty being given an opt-out from implementing it. More recently, the Prüm Convention and European Fiscal Compact were signed as intergovernmental treaties. However, both state that the intention of the signatories is to incorporate the treaty's provisions into EU structures and that EU law should take precedence over the treaty. As well, both agreements are open to accession by any EU member state. The Treaty Establishing the European Stability Mechanism was also signed and entered into force outside of the EU framework. However, a TFEU amendment was ratified which gives the ESM a legal basis in the EU treaties.
Prüm Convention
The Prüm Convention, a treaty for cooperation in criminal matters signed on 27 May 2005 by Germany, Spain, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Austria, and Belgium, was adopted outside of EU structures, but it asserts European Union law takes precedence over its provisions (if they are incompatible) and that it is open to accession for any member state of the EU. Part of its provisions were later subsumed into European Union law by the Prüm Decision of 2008.
European Stability Mechanism
The European Stability Mechanism (ESM) is an intergovernmental organization located in Luxembourg City, which operate under public international law for all eurozone Member States having ratified a special ESM intergovernmental treaty. It was established when the intergovernmental treaty entered into force on 27 September 2012, as a permanent firewall for the eurozone to safeguard and provide instant access to financial assistance programmes for member states of the eurozone in financial difficulty, with a maximum lending capacity of €500 billion. It replaced two earlier temporary EU funding programmes: the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) and the European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism (EFSM). All new bailouts of eurozone member states will be covered by ESM, while the EFSF and EFSM will continue to handle money transfers and program monitoring for bailouts previously approved for Ireland, Portugal and Greece. Upon its founding, all 17 eurozone member states ratified the agreement to become ESM members. According to the text of the treaty, the ESM is open to accession by any EU member state once their derogation from using the euro has been lifted by the Council of the European Union. New members must first be approved by the ESM's Board of Governors, after which they would need to ratify to the Treaty Establishing the ESM. After Latvia's adoption of the euro on 1 January 2014 was given final approval by the Economic and Financial Affairs Council on 9 July, the ESM Board of Governors approved Latvia's membership application in October 2013. Latvia became the first state to accede to the ESM with formal membership starting on 13 March 2014. Lithuania adopted the euro on 1 January 2015, and acceded to the ESM with formal membership starting on 3 February 2015.
A separate treaty, amending Article 136 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) to authorize the establishment of the ESM under EU law, entered into force on 1 May 2013. In June 2015, an updated EMU reform plan envisaged ESM should be transposed from being an intergovernmental agreement to become fully integrated into EU framework law in the medium-term (between July 2017 and 2025).
European Fiscal Compact
The European Fiscal Compact is an intergovernmental treaty dealing with fiscal integration that was signed by 25 member states of the European Union (EU) (all except the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom; Croatia subsequently acceded to the EU in July 2013) on 2 March 2012. Although the European Fiscal Compact was negotiated between member states of the EU, it is not formally part of European Union law. It does, however, contain a provision to attempt to incorporate the pact into the Treaties establishing the European Union within 5 years of its entering into force. The treaty entered into force on 1 January 2013 for the 16 states which had completed their ratification. All nine other signatory states subsequently became parties to the treaty. Two non-eurozone member states, Denmark and Romania, have declared their intent to be bound by the fiscal provisions in the treaty (titles III and IV) upon ratification, and Bulgaria declared themselves bound by parts of these provision, while for the remaining non-eurozone states they will only apply from the date they adopt the euro. Latvia's adoption of the euro on 1 January 2014 and Lithuania's adoption of the euro on 1 January 2015 made them bound by the fiscal provision. Croatia, which acceded to the EU in July 2013, also acceded to the Fiscal Compact on 7 March 2018, as did the Czech Republic on 3 April 2019.
Unified Patent Court
After two regulations utilising enhanced cooperation to establish a European Union patent of unitary effect were approved for 25 participating states (all but Italy, Spain and Croatia, which subsequently acceded to the EU in July 2013) by the European Parliament on 11 December 2012 the documents were formally adopted as regulation E.U. 1257 and 1260 of 2012 on 17 December 2012, and entered into force in January 2013. The provisions will apply once an accompanying Agreement on a Unified Patent Court enters into force. Due to a ruling by the Court of Justice of the European Union that the proposed Unified Patent Court (UPC) was not compatible with European Union law, it was decided that the court would be established by an intergovernmental treaty between the participating states outside the framework of the EU. The Agreement on a Unified Patent Court was published by the Council of the European Union on 11 January 2013, and was signed on 19 February 2013 by 24 EU member states, including all states participating in the enhanced cooperation measures except Bulgaria and Poland, while Italy, which did not originally join the enhanced cooperation measures but subsequently signed up, did sign the UPC agreement. The agreement is open for accession to all remaining EU member states, and Bulgaria signed the agreement on 5 March after finalizing their internal procedures. Meanwhile, Poland decided to wait to see how the new patent system works before joining due to concerns that it would harm their economy. States which do not participate in the unitary patent regulations can still become parties to the UPC agreement, which would allow the new court to handle European patents validated in the country. Entry into force for the UPC will take place after 13 states (including Germany, France and the United Kingdom as the three states with the most patents in force) have ratified the Patent Court agreement, but not before 1 January 2014.
Single Resolution Fund
President of the European Central Bank, Mario Draghi, released a report on 26 June 2012 which called for deeper integration in the eurozone, including the establishment of a banking union encompassing direct recapitalisation of banks from the ESM, a common financial supervisor, a common bank resolution scheme and a deposit guarantee fund. The Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM) was enacted through two regulations in October 2013 to monitor the stability of banks. However, during negotiations for the Single Resolution Mechanism (SRM), which would be responsible for resolving failing banks and would establish a Single Resolution Fund (SRF) to fund their restructuring, concerns, especially by Germany, were raised that some of its provisions were incompatible with current EU treaties. As a result, the details of some aspects of the functioning of the SRF, including the transfer and mutualisation of funds from national authorities to the centralized fund, was split off from the Regulation to an Intergovernmental Agreement outside the framework of the EU. However, the treaty states that the intention of the signatories is to incorporate the treaty's provisions into EU structures within 10 years. The agreement was signed by 26 EU member states (all but Sweden and the United Kingdom) and is open to accession to any other EU member states. It entered on 1 January 2016, following the ratification by states representing 90% of the weighted vote of SSM and SRM participating states, but only to SSM and SRM participating states. As of February 2021, all eurozone states, and all EU member states except Denmark and Poland (which have both signed the agreement) and Sweden, have ratified the agreement. The ECB governing council decided on 24 June 2020 to establish a close cooperation agreement with the Bulgarian and Croatian central banks. The close cooperation agreements enter into force on 1 October 2020, at which point SRF agreement will apply to them.
Table
See also
Community method
European integration and Agencies of the European Union with various examples of participation by non-EU states
Interstate compact
Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification
Multi-speed Europe
Open Method of Coordination
Opt-outs in the European Union
Symbols of the European Union – adopted by a subset of EU member states
28th regime
Literature
Hermann-Josef Blanke: Art. 20 EUV, Kommentar, in: Grabitz/Hilf/Nettesheim (EL 42, September 2010)
References
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Gender self-identification is the concept that a person's legal sex or gender should be determined by their gender identity without any medical requirements, such as via statutory declaration.
It is a major goal of the transgender rights movement. Advocates of self-identification say that medical requirements could force trans people into undergoing surgery, are intrusive and humiliating gatekeeping, and that self-identification would make it easier for transgender people to live day-to-day without prejudice. Advocates also argue that there is no evidence that such laws have caused problems in countries where they have been introduced, such as in Ireland, where it was introduced in 2015. Self-identification is opposed by some feminists, who consider safety in places like refuges and prisons, and fairness in sports, to be adversely affected,. Opponents also consider affirmation of self-identification in children with gender dysphoria to set them on a path of medical gender transition.
gender self-identification is part of the law in 17 countries, including Brazil, India, France, Ireland, 6 other countries in the European Union, and several jurisdictions in Latin America. Proposals to introduce it have proved controversial in some countries, such as Spain and the United Kingdom. Within countries organised as federations, such as Canada and Mexico, legal gender recognition may principally fall under sub-national jurisdiction, and so may vary from province to province. Within a single jurisdiction, legal gender recognition procedures can be different for different documents, such as birth certificates or passports, and is not always the sole determinant of gender recognition in day-to-day life, such as in healthcare, access to facilities, or in personal relations.
Positions of international bodies
In April 2015, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted Resolution 2048 (2015), within which "the Assembly calls on Member States to ... develop quick, transparent and accessible procedures, based on self-determination ... available for all people who seek to use them, irrespective of age, medical status, financial situation or police record". In 2015, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights stated that "abusive requirements as a precondition of recognition — for example, by requiring ... forced gender reassignment and other medical procedures" are "in violation of international human rights standards" and in 2018, Victor Madrigal-Borloz, the United Nations Independent Expert on Protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, stated that "the right to self-determine one's gender was a fundamental part of a person's freedom and a cornerstone of the person’s identity" and that states' obligations included "adopting legal measures such as being based on self-determination [and] ensuring that minors have access to recognition of their gender identity".
Positions of international charities
In 2014, Amnesty International released a report titled The state decides who I am: Lack of Legal Gender Recognition For Transgender People in Europe. In the report, Amnesty argued that many European countries had legal gender recognition laws that were based on stereotypical gender norms and that violated individuals' rights to "private and family life, to recognition before the law, to highest attainable standard of health and to be free from cruel, inhuman and degrading treatments without discrimination on
grounds of gender identity and expression." The report further argued that "transgender people should be able to obtain legal gender recognition through quick, accessible and transparent procedures and in accordance with their own perceptions of gender identity."
To mark Transgender Awareness Week in November 2019, multinational law firm Dentons produced a report titled Only adults? Good practices in legal gender recognition for youth, written along with IGLYO, an international network of LGBT+ student and youth organisations, and the Thomson Reuters Foundation. The report examined the status of legal gender recognition for minors in several European countries, and describes itself as a "powerful tool for activists". Based on international human rights standards, the report argued that people under the age of 18 should have the right to legal gender recognition based on self-declaration, that a third gender marker should be recognised, that trans healthcare should be publicly accessible, and that discrimination based on gender identity should be illegal. The report also examined campaigns to reform legal gender recognition laws in those countries, arguing that the most successful techniques included targeting younger politicians and political parties' youth wings, emphasising the depathologisation and human rights aspects of reform, the use of individuals' stories to humanise the campaign, intervening early in the political process, and strong collaboration between groups. The report advises to "tie your campaign to a more popular reform" and continues: "This provided a veil of protection, particularly in Ireland, where marriage equality was strongly supported, but gender identity remained a more difficult issue to win public support for." The report recommends avoiding being in the news, as in Ireland where campaigners "directly lobbied individual politicians and tried to keep press coverage to a minimum".
Around the world
Africa
Although there is no current legislation on legal gender recognition in Botswana, in the 2017 ND v Attorney General of Botswana and Another case, the High Court of Botswana ruled that the government should "ensure that procedures exist whereby all State-issued identity documents which indicate a person’s gender/sex reflect the person’s self-identified gender identity."
The Americas
A 2018 study in BMC International Health and Human Rights found that "the majority of countries from South America allow their transgender citizens to change name and gender in legal documents with a fast, easy and inexpensive manner" and that "legislation to protect [sexual and gender minority] rights in South America have undergone fundamental and positive transformations" in the 2010s. However, the study also found that "transgender people are unable to change their gender in public records and legal documents in several Latin America and the Caribbean countries – mostly in the Caribbean and Mesoamerica." Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador and Uruguay have self-identification laws, as well as several Canadian provinces and Mexican and American states.
Argentina
In 2012, the Ley de Género made Argentina the "only country that allows people to change their gender identities without facing barriers such as hormone therapy, surgery or psychiatric diagnosis that labels them as having an abnormality". In 2015, the World Health Organization cited Argentina as an exemplary country for providing transgender rights.
A 2018 paper in the Journal of Human Rights analysing the factors that lead to the creation of the law found that "more institutionalized group played a major role in getting the issue on the agenda, while a more radical challenger coalition was crucial in developing and advancing the ground-breaking content."
Brazil
The Supreme Federal Court ruled on March 1, 2018, that a transgender person has the right to change their official name and sex without the need of surgery or professional evaluation, just by self-declaration of their psychosocial identity. On June 29, the Corregedoria Nacional de Justiça, a body of the National Justice Council published the rules to be followed by registry offices concerning the subject.
Canada
As Canada is a federation, legal gender recognition procedures vary from province to province. At the federal level, Canadians can apply to have the gender marker on their passports changed via self-identification.
In Québec, the legal recognition process has worked on an affidavit process since 2015. In 2021, however, the Coalition Avenir Québec government introduced Bill 2, which would re-introduce a requirement for surgical procedures. After that provision provoked heavy controversy, Québec Minister of Justice Simon Jolin-Barrette announced that he would be withdrawing that requirement from the bill.
In 2017, Newfoundland and Labrador abolished the medical letter requirement, moving a self-declaration process. In 2018, Alberta changed its legal gender recognition laws to allow people to self-declare their legal gender through an affidavit, eliminating the requirement for a letter from a psychiatrist. In 2019, Nova Scotia moved to an affidavit process, eliminating the medical letter requirement. In 2022, British Columbia eliminated the medical letter requirement for legal gender changes for adults.
There still remains barriers to legal gender recognition for people born outside of Canada. As of October 2021, half of the provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Ontario, and Saskatchewan), and all territories, do not offer anyone not born there the ability to change their legal gender. In November 2020, refugee claimants became able to change their legal gender federally. In March 2021, temporary residents were afforded the same right (without requiring a change to their passport).
Costa Rica
In 2016, a bill allowing transgender people to legally change their name and gender without the need for surgery or judicial permission was introduced to the Legislative Assembly. In June 2017, the bill advanced to the Human Rights Committee, and the Supreme Electoral Tribunal endorsed the bill, but it was ultimately unsuccessful.
Following a January 2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling and the 2018 Costa Rican general election, President Carlos Alvarado Quesada issued an executive decree requiring all state institutions to modify the documents and internal records of transgender people who wish to have their name, photograph or sex changed according to self-declaration. The decree applies to passports, driving licenses, ID documents, work permits, university identification, etc. In December 2018, Alvarado signed another executive order extending this right to immigrants.
Mexico
As Mexico is a federation, legal gender recognition procedures vary from state to state.
On 13 November 2014, the Legislative Assembly of Mexico City unanimously (46–0) approved a gender identity law. The law makes it easier for transgender people to change their legal gender. Under the new law, they simply have to notify the Civil Registry that they wish to change the gender information on their birth certificates. Sex reassignment surgery, psychological therapies or any other type of diagnosis are no longer required. The law took effect in early 2015. As of October 2020, 13 states have followed suit: Michoacán (2017), Nayarit (2017), Coahuila (2018), Hidalgo (2019), San Luis Potosí (2019), Colima (2019), Baja California (2019), Oaxaca (2019), Tlaxcala (2019), Chihuahua (2019), Sonora (2020), Jalisco (2020), Quintana Roo (2020), Puebla (2021), Baja California Sur (2021) and the State of Mexico (2021).
United States
As the United States is a federation, legal gender recognition laws vary from state to state. As of July 2021, 21 states (as well as the District of Columbia) allow the gender marker on drivers licences to be updated on a self-declaration basis and as of April 2020, 10 states allow the gender marker on birth certificates to be updated on a self-declaration basis. At the federal level, since June 2021, the gender marker on passports operates on a system of gender self-identification.
Since 2010, Arkansas has allowed change of gender on state IDs "as requested, no questions asked, no documentation required."
In 2017, the California state legislature passed California's Gender Recognition Act (SB 179), removing the requirements for a physician's statement and mandatory court hearing for gender change petitions, allowing change based on an affidavit. The Act also implemented a third, non-binary gender marker on California birth certificates, drivers' licenses, and identity cards.
Asia
India
In India, the Supreme Court affirmed the right to self-determination in two 2014 cases.
Nepal
In 2007, in the Sunil Babu Pant and Others v. Nepal Government court case on LGBT+ rights, the Supreme Court of Nepal legally established a gender category called "other". The Supreme Court stated that the criteria for identifying one's gender is based on the individual's self-identification. However, gender recognition laws in Nepal have since faced criticism, as they only allows gender markers to be changed from "M" (male) or "F" (female) to "O" (other). There are no provisions allowing transgender women to have an "F" marker or transgender men having an "M" marker.
Pakistan
Under the Transgender Person (Protection of Rights) Act 2018 (), Pakistanis may choose to self-identify as male, female, both or neither. They may express their gender according to their own preferences, and they may have their gender identity of choice reflected on their documents, "including National Identification Cards, passports, driver's licenses and education certificates."
Europe
In 2014, Amnesty International stated that "many transgender people in Europe continue to struggle to have their gender legally recognised" and that trans people "should be able to obtain legal gender recognition through quick, accessible and transparent procedures and in accordance with their own perceptions of gender identity." Ireland introduced self-identification in 2015, and France in 2016. Denmark has self-identification, and requires a six-month "reflection period" before the change of gender can be formalised. Greece, Iceland, Luxembourg, Malta, Norway and Portugal also have self-identification.
Belgium
In 2017, the Belgian federal parliament passed a law allowing people to change their legal gender via statutory declaration, without any medical intervention being required. To do so, a person must first sign a statutory declaration in front of a civil officer and then wait three months before second statutory declaration confirming the change.
Cyprus
In 2019, a bill was drafted to allow transgender people to change their legal sex. The legislation would allow transgender people over 18 to right to change their legal gender on the basis of self-determination, without a diagnosis, hormonal treatment or sex reassignment surgery. As of October 2021, the bill was still under draft status.
Germany
In June 2021, Germany's parliament voted down two self-identification bills. One of the bills also permitted sex reassignment surgery on children starting at age 14 regardless of parental objection and would have introduced a fine of €2,500 for misgendering. Following the 2021 German federal election, the new government, a traffic light coalition led by the Social Democratic Party and with the Free Democratic Party and The Greens, announced plans to introduce legal gender recognition via self-declaration as part of the coalition agreement.
Ireland
On 15 July 2015, the Oireachtas passed the Gender Recognition Act of 2015 which permits an Irish citizen to change his or her gender on government documents through self-determination. The law does not require any medical intervention by the applicant nor an assessment by the state. Such changes are possible through self-determination for any person aged 18 or over who is ordinarily resident in Ireland and/or registered on Irish registers of birth or adoption. Persons aged 16 to 18 years must secure a court order to exempt them from the normal requirement to be at least 18.
In late-January 2018, over 1000 Irish feminists, including several groups such as the University College Dublin Centre of Gender, Feminisms & Sexualities, signed an open letter condemning a planned meeting in Ireland on UK Gender Recognition Act reforms organised by a British group opposing the reforms. The letter stated that "Trans people and particularly trans women are an inextricable part of our feminist community" and accused the British group of colonialism.
Nordic countries
In June 2014, the Danish Parliament voted 59–52 to remove the requirement of a mental disorder diagnosis and surgery with irreversible sterilization during the process of a legal sex change. Since 1 September 2014, Danes over 18 years of age who wish to apply for a legal sex change can do so by stating that they want to change their documentation, followed by a six-month-long "reflection period" to confirm the request.
On 18 March 2016, the Solberg Government in Norway introduced a bill to allow legal gender changes without any form of psychiatric or psychological evaluation, diagnosis or any kind of medical intervention, by people aged at least 16. Minors aged between 6 and 16 may transition with parental consent. The bill was approved by a vote of 79–13 by Parliament on 6 June. It was promulgated on 17 June and took effect on 1 July 2016.
In 2019, Icelandic Prime Minister Katrín Jakobsdóttir proposed a bill to introduce gender recognition via statutory declaration in the country. The bill was passed by the Althing by a vote of 45–0, with three abstentions.
In 2015, the Löfven Government in Sweden introduced a bill allowing legal gender change without any form of psychiatric or psychological evaluation as well as removing the requirement of a diagnosis or any kind of medical intervention. However, the proposals than stagnated in early draft form for several years. In November 2021, the Swedish governemnt announced that it had prepared a new draft bill that would implement self-determination by 2024. The Green Party said that they would vote in favour of the bill, while the Centre Party, Left Party, and Liberals expressed support for the bill. The Sweden Democrats said they would oppose the bill, while the Moderate Party and the Christian Democrats said they would wait until the bill was formally tabled in Parliament to decide their position. A 2021 study by Sifo and commissioned by RFSL found that 61% of Swedes supported moving to a system of self-declaration, with 71% of women and 51% of men in support of the change.
A more recent poll by Fokus Novus however, showed a low support for selfID in Sweden. Only 15% of respondents were positive and among the most critical were parents of minors still living at home.
In 2021, a citizen's initiative to change the law on legal gender recognition in Finland to a basis of self-determination received 50,000 signatures and was referred to the Finnish Parliament's Committee on Social Affairs and Health. Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin had previously expressed support for moving to a self-determination system.
Portugal
In May 2016, the Left Bloc introduced a bill to allow legal gender change solely based on self-determination. Similar bills were introduced by the People–Animals–Nature party and the Costa Government in November 2016 and May 2017, respectively. They were merged into one measure by a parliamentary committee and subsequently approved by the Parliament on 13 April 2018. However, President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa vetoed the bill. Later in 2018, the Parliament adopted the bill with changes with regards to sex changes by minors aged 16 and 17, suggested by the President in his veto message. This time around, the President signed the bill on 31 July. It was published in the official journal on 7 August 2018 and took effect the following day.
Spain
In Spain, a draft bill for gender self-identification was moving forward, as a part of a political agreement between the Socialist Party and its junior coalition partner . It sets a minimum age of 14, though those 14 through 16 need parental approval. A previous bill giving children total freedom of legal gender recognition had been rejected in May. LGBTQ+ campaigners criticized the new bill for having age limits and for not having provision for non-Spanish residents and non-binary identities. A collective of about 50 feminist groups opposed the bill, concerned about "protection of the specific rights against gender-based oppression".
Switzerland
In May 2018, the Federal Council proposed amending Swiss legislation to allow transgender individuals to change their registered gender and first name(s) without "red tape", simply by making a declaration to civil status registry officials. In late 2020, the bill was passed by the Swiss Parliament, with all individuals over the age 16 allowed legal gender recognition via self-declaration from 1 January 2022.
United Kingdom
In Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland), the Equality Act 2010 effectively provides self-identification for day-to-day purposes under the protected characteristic of "gender re-assignment," which includes "any stage in the transition process – from proposing to reassign your gender, to undergoing a process to reassign your gender, or having completed it," but allows providers of sex-segregated services to deny access to transgender people on a case-by-case basis of "a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim".
In 2016, the House of Commons' Women and Equalities Committee issued a report recommending that the Gender Recognition Act 2004 be updated "in line with the principles of gender self-declaration". Later in 2016, in England and Wales, a proposal was developed under Theresa May's government to revise the Act to introduce self-identification, but it was dropped in 2020 after opposition. Instead, Boris Johnson's government reduced the cost of application to £5, and the procedure to apply was moved online.
In 2018, a YouGov poll for PinkNews of 1688 people across the United Kingdom found that 18% favoured self-identification, 58% said medical approval was needed, with the remainder undecided.
A 2018 government consultation received 102,833 submissions from the public; of these, 39% were submitted via an online form set up by equality charity Stonewall, 7% via a form set up by feminist organisation Level Up, and 18% from a form set up by women's campaign group Fair Play for Women. Out of these submissions, 64% said that there should not be a requirement for a diagnosis of gender dysphoria, 80% were in favour of removing the requirement for a medical report, and 77% were in favour of removing the requirement for people to evidence living "in their acquired gender for a period of time".
In 2020, Human Rights Watch called for the British government to "uphold the United Kingdom’s human rights obligations by reforming the Gender Recognition Act (GRA) to allow for self-identification and recognition of transgender and non-binary people."
In March 2021, the Welsh government's Independent LGBTQ+ Expert Panel called for the British government to reform the Act "in accordance with the principle of self-determination." Later in 2021, the Welsh government called for "devolution of as many aspects as possible of the Gender Recognition Act." In Scotland, where legal gender recognition is devolved, the government was moving forward with self-identification legislation that would also reduce the minimum age for applicants from 18 to 16.
In 2021, a Survation poll for policy analysts Murray Blackburn Mackenzie of 1028 people in Scotland found that 27% favoured self-identification, 53% said medical approval was needed, and the remaining 20% were undecided.
In December 2021, a Panelbase poll for group For Women Scotland of 1041 adults in Scotland found that 29% support self-identification, as proposed by the Scottish government, while 71% oppose.
Oceania
In New Zealand, gender markers on passports and drivers licences have worked on a self-declaration basis since 2012. In November 2017, the New Zealand Parliament introduced the Births, Deaths, Marriages, and Relationships Registration Bill to allow people to change the sex on their birth certificates on a self-declaration basis as well. The bill passed its first reading in December 2017 and passed its second reading in August 2021. The bill was unanimously approved by Parliament on its third reading and will come into effect in 2023. The Human Rights Commission has supported the bill, stating that it would "ultimately help reduce discrimination." The bill has also been supported by the Māori Women's Welfare League and the National Council of Women of New Zealand.
In Australia, Tasmania implemented self-declaration in 2019. In 2020, the Tasmania Law Reform Institute completed an investigation of the law's impact that "uncovered no evidence that allowing people to change their officially recorded gender would have any unforeseen legal consequences." Later in 2019, the Parliament of Victoria introduced a law that abolished the sex reassignment surgery requirement for legal gender change and allows applicants to self-nominate the sex listed on their birth registration as male, female, or any other gender diverse or non-binary descriptor of their choice.
Academic research
A 2019 paper in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health said that several studies have found that legal gender recognition frameworks based on pathologization can have negative effects on transgender and intersex individuals. A 2018 study in BMC International Health and Human Rights said that "in most countries where transgender people are refused legal recognition of their gender identity, this might lead to further human rights violations, impacting their access to education, employment, healthcare, social security, and legal protection" and that "many countries that do permit the modification of gender markers on identity documents impose abusive requirements, such as forced or otherwise involuntary surgery, medical diagnosis, long, costly and complicated judicial procedures." A 2017 study in Critical Social Policy said that "legal requirements based upon trans-related diagnoses pose a risk of reintroducing surgical and hormonal practices through the back door. Moreover, these diagnoses act as gatekeeper to other healthcare services and citizenship rights." Sex/gender self-determination is now in international public consciousness due to numerous media commentaries, governmental debates and the corresponding and relatively fast-paced shifts in legal and policy constructions regarding trans, sex/gender expansive, and intersex people in law and medicine
A 2020 study from the University of Bristol found that "being able to change gender legally without having to rely on medical diagnosis and treatment would make older age a much more positive experience for many trans individuals seeking to transition in later life." A 2021 study in Labour Economics found that removal of surgical requirements for legal gender recognition "is associated with an increase in the employment rate of FtM transgender people of around 9 to 20%."
Several researchers have also found that self-identification laws will not necessarily address all issues faced by trans people by themselves, especially if such laws restrict legal gender to a binary or are not accompanied by other reforms, such as in healthcare. A 2018 article from Chris Dietz of the University of Leeds on the legal gender recognition system in Denmark found that "recognition may be practically inaccessible in the absence of corresponding health care provision" and that "positivity around the law was mitigated by contemporaneous reforms taking place in the Danish health care system" which had the effect of certifying "a de facto monopoly for authorising [trans healthcare] treatments at the Sexological Clinic (Sexologisk Klinik) of the National Hospital (Rigshospitalet) in Copenhagen".
Research has also found that legal gender recognition laws based on self-declaration do not necessarily, by themselves, guarantee access to proper identity documentation. A 2014 study on the Argentinian law found that "uptake of this right has not been homogenous," in particular that "foreign born status was a strong negative correlate of new ID acquisition," on top of other challenges faced by immigrants in the country. A 2021 paper in the Journal of Human Rights said that "trans activists in India argue that many authorities claim ignorance of the process, denying and rejecting transgender persons’ applications for identity documents with the justification that they do not know the procedures around providing IDs to persons of 'their gender.'"
A 2020 paper in the Modern Law Review about the proposed reforms to the UK's Gender Recognition act argued that the reforms would not erode the existing exemptions in the 2010 Equality Act permitting a reliance on sex instead of gender identity, and that, based on existing research, they would "not lead to a significant increase in harms to non-trans women." A 2017 paper from Peter Dunne of Trinity College Dublin said that "there is also little (if any) support for the idea that trans protections facilitate cisgender predators who feign a trans identity to perpetrate assaults in women-only space. In reality, concerns over the supposed threat of trans identities often reveal lingering anti-trans prejudice, reproducing historic tropes about the ‘deviant’, ‘deceptive’ or ‘unstable’ trans individual." A 2018 study, from the Williams Institute in the United States, found that passing non-discrimination laws based on self-declared gender identity "is not related to the number or frequency of criminal incidents" in public spaces such as toilets and changing rooms and that "fears of increased safety and privacy violations as a result of nondiscrimination laws are not empirically grounded."
See also
Feminist views on transgender topics
Legal status of transgender people
Transgender people in sports
References
Feminism and transgender
Gender and society
Transgender rights
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The following outline is provided as an overview of canoeing and kayaking:
Canoeing – recreational boating activity or paddle sport in which you kneel or sit facing forward in an open or closed-decked canoe, and propel yourself with a single-bladed paddle, under your own power.
Kayaking – use of a kayak for moving across water. It is distinguished from canoeing by the sitting position of the paddler and the number of blades on the paddle. A kayak is a boat where the paddler faces forward, legs in front, using a double-bladed paddle. Most kayaks have closed decks.
What type of things are canoeing and kayaking?
Exercise – bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health or wellness.
Aerobic exercise – physical exercise that intends to improve the oxygen system. Aerobic means "with oxygen", and refers to the use of oxygen in the body's energy-generating process (the citric acid cycle).
Recreation – activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time.
Outdoor recreation –
Sport – organized, competitive, entertaining, and skillful physical activity requiring commitment, strategy, and fair play, in which a winner can be defined by objective means.
Extreme Sport - Extreme sports is a popular term for certain activities perceived as having a high level of inherent danger. These activities often involve speed, height, a high level of physical exertion, and highly specialized gear.
Transport – movement of people and goods from one location to another.
Boating – travel or transport by boat; or the recreational use of a boat (whether powerboats, sailboats, or man-powered vessels such as rowing and paddle boats) focused on the travel itself or on sports activities, such as fishing.
Watercraft paddling – act of manually propelling and steering a small boat in the water using a blade that is joined to a shaft, known as a paddle. Not to be confused with watercraft rowing.
Travel – movement of people between relatively distant geographical locations for any purpose and any duration, with or without any additional means of transport.
Tourism – travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes.
Canoeing and kayaking disciplines
Some of the many popular uses of canoes and kayaks include:
Canoe camping – is a combination of canoeing and camping, similar to backpacking but canoe campers travel by canoes or kayaks
Canoe sprint – competitive form of canoeing and kayaking on more or less flat water
Canoe marathon – paddling a canoe or kayak over a long distance to the finish line.
Canoe polo – competitive ball sport played on water in a defined "field" between two teams of 5 players, each in a kayak
Canoe sailing – involves fitting a Polynesian outrigger or touring canoe with sails
Canoe slalom – competitive sport where the aim is to navigate a canoe or kayak through a course of hanging gates on rapids in the fastest time
Canoe and kayak diving – a type of recreational diving where the divers paddle to a diving site in a canoe or kayak carrying all their gear to the place they want to dive
Extreme racing – paddling a kayak down a section of hard whitewater requiring excellent boat handling skills. The rivers are typically class V and involve waterfalls and dangerous rapids. Races may involve mass-starts or individual timed runs
Kayak fishing – fishing from a kayak
Outrigger canoeing – sport in which an outrigger canoe (vaʻa, waʻa, and waka ama in Tahitian, Hawaiian, and Māori languages, respectively) is propelled by paddles
Playboating – discipline of whitewater canoeing and kayaking where the paddler performs various technical moves in one place (a playspot)
Snowkayaking – a winter sport practised by kayaker where the track for the athletes consists of ski tracks in the mountains
Surf kayaking – the sport of surfing ocean waves with kayaks
Squirt boating – a form of whitewater canoeing and kayaking where the boat is designed to be as low in volume as possible
Whitewater canoeing and Whitewater kayaking – sport of paddling respectively a canoe or kayak on a moving body of water, typically river rapids. The term usually applies to a whole trip or run, which has at least some stretches of whitewater included
Wildwater canoeing – a competitive sport in which canoes and kayaks are used to negotiate a stretch of river speedily
Canoeing and kayaking equipment
Canoes and kayaks
Canoe (North American English) or "Canadian canoe" (British English) – small boat, pointed at both ends, propelled by paddlers who kneel or sit on a raised seat and use paddles which usually have a blade at one end only. A touring canoe is normally used by two people. A canoe is usually open on top, but can be decked over (i.e. covered, similar to a kayak). A canoe is typically human-powered, though it may also be powered by poling, sails, or a small electric or gas motor. Paddles may be single-bladed or double-bladed.
Kayak – slim boat, normally pointed at both ends, and usually propelled by one kayaker who sits in a low seat and uses paddles with a blade at each end. Kayaks usually have a covered deck, with a cockpit covered by a spray deck to keep the inside of the boat (and the paddler's lower body) dry.
Differences between a canoe and a kayak
Number of blades on the paddle: The easiest way to distinguish between a kayak and a canoe is the number of blades on the paddle. A canoe paddle usually has a single blade on one end, while a kayak paddle is bladed at both ends.
Sitting position: In a canoe the paddler either kneels on the bottom of the boat or sits on a raised seat. In a kayak the paddler sits on a low seat with their legs extended in front of the body.
Scope of the name: In some parts of the world, such as the United Kingdom, kayaks are considered a subtype of canoes. Continental European and British canoeing clubs and associations of the 19th Century used craft similar to kayaks, but referred to them as canoes and canoes were then called "Canadian canoes". This explains the naming of the International and National Governing bodies of the sport of Canoeing.
Modern designs
Materials used in modern designs – modern kayaks are usually made from Rotationally Molded Plastic (Rotomold), Fiberglass or Kevlar, each of which has advantages and disadvantages.
Rotomold – very durable and ideal for kayaking over rocks; it is the most widely used material and the cheapest.
Fiberglass – lighter, but requires much more careful handling and is more costly to produce.
Kevlar – lighter and stronger than fiberglass (it is the same material used in bulletproof vests) but more expensive.
Royalex – many whitewater canoes are now made using this composite material which has an outer layer of vinyl and ABS with an inner layer of ABS foam, bonded by heat treatment.
Modern canoe/kayak designs – in general, each of the activities mentioned above requires a type of boat specifically designed for that activity.
Concrete canoe – canoe made of concrete, typically created for an engineering competition similar in spirit to that of a cardboard boat race–make the seemingly unfloatable float.
Fishing kayak – kayak equipped with after-market accessories such as anchor trolleys, rod holders, electronic fish-finders and live-bait containers for fishing
Flyak – hydrofoil adaptation to the conventional kayak. It uses twin hydrofoils designed to raise the hull out of the water to increase the speed. Speeds of up to 27.2 km/h (7.6 m·s−1, 16.9 mph) can be achieved on calm water.
Folding kayak – kayak with collapsible frame made of some combination of wood, aluminium and plastic, and a skin made of a tough fabric with a waterproof coating
Inflatable kayak – portable low cost kayak of inflatable polythene
International Canoe – a high performance sailing canoe with a planing hull, mainsail and a jib
Malia (Hawaiian canoe) – a Hawaiian-style wooden racing canoe
Recreational kayak – kayak designed for the casual paddler interested in recreational activities on lakes or flatwater
Sea kayak – a kayak developed for the sport of paddling on open waters of lakes, bays and the ocean
Surf kayak - a boat with a surfboard-shaped hull and tail fins, for riding ocean waves and green, non-breaking river waves.
Sit-on-top kayak – enclosed kayak which is virtually unsinkable, designed for the paddler to sit on top, but which does not keep the paddler warm and dry.
Sprint canoe – special type of canoe designed for the sport of flatwater canoe racing; it is slim, is paddled while kneeling on one knee, and the paddler does not switch sides.
Whitewater kayak/canoe - most designs are easily converted from kayak (K-1) to canoe (C-1) by changing the seat. The kayak outfitting is the most common.
Creek Boat - a medium-length, high-volume boat with blunt ends, specialized for steep creeks and waterfalls, for whitewater up to class 6.
River Runner - a longer, faster, high-volume boat, specialized for class 3 rapids and flatwater sections between rapids.
Slalom - the fastest possible low-volume design in a 3.5-meter-length maneuvering race boat.
Freestyle Playboat - the shortest possible, wide, planing-hull (flat-bottomed) boat for surfing and aerial tricks on standing waves and in hydraulic holes. Competitions are scored for difficulty of maneuver.
Squirt boat - a long, extremely low-volume boat designed to sink below the surface in eddy lines.
Wildwater race boat - the longest, fastest boat for downriver whitewater racing, very difficult to maneuver.
Traditional designs
Traditional design features
Materials used in traditional designs
Wooden frame – traditional kayaks and canoes are usually built from a wooden frame, usually western red cedar.
Cover – the frames of traditional kayaks and canoes are usually covered with specially treated hide or waterproof material.
Traditional canoe/kayak designs – most traditional designs are based on centuries of experience of fishing and seal hunting but can be expensive, as they are often hand built to specific requirements.
Aleutian kayak – made by the people of the Aleutian Islands primarily from driftwood covered with the seal skins
Baidarka – name sometimes used for Aleutian style sea kayak originating from early Russian settlers in Alaska
Cayuco – a wooden canoe carved made from the hollowed out trunk of a tree used mainly in South America
Chundan Vallam – (Beaked Boat) also known as Kerala snake boats used in boat races
Outrigger canoe – canoe with one or more lateral support floats known as outriggers fastened to one or both sides of the main hull
Sturgeon-nosed canoe – designed with a reversed prow for use through bulrushes and maneuverability in turbulent waters
Taimen – type of folding kayak popular in Russia
Umiak – Eskimo canoe made from driftwood frames pegged and lashed together with covering of walrus or seal skin
Waka – Māori canoes ranging from small (waka tīwai) used for fishing and river travel to large decorated war canoes (waka taua) up to 40 metres (130 ft) long
War canoe – originally derived from large canoes intended for war, 'war canoes' are now used for racing in Canada
Other canoeing and kayaking equipment
Albano buoy system – a way of marking out kayak, canoe and rowing race courses using lines of buoys
Buoyancy aid – a specialist form of personal flotation device (PFD) used most commonly by kayakers and canoeists
Outrigger – a solid hull used to stabilise a canoe and positioned rigidly and parallel to the main hull so that it is less likely to capsize, and to resist heel when sailing.
Paddle – used in kayaks and canoes for propulsion and made of plastic, wood, fiberglass, carbon fiber or metal. Paddles for use in kayaks are longer, with a blade on each end and are handled from the middle of the shaft
Paddle float – buoyance aid fitted to paddle used for re-entry into a kayak after a capsize in open water. It may also be used for practice kayak rolling
Paddle leash – used for securing a paddle especially on solo tours where a paddle may drift away through wind or waves and be lost
Sea sock – a large waterproof bag placed inside the kayak and attached tightly all around the rim of the cockpit so that the paddler can sit inside and prevent the kayak filling with water during a capsize
Spray deck – flexible cover for a kayak or a canoe used in whitewater or inclement weather to prevent water from entering the boat while paddling
Tuilik – a traditional Greenland paddling jacket and spray deck integrated into one piece of clothing, sealed at the face, wrists and around the cockpit coaming
Canoeing and kayaking techniques
Eskimo Rescue – manoeuvre performed to recover from a capsize, while grasping another kayak.
Kayak roll – act of righting a capsized kayak by use of body motion and/or a paddle.
Portage – carrying watercraft or cargo over land to avoid river obstacles, or to get to another body of water.
Canoeing and kayaking locations
Whitewater – water thrashed around and aerated by the turbulence of a fast enough rapid that some of it turns frothy white.
Playspot – place where there are favorable stationary features on rivers, in particular standing waves (which may be breaking or partially breaking), 'holes' and 'stoppers', where water flows back on itself creating a retentive feature (these are often formed at the bottom of small drops or weirs), or eddy lines (the boundary between slow moving water at the rivers' edge, and faster water).
Rapids – fast flowing section of a river.
Artificial whitewater courses – special sites usually for competition or commercial use where water is diverted or pumped over a concrete watercourse to simulate a range of different water situations that can be controlled consistently
Whitewater rivers – rivers with one or more stretches of whitewater rapids.
Specific venues
Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness – wilderness area within the Superior National Forest in northeastern Minnesota (USA) under the administration of the U.S. Forest Service. The BWCAW is renowned as a destination for both canoeing and fishing on its many lakes and is the most visited wilderness in the United States.
Cardiff International White Water – Olympic standard white water rafting centre based at the Cardiff International Sports Village in Cardiff Bay. The centre offers on-demand white water rafting and canoeing and a flat-water pond for warm-up and initial training.
Canolfan Tryweryn – National White Water Centre for Wales, and is based near Bala in North Wales. It developed the first commercial white water rafting operation in the UK in 1986, and since then has grown to become the largest and most well-respected rafting organisation in the UK.
Cardington Artificial Slalom Course – first artificial whitewater canoe slalom course in the UK when it was completed in July 1982, having been first discussed in 1972.
River Dart – a river in Devon, England which rises high on Dartmoor, and releases to the sea at Dartmouth. The upper reaches of Dartmoor, especially those on the Dart, are a focal point for whitewater kayakers and canoeists. Sections of the river include:
Upper Dart – from Dartmeet to Newbridge (Grade 3/4 (higher in high water), advanced run).
The Loop – from Newbridge to Holne Bridge (Grade 2/3, beginner/intermediate run).
The Lower – from Holne Bridge to Buckfastleigh (Grade 2, beginner section).
Dickerson Whitewater Course – built on the Potomac River near Dickerson Maryland for use by canoe and kayak paddlers training for the 1992 Olympic Games in Spain. It was the first pump-powered artificial whitewater course built in North America, and is still the only one (as of June 2015) anywhere with heated water.
Dorney Lake – purpose-built rowing lake in England, privately owned by Eton College. It is near the village of Dorney, Buckinghamshire, and is 2.2 kilometres (1.4 miles) long.
Dutch Water Dreams – Olympic artificial whitewater and surfing centre, near Zoetermeer in The Netherlands. It is the only course of its kind in the country.
Eiskanal – artificial whitewater river in Augsburg, Germany, constructed as the canoe slalom venue for the 1972 Summer Olympics in nearby Munich.
Hawaii-sur-Rhone – freestyle kayaking venue and natural standing wave on the River Rhône.
Helliniko Olympic Canoe/Kayak Slalom Centre – located in the Hellinicon Olympic Complex in Greece, it includes a competition course, secondary training course, and a warm-up lake of natural form, that occupies a total area of 27,000 square metres. It hosted the canoe slalom events for the 2004 Summer Olympics.
Holme Pierrepont National Watersports Centre – a focal point for English whitewater rafting and kayaking, often holding international events for slalom, freestyle and wild water racing. The whitewater course is located between the weir on the canalised River Trent and the regatta lake.
Idroscalo –
Kanupark Markkleeberg –
Lee Valley White Water Centre –
Millrace Rapids –
Nene Whitewater Centre –
Northern Forest Canoe Trail – a 740-mile (1,190 km) wilderness canoe trail located in the northeastern United States and Canada, stretching from Old Forge, New York to Fort Kent, Maine. It is a long-distance trail often completed in sections rather than "through-paddles". Sights on the trail include the Adirondack Mountains.
Ocoee Whitewater Center – the venue of the 1996 Summer Olympics canoe slalom competition and the only in-river Olympic slalom course. The 1,640-foot (500 m) course is watered on weekends throughout the summer season and used by guided rafts and private boaters.
Ohio River Trail –
Parc Olímpic del Segre –
Penrith Whitewater Stadium –
Račice, Czech Republic –
Rutherford Creek –
Saint Regis Canoe Area –
Shunyi Olympic Rowing-Canoeing Park –
South Bend –, Indiana
Stanley whitewater canoeing course –
Symonds Yat Rapids –
Tacen Whitewater Course –
Teesside White Water Course –
Texas Water Safari –
River Thames – very popular river for kayakers and canoeists, and home to several canoe clubs, including the Royal Canoe Club (oldest canoe club in the world).
Hurley Lock – lock and weir on the River Thames in England, situated in a clump of wooded islands close to the village of Hurley, Berkshire.
Boulter's Lock – lock and weir on the Thames River in England. A canoe/kayak flume is installed annually on the weir during the summer and there is a permanent fixed ramp in front of the third of the weir's six gates.
Tour de Gudenå –
U.S. National Whitewater Center –
Upper Dart –
Water Sports Centre Čunovo –
Welland International Flatwater Centre-
Wisconsin River –
Wolf River (Tennessee) –
Canoeing and kayaking competitions
Canoeing and kayaking at the Summer Olympics
Canoeing at the Asian Games – events contested at every Asian Games since 1990 Asian Games in Beijing
Adirondack Canoe Classic – also known as the 90-miler, is a three-day, 90-mile (140 km) canoe race from Old Forge to Saranac Lake in the Adirondacks of New York, USA
Backwaters Paddle Quest – a canoe-based sprint held annually in Stevens Point, WI on the Wisconsin River
Breede River Canoe Marathon – an annual South African K2 (doubles) race down the Breede River from Robertson to Swellendam in the Western Cape over a distance of 75 km
Berg River Canoe Marathon – takes place annually in South Africa's Western Cape Province over a distance of some 240 km from Paarl to the small harbour of Velddrif on the West Coast
Devizes to Westminster International Canoe Marathon – a marathon canoe race in England held every Easter over a course of 125 miles (201 kilometres) from Devizes in Wiltshire to Westminster in central London.
Dusi Canoe Marathon – a canoe (or rather, kayak) race between Pietermaritzburg and Durban, South Africa, run along the Msunduzi River (commonly referred to as the Dusi or Duzi)
Fish River Canoe Marathon – a two-day event taking place every October on South Africa's Fish River in the Eastern Cape Province over a distance of some 81 km
ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships & ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships – two international events in canoeing organised by the International Canoe Federation
Texas Water Safari – a trek down waterways from San Marcos, Texas, to Seadrift, Texas
History of canoeing and kayaking
History of canoeing
History of the canoe
History of the outrigger canoe
History of canoe camping
History of canoe polo
History of kayaking
History of the kayak
History of the folding kayak
History of the sea kayak
History of kayak fishing
History of whitewater kayaking
Canoeing and kayaking organisations
Royal Canoe Club - founded in 1866, the oldest canoe club in the world
International Canoe Federation – (ICF) the umbrella organization of all national canoe organizations worldwide and administers all aspects of canoe sport.
American Canoe Association – (ACA) is the largest paddle sports organization in the US.
American Whitewater - (AWA) the primary advocate for the preservation and protection of whitewater resources throughout the United States.
USACK – the USA Canoe and Kayak National Governing Body for the Olympic sports of Flatwater Sprint and Whitewater Slalom.
British Canoe Union – (BCU) the National Governing Body for the sport of canoeing and kayaking in the UK
Canoe Wales – the national governing body for paddle sport in Wales
Canoe England - the national governing body to support the development of canoeing in England
Scottish Canoe Association – (SCA) the governing body for canoeing and kayaking in Scotland.
Canoe Association of Northern Ireland - (CANI) the governing body for canoeing and kayaking in Northern Ireland
Canadian Canoe Association – governing body of competitive canoeing and kayaking disciplines in Canada.
Canoeing and kayaking museums
Canadian Canoe Museum - Peterborough, Ontario
Wisconsin Canoe Heritage Museum - Spooner, Wisconsin
Notable canoeists and kayakers
Voyagers and adventurers
Paul Caffyn – New Zealand sea kayaker has completed a number of supported, unsupported, solo and group expeditions by sea kayak in various locations around the world
Aleksander Doba – Polish kayaker notable for Atlantic Crossings
Chris Duff – American expedition sea kayaker notable for his large-scale projects and world-record breaking attempts. Since 1983, he has kayaked over 14,000 miles.
Nigel Foster – first and youngest paddler to circumnavigate Iceland 1977, first solo crossing of Hudson Strait from Baffin Island to Northern Labrador 1981
Freya Hoffmeister – German woman who holds several sea kayaking endurance records and in 2009 was the first woman to complete a circumnavigation of Australia solo and unassisted,
Hannes Lindemann – German Doctor notable for several Atlantic crossings, mainly for Sea Survival research.
John MacGregor - Scottish explorer, travel writer and philanthropist. Popularising canoeing as a sport in the late 19th century
Andrew McAuley – was an Australian adventurer best known for sea kayaking in remote parts of the world who is presumed to have died following his disappearance at sea while attempting to kayak 1600 km across the Tasman Sea in February 2007
Alex Prostko – American whitewater kayaker who made the first legal descent of Section I of the Chattooga River in over 30 years.
Helen Skelton – kayaked the entire length of the River Amazon for Sport Relief in 2010
Oskar Speck – was a German canoeist who paddled by folding kayak from Germany to Australia over the period 1932–1939
Olympic medalists
Canadian
Frank Amyot – Canadian Olympic gold medalist
Caroline Brunet – Canadian Olympic silver and bronze medalist
Larry Cain – Canadian Olympic gold and silver medalist
David Ford – Canadian Olympic slalom canoeist who has competed since the early 1990s
Hugh Fisher – Canadian Olympic gold and bronze medalist
Steve Giles – Canadian Olympic bronze medalist
Thomas Hall – Canadian Olympic bronze medalist
Sue Holloway – Canadian Olympic silver and bronze medalist
Adam van Koeverden – Canadian Olympic gold, silver and bronze medalist
Alwyn Morris – Canadian Olympic gold and bronze medalist
German
Birgit Fischer – German kayaker who has won eight gold medals over six different Olympic Games
Other
Gábor Horváth – Hungarian sprint canoer who competed in three Summer Olympics
Eric Jackson – world-champion freestyle kayaker and kayak designer
Jan Johansen – Norwegian sprint canoer who won a gold medal at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico
György Kolonics – Hungarian sprint canoer who won four Olympic medals in Canadian and record 29 ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships in Canadian discipline.
Aneta Konieczna – Polish sprint canoer who won three Olympic medals in the K-2 500 m event with one silver (2008 and two bronzes (2000, 2004)
Katalin Kovács – Hungarian sprint canoer. Winner of six Olympic medals and a record-tying (with Birgit Fischer) 38 ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medals.
Carlos Pérez – Galician sprint canoer who a gold medal in the Beijing Olympics in 2008
Anna Wood – Dutch-born Australian sprint canoer who competed from the early 1980s to the early 2000s in four Summer Olympics and won two bronze medals
Clay Wright – professional whitewater kayaker and kayak designer
ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists
List of ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in men's Canadian
List of ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in men's kayak
List of ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in women's kayak
List of ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in paracanoe
References
External links
The Ultimate Kayaking Guide
Canoekayak magazine
International Canoe Federation The International federation of kayak and canoe bodies
About.com Paddling -Technique, Safety, Photos, and Gear Reviews
KayakPaddling.net Animated kayak paddling tutorials – multilingual
The Canadian Museum of Civilization – Native Watercraft in Canada
British Canoe Union The National Governing Body of Kayaking in the UK
USA Canoe and Kayak The National Governing Body of Kayaking in the US
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Canoeing and kayaking
Canoeing and kayaking
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Notre Dame Stadium is an outdoor football stadium in Notre Dame, Indiana, the home field of the University of Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team.
It was built in 1930 under the guidance of Knute Rockne, regarded as one of the greatest coaches in college football history, which gave rise to the stadium's nickname "The House that Rockne Built". Prior to the stadium's construction, the Fighting Irish played in Cartier Field. The stadium seating capacity was nearly 60,000 for decades, until a major renovation between 1994 and 1997 added an upper bowl and more than 20,000 additional seats, which increased the capacity to over 80,000. In 2014, the Campus Crossroads renovation decreased the seats to 77,622. The stadium has sold out regularly for home games since 1964.
It is one of the oldest, most recognizable and iconic venues in college football. It is also famous for its view of the "Touchdown Jesus" mural. The playing surface was changed to artificial turf in 2014, after 84 seasons on natural grass. The playing field has a conventional north–south alignment at an approximate elevation of above sea level.
In 2014 the $400 million Campus Crossroads expansion renovated the structure and added three buildings onto the stadium: the Duncan Student Center, which hosts student recreational and dining facilities, O'Neill Hall, which houses the university's music department, and Corbett Family Hall, which hosts the psychology and anthropology departments. In addition, the three buildings house premium stadium seating, press boxes, and event spaces.
The stadium also hosts the university's commencement, and has also been the venue for a concert, the 2019 NHL Winter Classic, and hockey, soccer, and rugby matches.
History
Construction
The stadium was built in 1930 to replace the outdated Cartier Field. The construction of the stadium project was brought to a head by the actions of Rockne. season had not been a stellar one but the net profits for that football season approached $500,000. Rockne was frustrated with the slow and cautious Holy Cross priests and their decision making process about spending money on the new stadium. He could not believe that a decision could not be made when there was such a large amount of money in the bank. Because of this and a number of other issues, Rockne submitted his resignation to Father O’Donnell, the president of the university. O’Donnell knew of Rockne's history of submitting his resignations and he also suspected that nothing would fully satisfy Rockne.
O’Donnell was willing to find a compromise but was also unwilling to put the university in debt to finance the stadium. He knew that the excess receipts from 1928 season and the projected receipts from playing all the away games in 1929 on neutral fields would bring adequate cash into the university to finance the construction of the stadium. O’Donnell also devised the scheme to finance 240 six-person “reserved box seats”. This precursor of the personal seat license would allow the buyer to purchase tickets at face value and guarantee the same prime location for ten years for an investment of $3,000 between the 45-yard lines, $2,500 between the 45 and 35-yard line and $2,000 between the 35 and the 25-yard line. The university raised over $150,000 on this idea alone.
The total cost of construction exceeded $750,000 and the original seating capacity was 54,000. Head coach Knute Rockne played a key role in its design, keeping the space between the playing field and the stands to a minimum. It is patterned, on a smaller scale, after Michigan Stadium, the main difference being the tunnel location. In 1929, plans were started by Osborn Engineering of Cleveland, selected for their experience in designing Yankee Stadium and Fenway Park. Sollitt Construction Company of South Bend was the general contractor, and earth preparation began in the fall of 1929. Due to an unusually cold fall and winter, above-ground construction did not begin until April 2, 1930, so it was effectively built in six months. Over two million bricks were used in the construction of the walls and the concrete was placed in a monolithic continuous placement by section. There were over 300 workers on the site at most times and they worked five 10-hour days and one six-hour day on Saturdays. The average worker was paid $1 a day plus lunch with the more skilled workers earning up to $5 a day.
The original stadium seated 59,075, measured a half-mile (800 m) in circumference, stood high, and featured a glass-enclosed press box rising above ground level. Initial stands reached 55 rows.
The Irish played their first game in the new stadium in 1930 on October 4, and defeated The first Notre Dame touchdown in the stadium was scored by "Jumping Joe" Savoldi on a 98-yard kickoff return. The official dedication was a week later on October 11 against Navy, and Savoldi scored three touchdowns and was cited as "the first hero in the lore of Notre Dame Stadium." G.K. Chesterton was present as a spectator for the game, and wrote the poem The Arena to commemorate the occasion. Frank E. Hering, captain of the 1898 team, coach from 1896 to 1898, and president of the Alumni Association, delivered the major speech during the dedication. The stadium witnesses its first game at capacity in 1931, with 50,731 spectators for the USC game.
Modern Era
The first televised game in the stadium occurred on November 8, 1952, and the Irish beat Oklahoma 27–21. The attendance record of the stadium pre-renovation was of 60,128 spectators, and was set for the ND vs. Oklahoma game on Oct. 27, 1956, with Oklahoma winning, 40–0. In 1979, the 50th anniversary of the stadium was celebrated during the Navy game, with commemorative tickets that were reproductions of the original 1930 dedication game. The stadium was featured in the movie Rudy in 1993. The 1991 game against Tennessee was the 100th straight sold-out game and the 300th game played in the stadium.
The stadium was renovated and expanded between November 1994 through summer 1997, during which home games were still played in the stadium. The $53 million expansion project featured increasing the seating to 80,795 and permanent lighting. The renovation featured the construction of an upper bowl (which contributed the more than 20,000 additional seats), an expansion of the press box with 300 new spots for reporters and additional TV and radio broadcasting booths, doubling in size of both the home and away team locker rooms, two new scoreboards, and in addition a new field and drainage system. The stadium went from 15th to 8th largest in college football. The dedication game for the renovated stadium occurred on September 6, 1997, with a match against Georgia Tech that saw the Irish 17–13.
In October 2009 a statue of Knute Rockne was unveiled near the north gate of the stadium. On September 3, 2011, the stadium witnessed its first ever evacuation. During a match against South Florida, severe weather and a lighting storm forced a successful and smooth evacuation at halftime.
On January 29, 2014, the university announced plans to attach three new buildings to the stadium, totaling more than in expansions and costing about $400 million, with a timetable of 33 months for completion. After the completion of the Campus Crossroads Project the official seating capacity of the stadium was listed at 77,622. The renovation also included the addition of a Jumbotron.
The project was completed in January 2018. The first game in the newly renovated stadium took place on September 2, 2017, when the Irish beat the Temple Owls 49–16.
Traditions
The Notre Dame stadium is regarded as one of the most iconic and recognizable venues in college football.
One of the most recognizable and storied features of the stadium is yellow sign with blue letters spelling “Play Like A Champion Today.” placed in a stairwell between the home team locker room and the tunnel to the field. This sign dates back to 1986, when Lou Holtz came across a photo in a Notre Dame book with the sign “Play Like A Champion Today.” After asking around and coming up with no one remembering the sign and what had happened to it, he had a new sign painted and placed . This original sign was painted by Laurie Wenger in the fall of 1986. In 1991, NBC, which had just given the university its own marquee TV deal, showcased the sign by filming the players hitting it as they entered the field. Today, it is a tradition by players to touch it on their way out of the locker room. Above the sign is a listing of Notre Dame's eleven national championships.
Structure and architecture
As originally built, the seating capacity was 54,000, but could hold as many as 61,000 with additional temporary bleachers. By 1966, its capacity increased to 59,075, mainly by reducing the average seat width from . In 1997, 21,000 new seats were added to the stadium, bringing the seating capacity to 80,795. After the 2014-2017 Campus Crossroads renovation, the seating decreased to 77,622.
There has never been any advertising or corporate signage allowed in the stadium, and the decorations are simple and traditional. Notre Dame explicitly tried to maintain the look and field of the stadium in line with the original stadium built by Rockne in the 1930s.
Field
The playing surface had always been natural grass through 2013, but it was announced on April 12, 2014, that after the commencement weekend, the playing field would be replaced with an infilled artificial turf. Notre Dame athletic director Jack Swarbrick, in making the announcement, cited recent difficulties with maintaining an acceptable grass surface, and added that the change would allow the stadium to be used for football practices and non-football events. During 2013, the university replaced the grass surface four times, including twice during the football season. The artificial turf installation, as scheduled, began after Commencement Weekend on May 16–18, 2014, and the university sold sections of the old turf to the public for $150 each.
The decoration of the field is minimalist and traditional, and has changed little since 1930 and the times of Knute Rockne. Unlike most football stadium, the end zones do not feature the name of the school of team. Each end zone is painted only with nine diagonal white lines, for a total of 18, each at a 42 degree angle and pointing towards the Golden Dome. This is symbolic of 1842, the year in which the university was founded. This design was used in 2014 when FieldTurf was installed, but a similar design has been used since 1930, when each end zones features 30 diagonal white lines. The renovation in 2014 also saw the addition of the ND monogram, symbol of the athletics program, at the midfield, and small green shamrocks at the 35-yard. No other decoration is present on the field, expect for occasional logos as for the 150th anniversary of the university in 1992.
Lighting
Prior to the 1997 expansion, Notre Dame Stadium lacked permanent field lights. In 1982, portable lighting by Musco Lighting was used for the first night game in the stadium's history on September 18 versus Michigan. Permanent lights were installed as part of the expansion. The lights were paid for by NBC, which has held the exclusive television rights to all home games since 1991. The permanent lights were added primarily to ensure sufficient lighting for mid-afternoon games in November; the university's agreements with NBC from 1991 to 2010 stipulated that there be no home night games. However, the stadium hosted its first night game in 21 years on October 22, 2011, when the Irish hosted USC. It was announced in 2015 that Musco would be installing a LED field lighting system as part of the 2014–2017 stadium renovation and expansion project.
Touchdown Jesus
The stadium is known for its view to the north of Touchdown Jesus, a nickname given to the large mural entitled The Word of Life by Millard Sheets of the resurrected Jesus. Installed in 1964 on the Hesburgh Library, the mosaic wall looms over the stadium. The mural's nickname is derived from Jesus' upraised arms, which are similar in appearance to the raised arms of a referee signifying a touchdown. The expansion of the stadium in the late 1990s partially obscured the view of the mural from the playing field. The Word of Life mural was a gift of Mr. and Mrs. Howard V. Phalin of Winnetka, Illinois.
Campus Crossroads
In January 2014, the university announced a $400 million enhancement of the stadium, the Campus Crossroads project. This expansion features three 8-story high buildings, on the west, south, and east sides of the stadium. The expansion added more than of teaching, research, and performance space. The enhancement added new premium stadium seats. The three buildings are called the Duncan Student Center on the west, O'Neill Hall on the south, and Corbett Family Hall on the east. The project was completed in January 2018. The project was designed by the SLAM collective, with HOK design firm as a consultant.
Duncan Student Center
The Duncan Student Center serves as a student center hosting a gym and climbing wall, meeting and event spaces, several dining and food options, student media and club offices, and the career center. Corbett is a 404,331-square-foot building, and is located on the East side of the stadium, between the Lou Holtz (Gate D) and Gate E gates, facing DeBartolo Hall.
The ninth floor hosts a terrace overlooking the stadium with premium seating, booths for football coaches and game management staff, university seating boxes and an hospitality club for football games. The eight floor hosts seating and Rasmus Family Club, an event space that includes a terrace overlooking the ballroom below, in addition to hosting premium stadium seating. The seventh floor hosts the Dahnke Ballroom, a large two-story event and reception area with windows overlooking the field. The ballroom is used often for student events and dances throughout the year. Overlooking the stadium, the seventh floor also hosts seating and the new broadcast position for NBC Sports. The sixth floor is mechanical space. The fifth floor hosts the Meruelo Family Career Center for Career Development, which serves both the undergraduate and graduate student bodies. The center has more than 40 interview rooms nd also hosts the Undergraduate Career Services, Graduate Career Services, Mendoza Graduate Business Career Services, and an employer engagement team for alumni and recruiters.The third and fourth floors host the Tripp and Sheila Smith Center for Recreational Sports, an 80,000-square-foot recreational center and student gym. It features a basketball court with bleachers, a 13,000 square feet cardio and free-weight area, an open area modular exercise space, three studios for yoga, dance, martial arts, and group fitness instruction, office space for staff and personal trainers, a student lounge, a spin center, and men's and women's locker rooms, a 260-meter three-lane indoor running track, two boxing rings, over 1,500 square feet of open space for individual exercise, and a four-story rock-climbing wall (which is also in part located on the second floor). The second floor hosts the a student media center and climbing wall. This includes media laboratory, newsrooms and radio studios, an open television studio and all student media operations such as NDTV, The Voice of the Fighting Irish (WVFI) internet radio, WSND-FM, the Dome yearbook, Scholastic magazine and The Juggler. The floor also includes the Offices of Residential Life, the Grojean Family Loft (a study and lounge space open to all student) and a graduate student-only study and lounge space and the offices of the Graduate Student Life and the Graduate Student Union. The first floor hosts student center spaces, including the Midfield Commons, a lounge and socializing space, Innovation Lounge, study spaces and offices. Dining spaces on the first floor include Hagerty Family Café, Modern Market, and Star Ginger Asian Grill and Noodle Bar, a Vietnamese micro-restaurant.
The Duncan Student Center hosts several pieces of artwork. Sculptor Ralph Helmick's work Edifice hangs on the second floor, above the dining area. The work consists of a reproduction of the campus landmark of the Main Building made up of 4,100 small pewter heads hung on 2,221 cables suspended from the ceiling. The pewter heads, which are silver except for the golden ones making up the dome, were created by scanning the likeness of students, staff and faculty members. The scans were conducted in November 2017 and the work installed in October 2018. The Midfield Commons hosts the work Prevalence: Sacred Traces by Juan Sanchez. The work, which was created to celebrate diversity in the community, is composed of a mural in the shape of stained glass windows (inspired by those of the Basilica of the Sacred Heart) decorated with many images and symbols from across different cultures and traditions. The decorated bronze door pulls of the building were designed by artist Gail Folwell and are inspired by the visual style of the Word of Life mural and depict students engaged in sports, leisure, academics, arts, prayer and more.
Funding for the center was provided by entrepreneur Raymond Duncan, a Notre Dame alumnus who was the chairman and chief executive officer of Duncan Oil in Denver, Colorado. He was also the founder of and founded Silver Oak Cellars and Twomey Cellars, as well as of Purgatory Resort in Colorado. A 1952 Notre Dame graduate, Duncan was former member of the College of Arts and Letters and Snite Museum of Art Advisory Councils. In 2007 the Duncan family provided the funding to build the men's dorm Duncan Hall and the establishment of the Duncan Endowment for Excellence in American Art, in addition to supporting the Institute for Scholarship in Liberal Arts, Monogram Club, Department of Athletics and McCormack Scholarship.
O'Neill Hall
O'Neill Hall hosts the Department of Music and Sacred Music, including a 174-seat recital and performance hall, the music library, lecture halls, classrooms, rehearsal and seminar rooms, offices, faculty offices, a music lab for studio production, and practice rooms. It also houses stadium and sport-related spaces and a club lounge. O'Neill Hall is built around the Frank Leahy Gate, which is the grand entrance to stadium, and has a 106,809 square footage.The seventh floor is dedicated to mechanical space, mainly for the support of the new large scoreboard on the exterior, which is 54.1 feet high and 95.5 feet wide. Its large LED display screen contains 4,798,976 pixels, the most of any NCAA outdoor arena. The scoreboard is lined by 16 mm sideline ribbon boards, 3.78 feet high and 393 feet long, which display game statistics. The fifth and sixths floors are dedicated to the Sacred Music Program and house music departmental offices, teaching studios and practice rooms. The fourth floor houses Foley's, a high-end sports bar and restaurant. It is an 8,200-square-foot club, a highly themed area decorated old Notre Dame memorabilia, including wooden seating from the old stadium.The club features Harper's Bar, named in honor of Jesse Harper, Notre Dame football coach from 1913 to 1917. The club is open only to members and during home games, but it also hosts private events. The third floor hosts the Michuda Family Visiting Artist Rehearsal Hall as well as seminar rooms, two mid-sized classrooms, and large lecture hall, and the music library, which was relocated from the Hesburgh Library. The first and second house the Frank Leahy Gate, which is the grand entrance to stadium. The first floor also hosts LaBar Family Performance and Rehearsal Hall, both 2,200-square-feet. The recital hall has 175 seats, offering a more intimate atmosphere than other spaces on campus. It features a traditional stage, fixed seating, and a formal atmosphere for classical concert music. The Performance Hall instead is more an interdisciplinary performance space, accommodating alternative types of musical events in combination with other media, such as projected text visual images, acting, lighting, and dance. It has flexible seating and staging options in a “black-box” style setting that can host avant-garde performance and experimentation.
The building was constructed in part thank to a $25 million donation was made by Helen and Charles Schwab in honor of her brother, Notre Dame alumnus and trustee Joseph O’Neill III. The O’Neill family had previously also provided donations for the construction of a men's residence hall, O’Neill Family Hall, and a sundial on the south side of Jordan Hall of Science.
Corbett Family Hall
Corbett Family Hall houses the Departments of Anthropology and Psychology. It also houses the Rex and Alice A. Martin Media Center, with 2,000-square-foot studio, and teaching space for the Department of Film, Television and Theatre. It also houses stadium and sports-related spaces, including the press box. Corbett is a 280,000-square-foot building, and is located on the East side of the stadium, between the Dan Devine (Gate A) and Ara Parseghian (Gate B) gates, facing the Edmund P. Joyce Center.
The first floor hosts the Martin Digital Media Center and Notre Dame Studios. The Martin Media Center 18,000-square production facility for live and recorded events that houses two state-of-the-art control rooms of equal capability with seating for nine crew members. The center is used for student classes and productions, and for stadium media production on game days. Also housed on the floor are Notre Dame Studios, with four control rooms equipped for multi-camera live and recorded production, and The Fighting Irish Media Center, with two control rooms. The innovation center on the floor is a 1,300 square foot flexible space for new and emerging media that can accommodate 50 participants. The second floor houses the Department of Anthropology, with research laboratories, offices, study and meeting rooms, classrooms, and social events spaces . The third, fourth, and fifth floors house the Department of Psychology's offices, more than 30 research labs, and classrooms. The third floor is mostly cognitive psychology, the fourth floor is mainly behavioral psychology, and the fifth floor is mainly a mixture of relationship psychology and others. The anthropology and psychology departments, both in the College of Arts and Letters, were scattered around campus and without a single location before the opening of Corbett. Similarly to the Duncan Student Center, the sixth floor is dedicated to mechanical storage space. The seventh floors host the Downes Club, a large ballroom and hospitality space which is used for events and receptions and becomes a 100-seat classroom on non-game days. The eight floor houses the Hank Family Forum is similar to the Rasmus in Duncan, with the exception that it does not have an indoor premium seating area, and offers socializing and event space and a terrace overlooking the Downes Club. The ninth floor houses the press boxes, print media and radio facilities, as well as game-day hospitality space. Seven on Nine is a premium seating area and reception space overlooking the field, and is named after the team's seven Heisman Trophy winners. The north side of the ninth floor has premium seating and boxes for the visiting team.
Alumnus Richard Corbett donated $25 million towards construction of the building. He received a bachelor's degree in history from Notre Dame in 1960, and later a business degree from Harvard. He worked on John F. Kennedy's presidential election campaign, served in the White House and as a financial manager for the Kennedy family, followed by a role as business manager for Robert F. Kennedy's presidential campaign. He currently is the CEO and president of Concorde Companies, a Florida real estate business.
Attendance
Prior to 1966, attendance figures were based on an actual count of patrons through the gates. The largest crowd to attend a home game prior to expansion was 61,296 in 1962, against Purdue on October 6. Since 1966, attendance figures have been based on paid admissions with a fixed number of tickets available, accounting for the familiar 59,075 figure through the 1996 season. Until Ara Parseghian arrived as coach at Notre Dame in 1964, sellouts were not the norm. Since then, tickets for Notre Dame football have been notoriously hard to come by. As of the end of the 2015 season, there have been 249 consecutive sellouts at Notre Dame Stadium, and 294 sellouts in the past 295 games dating back to 1964. The lone exception was a 1973 game against Air Force which had been moved midseason by ABC to Thanksgiving Day and was played with the students absent. The announced attendance was 57,235. Attendance at all five home games in 1965 exceeded 59,000 as well. It is expected that this streak will end at the Navy game on November 16, 2019. The university cites an unusual schedule of 3 home games in November as a factor.
The official capacity was listed at 80,225 when the stadium was first expanded. A subsequent computer revision put it at 80,012 in 1998 and 80,232 in 2000. Sideline bleachers, which had been removed during expansion, were put back in after a few years, bringing the figure to 80,795 in 2001. In January 2014 the University of Notre Dame announced the campus crossroads project. A $400 million renovation would add luxury boxes and increase the stadium's capacity to around 85,000, but after the project was completed in 2017 the seats were made wider and the number decreased to 77,622 which is the present capacity of the stadium. The project began after the conclusion of the 2014 football season and finished in time for the 2017 season.
Other events
Concerts
The stadium had never hosted a music concert until 2018, with Garth Brooks being the first artist to hold a concert to be held at the stadium.
Ice hockey
The stadium hosted the 2019 NHL Winter Classic on New Year's Day between the Chicago Blackhawks and Boston Bruins, and four days later longtime rivals Michigan and Notre Dame clashed on the same ice, with the nickname "Let's Take This Outside" being applied to the game.
Rugby
Soccer
See also
List of NCAA Division I FBS football stadiums
References
External links
Notre Dame Stadium
1930 establishments in Indiana
American football venues in Indiana
College football venues
Notre Dame Fighting Irish football venues
Sports venues completed in 1930
Sports venues in South Bend, Indiana
University of Notre Dame buildings and structures
University and college buildings completed in 1930
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The old Barony and castle of Corsehill lay within the feudal Baillerie of Cunninghame, near Stewarton, now East Ayrshire, Scotland.
The Lairds of Corsehill
Godfrey de Ross was an early holder of the castle and lands of Corsehill, moving his seat here from the castle at Boarland (also 'Borland') or Dunlop hill. The De Ross family are now represented by the Earls of Glasgow.
Andrew Cunningham, second son of William Cunningham, 4th Earl of Glencairn, was the first of the House of Corsehill in 1532. In 1532 his father had granted to him the lands of Doura, Potterton, Little Robertland, and the two Corsehills. In 1538 he was also granted Cuttiswray, Clarklands, et Hillhouse. He was a great supporter of the reform movement and had his lands forfeited, later returned and died in 1545. Cuthbert Cunningham, son of Andrew, inherited and married Matilda 'Maud' Cunningham of Aiket Castle. He had two sons, Alexander and Patrick, the latter being involved in the murder of Hugh, Earl of Eglinton. Patrick was murdered in revenge by the Montgomeries. The spelling 'Cunningham' will be used throughout for consistency where it stands alone.
Alexander Cunningham inherited and married Marion Porterfield of Duchal. Alexander's son, also Alexander, held the lands of Lambruchton and Thirdpart in 1622 and died in 1667, being succeeded by his grandson, another Alexander Cunningham, who was given the dignity of a baronet in 1672. In 1626 Alexander Cunningham senior of Corsehill is recorded. In 1691 the Hearth Tax records show the 'House of Corsehill' as having ten hearths and suggests that 83 other dwellings were in the barony. David Cunningham was the last to occupy Corsehill House and he then lived at Doura Hall near Kilwinning where he had proposed building himself a new laird's house.
In 1685, Alexander, the 2nd baronet, married Margaret Boyle, sister of the Earl of Glasgow. Their son David married Penelope Montgomerie, daughter of Sir Walter Montgomerie of Skelmorlie Castle. Their eldest son married the heiress of Sir David Montgomerie of Lainshaw and adopted the patronym Montgomerie-Cuninghame, however he predeceased his father and it was his son Walter, who never married, that inherited in 1770 and died in March 1814. His brother David became the 5th baronet and also died unmarried in 1814. James, the third brother, inherited and married Jessie, daughter of James Cuming of Earnside, Nairnshire. Sir James died in 1837 and Alexander David inherited, however being unmarried his brother Thomas inherited and married Charlotte, daughter of Hugh Hutcheson of Southfield in Renfrewshire.
In 1820 the Corsehill lands included Bonshaw, High and Low Chapeltoun, Lainshaw, Kirkwood, Sandielands, Bankend, Gallowayford and Corsehill. In 1832 Sir Thomas Montgomerie-Cuninghame of Corsehill and Kirton-holme (near Lanark) was the eighth baronet, marrying Charlotte Niven Doig Hutchison, grand-niece of William Niven of Maybole, who left her much of his wealth, this being over £100,000.
Sir William James Montgomery Cuninghame was the ninth baronet of Corsehill and Kirltonholme. He is buried at Kirkmichael in South Ayrshire. He was born in 1834 and died on 11 November 1897. His wife Elizabeth is also buried at Kirkmichael and died on 12 February 1936.
William was awarded a Victoria Cross in the Crimean War. He had served as a lieutenant in the 1st Battalion, The Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own). On November 20, 1854, he was with a party detailed to drive the Russians from some rifle pits. After dark they launched a surprise attack and the Russian riflemen were forced to move from their cover. The officer in command was killed, However, the two soldiers withstood several counter attacks during the night until relieved the next day.
William rose to the rank of colonel, was an MP for Ayr Burghs from 1874 to 1880. His Victoria Cross is held by the Royal Green Jackets Museum, Winchester.
The Montgomery-Cuninghame of Corsehill Baronets are still extant, with Sir John Montgomery Cuninghame of Corsehill and Kirton-holme, 12th. Baronet now representing the family, head of the Clan Cunninghame. With no male heir, however the title can pass through the female line.
Old Corsehill Castle and Corsehill House
In A.D. 1451 the Registrum Magni Sigilli, records in Stewartoune (sic), Ayrshire, "Le Mote de Casteltoune." Some considerable confusion exists about the sites and naming of these 'castles' in Stewarton. The printed name 'Revincraige' arose as a printed spelling error from the original manuscript's 'Reuinscraige' i.e. stone ruins, so it isn't a name, it's a description used in the locality. Dobie goes on to state that following the correction "that the real and original name of this castle ... was Ruincraig cannot for a moment be entertained..."
We know from historical records about Godfrey de Ross and his family of Corsehill Castle, they were Lords of Liddesdale in the Borders and later on the Cunninghams became the holders. The later Corsehill (also Crosshill) House stood on the east side of the Corsehill or Clerkland Burn and only a few remains were said to exist to show its site, however the 1860 OS indicates no ruins of any description and nothing now remains on the site (2015).
Corsehill House is shown in one old print of 1791, drawn in 1789 by Grose with the comment that "At a small distance from this ruin are some small remains of a more ancient building belonging to the same family." referring to the old Corsehill castle whilst drawing Corsehill House, the home of the laird at that time. Substantial remains of Corsehill House were thought to exist until the railway was constructed and that most of the ruins were used to build the embankment with the course of the burn also being partly altered at this time, however a contemporary record states that the Corsehill House site had been entirely robbed by circa 1800. Armstrong's 1775 map clearly shows Corsehill as being on the east bank of the Corsehill Burn.
The single section of tower wall that remains today (2020) of Corsehill Castle has had extensive consolidation works to stabilise it and this gives it its unusual appearance, accentuated by the existence of a fireplace and aumbry on the eastern side. The Ardrossan and Saltcoats Herald from 28.11.1863 records that "Much of its beauty as a ruin was unfortunately destroyed a few years ago. The proprietor, from an idea that it might fall or be blown over in a storm, very wisely gave orders to have it strengthened; but the mason who executed the work, either from a want of taste, or from ignorance, converted it into the pillar-like object that we can see at present". The proprietor in question was Sir Thomas Montgomery Cunningham of Corsehill whose wife restored the family monument in Kilmaurs's Glencairn Aisle. The dressed stone work blocks suggests that two phases of consolidation were carried out, possibly years apart. the lower level appears as possible robbed dressed ashlar from Corsehill House and the second phase is distinguished by a raised rectangular area, typically intended to empasise that this is not original work.
A number of authors have assumed that the surviving remnant of the typical tower castle equates to a distinctive part of Grose's engraving however the thickness at nearly 3 metres and the other features such as the lack of a fire-place and aumbry, of this clearly later building together with map evidence suggests otherwise and in addition the OS map evidence suggests a typical square or oblong tower castle shaped building rather than a relatively unfortified laird's house with relatively thin walls, many doors at ground level, large windows, etc. akin to buildings such as the Place of Auchinleck. Canmore gives measurements for the Corsehill Castle tower remnant as nearly 3m thick and 10m high. If the 'tower' in Frances Grose's engraving was that of the castle then the wall remnants associated with it would have to be at least 10m high and six or more stone courses thick, which the engravong does not show. With these measurements Corsehill House would have been a very large building indeed. The footprint of Corshill House as shown by the engraving also seems far too large for the knoll on which the surviving remnant of Old Corsehill Castle still stands. The 1779 map by Crawford does not indisputably show Corsehill as a ruin although by this time the lands of Cocklebie have extended across the once prestigious avenue of trees.
Fullarton in 1858 records that "..the ancient castellated mansion of Coreshill has been wholly removed - not a stone now remaining to mark its site; nor does any vestige of its garden or other decorations remain to procalim its former state and fallen grandeur.". He goes on to state that the site was well remembered, the last parts of the building having been removed around 1800 and that a fine avenue of magnificent trees used to run down into Stewarton.
Herman Moll's map of 1745 shows a 'Reuinsk' to the west of the Clerkland Burn and 'Corshill' to the west of it whilst Roy's map of 1747 shows a square shaped 'Old Crosshill' with a 'U' shaped 'Crosshill' to the west of the burn together with a 'mains' farm. Armstrong's 1775 map shows 'Ruins' and 'Corshill' depicted as a house standing to the west of it.
Dobie categorically states that no records in Ayrshire exist of a 'Ravencraig Castle' and goes on to record that the building on the west side of the Corsehill Burn has been a ruin since 1608 and that the area it stands in was once called 'Corsehill Park. It is worth noting that the Scots for a raven (Corvus corax) is a 'Corbie'.
The Blaeu map of 1654 based on Timothy Pont's earlier map gives 'Reuinskraig on the west side of the Clerkland Burn and 'Corshill' on the east side. Both are depicted the same without any clear suggestion of 'Reuinskraig' being a ruin. The 1779 estate map of Lainshaw shows Corsehill as a relatively small and apparently intact property on the east bank of the Corsehill/Clerkland Burn, reached by a road branching off at Cocklebie, running across the top of what is now the Cunninghame-Watt Park and turning uphill to reach the house. An avenue of trees ran down to the town, however this was interrupted by some of the Cocklebie lands which are not shown planted up. The ruined castle is shown as just the surviving part of the tower and it is otherwise unnamed. The whole area is called the Corsehill lands. Surprisingly only ten years after the estate map was surveyed Grose shows Corsehill House as an abandoned and much robbed ruin.
The 1828 map of Ayrshire by William Johnson only records Corsehill lying on the east side of the burn. The 1776 map by Taylor & Skinner shows a 'Corsehill' only as a dwelling house held by Sir William Cunynhame (sic).
The old Corsehill Castle and Corsehill House (NS 416 415) were separate entities and a vague memory may persist of Templehouse and its fortalice at Darlington on the lands of Corsehill Farm, causing some extra confusion. (see below) Many references can be found to Corsehill/Corshill or even Crosshill in old records, none for 'Ravenscraig', but several for 'Reuincraig', although as stated, this is just a description of a ruin that was called 'Corsehill', 'ruined Corsehill'.
Archibald Adamson in his 'Rambles Round Kilmarnock' of 1875 makes no mention of the name Ravenscraig, calling the site he visited Corsehill. Aitken only marks Crosshill Castle in 1829 on the west side of the Corsehill Burn. The first OS maps show only the surviving castle's site.
To sum up, the map in Pont's 'Cuninghame' of 1604–1608 shows two buildings, "Reuincraige" and "Corshill", at approximately NS 417 467 and NS 422 465 respectively, and Dobie comments that the two have often been confused, but that "Reuincraig" stood on the west side of the Corsehill Burn and "Corsehill Mansion" on its east. "Reuincraig", he says, was ".. so modernised about 1840 that it was difficult to realise that it had been ruined in 1608", while the ruins of 'Corsehill House' were removed about the beginning of the 19th century and only foundations could be traced when he wrote. He also thought that "Reuincraig" (i.e. Ruin Craig) was not an original name. If Dobie is correct, the ruins published as "Corsehill Castle" on the OS 6", must be those of "Reuincraig", both because they are standing remains, and because they are on the west bank of the burn.
MacGibbon and Ross, describe Corsehill Castle at the end of the 19th century as a very ruinous mansion of a late date and apparently of an 'L-plan', belonging to the period 1542–1700 so they must be referring to Corsehill House. Grose, in 1797, published an illustration of 'Corshill House', but does not give its exact location. He mentions that "at a small distance from this ruin are some small remains of a more ancient building belonging to the same family", he is therefore referring to 'Old Corsehill Castle'.MacGibbon, Page 495.
General Roy's Military Survey of Scotland (1745–55) marks 'Ravenscraig' as 'Old Corsehill' and also marks the 'new' Corsehill on the other side of the burn, thereby apparently confirming that they both had the same name and one replaced the other, although only 'Old Corsehill' is still in any way visible, just some foundations of 'new' Corsehill being apparent in 2007, the rest of Corsehill House being removed in the 19th century.
Traces survive of a much silted up ditch that may be the remains of a track which led from the Stewarton to Dunlop road to the castle and then on to the cattle creep that runs under the railway line giving access to the east side where Corsehill House once stood.
The fine old sandstone bridge which carried the road up to Corsehill was demolished in the early 1990s. A local tradition was that the iron 'jougs' on it were for imprisoning witches, although it may be that these were linked to the Barony Court functions of the old Corsehill Barony, the records of which still survive and make reference to the stocks.Brown, George (2006). Oral communication to Griffith, Roger S.Ll.
Adamson on his walking tour in 1875 records that Old Corsehill Castle was never very large and that the surviving portion showed signs of recent repair. A great treasure is said to lie buried beneath the founds in a dark chamber and that a local man had once starting digging in search of it when a voice arose from deep under the ground saying "Dig no more in ruined Ravenscraig".
A tunnel or Ley tunnel is said to run from near Old Corsehill Castle down to the Annick Water just up stream of Lainshaw Castle. The tunnel was supposedly crawled through by the grandfather of a local man. This tunnel may be related to the drainage of the nearby, flooded quarry, the Water Plantation area and other Lainshaw estate lands.
Templehouse fortalice
An area opposite the site of Templehouses was known as 'The Castle'. and this may reflect the existence of the castle or fortalice here (Hewitt 2006). An old road also crossed the river here and ran up to Robertland Castle and Nether Robertland (Lainshaw 1779). Steven states that William Dean held the feu for the area of Templehouse, now more commonly called 'Darlington'. The 1860 OS map does record the site of this Templehouse which may have had a small fortalice associated with it. Its precise site was at Darlington on the road to Kingsford before the East Burn. This area continued to be called Templehouses for many years after the buildings stones were removed by local people for building purposes.
The Baron-Court book
A remarkable and fortuitous survival is the 'Baron-Court book of the Baron-Court of Corshill', having been in the possession of Mr John Brown of Stewarton and published by the Ayr & Wigton Archaeological Association in 1884. The records start in 1666 and ends in 1719. In 1667 Hew Harper was fined and sentenced to be placed in the stocks at the 'Laird's pleasure'.
King's Kitchen
An old thatched cottage at the top end of Stewarton, on the road to Glasgow, had the name of "King's Kitchen Head", more recently called Braehead. It was nearly adjacent to the old baronial residence of Corsehill and was part of that barony. Further along the road is Kingsford and further along still is King's Well and the King's Stable. The story is told of a King who whilst on his progress of administering justice was given hospitality, for some long forgotten reason, at this cottage. The wife of the house begged the King for the life of her husband who was one of those to be tried by the King. The others were hanged, but the King dismissed the husband with the admonition "to be a better bairn.".
Corsehill Castle and King Malcolm Canmore
This is a well known local story and one version given by Robert Cunningham in 1740 in his manuscript, entitled the Right Honorable the Earl of Glencairn's family, is that MacBeth murders his cousin, King Duncan I. The king's son, Malcolm Canmore (big head in Gaelic) tries to reach temporary safe refuge in his castle of Corsehill (also Crosshill). MacBeth's men were almost upon Malcolm when he sees a peasant, Friskin (or Friskine), turning hay in a barn (or pasture) nearby. Friskin hides Malcolm who then escapes to England with Friskin as a retainer. King Harthacanute of England and Norway gave them protection. When Harthacanute died his successor King Edward the Confessor gave Malcolm an army which permitted him to conquer Scotland and kill King MacBeth. The grateful King Malcolm III (1031 to 1093) gave Friskine the thanedom or Baillery of Cunninghame and the family took this name, together with the motto of 'Over Fork Over' which they retain to this day. It is also said that the Cunninghams were 'Masters of the king's horses' and that they took their motto from this position in the 'punning way' which is typical of the armorial bearings and mottos of many an aristocratic family.
In another version of the story, it is stated by Frederick van Bassen who was a Norwegian historian, that the saviour of King Malcolm III was actually a Malcolm, son of Friskin, however in other respects the story is the same. This story does not fit with the historical record, however it is of ancient origin and a grain of truth must in some way relate it to real events. A Magbie or MacBeth Hill curiously or coincidentally exists above Stewarton near Old Coreshill Castle. Sir William Montgomery of Giffin acquired these lands, his father being Troilus Montgomery.
Micro-history
The holder of the lands of Cocklebie had the 'right and privilege' of holding a weekly market and four yearly fairs.
Andrew Cunninghame was concerned in the murder of David Rizzio.
Sir A. Cunningham of Corsehill attended the famous 1839 Eglinton Tournament in what is now Eglinton Country Park and he was allotted a seat in the Grand Stand.
Robertson in 1820 refers to Macbeth Hill (Magbie) as being part of the Corsehill lands. Troilus Montgomery became Laird of MacBeth-hill or Magbie hill in Peeblesshire.
Timothy Pont in 1604–1608 records that so thickly was the district about Stewarton and along the banks of the Irvine populated for a space of three or four miles (6 km) "that well travelled men in divers parts of Europe (affirm) that they have seen walled cities not so well or near planted with houses so near each other as they are here, wherethrough it is so populous that, at the ringing of a bell in the night for a few hours, there have seen convene 3000 able men, well-horsed and armed."In the 1600s Stuartoune had fairs on the first Thursday of January, the first Monday of May, and the last Wednesday of October. A weekly market on Thursdays is recorded as being not well attended.
In 1820 only six people were qualified to vote as freeholders in Stewarton Parish, being proprietors of Robertland (Hunter Blair), Kirkhill (Col. J. S. Barns), Kennox (McAlester), Lainshaw (Cunninghame), Lochridge (Stewart) and Corsehill (Montgomery-Cunninghame).
The Draffen Stone used to be in a field near the house of the same name. Due to a housing development it has been moved to a site in front of Draffen House. It is not known whether this stone is merely a 'rubbing stone' for cattle or a menhir. It is not recorded by Historic Scotland.
The Lairds of Corsehill were the Deacons Heritable of the Bonnet Court of Corsehill which regulated the activities of the Stewarton bonnet makers.
The first Corsehill Queen is jocularly said to be King Malcolm III second wife, Queen Margaret, niece of Edward the Confessor of England. This Malcolm III, also known as Malcolm Canmore, was also Lord of Corsehill. She was canonised and St. Margaret's Chapel is the oldest surviving building at Edinburgh Castle, Highlanders however called her the 'Accursed Margaret.'
In 1797 Magbie Hill above Stewarton has a field called 'Stone Field' which may record a standing stone now long destroyed or possibly moved as the nearby farm has two large boulders in front of it. Coal pits are marked in the vicinity of Magbie (MacBeth) Hill, possibly explaining the name, as 'mag' was a term used for poor quality coal. The nearby 'Water Plantation' was known as 'Magbie-hill Plantation'.
Dunlop and Stewarton both stand on the old turnpike, completed from Glasgow by Lugton, to Kilmarnock, Irvine and Ayr in 1820 at the cost of £18,000.
See also
Dunlop, East Ayrshire
Cunninghamhead
Chapeltoun
Lambroughton
John Montgomery-Cuninghame of Corsehill
Stones of Scotland
House of Stuart
Cunninghamhead, Perceton and Annick Lodge
Thorntoun Estate
Kilmaurs
Barbara Gilmour
Kirkwood Estate, East Ayrshire
Lands of Blacklaw
References
Notes;
Sources;
Adamson, Archibald R. (1875). Rambles Round Kilmarnock. Pub. Kilmarnock.
Aikman, J & Gordon, W. (1839) An Account of the Tournament at Eglinton. Edinburgh : Hugh Paton.
Aitken, John (1829). Survey of the Parishes of Cunningham. Pub. Beith.
Armstrong, Andrew (1775). A New Map of Ayrshire.
Barclay, Alistair. The Bonnet Toun. Best, Nicholas (1999). The Kings and Queens of Scotland. Pub. London. .
Blair, Anna (1983). Tales of Ayrshire. Pub. Shepheard-Walwyn. .
Corsehill Baron-Court Book (1884). Archaeological & Historical Collections relating to the counties of Ayr and Wigton. Pub. Ayr & Wigton Arch Assoc.
Crawford, W. (1779). Pan of the Estate of Lainshaw lying in the Parish of Stewarton and County of Ayr.
Cuthbertson, David Cuningham (1945). Autumn in Kyle and the Charm of Cunninghame. London : Jenkins.
Douglas, Robert (1764). The Peerage of Scotland. Edinburgh : R. Fleming printers.
Downie, James (2009). Carswell Farm.
Dunlop Parish. A History of Church, Parish and Nobility. Pub. Edinburgh.
Fullarton, John (1858). Topographical Account of the District of Cunningham, Ayrshire compiled about the year 1600. by Mr. Timothy Pont. Glasgow : Maitland Club.
Glasgow Journal (1770). Thursday, Nov. 29th. & Dec. 6th.
Grose, F. (1789–91). The antiquities of Scotland, 2v, London.
Hall, Derek (2006). Scottish Monastic Landscapes. Tempus Publishing. .
Hill, D.O. (1840). The Land of Burns. Pub. Glasgow.
Ireland, Kingsley. James Jamieson Letters 1854-65
Johnson, William (1828). Map of Ayrshire from estate plans.
Kerr, T. Macfie (1936). The Bonnet Toun.
Love, Dane (2005) Lost Ayrshire. Ayrshire's Lost Architectural Heritage. Pub. Birlinn Ltd. .
MacGachen Esq., N. Howard (1844). '''The Bridge of Annock' in The Ayrshire Wreath MDCCCXLV. Pub. Kilmarnock.
MacGibbon, T. and Ross, D. (1887–92). The castellated and domestic architecture of Scotland from the twelfth to the eighteenth centuries, 5v, Edinburgh.
Milligan, Susan. Old Stewarton, Dunlop and Lugton. Pub. Ochiltree. .
Moll. Herman (1745). The Shire of Renfrew with Cuningham. The North Part of Air.
Montgomery, D. B. (1903). The Montgomerys and their Descendents. Owensville : J. P. Cox.
Paterson, James (1863–66). History of the Counties of Ayr and Wigton Vol. V, Part II. Cunningham Edinburgh: J. Stillie.
Paterson, James (1871). Autobiographical Reminiscences. Glasgow : Maurice Ogle & Co.
Pigot (1837). The Directory for Ayrshire.
Pride, David (1910). A History of the Parish of Neilston. Paisely : Alexander Gardner.
Reilly, Emilia Georgiana Susanna (1842). A Genealogical History of the family of Montgomery. Privately published.
Robertson, William (1908). Ayrshire. Its History and Historic Families. Vol.1. Kilmarnock : Dunlop & Dreenan.
Roy, William (1747). Roy Military Survey of Scotland, 1747-1755.
Search over Lainshaw. Register of Sasines.
Shaw, John (1953). Ayrshire 1745–1950. A Social and Industrial History of the County. Pub. Oliver & Boyd.
Steven, Rev. Charles Bannatyne (Revised 1842). Parish of Stewarton. Presbytery of Irvine, Synod of Glasgow and Ayr
Thomson, John (1828). A Map of the Northern Part of Ayrshire.
External links
The Corsehill Castles, the Cunninghams & Stewarton
History and photographic record of Corsehill Castle.
Corsehill Castle and House
Corsehill Mills video footage
The Legend of Friskin and King Malcolm Canmore.
Video on the origins of the 'Over Fork Over' motto.
General Roy's Military map of Scotland.
Details of the De Soulis, De Morville and other Cunninghame families.
Thurgatstane Photo
A Researcher's Guide to Local History terminology
Castles in East Ayrshire
Ruined castles in Scotland
Coreshill
Tower houses in Scotland
Stewarton
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In evolutionary psychology, the Cinderella effect is the phenomenon of higher incidences of different forms of child abuse and mistreatment by stepparents than by biological parents. It takes its name from the fairy tale character Cinderella, which is about a girl who is mistreated by her stepsisters and stepmother. Evolutionary psychologists describe the effect as a byproduct of a bias towards kin, and a conflict between reproductive partners of investing in young that are unrelated to one partner.
Background
In the early 1970s, a theory arose on the connection between stepparents and child maltreatment. "In 1973, forensic psychiatrist P. D. Scott summarized information on a sample of "fatal battered-baby cases" perpetrated in anger ... 15 of the 29 killers – 52% – were stepfathers." Although initially there was no analysis of this raw data, empirical evidence has since been collected on what is now called the Cinderella effect through official records, reports, and census.
For over 30 years, data has been collected regarding the validity of the Cinderella effect, with a wealth of evidence indicating a direct relationship between step-relationships and abuse. This evidence of child abuse and homicide comes from a variety of sources including official reports of child abuse, clinical data, victim reports, and official homicide data. Studies have concluded that "stepchildren in Canada, Great Britain, and the United States indeed incur greatly elevated risk of child maltreatment of various sorts, especially lethal beatings".
Powerful evidence in support of the Cinderella effect comes from the finding that when abusive parents have both step and genetic children, they generally spare their genetic children. In such families, stepchildren were exclusively targeted 9 out of 10 times in one study and in 19 of 22 in another. In addition to displaying higher rates of negative behaviors (e.g., abuse) toward stepchildren, stepparents display fewer positive behaviors toward stepchildren than do the genetic parents. For example, on average, stepparents invest less in education, play with stepchildren less, take stepchildren to the doctor less, etc. This discrimination against stepchildren is unusual compared with abuse statistics involving the overall population given "the following additional facts: (1) when child abuse is detected, it is often found that all the children in the home have been victimized; and (2) stepchildren are almost always the eldest children in the home, whereas the general ... tendency in families of uniform parentage is for the youngest to be most frequent victims."
Evolutionary psychology theory
Evolutionary psychologists Martin Daly and Margo Wilson propose that the Cinderella effect is a direct consequence of the modern evolutionary theory of inclusive fitness, especially parental investment theory. They argue that human child rearing is so prolonged and costly that "a parental psychology shaped by natural selection is unlikely to be indiscriminate". According to them, "research concerning animal social behaviour provide a rationale for expecting parents to be discriminative in their care and affection, and more specifically, to discriminate in favour of their own young". Inclusive fitness theory proposes a selective criterion for the evolution of social traits, where social behavior that is costly to an individual organism can nevertheless emerge when there is a statistical likelihood that significant benefits of that social behavior accrue to (the survival and reproduction of) other organisms whom also carry the social trait (most straightforwardly, accrue to close genetic relatives). Under such conditions, a net overall increase in reproduction of the social trait in future generations can result.
The initial presentation of inclusive fitness theory (in the mid 1960s) focused on making the mathematical case for the possibility of social evolution, but also speculated about possible mechanisms whereby a social trait could effectively achieve this necessary statistical correlation between its likely bearers. Two possibilities were considered: One that a social trait might reliably operate straightforwardly via social context in species where genetic relatives are usually concentrated in a local home area where they were born ('viscous populations'); The other, that genetic detection mechanisms ('supergenes') might emerge that go beyond statistical correlations, and reliably detect actual genetic relatedness between the social actors using direct 'kin recognition'. The relative place of these two broad types of social mechanisms has been debated (see Kin selection and Kin recognition), but many biologists consider 'kin recognition' to be an important possible mechanism. Martin Daly and Margo Wilson follow this second mechanism, and expect that parents "discriminate in favour of their own young", i.e. their actual genetic relatives.
Daly and Wilson research
The most abundant data on stepchild mistreatment has been collected and interpreted by psychologists Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, who study with an emphasis in Neuroscience and Behavior at McMaster University. Their first measure of the validity of the Cinderella effect was based on data from the American Humane Association (AHA), an archive of child abuse reports in the United States holding over twenty thousand reports. These records led Wilson and Daly to conclude that "a child under three years of age who lived with one genetic parent and one stepparent in the United States in 1976 was about seven times more likely to become a validated child-abuse case in the records than one who dwelt with two genetic parents". Their overall findings demonstrate that children residing with stepparents have a higher risk of abuse even when other factors are considered.
Explanation
All organisms face trade-offs as to how to invest their time, energy, risk, and other resources, so investment in one domain (e.g., parental investment) generally takes away from their ability to invest in other domains (e.g. mating effort, growth, or investment in other offspring). Investment in non-genetic children therefore reduces an individual's ability to invest in itself or its genetic children, without directly bringing reproductive benefits. Thus, from an evolutionary biology perspective, one would not expect organisms to regularly and deliberately care for unrelated offspring.
Daly and Wilson point out that infanticide is an extreme form of biasing parental investment that is widely practiced in the animal world. For example, when an immigrant male lion enters a pride, it is not uncommon for him to kill the cubs fathered by other males. Since the pride can only provide support for a limited number of cubs to survive to adulthood, the killing of the cubs in competition with the new male's potential offspring increases the chances of his progeny surviving to maturity. In addition, the act of infanticide speeds the return to sexual receptivity in the females, allowing for the male to father his own offspring in a timelier manner. These observations indicate that in the animal world, males employ certain measures in order to ensure that parental investment is geared specifically toward their own offspring.
Unlike the lion, however, humans in a stepparenting situation face a more complicated tradeoff since they cannot completely disown their partner's offspring from a previous relationship, as they would risk losing sexual access to their partner and any chance of producing potential offspring. Thus, according to Daly and Wilson, stepparental investment can be viewed as mating effort to ensure the possibility of future reproduction with the parent of their stepchild. This mating effort hypothesis suggests that humans will tend to invest more in their genetic offspring and invest just enough in their stepchildren. It is from this theoretical framework that Daly and Wilson argue that instances of child abuse towards non-biological offspring should be more frequent than towards biological offspring.
One would therefore expect greater parental responsiveness towards one's own offspring than towards unrelated children, and this will result in more positive outcomes and fewer negative outcomes towards one's own children than towards other children in which one is expected to invest (i.e., stepchildren). "If child abuse is a behavioral response influenced by natural selection, then it is more likely to occur when there are reduced inclusive fitness payoffs owing to uncertain or low relatedness". Owing to these adaptations from natural selection, child abuse is more likely to be committed by stepparents than genetic parents—both are expected to invest heavily in the children, but genetic parents will have greater child-specific parental love that promotes positive caretaking and inhibits maltreatment.
Daly and Wilson report that this parental love can explain why genetic offspring are more immune to lashing out by parents. They assert that, "Child-specific parental love is the emotional mechanism that permits people to tolerate—even to rejoice in—those long years of expensive, unreciprocated parental investment". They point to a study comparing natural father and stepfather families as support for the notion that stepparents do not view their stepchildren the same as their biological children, and likewise, children do not view their stepparents the same as their biological parents. This study, based on a series of questionnaires which were then subjected to statistical analyses, reports that children are less likely to go to their stepfathers for guidance and that stepfathers rate their stepchildren less positively than do natural fathers.
Daly and Wilson's reports on the overrepresentation of stepparents in child homicide and abuse statistics support the evolutionary principle of maximizing one's inclusive fitness, formalized under Hamilton's Rule, which helps to explain why humans will preferentially invest in close kin. Adoption statistics also substantiate this principle, in that non-kin adoptions represent a minority of worldwide adoptions. Research into the high adoption rates of Oceania shows that childlessness is the most common reason for adopting, and that in the eleven populations for which data was available, a large majority of adoptions involved a relative with a coefficient of relatedness greater than or equal to 0.125 (e.g., genetic cousins). It is also observed that parents with both biological and adopted children bias the partitioning of their estates in favor of the biological children, demonstrating again that parental behavior corresponds to the principles of kin selection.
Methods
In their 1985 Canadian sample, Daly and Wilson classify the frequencies of different living arrangements (two natural parents, one natural parent, one natural parent with one stepparent, or other) according to child age. This was accomplished by administering a randomized telephone survey.
Records of child abuse from children's aid organizations as well as police reports on runaways and juvenile offenders were then used to determine whether children from stepparental living situations were overrepresented as abuse victims when compared to the demographic data gathered from the telephone survey data. The results indicate that the only living situation that has a significant correlation to increased child abuse is one natural parent and one stepparent in the same household. While rates of running away and crime were comparable for children living with stepparents and children of single-parents, abuse rates for children living with stepparents were much higher.
Daly and Wilson examined several potentially confounding variables in their research, including socioeconomic status, family size, and maternal age at childbirth, however only minor differences between natural-parent and stepparent families with respect to these factors were found, indicating that none of these are major contributing factors to the observed Cinderella effect.
Attachment theory
Evolutionary psychologists have also suggested that one of the causes of stepchild abuse may be the lack of a parental attachment bond that the mother would normally form with her own child . An attachment bond will, in general, be more secure if formed before the age of two, and adoption can often disrupt the development of this bond. An infant who is fed by the primary parental figure, usually the mother, and has the mother present during severely physically painful events will have formed a stronger parental attachment bond, and either a consistent omission of the mother from this process or an alteration between two people (the original mother and the adoptive mother) can cause either an insecure attachment or disorganized attachment from the parent to the child . As a result, it is highly recommended by most psychologists that the adoptive mother be present very early in the infant's life, preferably immediately after its birth, in order to avoid attachment disruptions and attachment disorders. This theory cannot be a whole explanation for the Cinderella effect, as psychological research has shown that secure attachment bonds can be developed between a parent and adopted child, and the quality of the relationship between parent and child will more often depend on the child's pre-adoption experiences, such as length of time in social care and previous trauma, more than characteristics of the parents.
Misunderstandings
It is sometimes argued that this evolutionary psychological account does not explain why the majority of stepparents do not abuse their partners' children, or why a significant minority of genetic parents do abuse their own offspring. However, their argument is based on a misunderstanding: the evolutionary psychological account is that (all else equal) parents will love their own children more than other people's children – it does not argue that stepparents will "want" to abuse their partner's children, or that genetic parenthood is absolute proof against abuse. Under this account, stepparental care is seen as "mating effort" towards the genetic parent, such that most interactions between stepparent and stepchildren will be generally positive or at least neutral, just usually not as positive as interactions between the genetic parent and the child would be.
Supportive evidence
Strong support for the Cinderella effect as described by Daly and Wilson comes from a study of unintentional childhood fatal injuries in Australia. Tooley et al. follow the argument of Daly and Wilson to extend the Cinderella effect from cases of abuse to incidences of unintentional fatalities. Children are not only vulnerable to abuse by their parents, but they are also dependent on their parents for supervision and protection from a variety of other harms. Given that parental supervision is fundamentally correlated to incidences of unintentional childhood injury as shown by Wadsworth et al. and Peterson & Stern, Tooley et al. posit that selective pressures would favor an inclination towards parental vigilance against threats to offspring well-being. Tooley et al. further argue that parental vigilance is not as highly engaged in stepparents as genetic parents, therefore placing stepchildren at greater risk for unintentional injury.
Based on data gathered from the Australia National Coroners' Information System, stepchildren under five years of age are two to fifteen times more likely to experience an unintentional fatal injury, especially drowning, than genetic children. Additionally, the study finds that the risks of unintentional fatal injury are not significantly higher for genetic children in single parent homes versus two-parent homes. This difference suggests that removing one biological parent from the home does not significantly increase risk to the children, but that adding a nonbiological parent to the home results in a drastic increase in the risk of unintentional fatal injury. Despite the fact that adding a stepparent to the home increases the available resources in terms of supervision in comparison to a single-parent home, risk of unintentional fatal injury still significantly rises. This higher risk of injury for stepchildren can be attributed to the fact that stepparents occupy the same supervisory role as a genetic parent, yet they have a lower intrinsic commitment to protecting the child and therefore are less likely to be adequately vigilant. The authors conclude that the Cinderella effect applies not only to purposeful abuse by stepparents, but is also relevant to explaining increased rates of accidental fatalities among stepchildren.
Furthermore, a study of parental investment behaviors among American men living in Albuquerque, New Mexico, reveals a trend of increasing financial expenditures on genetic offspring in comparison to step-offspring, which also suggests that parents are less inclined to preserve the well-being of stepchildren. The study assesses paternal investment based on four measures: the probability that a child attends college, the probability that the child receives money for college, the total money spent on children, and the amount of time per week spent with children. Four different classifications of father-child relationships are examined and compared, including fathers living with their genetic children and stepfathers living with the stepchildren of their current mates. Though the study finds a clear trend of increasing investment in genetic children, the data also shows that stepfathers do still invest substantially in stepchildren. The authors explain the parental investment exhibited by stepfathers towards stepchildren as possibly motivated by the potential to improve the quality or increase the duration of the man's relationship with the stepchildren's mother. This studied corroborates the findings of Lynn White, that stepparents in general provide less social support to stepchildren than their genetic children.
Though the general trend of the data from this study supports the Cinderella effect, Anderson and colleagues note that the observed differences between investment in children and stepchildren might be slightly reduced by a few confounding factors. For example, the authors point out that stepparenting is a self-selective process, and that when all else is equal, men who bond with unrelated children are more likely to become stepfathers, a factor that is likely to be a confounding variable in efforts to study the Cinderella effect. Anderson and colleagues also conducted a similar study of Xhosa students in South Africa that analyzes the same four classifications of adult-child relationships, and this study offers similar results to those observed among men in Albuquerque.
Additionally, a study of Hadza foragers in Tanzania by Marlowe also finds evidence of decreased care provided by men to stepchildren when compared with genetic children. The author uses the Mann-Whitney U-tests to evaluate most of the observed differences in care exhibited towards children and stepchildren, and finds that Hadza men spend less time with (U=96), communicate less with (U=94.5), nurture less, and never play with their stepchildren. Marlowe further argues that any care that is provided towards stepchildren is likely attributable to the man's mating efforts and not parental interest in the well-being of the stepchildren.
In further support of the Cinderella effect as elaborated by Daly and Wilson, a study conducted in a rural village in Trinidad demonstrates that in households containing both genetic children and stepchildren, fathers devote approximately twice as much time to interaction with genetic offspring in comparison to stepchildren. Additionally, this study finds that the duration of the relationship between the stepfather and stepchildren is negatively correlated with the relative proportion of interaction time and positively correlated with the relative proportion of antagonistic interactions between the two. As a proportion of total time spent interacting with genetic and stepchildren, stepfathers are shown to have approximately 75 percent more antagonistic interactions with stepchildren. In this study, antagonistic interactions are defined as involving physical or verbal combat or an expression of injury. This includes, for example, spanking, screaming, crying, and arguing. The duration of the relationship between genetic fathers and children shows a positive correlation with both relative proportion of interaction time and antagonistic interaction. The author argues that these results show that in terms of time invested, men favor their children over stepchildren, and this preference is not attributable to the duration of the adult-child relationship, a factor which is sometimes believed to be a confounding variable in the Cinderella effect. Though this study does claim a significant increase in antagonistic behavior between stepparents and stepchildren and therefore supports the Cinderella effect, it also notes that only six percent of all the observed parent-child interactions were considered antagonistic, and that the researchers never noticed any blatant physical child abuse.
Criticism
David Buller
Philosopher of science David Buller, as a part of his general critique of evolutionary psychology has reviewed Daly and Wilson's data. He argues that evolutionary psychology (EP) mistakenly attempts to discover human psychological adaptations rather than "the evolutionary causes of psychological traits." Buller also argues that Daly and Wilson's 1985 Canadian sample included cases of sexual abuse as well as cases of unintentional omission, such as not buckling a child's seatbelt in the car. Buller asserts that unintentional omission does not fall under the realm of dangerous acts, and rather should be designated "maltreatment". He argues that since sexual abuse is not often accompanied by physical abuse, it is unreasonable to assume that it is motivated by the same kind of psychological mechanism as child homicide. Buller also points out that the conclusion that non-biological parents are more likely to abuse children is contradicted by the fact that even if the rate of abuse among stepparents was disproportionate, the lowest rate of child abuse is found among adoptive parents. Daly and Wilson respond to Buller's criticism by stating that Buller confuses the empirical statistical findings, which define the Cinderella effect, with the proposed theoretical framework, which offers an evolutionary explanation for the data.
Buller also argues that Daly and Wilson's findings are inherently biased since they use data from official documents, and the officials collecting that data are trained to take special notice of stepparents versus biological parents. Furthermore, Buller states that since Daly and Wilson rely on official reports (such as death certificates) for their data, and that this data is inherently biased against stepparents. He cites a Colorado study, in which it was found that maltreatment fatalities were more likely to be correctly reported on death certificates when an unrelated individual was the perpetrator rather than when a parent was the perpetrator, suggesting that the data is empirically skewed to support the Cinderella effect. According to this study, by Crume et al., when the perpetrator of the murder was a parent, maltreatment was correctly noted on the death certificate only 46 percent of the time. Furthermore, they found that when the perpetrator was an "Other unrelated (including boyfriend)" individual, maltreatment was reported on the death certificate 86 percent of the time, significantly higher than for parents. Although these statistics seem to provide evidence of bias against stepparents, further review of the data undermines this conclusion. As Crume et al. and Daly and Wilson note, maltreatment was only likely to be reported on the death certificates 47 percent of the time in the case of "Other relatives (including step-parents)," which represents a marginal increase from the amount of parental maltreatment. Therefore, as Daly and Wilson respond to Buller's critique, this does not seem to be a significant source of error in studying the Cinderella effect and does not provide evidence for inherent bias in their data.
Temrin et al. Sweden study
The findings of Daly and Wilson have been called into question by one study of child homicides in Sweden between 1975 and 1995, which found that children living in households with a non-genetic parent were not at an increased risk of homicide when compared to children living with both genetic parents. The study, published in 2000 and conducted by Temrin and colleagues argued that when Daly and Wilson classified homicides according to family situation, they did not account for the genetic relatedness of the parent who actually committed the crime. In the Swedish sample, in two out of the seven homicides with a genetic and non-genetic parent, the offender was actually the genetic parent and thus these homicides do not support Daly and Wilson's definition of the Cinderella effect.
Daly and Wilson attribute the contrasting findings of the Swedish study to an analytical oversight. Temrin and colleagues neglect to consider the fact that the proportion of children in living situations with a stepparent is not constant for all child age groups, but rather increases with age. After correcting for age differences, the Swedish data set produces results in accordance with the previous findings of Daly and Wilson. The Swedish sample does show, however, decreased risk to children living with a stepparent compared to the North American samples collected by Daly and Wilson, suggesting that there is some degree of cross-cultural variation in the Cinderella effect.
Alternative hypotheses
It has been noted by multiple researchers that child abuse is an intricate issue and is affected by other factors. Daly and Wilson state, however, that even if evolutionary psychology cannot account for every instance of stepparental abuse, this does not invalidate their empirical findings.
Burgess and Drais propose that child maltreatment is too complex to be explained fully by genetic relatedness alone and cite other reasons for child maltreatment, such as social factors, ecological factors and child traits such as disability and age. However, they also note that these traits are simply indicative, and do not inevitably lead to child maltreatment. Temrin and colleagues also suggest that there may be other factors involved with child homicide, such as prior convictions, drug abuse problems, lost custody battles and mental health problems.
In 1984, Giles-Sims and David Finkelhor categorized and evaluated five possible hypotheses that could explain the Cinderella effect: "social-evolutionary theory", "normative theory", "stress theory", "selection factors", and "resource theory". The social-evolutionary theory is based on the proposal that non-genetically related parents will invest less in costly parental duties, due to the fact that their genes are not being passed on by that individual. The normative theory proposes that, due to genetic repercussions, incest among genetically related individuals is a widespread taboo and would thus be less common among biological relatives. They propose that incest among stepfamilies would be less taboo, since there is no risk of genetic degradation. The stress theory proposes that increased stressors, which are inherently more common among stepfamilies, cause an increased risk of abuse. The selection factors theory proposes that individuals who are likely to be stepparents (divorcees) are likely to be inherently more violent due to emotional disturbances, aggressive impulses, and self-esteem issues. Due to this, stepparents as a group would have a higher proportion of individuals with violent-prone characteristics, which would suggest that the abuse is happening due to personality factors, rather than the stepparental relationship directly. Finally, according to resource theory, individuals who contribute resources are granted authority, while individuals that lack resources are denied authority and more likely to resort to violence to obtain authority. It is therefore hypothesized that stepparents who are able to contribute resources to a family and have those resources be accepted by the family are less likely to be abusive. However, this hypothesis had yet to be tested directly on stepfamilies. This paper of Giles-Sims and Finkelhor predates however practically all empirical studies on the Cinderella effect.
Ethical issues
Discussing the implications of this line of research, Australian psychologist Greg Tooley, author of a 2006 study confirming the existence of the effect, confessed that "it is certainly difficult to talk about because it is such a hot issue".
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Nigel Barber (June 1, 2009), Do parents favor natural children over adopted ones?, The Human Beast blog on Psychology Today, discussing:
Mindelle Jacobs (July 4, 2010), The Cinderella effect is not just a fairy tale , Edmonton Sun
Child abuse
Evolutionary psychology
Childhood
Abuse
Family
Foster care
Parenting
Kinship and descent
Cinderella
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Transport in Melbourne, the state capital of Victoria, Australia, consists of several interlinking modes. Melbourne is a hub for intercity, intracity and regional travel. Road-based transport accounts for most trips across many parts of the city, facilitated by Australia's largest freeway network. Public transport, including the world's largest tram network, trains and buses, also forms a key part of the transport system. Other dominant modes include walking, cycling and commercial-passenger vehicle services such as taxis. Melbourne is a busy regional transport hub for the statewide passenger rail network, coaches and interstate rail services to New South Wales and South Australia. Freight transport also makes up a significant proportion of trips made on the network from the Port of Melbourne, Melbourne Airport and industrial areas across the city.
According to the 2016 Australian census, Melbourne has the second-highest rate of public transport usage among Australian capital cities for travel to work at 19 percent, second to Sydney's 27 percent. In 2017-2018, 565 million passenger trips were made on Melbourne's metropolitan public transport network. Melbourne has the most road space per capita of any Australian city, with its freeway network being comparable to Los Angeles and Atlanta in terms of its size and scale. Much of Australia's automotive industry was located in Melbourne until all manufacturing ceased at the end of 2017. The state government, as part of the release of the Melbourne 2030 planning strategy in 2002, set a target for modal share of cars to decrease to 80 percent by 2020. However, increases in car usage since this target was set has not shown the decline that was initially predicted.
Timeline
1837: The Hoddle Grid, Melbourne's first street system, is laid out.
1844: Princes Bridge on St Kilda Road, a toll bridge and the first over the Yarra River, opens.
1849: Melbourne's main streets are paved.
1850: Tolls are removed from Princes Bridge.
1854: Flinders Street railway station and the first rail line to Sandridge (Port Melbourne) open.
1858: The Spencer Street station is built, connecting Melbourne to the rest of Victoria.
1885: First cable tram to Hawthorn
1889: First electric tram between Doncaster and Box Hill
1890: Doncaster railway line first proposed.
1910: Present Flinders Street station opens as the main suburban railway terminus.
1919: Electrification of the suburban rail network commences, continuing to this day
1920s: Flinders Street station declared the world's busiest station several times.
1940: The Ashworth Improvement Plan details proposed improvements to suburban rail in the inner city.
1966: St Kilda Junction remodelled and Queens Way underpass created for new highways at Dandenong Road and Punt Road.
1969: Melbourne Transportation Plan released planning numerous freeways and railways.
1970: The West Gate Bridge collapses, and the Melbourne Underground Rail Loop Authority is established.
1971: The Melbourne Underground Rail Loop project begins.
1977: First section of Eastern Freeway opens, with land reserved for a Doncaster railway line. The $202 million toll West Gate Bridge opens. Hoddle Highway is created from a four-lane widening of Hoddle Street and the demolition of buildings on the east side of Hoddle Street.
1980: The Lonie Report recommends replacing half the tram system with buses, as well as several railway lines in Melbourne and Victoria to be closed, but no tram routes were closed, and only 2 rail lines were closed to be replaced by trams.
1981: First stage of the Melbourne Underground Rail Loop opens.
1982: A transport bill is introduced in the Victorian Parliament.
1983: Transport Act 1983 receives royal assent on 23 June and becomes effective on 1 July. The act creates the State Transport Authority, the Metropolitan Transit Authority, the Road Construction Authority and the Road Traffic Authority. Victorian Railways, the Melbourne & Metropolitan Tramways Board and the Country Roads Board are abolished.
1985: Tolls removed from the West Gate Bridge.
1987: St Kilda and Port Melbourne railway lines replaced by trams.
1989: Construction of the $631 million Western Ring Road begins. The Public Transport Corporation and VicRoads replace the State Transport Authority, Metropolitan Transit Authority, Road Construction Authority and Road Traffic Authority on 1 July.
1992: A new government is elected in October under Premier Jeff Kennett. Alan Brown is appointed Minister for Public Transport and Bill Baxter Minister for Roads and Ports. The Ministry of Transport is replaced by the Department of Transport, and transport administration functions are transferred from the Public Transport Corporation to the secretary of the Department of Transport.
1994: Free City Circle Tram begins.
1995: The Dandenong to Cranbourne rail electrification opens, reinstating passenger service after several years, and the Public Transport Competition Act is passed by Parliament.
1996: Construction of the $2 billion CityLink tollway begins, and the Rail Corporations Act is passed by Parliament.
1997: Design of the franchising of the public transport network begins.
1998: Legislation establishes the Director of Public Transport to manage public transport service and VicTrack, to own public-transport land and assets.
1999: The Western Ring Road and the Bolte Bridge, the second major road over the Yarra River, open. The state government commissions the Linking Victoria study. The Director of Public Transport, VicTrack and the franchising of services begin.
2002: Transport Minister Peter Batchelor announces that the airport rail link to Tullamarine would not viable for another 10 years, and commits to upgrading Skybus Super Shuttle service to the airport. The state government commissions a Melbourne 2030 planning report, aimed at addressing population growth of up to a million new residents. With recommendations for transport, including the expansion of major activity centres (such as Dandenong and Camberwell) with access to public transport and tripling of the Dandenong line, the document aimed for 20% of trips in Melbourne to be made by public transport by 2020.
2003: The $23 million Box Hill tram-light rail extension opens.
2004: The Linking Melbourne: Metropolitan Transport Plan summarised findings of the Inner West Integrated Transport Study, North East Integrated Transport Study, Outer Western Suburbs Transport Strategy, Whittlesea Strategic Transport Infrastructure Study and Northern Central City Corridor Strategy, recommending $1.5 billion in investment. The Southern Cross Station redevelopment (which ran late and over budget), Docklands light-rail extension and the Regional Fast Train system were planned for the Commonwealth Games. The $30.5 million Vermont South tram extension begins.
2005: The $2.5 billion EastLink Freeway project begins.
2006: The state government releases Meeting our Transport Challenges, a $10 billion plan to improve public transport and roads. It includes a "Think Tram" project to reduce tram travel times and recommendations for a (delayed) SmartBus system for the eastern suburbs. The Rail Safety Act, Victoria's first rail-safety statute, becomes effective on 1 August. New transport-ticketing regulations begin. The state's first independent rail and bus safety regulator and rail, bus and marine safety investigator begin on 1 August.
2007: Myki, a new public-transport ticketing system which was delayed and over budget, is scheduled to be introduced. The state government commissions an east-west transport plan. Public-transport ticketing zone 3 is abolished. An accreditation scheme for taxi, bus and other commercial passenger-vehicle drivers and for taxi-industry licence-holders, operators and network-service providers begins on 1 July. Australia's first "Copenhagen style" cycleways are implemented in Swanston Street, Carlton; Tim Pallas rejects a Melbourne City Council plan for a Copenhagen-style cycleway on St Kilda Road. The Accident Towing Services Act is passed by Parliament.
2008: The Port Phillip Channel Deepening Project, a dredging project to deepen Melbourne's shipping channels, begins. The $18 billion Eddington Transport Report, aimed at reducing traffic congestion, focuses on East-West routes and includes a controversial 18-kilometre road tunnel and 17-kilometre rail tunnel and a new rail line from Werribee to Deer Park, Victoria but does not address greenhouse emissions. Eastlink opens, and the Monash-CityLink-West Gate freeway upgrade begins. The Department of Transport (Victoria, 2008–13) replaces the Department of Infrastructure. The Australian Greens Victoria transport plan is released. Public Transport Minister Lynne Kosky postpones an airport link 20 years. The Victorian Transport Plan, the state government's fourth "long-term" transport statement since 2002, is released. New Melbourne Lord Mayor Robert Doyle proposes returning vehicle traffic to Swanston Street.
2009: The Accident Towing Services Act mandates new standards for tow-truck operations (including licence holders and drivers) on 1 January. The Transport Integration Bill (later the Transport Integration Act) is introduced in the Victorian Parliament on 10 December. Myki is introduced in late December on suburban trains. The Major Transport Projects Facilitation Act 2009, speeding planning consents and delivery of rail, road and port projects, is passed by Parliament and begins on 1 September.
2010: A Fair Fines package begins on 1 February as part of Transport (Infringements) Regulations 2010, with infringement penalties for minors reduced by two-thirds and a graduated-penalties programme eliminated. The Transport Integration Act is passed by the Victorian Parliament in February, and becomes law on 1 July. Melbourne Bike Share, a public bicycle-hire service, is planned for mid-year. The Transport Act 1983 is renamed the Transport (Compliance and Miscellaneous) Act 1983 on 1 July. Public-transport and marine-safety regulators merge to create the Director, Transport Safety on 1 July after the merger of Director, Public Transport Safety (Public Transport Safety Victoria) and Director, Marine Safety (Marine Safety Victoria). The Victorian Regional Channels Authority and the Port of Hastings Corporation are merged with the Port of Melbourne Corporation on 1 September. The new state government, elected on 27 November under Premier Ted Baillieu with Terry Mulder as Minister for Public Transport and Minister for Roads, Denis Napthine as Minister for Ports and Edward O'Donoghue as Parliamentary Secretary for Transport, promises to create the Victorian Public Transport Development Authority to plan and manage public transport in Victoria and Melbourne. The Tourist and Heritage Railways Act and the Marine Safety Act 2010 are passed by the Victorian Parliament. The Bus Safety Act begins on 31 December.
2011: Terry Mulder announces the government's intention in March to hold a Taxi Industry Inquiry, which begins in late May headed by Allan Fels. The Transport Legislation Amendment (Taxi Services Reform and Other Matters) Act 2011 passes the Victorian Parliament on 29 June, empowering the Taxi Industry Inquiry and creating the Taxi Services Commission (which begins operations on 19 July). The Transport Legislation Amendment (Port of Hastings Development Authority) Act 2011 passes the Victorian Parliament on 16 August, creating the Port of Hastings Development Authority. The Tourist and Heritage Railways Act and the Tourist and Heritage Railways Regulations 2011 become effective on 1 October. the Transport Legislation Amendment (Public Transport Development Authority) Act 2011 passes the Victorian Parliament on 27 October, empowering Public Transport Victoria (which begins operations on 15 December). The Port Management Amendment (Port of Melbourne Licence Fee) Bill 2011, introduced in the Victorian Parliament in early December, proposes a $75 million annual fee to be paid by the Port of Melbourne Corporation to the Victorian government.
2012: The Port of Hastings Development Authority begins operations on 1 January, reversing the merger of the former Port of Hastings Corporation and the Port of Melbourne Corporation. The Public Transport Development Authority (now known as Public Transport Victoria) takes over train, tram and bus service in Victoria on 2 April, in accordance with the Transport Legislation Amendment (Public Transport Development Authority) Act 2011. The extension of the Epping railway line to South Morang is completed in April. The Port of Melbourne Corporation becomes liable on 1 July for a $75 million licence fee to the government, in accordance with the Port Management Amendment (Port of Melbourne Licence Fee) Act 2012. The Marine Safety Act 2010 begins on 1 July, setting new standards for commercial and recreational vessels; the Marine Act 1988 is repealed. Strict drug controls (for anyone in charge of a vessel) and zero blood-alcohol controls introduced for commercial vessel operators are introduced by the Transport Legislation Amendment (Drug and Alcohol Controls and Other Matters) Act 2012 on 1 December. The federal government approves plans for Avalon Airport to become Melbourne's second international airport. The Metcard ticketing system ends in December, leaving Myki Melbourne's sole public-transport ticketing system. Laws are enacted late in the year to support the opening and operation of the Peninsula Link freeway.
2013: The Peninsula Link freeway opens in January. A$78 million "handover area" building project begins at train stations. The Director of Public Transport and the Transport Ticketing Authority are abolished on 1 July, and their functions become part of Public Transport Victoria. The Taxi Services Commission becomes the state's taxi and hire-car regulator on 1 July, replacing the Victorian Taxi Directorate (which was abolished).
2015: The Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources (DEDJTR) replaces the Department of Transport, Planning and Local Infrastructure as the department responsible for transport policy.
2015: The Regional Rail Link opens in June, separating regional Ballarat, Bendigo and Geelong service from the suburban service. Two new stations are built, at Tarneit and Wyndham Vale.
2016: The government began removing level crossings and running the rail under or over the roads. Along the Cranbourne-Pakenham line from Caulfield to Dandenong the rail was elevated the entire length.
2017: Work began on Metro Tunnel which would increase the capacity on the City Loop.
2017: Transport for Victoria is formed within DEDJTR by an amendment to the Transport Integration Act, to plan and coordinate the transport network.
2018: The federal and state governments announced that they would be funding a connection to the airport as part of the existing rail network.
2018: The state government announces plans for the Suburban Rail Loop, a new heavy rail line to connect existing train corridors in non-CBD locations to facilitate cross-suburban travel.
2019: The Department of Transport is separated from DEDJTR as the department responsible for transport policy.
Mode share and patronage
Public transport
Melbourne's public transport system includes rail, tram and bus services. Its tram network is the largest in the world. Almost 300 bus routes and 16 rail lines serve Greater Melbourne.
Melbourne has a fully integrated ticketing system across all modes of public transport in the metropolitan area, known as the 'myki' contactless smart card. This requires passengers to touch the card to a reader at each entry and exit point. myki's rollout began on 29 December 2009 on the rail network. It was then progressively rolled out to trams, buses and regional rail. It completely replaced the old magnetic stripe card Metcard system on 30 June 2013.
Since World War II Melbourne has become a dispersed, car-oriented city, leading to a decline in public transport use. The original transport patterns of urban development are still reflected Melbourne's prewar areas. The city's public transport system was privatised by the government in 1999. Under this arrangement, rail and tram operations are contracted to private companies while the infrastructure remained under government control. Several operators have been awarded contracts since its commencement, including Connex Melbourne, M>Train and Keolis Downer. Despite initial plans that government subsidies would decrease to zero by 2015, payments to private companies have instead increased significantly.
A 2009 space syntax analysis of Melbourne's tram and train network found that only 8.8 percent of residents in Greater Melbourne was within 30 minutes of any location in the greater Melbourne area and only 10–15 percent could access appropriate and timely public transport. Melbourne's public transport system handled seven percent of all trips within the metropolitan area; the figure increased to nine percent in early 2009, with the passenger-kilometre share increasing to 11 percent.
Bus
The bus network consists of about 50 bus companies under a franchise agreement with the state Government. Approximately 300 routes are in operation, including twenty-one night bus routes that operate on Friday and Saturday nights. Bus patronage is low compared to similar cities around Australia, which some experts have attributed to the presence of the tram network servicing many trips that would normally be taken by bus. Several 'SmartBus' routes were introduced in the late 2000s in an attempt to improve parts of the system with improved bus priority and frequencies and span of service hours better than most other bus routes at the time. Despite its success at significantly increasing bus patronage, the branding was scrapped in 2014 and bus priority gradually removed to give more space to cars.
Although all Melbourne buses use the myki ticketing system, the SkyBus between Melbourne Airport and Southern Cross railway station is a non-myki bus service. Several local government councils also operate free community bus services in their local areas including Port Phillip, Nillumbik and
Darebin
Tram
Melbourne has the world's largest tram network, consisting of of double track, nearly 500 trams on 24 routes, and 1,763 tram stops. It is operated by Keolis Downer. Two partial-light rail routes are also part of the network. Most of the remaining track is mixes with general traffic which also makes it one of the slowest tram networks in the world. Trams operate mostly in the inner suburbs and generally provide for short to medium-length trips. Heritage trams operate on the free City Circle route and privately run Colonial Tramcar Restaurant.
Suburban rail
Melbourne has a 16 line urban heavy rail network which is operated by Metro Trains Melbourne and serviced by a fleet of 326 EMU trains. With the exception of the Stony Point line, the entire urban rail network is electrified. The urban network is considered to be a commuter-heavy rail hybrid and not a metro system of high-frequency and high-capacity services. Metropolitan, rural and interstate railway networks link together at the Southern Cross railway station, in Melbourne's central business district, with the other principal station being Flinders Street railway station.
Regional rail
Melbourne is the centre of a statewide railway network consisting of lines used for freight and passenger service. Intrastate passenger services are operated by the government-owned V/Line corporation, with a fleet of locomotive-hauled trains and diesel multiple units. Seven passenger railway lines connect Melbourne to towns and cities in Victoria. Portions of lines which are part of the V/Line network and cover the metropolitan area are also covered by myki tickets.
The city is also connected to Sydney by the NSW TrainLink XPT, and to Adelaide by Great Southern Rail's The Overland.
Fares
Melbourne's public-transport system is divided into two zones, in addition to the free tram zone in the central business district and some surrounding areas. Myki has two forms of tickets: myki money (in which money is loaded on a myki and the system selects the "best fare") and the myki-pass, where commuters pre-purchase tickets (or passes).
Rail freight
The Port of Melbourne is Australia's largest container and general cargo port, handling 33 percent of Australia's container trade. Shipping lines operate to about 300 cities around the world, and 3,200 ships visit the port each year. The port is in Melbourne's inner west, near the junction of the Maribyrnong and Yarra Rivers.
Melbourne has an extensive network of railway lines and yards to serve freight traffic. The lines have two gauges – broad gauge and standard gauge – and are not electrified. Freight trains have their own lines in the city's inner western suburbs, but in other areas trains are required to share the tracks with Metro Trains Melbourne and V/Line passenger service. Most freight terminals are in the inner suburbs near the port between Melbourne's central business district and Footscray. A number of suburban stations had their own goods yards, with freight trains running on the suburban network until the 1980s.
Airports
Melbourne Airport, located in the north-western suburb of Tullamarine, is Australia's second-busiest airport. It serves over 30 airlines and 22 million international and domestic passengers annually. The airport is a hub for passenger airlines Qantas, Jetstar and Virgin Australia, and cargo airlines Qantas Freight and Toll Priority.
Melbourne's second major passenger airport, Avalon Airport (Melbourne Avalon), is south-west of the city and north-east of Geelong. Avalon Airport, primarily used by Jetstar, operates flights to Brisbane, Sydney and Perth. AirAsia X began low-cost flights from Avalon to Kuala Lumpur in December 2018, giving Melbourne a second international airport (unique among Australia's capital cities).
The city's first major airport, Essendon Airport, is no longer used for scheduled international flights. Although a small number of regional airlines operate from there, it is primarily used for general aviation and is also home to Victoria's air ambulance.
Moorabbin Airport, south of Melbourne, is primarily used for recreational flying and flying lessons. It has some regional-airline service, notably to King Island, Tasmania. Moorabbin is a Class D airport, and its ICAO airport code is YMMB.
RAAF Williams, Point Cook, where the Royal Australian Air Force originated, is located near Melbourne's south-western limits.
Roads
Melbourne is one of the world's most car-dependent cities, with 74 percent of all trips to and from work or education being done by car. Its freeway network is the largest in Australia, with an extensive grid of arterial roads dating back to Melbourne's initial surveying. The city's total road length is .
The freeway network began with the 1969 Melbourne Transportation Plan, which included a grid of freeways which would cover the metropolitan area. The plans were reviewed four years later and many inner-city projects were cancelled. Freeways built during the 1960s and 1970s include the South Eastern Arterial (now part of the Monash Freeway), the Tullamarine Freeway, the Lower Yarra Freeway (now the West Gate Freeway) and the Eastern Freeway.
Expansion took place over the next thirty years, with the Monash Freeway, CityLink and the Western Ring Road all being constructed during this time. The period also saw freeway expansion into the suburbs with the Mornington Peninsula Freeway, an extension of the Eastern Freeway and the South Gippsland Freeway. In 2008, the EastLink toll freeway opened and existing freeways were further extended.
Despite government figures indicating slowed growth in road travel since 2006 (zero growth in 2008–09) and the government's goal to reduce road use to 80 percent of all motorised trips, the State Government have announced several large-scale road infrastructure investments to complete many projects from the original 1969 Plan, including Peninsula Link, East West Link and North East Link). This road construction has continued to increase the use of cars and direct investment away from other transport projects.
Bicycles
Melbourne has an extensive network of bicycle paths and bike lanes, which are used for recreation and commuting. Five of Australia's top 10 suburbs for bicycle mode share for journeys to work are located in Melbourne. A series of major off-road paths shared with pedestrians caters for bike riders in the inner suburbs, but infrastructure tends to be less extensive further away into surrounding suburbs.
On 31 May 2010, Australia's first public bicycle-sharing system (Melbourne Bike Share) was introduced. The complete system consists of 50 docking stations with 600 bikes located throughout the city's central business district. Singaporean bike-sharing company oBike entered the Melbourne market in mid-2017, but abandoned its program in 2018 following extensive complaints and issues with its business practices.
Taxis
Taxis in Melbourne have since 1 July 2013 been regulated by the Taxi Services Commission, which began operation on 19 July. The Taxi Industry Inquiry resulted in major reforms to Victoria's taxi industry, significantly impacting taxi service in Melbourne. Taxis were required to be painted canary yellow until this requirement was abolished in 2013. Melbourne has 4,660 licensed, metered taxis, including 443 wheelchair-accessible cabs.
Vehicle for hire companies such as Uber, DiDi, Shofer, Taxify, GoCatch, Shebah, and Ola Cabs, also operate in Melbourne.
Ferries
Public Transport Victoria oversees three ferry services in Victoria: the Westgate Punt (between Spotswood and Fishermans Bend), the French Island Ferry, which operates between the Stony Point railway station, French Island and Cowes on Phillip Island and Port Phillip Ferries which operates between Docklands, Geelong and Portarlington.
Cruise ships and ferries (including the Spirit of Tasmania, which crosses Bass Strait to Tasmania) dock at Station Pier on Port Phillip Bay. Privately run ferries and other vessels also travel from Southbank along the Yarra River, to Williamstown, and across Port Phillip Bay.
Legislation and regulation
Transport Integration Act
The main transport statute in Victoria is the Transport Integration Act 2010, which establishes and sets the charters of the state agencies charged with providing transport and managing the state's transport system. The Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources is responsible for the integration and coordination of Victoria's transport system. However, other departments and agencies also have a coordination and implementation role in transport. Other key state agencies are:
Transport for Victoria
Public Transport Victoria
VicRoads
V/Line
VicTrack
Governing bodies
There are several agencies and organisations tasked with coordinating and delivering transport in Victoria. Many fall within the purview of Transport for Victoria, but others are run from other departments or are independent government organisations.
Public Transport Victoria
In 2010, the state government resolved to create a new independent agency to coordinate and oversee all aspects of the state's public transport.
According to the government, the authority would plan, co-ordinate, manage and administer metropolitan trams and metropolitan and regional buses and trains, replacing the previous structure of multiple agencies. The authority was established in late 2011, and was expected to be fully operational by mid-2012. Public Transport Victoria assumed the rail, tram and bus responsibilities of the former Director of Public Transport and the activities of the Transport Ticketing Authority and MetLink, which were abolished.
Transport for Victoria
In 2016, the state government established a new coordinating agency for transport in the state. It serves as an umbrella agency, overseeing the activities of several other transport organisations and agencies across multiple modes of transport. This includes VicRoads, Public Transport Victoria and V/Line. The agency was established in 2017 and operates under the Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources.
Taxi Services Commission
The government announced a Taxi Industry Inquiry and the establishment of a Taxi Services Commission (TSC) in early 2011. The inquiry, headed by Allan Fels, was conducted by the TSC. The government introduced the Transport Legislation Amendment (Taxi Services Reform and Other Matters) Act 2011, which was enacted in late June 2011 to empower the inquiry. The TSC, established on 19 July 2011, became the state's taxi and hire-car regulator on 1 July 2013.
Port of Hastings Development Authority
The government reversed the late-2010 merger of the Port of Melbourne Corporation (PMC) and the Port of Hastings Corporation by establishing the new Port of Hastings Development Authority to oversee development of a new port in Hastings. The Transport Legislation Amendment (Port of Hastings Development Authority) Bill 2011 was passed by the Parliament of Victoria in late 2011, and the authority began operations on 1 January 2012.
Safety regulation and investigation
The safety of rail operations in Melbourne is regulated by the 2006 Rail Safety Act, which applies to commercial passenger and freight operations and tourist and heritage railways. The act created a framework of safety requirements for all rail-industry participants, and requires rail operators who manage infrastructure and rolling stock to obtain accreditation before commencing operations. Accredited rail operators are required to have a safety-management system to guide their operations. Sanctions for violations of the safety requirements established by the Rail Safety Act are outlined in the Transport (Compliance and Miscellaneous) Act 1983.
Safety regulation of the bus and marine sectors is overseen by the Director, Transport Safety under the 2009 Bus Safety Act and the Marine Act 1988, respectively. The sectors are subject to a no-fault safety-investigation plan conducted by the Chief Investigator, Transport Safety. The safety regulator for Melbourne's rail, bus and marine systems is Transport Safety Victoria, established under the Transport Integration Act 2010.
Rail, bus and marine operators in Victoria can be subjected to no-fault investigations by the Chief Investigator, Transport Safety or the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB). The chief investigator is charged by Part 7 of the Transport Integration Act 2010 with investigating rail, bus and marine safety matters, including incidents. The ATSB has jurisdiction over rail matters (on a designated interstate rail network), marine matters (if the ship(s) is under Australian or AMSA regulation) and bus-safety matters (by invitation of a jurisdiction).
Ticketing and conduct requirements
Ticketing requirements for rail, tram and bus service in Victoria are primarily contained in Transport (Ticketing) Regulations 2006 and the Victorian Fares and Ticketing Manual. Rules about safe and fair behaviour on trains and trams in Victoria are generally contained in the Transport (Compliance and Miscellaneous) Act 1983 and Transport (Conduct) Regulations 2005. Conduct requirements for buses are set out in that act and Transport (Passenger Vehicles) Regulations 2005.
See also
Transportation in Australia
References
Further reading
External links
Victorian Department of Transport
Transport for Melbourne - An advocacy alliance for improved public transport planning in Melbourne that publicly launched in 2016.
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The Battle of Krasnoi (Krasny) was a series of skirmishes fought from 15 to 18 November 1812 during the final stage of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. In this engagement the Russians under General Kutuzov inflicted heavy losses on the remnants of the Grande Armee, which was severely weakened by attrition. Neither Kutuzov nor Napoleon allowed this clash to escalate into a full battle. Throughout the four days of combat, Napoleon sought to rush his troops, extended in a 50 mile line of march, past the Russians, who were positioned parallel to the highway. Despite the vast superiority of the Russian army, Kutuzov refrained from launching a full offensive as he did not want to risk a pitched battle against Napoleon.
The climax of the engagement occurred on 17 November, when an aggressive feint by the French Imperial Guard induced Kutuzov to delay a potentially decisive final attack. This daring maneuver enabled Napoleon to evacuate a large part of his army before the Russians seized Krasny. Napoleon managed to avoid a complete defeat.
Despite Napoleon's successful rear guard action, overall the encounter was ruinous for the French. The corps of Davout, Eugene, and Ney suffered heavy defeats in individual actions during the four days of fighting. Russian Cossacks took large numbers of prisoners, and the Grande Armee was forced to abandon much of its remaining artillery and baggage train.
The forces converge on Krasny
Napoleon retreats from Smolensk
After departing from Moscow on 18 October with 100,000 combat-ready but undersupplied troops, Napoleon's strategic object was to quarter his army for the winter at the closest French supply depot, which was at Smolensk, to the west. Kutuzov had forced Napoleon after the Battle of Maloyaroslavets to retreat northwest over Mozhaisk to Smolensk on the devastated route of his advance that he had wished to avoid. During the three-week march to Smolensk, however, the Grande Armée was devastated by a combination of factors: starvation, demoralization, breakdown in troop discipline, a crippling loss of horses and essential supplies, attacks from the Russian army, constant harassment by its Cossack irregulars and partisans. The condition of the Grande Armée was further degraded by sub-zero temperatures in the "Russian Winter", the first two weeks of November.
By the time the French arrived at Smolensk on 9 November, the strategic situation in Russia had turned decisively against Napoleon. Only 40% men of what was left of the Grande Armée was still under arms at this point. The ravaged condition of his forces and French defeats on other fronts, Napoleon realized his position at Smolensk was untenable surrounded by Russian armies, threatening his retreat. The new strategic goal was to put the Grande Armée into winter quarters further west, in the area of the massive French supply depot of Minsk.
Having lost contact with Kutuzov during the previous two weeks, Napoleon incorrectly believed that the Russian army must have been as devastated by the elements as his own. Not expecting an offensive by Kutuzov, Napoleon made the strategic mistake of resuming his retreat by dispatching the Grande Armée's corps individually from Smolensk on four successive days, starting on 13 November. Napoleon left on the 14th, Davout on the 15th, Beauharnais on the 16th, Ney on the 17th, together with Joseph Barbanègre, the city commandant. Thus the French approached Krasny in a piecemeal long column of disconnected corps, not massed together in preparation for battle.
On 14 November, the corps of Józef Zajączek (V Corps) and Junot, as the vanguard of the retreating French army, passed through Krasny and continued marching west to Orsha. The next day, 15 November, Napoleon himself arrived at Krasny with his 16,000-strong Imperial Guard. There Napoleon planned to remain for several days so that the 6,000 troops of Eugène's IV Corps, the 9,000 troops of Davout's I Corps, and the 8,000 troops of Ney's III Corps could unite with him before he resumed his retreat. Ney's corps formed the rearguard and was not to leave Smolensk until 17 November, after destroying the city walls. Marching between and around these French corps were nearly 40,000 troops who had disintegrated into mobs of unarmed, disorganized stragglers.
Kutuzov's southern march
During the same period, the main Russian army under Kutuzov followed the French on a parallel southern road. Because this route passed through countryside unaffected by previous campaigning, the Russian army approached Krasny much less weakened by attrition than the Grande Armée.
Based on faulty intelligence reports, Kutuzov believed that only one third of the French army was retreating through Krasny toward Orsha, with Napoleon and the balance of his forces marching much farther to the north. Kutuzov therefore accepted a plan proposed by his staff officer, Colonel Toll, to march on Krasny to destroy what was believed to be an isolated French column.
The Russian position at Krasny began forming on 15 November, when the 3,500-strong flying advance guard of Adam Ozharovsky seized the town. The same day, the 16,000 troops of Miloradovich took position at Rshavka, a village located alongside the eastern road leading into Krasny. Meanwhile, Kutuzov's 35,000-strong main force slowly approached Krasny from the south, taking position several miles away from the town.
In all, Kutuzov had 50,000 to 60,000 regular troops at his disposal at Krasny, including a large cavalry force and approximately 500 cannon. Another 20,000 Cossack irregulars, operating mostly in small bands, supplemented the main army by harassing the French at all points along the long road from Smolensk to Krasny. Kutuzov's main body was divided into two columns. The larger force, led by General Alexander Tormasov, formed the left flank. The second column, commanded by Prince Dmitry Golitsyn, held the army's center. Miloradovich's position at Rshavka represented the Russian right flank.
15 November: the rout of Ozharovsky
15 November saw the first actions in and around Krasny as the 16,000-strong Imperial Guard, led personally by Napoleon, marched past Miloradovich's troops, who were positioned on the high ground parallel to the road. Impressed by the order and composure of the elite guardsmen, Miloradovich decided not to attack them, and settled instead for bombarding the French at extreme range. The Russian cannon fire inflicted little damage on the Guard, which continued moving toward Krasny.
During the afternoon of the 15th, the Imperial Guard was harassed on the road between Nikolino and Lyskovo by the Cossacks of General Vasily Orlov-Denisov. The eyewitness description of this encounter by the Russian partisan leader Denis Davidov, which eloquently portrays the comportment of the Old Guard and Napoleon, has become one of the most often quoted in the histories of the 1812 war:
Later that day, Napoleon and his Guard entered Krasny, and his troops forced the withdrawal of the squadrons of Cossacks under General Ozharovsky who were in possession of the village. Napoleon promptly made plans to remain in Krasny for several days so that the rest of his army could catch up with him.
Shortly after midnight, Napoleon detected the campfires of Ozharovsky's 3,500-strong force near Kutkovo, south of Krasny. Recognizing that Ozharovsky's position was dangerously isolated from Kutuzov's main army, Napoleon dispatched the Young Guard on a surprise attack against the Russian encampment, which was not protected by pickets. The operation was first entrusted to General Jean Rapp, but at the last moment Napoleon replaced Rapp with General Francois Roguet then divided the Guardsmen into three columns and began a silent advance on Ozharovsky's camp. In the ensuing combat, the Russians were taken completely by surprise and, despite their fierce resistance, were totally routed. As many as half of Ozharovsky's troops were killed or captured, and the remainder threw their weapons in a lake nearby Krasny and fled south. Lacking cavalry, Roguet was unable to pursue Ozharovsky's remaining troops.
16 November: the defeat of Eugène
Miloradovich attacks
The next day, 16 November, however, went much better for the Russians as Miloradovich's soldiers cut the road leading to Krasny and inflicted heavy losses on the French corps of Prince Eugène de Beauharnais. In this skirmishing, Eugène's IV Corps lost one third of its original force of 6,000, as well as its baggage train and artillery. Eugène fooled the Russian general attacking his army on the left flank, but managed to escape the heights on right side and succeeded to connect with Napoleon and his Imperial Guard. He was saved from total destruction only because Kutuzov, who did not want the skirmishing to expand into a full-scale battle, ordered Miloradovich to restrain himself and reposition his troops closer to the main army at Shilova. A force of Cossacks was left to harass Eugène while Miloradovich's final attack was postponed to the next day.
Kutuzov at Zhuli
Earlier that day, Kutuzov's main army finally arrived within of Krasny, taking up positions around the villages of Novoselye and Zhuli. Kutuzov could have attacked Krasny immediately, but he chose not to.
That evening, under pressure from his aggressive subordinate generals to move decisively against the French, Kutuzov finally made plans for an offensive, but he firmly forbade his commanders from executing the attack until daylight on 17 November, which meant the French would have the entire evening to evacuate Krasny unharassed by the Russians.
The Russian battle plan called for the army to execute a three pronged attack on Krasny. Miloradovich was to remain east of the village near Lyskovo, and attack Eugène's IV Corps and Davout's I Corps. The main army at Novoselye and Zhuli would break into two groups: Prince Golitsyn would advance directly west through Uvarovo against Krasny with 15,000 troops. Alexander Tormasov with 20,000 troops was to encircle Krasny from the west by marching through Kutkovo to Dobroye, where they would cut the French retreat route to Orsha. Ozharovsky's flying column—reinforced since its drubbing by the Young Guard—would operate independently west and north of Krasny.
Sometime after 1:00 a.m. on 17 November, Kutuzov learned from prisoners that Napoleon would be remaining in Krasny, and not withdrawing before the Russian attack as Kutuzov had expected. Kutuzov now had second thoughts about executing the Russian army's planned offensive.
17 November: Napoleon's bold maneuver
Davout in peril
At 3:00 a.m. on 17 November, the 9,000 troops of Davout's I Corps decamped from their bivouac near Rzhavka and began a forced march to Krasny. The reports of Eugène's defeat the previous day were so dismaying that Davout felt it necessary to abandon his original plan of postponing his movement until Ney's III Corps, still at Smolensk, had caught up with him.
Miloradovich, permitted by Kutuzov to recommence his attack, opened a massive artillery barrage on Davout near Yeskovo. The panicked French troops began fleeing from the road, and as Russian infantry and cavalry attacks were likely to follow, the I Corps was soon threatened with destruction.
"The first corps was thus preserved, but we learned at the same time, that our rear-guard could no longer defend itself at Krasnoi; that Ney was probably still at Smolensk, and that we must give up waiting for him any longer. Napoleon, however, still hesitated; he could not determine on making this great sacrifice."
Napoleon orders the Guard to advance
Davout's peril, and the distressing developments of the previous day had alerted Napoleon to the grave danger confronting the Grande Armée. Waiting for Davout and Ney in Krasny was no longer feasible, given that any kind of determined attack by Kutuzov would destroy the Grande Armée. The starving French troops also needed to reach their closest supply source west at Orsha—before the Russians captured the town ahead of him.
At this critical juncture, Napoleon's "sense of initiative" returned to him for the first time in weeks. In Caulaincourt's words: "This turn of events, which upset all the Emperor's calculations... would have overwhelmed any other general. But the Emperor was stronger than adversity, and became the more stubborn as danger seemed more imminent."
Immediately, before daylight, Napoleon prepared his Imperial Guard to make an aggressive feint against Miloradovich and the main Russian army, gambling that this unexpected maneuver would discourage the Russians from attacking Davout. The Grande Armée's remaining artillery was massed for combat, and the Guardsmen formed themselves into attack columns.
Simultaneously, the remnant of Eugène's IV Corps was ordered to advance west from Krasny, to secure the Grande Armée's escape route to Orsha.
Napoleon's hope was to fend off the Russians just long enough to collect Davout's and Ney's troops, and to immediately resume his retreat before Kutuzov attacked or outflanked him by moving on Orsha.
The Imperial Guard moves forward
At 5:00 a.m., 11,000 Imperial Guardsman marched out of Krasny intending to secure the terrain immediately east and southeast of the village. These troops split into two columns: one 5,000 strong moving along the road to Smolensk, the other 6,000 Young Guardsmen led by Roguet, marching south of the road toward Uvarovo. The left flank of the Young Guard's column was protected by a battalion of elite Old Guard grenadiers, described by Segur as forming a "fortress like square." Stationed on the right of these columns were the weak remnants of the Guard's cavalry. Overall direction of the operation was entrusted to Marshal Mortier.
This feint of the Guard was lent additional melodrama by the personal presence of Napoleon. With his birch walking stick in hand, Napoleon placed himself at the helm of his Old Guard grenadiers, declaring "I have played the Emperor long enough! It is time to play general!"
Facing the tattered but resolute Imperial Guardsmen were densely concentrated Russian infantry columns to the south and east, supported by massive, powerful artillery batteries. Lacking sufficient cannon of their own, the Guardsmen were badly outgunned by the enemy. As described by Segur: "Russian battalions and batteries barred the horizon on all three sides—in front, on our right, and behind us"
Kutuzov's reaction to the Imperial Guard's forward movement led to the most decisive and controversial development of the battle: he promptly cancelled his army's planned offensive, even in spite of the Russians' overwhelming superiority in strength.
For most of the rest of this day, the Russians remained at a safe distance from the Guard, beyond the reach of French muskets and bayonets, and simply blasted the Young Guard with cannon fire from afar.
Combat near Uvarovo
The limited close quarters combat that did occur on this day unfolded throughout the morning and early afternoon around Uvarovo. The Imperial Guard attacked Uvarovo in order to use the village to cover Davout's retreat into Krasny.
Uvarovo was held by two battalions of Golitsyn's infantry, which formed a weak forward outpost in advance of the rest of the Russian army. The Russians were soon driven from Uvarovo, as Kutuzov forbade Golitsyn from reinforcing his troops. Golitsyn reacted by commencing a devastating artillery barrage on Uvarovo, which took a terrible toll on the Young Guardsmen.
Kutuzov, in order to mass as much strength as possible behind Golitsyn, at this point ordered Miloradovich to shift his position west, so that it linked with Golitsyn's lines. Kutuzov's decision to realign Miloradovich's troops is remarkable, as the bulk of the Russian army—Golitsyn's and Tormasov's commands—were already merged in a powerful defensive position. Miloradovich was thus denied the chance to complete the destruction of Davout.
Meanwhile, to the north, Davout's troops began streaming into Krasny, harassed by swarms of Cossacks who made no serious attempt to stop them. The Russian artillery continued to pound Davout's corps with grapeshot, inflicting ruinous casualties on the I Corps. Most of Davout's baggage train was lost, but a significant number of his infantrymen had been saved, and they were rallied by their officers in Krasny.
Next, General Bennigsen, second in seniority only to Kutuzov among Russian generals, ordered Golitsyn to recapture Uvarovo. Golitsyn's attack was met by a simultaneous counterattack by a column of the Guard's voltigeurs.
Golitsyn attacked the voltigeurs with two regiments of cuirassiers; the French formed squares and repelled the attack. During the third Russian attack they became trapped and without ammunition, and soon the entire contingent of Light Infantery was killed or captured; the 33rd regiment light infantry ceased to exist. A second line of (Dutch) grenadiers, which had been advancing to support the voltigeurs, then fell back under heavy Russian cannon fire. The grenadiers were driven from a critical defensive position with massive casualties. Roguet attempted to support the Dutch by attacking the Russian artillery batteries, but this offensive was broken up by Russian grapeshot and cavalry charges. Only fifty soldiers and eleven officers of the Grenadiers survived this encounter.
Napoleon retreats
Around 11:00 a.m., as the Imperial Guard was holding firm near Uvarovo despite its withering losses, Napoleon received intelligence reports that Tormasov's troops were readying to march west of Krasny. This news, coupled with the Young Guard's mounting casualties, forced Napoleon to abandon his ultimate object of standing down Kutuzov long enough for Ney's III Corps to arrive in Krasny. If Kutuzov opted to attack, the Grande Armée would be encircled and destroyed. Napoleon immediately ordered the Old Guard to fall back on Krasny, and then join Eugène's IV Corps in marching west toward Liady and Orsha. The Young Guard, nearing its breaking point, would remain near Uvarovo, to be relieved shortly thereafter by Davout's reorganized troops from Krasny.
Napoleon's decision was not an easy one to make. Segur describes the beleaguered Emperor's predicament as follows:
In short order, the Old Guard was following the IV Corps moving west out of Krasny, and the road to Orsha was clogged with soldiers and their wagonry. Huge mobs of civilians, fugitives, and stragglers preceded the retreating French troops.
Meanwhile, near Uvarovo the Young Guard's capacity to resist the Russians was deteriorating rapidly, and Mortier ordered a retreat before his remaining troops were surrounded and destroyed. As if on parade ground drill, the perfectly disciplined Guardsmen then turned about face and marched back to Krasny, absorbing a final, terrible barrage of Russian cannonshot as they retired.
Only 3,000 of the Young Guard's original 6,000 troops had survived the Russian shelling near Uvarovo. 17 November may have been the bloodiest day in the Young Guard's entire history.
The Young Guard's retreat did not end once it returned to Krasny. Mortier and Davout were so wary of the possibility that the inert Kutuzov might attack that they immediately joined the throng of troops, mobs and wagons rushing that moment to Liady. Only a weak rearguard under General Friedrich was left to hold Krasny. Ney's III Corps, having departed Smolensk only that morning, would not find Davout's I Corps in Krasny awaiting him.
Kutuzov delays the pursuit
Miloradovich and Golitsyn were not permitted by Kutuzov to attack Krasny for several more hours.
At 2:00 p.m., satisfied that the French were in full retreat and not intending to resist his troops' advance, Kutuzov finally allowed Tormasov to begin his enveloping movement west through Kutkovo and north to Dobroye. It would take Tormasov two hours to reach his destination, however, by which time the opportunity to encircle and destroy the Grande Armée would be past.
Sometime around 3:00 p.m., Golitsyn's troops rushed into Krasny like a torrent, and Friedrich's rearguard quickly crumbled.
Simultaneously, on the western road to Liady, the French initially encountered an ambush by the small detachments of Ozharovsky and Rosen. A bedlam of exploding grapeshot, overturned wagons, careening carriages, and mobs of fugitives rushing in panic ensued. But the troops of Cobert and Latour-Maubourg forced the Russians aside, and Napoleon was finally marching on Orsha.
The final noteworthy event of the day occurred in Dobroye, when the hind end of the I Corps baggage train, including Davout's personal carriages, fell to the Cossacks. Among the booty captured by the Russians were Davout's war chest, a plethora of maps of the Middle East, Central Asia and India, and Davout's Marshal baton.
By nightfall on 17 November, Kutuzov had occupied Krasny and its surroundings with his 70,000 troops. Marshal Ney, still advancing on Krasny from the east, was not yet aware the Grande Armée was no longer in Krasny to receive his III Corps.
18 November: the destruction of Ney
At 3:00 p.m. on 18 November, Ney's III Corps finally made contact with Miloradovich, who had posted 12,000 troops on a hill overlooking a ravine with the marshy brook Losvinka. Ney had 8,000 combatants and 7,000 stragglers under his command at this point.
Believing that Davout was still in Krasny, directly behind Miloradovich's columns, Ney turned down a Russian offer of honorable surrender, and boldly attempted to ram his way through the enemy. The dogged French troops then succeeded in piercing the first two lines of Russian infantry. The third line, however, proved indomitable, and at the decisive moment, the Russians counterattacked (the battle at the brook Losvinka). An eyewitness to this engagement, the English General Sir Robert Wilson, describes it thus:
The terrible defeat of the III Corps was thorough enough to induce the chivalrous Miloradovich to extend another honorable surrender to Ney. In the early evening Ney decided to escape silently passing the Russians and following the brook Losvinka. When the Cossacks appeared during the night Ney succeeded to cross the Dnieper, one by one, but lost a thousand men in the ice-cracks when crossing the river, leaving his guns and carriages behind. The elements and the Cossacks reduced Ney's contingent to only 800 diehards.
For the next two days Ney's small party bravely stood off Cossack attacks as it marched westward along the river in search of Napoleon's army. Again, Ney refused to submit, and with 2,000 refugees—all that remained of his corps—he absconded into the forests pursued by Platov's Cossacks. On 20 November, Ney and Napoleon were reunited near Orsha, an event which the demoralized French troops regarded as the emotional equivalent of a great victory.
At Krasny, Ney's steely courage in defeat immortalized him in the annals of military history, leading Napoleon to bestow upon him the sobriquet of "Bravest of the Brave."
Summary of results
Total French losses in the Krasny skirmishes are estimated between 6,000 and 13,000 killed and wounded, with another 20,000 to 26,000 lost as prisoners to the Russians. Almost all of the French prisoners were stragglers. The French also lost approximately 200 artillery pieces and a huge portion of their supply train. Russian losses are estimated to have been no more than 5,000 killed and wounded.
Significant however was that Napoleon successfully led 75% of the combatants of the I and IV Corps and the Imperial Guard out of Krasny, thus salvaging his hope of using these troops as a nucleus around which he could rebuild his army the following year.
Krasny was a Russian victory, but a highly unsatisfactory one. Tsar Alexander I was enraged with Kutuzov upon learning of the old field marshal's failure to totally destroy the French. Nonetheless, owing to Kutuzov's immense popularity with the Russian aristocracy, Alexander gave him the victory title of Prince of Smolensk for what had been accomplished in this battle.
The sources are unclear as to why Kutuzov did not decide to annihilate the last remaining French troops during the offensive. Russian military historian General pointed to Kutuzov's unwillingness to risk the lives of his exhausted and frostbitten troops and cited the words of the field marshal, "All that [the French army] will collapse without me". General Robert Wilson, the British liaison officer attached to the Russian Army, recorded Kutuzov as having commented in late 1812,
In popular culture
Leo Tolstoy references the battle in his War and Peace.
Notes
References
Napoleon's Russian Campaign of 1812, Edward Foord, Boston, Little Brown and Company,
Russia Against Napoleon, Dominic Lieven, Penguin Books,
With Napoleon in Russia, Caulaincourt, William Morrow and Company, New York,
Napoleon in Russia: A Concise History of 1812, Digby Smith, Pen & Sword Military,
The War of the Two Emperors, Curtis Cate, Random House, New York,
Narrative of Events during the Invasion of Russia by Napoleon Bonaparte, and the Retreat of the French Army, 1812, Sir Robert Wilson, Elibron Classics,
Moscow 1812: Napoleon's Fatal March, Adam Zamoyski, Harper Collins,
The Fox of the North: The Life of Kutusov, General of War and Peace, Roger Parkinson, David McKay Company,
Napoleon 1812, Nigel Nicolson, Harper & Row,
The Napoleonic Wars, The Rise and Fall of an Empire, Gregory Fremont-Barnes & Todd Fisher, Osprey Publishing,
The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Source, Digby Smith, Greenhill Books,
The Campaigns of Napoleon, David Chandler, The MacMillan Company,
Napoleon's Invasion of Russia 1812, Eugene Tarle, Oxford University Press,
Napoleon's Russian Campaign, Philippe-Paul de Segur, Time-Life Books,
1812 Napoleon's Russian Campaign, Richard K. Riehn, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Napoleon in Russia, Alan Palmer, Carrol & Graf Publishers,
In the Service of the Tsar Against Napoleon, by Denis Davydov, Greenhill Books,
Atlas of World Military History, Brooks, Richard (editor)., London: HarperCollins, 2000.
External links
During the Patriotic War of 1812 the second battle by Krasnoye village was fought
The Battle of Krasnoi. The Hermitage continues to present battle paintings by Peter von Hess
The Life of Napoleon Buonaparte, Emperor of the French. By the Author of “Waverley,” (Sir Walter Scott) Abridged by an American gentleman (1827)
Campagne de Russie de 1812
The Anatomy Of Glory; Napoleon And His Guard, A Study In Leadership by Commandant Henri Lachouque
Battles of the Napoleonic Wars
Battles involving Russia
History of Smolensk Oblast
Conflicts in 1812
Battles involving France
1812 in the Russian Empire
November 1812 events
Battles of the French invasion of Russia
Smolensk Governorate
Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
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The Basilica of Saint Mary Major (, ; ), or church of Santa Maria Maggiore, is a Major papal basilica as well as one of the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome and the largest Catholic Marian church in Rome, Italy.
The basilica enshrines the venerated image of Salus Populi Romani, depicting the Blessed Virgin Mary as the health and protectress of the Roman people, which was granted a Canonical coronation by Pope Gregory XVI on 15 August 1838 accompanied by his Papal bull Cælestis Regina.
Pursuant to the Lateran Treaty of 1929 between the Holy See and Italy, the Basilica is within Italian territory and not the territory of the Vatican City State. However, the Holy See fully owns the Basilica, and Italy is legally obligated to recognize its full ownership thereof and to concede to it "the immunity granted by International Law to the headquarters of the diplomatic agents of foreign States." In other words, the complex of buildings has a status somewhat similar to a foreign embassy.
Other appellations
The Basilica is sometimes referred to as Our Lady of the Snows, a name given to it in the Roman Missal from 1568 to 1969 in connection with the liturgical feast of the anniversary of its dedication on 5 August, a feast that was then denominated Dedicatio Sanctae Mariae ad Nives (Dedication of Saint Mary of the Snows). This name for the basilica had become popular in the 14th century in connection with a legend that circa the year 352, during "the pontificate of Liberius, a Roman patrician John and his wife, who were without heirs, made a vow to donate their possessions to the Virgin Mary. They prayed that she might make known to them how they were to dispose of their property in her honour. On 5 August, at the height of the Roman summer, snow fell during the night on the summit of the Esquiline Hill. In obedience to a vision of the Virgin Mary which they had the same night, the couple built a basilica in honour of Mary on the very spot which was covered with snow.
The legend is first reported only after AD 1000. It may be implied in what the Liber Pontificalis, of the early 13th century, says of Pope Liberius: "He built the basilica of his own name (i.e. the Liberian Basilica) near the Macellum of Livia". Its prevalence in the 15th century is shown in the painting of the Miracle of the Snow by Masolino da Panicale.
The feast was originally called Dedicatio Sanctae Mariae (Dedication of Saint Mary's), and was celebrated only in Rome until inserted for the first time into the General Roman Calendar, with ad Nives added to its name, in 1568. A congregation appointed by Pope Benedict XIV in 1741 proposed that the reading of the legend be struck from the Office and that the feast be given its original name. No action was taken on the proposal until 1969, when the reading of the legend was removed and the feast was called In dedicatione Basilicae S. Mariae (Dedication of the Basilica of Saint Mary). The legend is still commemorated by dropping white rose petals from the dome during the celebration of the Mass and Second Vespers of the feast.
The earliest building on the site was the Liberian Basilica or Santa Maria Liberiana, after Pope Liberius (352–366). This name may have originated from the same legend, which recounts that, like John and his wife, Pope Liberius was told in a dream of the forthcoming summer snowfall, went in procession to where it did occur and there marked out the area on which the church was to be built. Liberiana is still included in some versions of the basilica's formal name, and "Liberian Basilica" may be used as a contemporary as well as historical name.
On the other hand, the name "Liberian Basilica" may be independent of the legend, since, according to Pius Parsch, Pope Liberius transformed a palace of the Sicinini family into a church, which was for that reason called the Sicinini Basilica. This building was then replaced under Pope Sixtus III (432–440) by the present structure dedicated to Mary. However, some sources say that the adaptation as a church of a pre-existing building on the site of the present basilica was done in the 420s under Pope Celestine I, the immediate predecessor of Sixtus III.
Long before the earliest traces of the story of the miraculous snow, the church now known as Saint Mary Major was called Saint Mary of the Crib (Sancta Maria ad Praesepe), a name it was given because of its relic of the crib or manger of the Nativity of Jesus Christ, four boards of sycamore wood believed to have been brought to the church, together with a fifth, in the time of Pope Theodore I (640–649). This name appears in the Tridentine editions of the Roman Missal as the place for the pope's Mass (the station Mass) on Christmas Night, while the name "Mary Major" appears for the church of the station Mass on Christmas Day.
Status as a papal major basilica
No Catholic church can be honoured with the title of basilica unless by apostolic grant or from immemorial custom. St. Mary Major is one of the only four that hold the title of major basilica. The other three are the basilicas of St. John in the Lateran, St. Peter, and St. Paul outside the Walls. (The title of major basilica was once used more widely, being attached, for instance, to the Basilica of St. Mary of the Angels in Assisi). Along with all of the other major basilicas, St. Mary Major is also styled a papal basilica. Before 2006, the four papal major basilicas, together with the Basilica of St. Lawrence outside the Walls were referred to as the patriarchal basilicas of Rome, and were associated with the five ancient patriarchates (see Pentarchy). St. Mary Major was associated with the Patriarchate of Antioch.
The five papal basilicas along with the Basilica of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem and San Sebastiano fuori le mura were the traditional Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome, which were visited by pilgrims during their pilgrimage to Rome following a itinerary established by St. Philip Neri on 25 February 1552.
History of the present church
It is now agreed that the present church was built under Celestine I (422–432) not under Pope Sixtus III (432–440), who consecrated the basilica on the 5th of August 434 to the Virgin Mary.
The dedicatory inscription on the triumphal arch, Sixtus Episcopus plebi Dei (Sixtus the bishop to the people of God), is an indication of that Pope's role in the construction. As well as this church on the summit of the Esquiline Hill, Pope Sixtus III is said to have commissioned extensive building projects throughout the city, which were continued by his successor Pope Leo I, the Great.
The church retains the core of its original structure, despite several additional construction projects and damage by the earthquake of 1348.
Church building in Rome in this period, as exemplified in Saint Mary Major, was inspired by the idea of Rome being not just the centre of the world of the Roman Empire, as it was seen in the classical period, but the centre of the Christian world.
Santa Maria Maggiore, one of the first churches built in honour of the Virgin Mary, was erected in the immediate aftermath of the Council of Ephesus of 431, which proclaimed Mary Mother of God. Pope Sixtus III built it to commemorate this decision. Certainly, the atmosphere that generated the council gave rise also the mosaics that adorn the interior of the dedication: "whatever the precise connection was between council and church it is clear that the planners of the decoration belong to a period of concentrated debates on nature and status of the Virgin and incarnate Christ." The magnificent mosaics of the nave and triumphal arch, seen as "milestones in the depiction" of the Virgin, depict scenes of her life and that of Christ, but also scenes from the Old Testament: Moses striking the Red Sea, and Egyptians drowning in the Red Sea.
Richard Krautheimer attributes the magnificence of the work also to the abundant revenue accruing to the papacy at the time from land holdings acquired by the Church during the 4th and 5th centuries on the Italian peninsula: "Some of these holdings were locally controlled; the majority as early as the end of the 5th century were administered directly from Rome with great efficiency: a central accounting system was involved in the papal chancery; and a budget was apparently prepared, one part of the income going to the papal administration, another to the needs of the clergy, a third to the maintenance of church buildings, a fourth to charity. These fines enabled the papacy to carry out through the 5th century an ambitious building program, including Santa Maria Maggiore."
Miri Rubin believes that the building of the basilica was influenced also by seeing Mary as one who could represent the imperial ideals of classical Rome, bringing together the old Rome and the new Christian Rome: "In Rome, the city of martyrs, if no longer of emperors, Mary was a figure that could credibly carry imperial memories and representations."
Gregory the Great may have been inspired by Byzantine devotions to the Theotokos (Mother of God) when after becoming Pope during a plague in 590 that had taken the life of his predecessor, he ordered for seven processions to march through the city of Rome chanting Psalms and Kyrie Eleison, in order to appease the wrath of God. The processions began in different parts of the city, but rather than finally converging on St Peter's, who was always the traditional protector of Rome, he instead ordered the processions to converge on Mary Major instead.
When the popes returned to Rome after the period of the Avignon papacy, the buildings of the basilica became a temporary Palace of the Popes due to the deteriorated state of the Lateran Palace. The papal residence was later moved to the Palace of the Vatican in what is now Vatican City.
The basilica was restored, redecorated and extended by various popes, including Eugene III (1145–1153), Nicholas IV (1288–92), Clement X (1670–76), and Benedict XIV (1740–58), who in the 1740s commissioned Ferdinando Fuga to build the present façade and to modify the interior. The interior of the Santa Maria Maggiore underwent a broad renovation encompassing all of its altars between the years 1575 and 1630.
On 15 December 2015, a Palestinian and a Tunisian national were arrested after they tried to disarm soldiers stationed outside the basilica while yelling "Allah (God) is great". When police intervened, the two men aged 40 and 30 called other foreigners in the area to their aid, and assaulted and threatened the arresting officers.
Architecture
The original architecture of Santa Maria Maggiore was classical and traditionally Roman perhaps to convey the idea that Santa Maria Maggiore represented old imperial Rome as well as its Christian future. As one scholar puts it, "Santa Maria Maggiore so closely resembles a second-century imperial basilica that it has sometimes been thought to have been adapted from a basilica for use as a Christian church. Its plan was based on Hellenistic principles stated by Vitruvius at the time of Augustus."
Even though Santa Maria Maggiore is immense in its area, it was built to plan. The design of the basilica was a typical one during this time in Rome: "a tall and wide nave; an aisle on either side; and a semicircular apse at the end of the nave." The key aspect that made Santa Maria Maggiore such a significant cornerstone in church building during the early 5th century were the beautiful mosaics found on the triumphal arch and nave.
The Athenian marble columns supporting the nave are even older, and either come from the first basilica, or from another antique Roman building; thirty-six are marble and four granite, pared down, or shortened to make them identical by Ferdinando Fuga, who provided them with identical gilt-bronze capitals. The 14th century campanile, or bell tower, is the highest in Rome, at 246 feet, (about 75 m.). The basilica's 16th-century coffered ceiling, to a design by Giuliano da Sangallo, is said to be gilded with gold, initially brought by Christopher Columbus, presented by Ferdinand and Isabella to the Spanish pope, Alexander VI. The apse mosaic, the Coronation of the Virgin, is from 1295, signed by the Franciscan friar, Jacopo Torriti. The Basilica also contains frescoes by Giovanni Baglione, in the Cappella Borghese.
The 12th-century façade has been masked by a reconstruction, with a screening loggia, that were added by Pope Benedict XIV in 1743, to designs by Ferdinando Fuga that did not damage the mosaics of the façade. The wing of the canonica (sacristy) to its left and a matching wing to the right (designed by Flaminio Ponzio) give the basilica's front the aspect of a palace facing the Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore. To the right of the Basilica's façade is a memorial representing a column in the form of an up-ended cannon barrel topped with a cross: it was erected by Pope Clement VIII to celebrate the end of the French Wars of Religion.
In the piazza in front of the facade rises a column with a Corinthian capital, topped with a statue of the Virgin and the child Jesus. This Marian column, erected in 1614 to designs of Carlo Maderno during the papacy of Paul V. Maderno's fountain at the base combines the armorial eagles and dragons of Paul V (Borghese). The column itself was the sole intact remainder from the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in Roman Forum. The statue atop the column was made by Domenico Ferri. In a papal bull from the year of its installation, the pope decreed three years of indulgences to those who uttered a prayer to the Virgin while saluting the column.
Interior
Fifth century mosaics
The mosaics found in Santa Maria Maggiore are one of the oldest representations of the Virgin Mary in Christian Late Antiquity. As one scholar puts it, "This is well demonstrated by the decoration of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome,... where the iconographic depiction of the Virgin Mary was chosen at least in part to celebrate the affirmation of Mary as Theotokos (bearer of God) by the third ecumenical Council of Ephesus in 431 CE." The mosaics of the triumphal arch and the nave in Santa Maria Maggiore gave a model for the future representations of the Virgin Mary. The influences of these mosaics are rooted in late antique impressionism that could be seen in frescoes, manuscript paintings and many pavement mosaics across villas in Africa, Syria and Sicily during the 5th century.
This being said, the crowning of Mary on the Apse was made much later by Torriti by commission of Pope Nicholas IV.(13th century)
These mosaics gave historians insight into artistic, religious, and social movements during this time. As Margaret Miles explains the mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore have two goals: one to glorify the Virgin Mary as Theotokos (God-Bearer); and the other to present "a systematic and comprehensive articulation of the relationship of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian scriptures as one in which the Hebrew Bible foreshadows Christianity." This is explained by the dual images of Old Testament and New Testament events depicted in the mosaics of the triumphal arch and the nave. The mosaics also show the range of artistic expertise and refute the theory that mosaic technique during the time was based on copying from model books. The mosaics found in Santa Maria Maggiore are combinations of different styles of mosaic art during the time, according to art scholar Robin Cormack: "the range of artistic expertise and the actual complexities of production can hardly be reduced to a mentality of copying. A test case is given by the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome".
Triumphal arch
The triumphal arch at the head of the nave was at first referred to as the apse arch, but later became known as the triumphal arch. The triumphal arch is illustrated with magnificent mosaics depicting different scenes of Christ and the Virgin Mary. There was a difference in the styles used in the triumphal arch mosaics compared to those of the nave; the style of the triumphal arch was much more linear and flat as one scholar describes it, not nearly as much action, emotion and movement in them as there were in the Old Testament mosaics of the nave. One of the first scenes that were visible on the triumphal arch was a panel of Christ's enthronement with a group of angels as his court. As one historian describes it: "On the apse arch Christ is enthroned, a young emperor attended by four chamberlains, angels of course", this is a perfect example of mosaic art in the 5th century. Another panel found on the triumphal arch is of the Virgin, she is crowned and dressed in a colorful veil, her wardrobe subtly brings to mind that of a Roman empress and in this panel she has her divine son walking with her and a suite of angels and Joseph ready to greet her; "The Virgin...shows to perfection the impressionistic character of mosaics." Another panel is known as the Adoration of the Magi and this mosaic depicts Infant Christ and The Virgin and the arrival of the three wise men, "mosaics illustrating Christ's first coming and his youth covered the triumphal arch." The other panel depicts the Virgin accompanied by five martyrs.
Nave
The nave of the basilica was covered in mosaics representing Old Testament events of Moses leading the Jews out of Egypt across the Red Sea. "The nave mosaics (which represents stories of Old Testament history and accordingly offered Christians in Rome a new 'past') are illusionistic in a colorful and impressionist manner" as this scholar puts it the scene was filled with movement, emotion, and it was to inspire thinking of Rome's "new" past; the past of the Old Testament. As one scholar describes it: "Moses strikes the waters of the Red Sea in a heroic gesture, his toga in light and dark grays and blues, but lined in black, the folds white lines, the tunic underneath light blue; the man next to him wears a deep blue toga over a gray and white tunic." Another panel shows the demise of the Egyptians in the Red Sea. An observer describes the mosaic: "The Egyptians, clad in blue armor with gold bands and scarlet cloaks wildly flying, drown in the greenish-blue waters; the horses, white or light brown shaded with darker browns, highlighted in white, the accoutrements a bright red."
Cappella Sistina and Crypt of the Nativity
Under the high altar of the basilica is the Crypt of the Nativity or Bethlehem Crypt, with a crystal reliquary designed by Giuseppe Valadier said to contain wood from the Holy Crib of the nativity of Jesus Christ. Here is the burial place of Saint Jerome, the 4th-century Doctor of the Church who translated the Bible into the Latin language (the Vulgate).
Fragments of the sculpture of the Nativity believed to be by 13th-century Arnolfo di Cambio were transferred to beneath the altar of the large Sistine Chapel off the right transept of the church. This chapel of the Blessed Sacrament is named after Pope Sixtus V, and is not to be confused with the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, named after Pope Sixtus IV. The architect Domenico Fontana designed the chapel, which contains the tombs of Sixtus V himself and of his early patron Pope Pius V. The main altar in the chapel has four gilded bronze angels by Sebastiano Torregiani, holding up the ciborium, which is a model of the chapel itself.
Beneath this altar is the Oratory or Chapel of the Nativity, on whose altar, at that time situated in the Crypt of the Nativity below the main altar of the church itself, Saint Ignatius of Loyola celebrated his first Mass as a priest on 25 December 1538.
Just outside the Sistine Chapel is the tomb of Gianlorenzo Bernini and his family.
The Mannerist interior decoration of the Sistine Chapel was completed (1587–1589) by a large team of artists, directed by Cesare Nebbia and Giovanni Guerra. While the art biographer, Giovanni Baglione allocates specific works to individual artists, recent scholarship finds that the hand of Nebbia drew preliminary sketches for many, if not all, of the frescoes. Baglione also concedes the roles of Nebbia and Guerra could be summarized as "Nebbia drew, and Guerra supervised the teams".
Others include Ferdinando Sermei, Giacomo Stella, Paul Bril, and Ferraù Fenzoni.
Borghese Chapel and Salus Populi Romani
The column in the Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore celebrates the famous icon of the Virgin Mary now enshrined in the Borghese Chapel of the basilica. It is known as Salus Populi Romani, or Health of the Roman People or Salvation of the Roman People, due to a miracle in which the icon reportedly helped keep plague from the city. The icon is at least a thousand years old, and according to a tradition was painted from life by St Luke the Evangelist using the wooden table of the Holy Family in Nazareth.
The Salus Populi Romani has been a favourite of several popes and acted as a key Mariological symbol. Roman-born Pope Pius XII (Eugenio Pacelli) celebrated his first Holy Mass there on 1 April 1899. In 1953, the icon was carried through Rome to initiate the first Marian year in church history. In 1954, the icon was crowned by Pope Pius XII as he introduced a new Marian feast Queenship of Mary. Pope Paul VI, Pope John Paul II, Pope Benedict XVI, and Pope Francis all honoured the Salus Populi Romani with personal visits and liturgical celebrations.
Papal basilica
As a papal basilica, Santa Maria Maggiore is often used by the pope. He presides over the rites for the annual Feast of the Assumption of Mary on 15 August there. Except for a few priests and the basilica's archpriest, the canopied high altar is reserved for use by the pope alone. Pope Francis visited the basilica on the day after his election.
The pope gives charge of the basilica to an archpriest, usually a cardinal. Formerly, the archpriest was the titular Latin Patriarch of Antioch, a title abolished in 1964. Since 29 December 2016, the archpriest has been Stanisław Ryłko.
In addition to the archpriest and his assistant priests, a chapter of canons is resident. Redemptorist, Dominican and Franciscan Friars of the Immaculate priests serve the church.
The King of Spain, currently Felipe VI, is ex officio protocanon of the basilica's chapter.
Archpriests of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore since 1127
List of archpriests of the Liberian Basilica since 1127. Initially not all archpriests were cardinals
Rainiero (attested 1127–1130)
Matteo (attested 1153)
Paolo Scolari (attested 1176–1187)
Rolando (attested 1189–1193)
Pietro Sasso (attested 1212)
Romano (attested 1222)
Astor (attested 1244)
Pietro Capocci (?) (named in 1245?)
Romano (attested 1258)
Ottobono Fieschi (1262–1276)
Giacomo Colonna (1288–1297)
Francesco Napoleone Orsini (administrator 1298–1306)
Giacomo Colonna (again) (1306–1318)
Pietro Colonna (1318–1326)
Luca Fieschi (1326?–1336)
Giovanni Colonna (1336–1348)
Nicola Capocci (after 1350–1368)
Pierre Roger de Beaufort (1368–1370)
Marino Giudice (?–1385)
Marino Bulcani (1385–1394)
Stefano Palosio (1394–1396)
Enrico Minutoli (1396–1412)
Rinaldo Brancaccio (1412–1427)
Francesco Lando (1427)
Jean de la Rochetaillée (1428–1437)
Antonio Casini (1437–1439)
Giovanni Vitelleschi (1439–1440)
Nicola Albergati (1440–1443)
Guillaume d'Estouteville (1443–1483)
Rodrigo Borgia (1483–1492)
Giovanni Battista Savelli (1492–1498)
Giovanni Battista Orsini (1498–1503)
Giuliano Cesarini iuniore (1503–1510)
Pedro Luis Borja Lanzol de Romani (1510–1511)
Robert Guibe (1511)
Francisco de Remolins (1511–1518)
Leonardo Grosso della Rovere (1518–1520)
Andrea della Valle (1520–1534)
Paolo Emilio Cesi (1534–1537)
Alessandro Farnese (1537–1543)
Guido Ascanio Sforza (1543–1564)
Carlo Borromeo (1564–1572)
Alessandro Sforza (1572–1581)
Filippo Boncompagni (1581–1586)
Decio Azzolini (seniore) (1586–1587)
Domenico Pinelli (1587–1611)
Michelangelo Tonti (1611–1612)
Giovanni Garzia Millini (1612–1629)
Francesco Barberini (1629–1633)
Antonio Barberini (1633–1671)
Giacomo Rospigliosi (1671–1684)
Felice Rospigliosi (1684–1688)
Philip Thomas Howard (1689–1694)
Benedetto Pamphili (1694–1699)
Giacomo Antonio Morigia (1699–1701)
Pietro Ottoboni (1702–1730)
Ludovico Pico de Mirandola (1730–1743)
Girolamo Colonna di Sciarra (1743–1763)
Marcantonio Colonna (iuniore) (1763–1793)
Andrea Corsini (1793–1795)
Gian Francesco Albani (1795–1803)
Antonio Despuig y Dameto (28 December 1803 – 2 May 1813)
Giovanni Gallarati Scotti (1814 – 6 October 1819)
Annibale Francesco Della Genga (10 February 18 – 28 September 1823)
Benedetto Naro (1 January 1824 – 6 October 1832)
Carlo Odescalchi (1832 – 21 November 1834)
Giuseppe Antonio Sala (11 December 1838 – 23 August 1839)
Luigi del Drago (29 August 1839 – 28 April 1845)
Costantino Patrizi Naro (24 April 1845 – 21 September 1867)
Gustav Adolf Hohenlohe (15 July 1878 – 30 October 1896)
Vincenzo Vannutelli (16 December 1896 – 9 July 1930)
Bonaventura Cerretti (16 July 1930 – 8 May 1933)
Angelo Dolci (22 May 1933 – 13 September 1939)
Alessandro Verde (11 October 1939 – 29 March 1958)
Carlo Confalonieri (16 November 1959 – 25 February 1973)
Luigi Dadaglio (15 December 1986 – 22 August 1990)
Ugo Poletti (17 January 1991 – 25 February 1997)
Carlo Furno (29 September 1997 – 27 May 2004)
Bernard Francis Law (27 May 2004 – 21 November 2011)
Santos Abril y Castelló (21 November 2011 - 28 December 2016)
Stanisław Ryłko (since 28 December 2016)
List of major works of art in the basilica
Early Christian mosaic cycle depicting Old Testament events, 5th century
The Salus Populi Romani, a much venerated early icon of the Virgin and Child.
Funerary monument of Clement IX (1671) by Carlo Rainaldi with the papal bust by Domenico Guidi.
Temporary catafalque for Philip IV of Spain designed in 1665 by Rainaldi
Funerary monument of Pope Nicholas IV, designed by Domenico Fontana in 1574.
Bust of Costanzo Patrizi by Algardi.
Sacristy frescoes by Domenico Passignano and Giuseppe Puglia,
Saint Cajetan holding the Holy Child, by Bernini.
High altar sculpture by Pietro Bracci, (c. 1750).
Statue of Pius IX in prayer by Ignazio Jacometti, (c. 1880).
Pauline Chapel frescoes, by Guido Reni
Frescoes for the monument of Clement VIII, Lanfranco
Cesi Chapel tombs by Guglielmo della Porta
Altar, confessio and Presepio (crib) sculptures by Arnolfo di Cambio, about 1290
Burials in the church
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
Pauline Bonaparte
Junio Valerio Borghese
Archbishop Domenico Caloyera O.P.
Pope Clement VIII
Pope Honorius III (no longer extant)
Pope Clement IX
Saint Jerome, relics
Pope Nicholas IV
Saint Pope Pius V
Cardinal Ugo Poletti
Pope Sixtus V
Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora
Gallery
See also
Properties of the Holy See
Roman Catholic Marian churches
Dedication of the Basilica of St Mary Major, feast day
Index of Vatican City-related articles
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Retrieved 2008-12-17.
External links
Eternal Word Television Network, Global Catholic Network (EWTN) Profile of Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore.
Kunsthistorie.com gallery
Satellite Photo of St. Mary's Major Basilica
The Papal Basilica Santa Maria Maggiore (website of the Holy See)
High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Santa Maria Maggiore | Art Atlas
Major basilicas
Baroque architecture in Rome
Maria Maggiore
Sites of papal elections
Maria Maggiore
World Heritage Sites in Italy
5th-century churches
Burial places of popes
Early Christian art
Palaeo-Christian architecture in Italy
Burial sites of the House of Bonaparte
Maria Maggiore
Roman Catholic national shrines
Properties of the Holy See
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Starbase is a private rocket production facility, test site, and spaceport constructed by SpaceX, located at Boca Chica approximately east of Brownsville, Texas, on the US Gulf Coast. When conceptualized, its stated purpose was "to provide SpaceX an exclusive launch site that would allow the company to accommodate its launch manifest and meet tight launch windows." The launch site was originally intended to support launches of the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launch vehicles as well as "a variety of reusable suborbital launch vehicles", but in early 2018, SpaceX announced a change of plans, stating that the launch site would be used exclusively for SpaceX's next-generation launch vehicle, Starship. Between 2018 and 2020, the site added significant rocket production and test capacity. SpaceX CEO Elon Musk indicated in 2014 that he expected "commercial astronauts, private astronauts, to be departing from South Texas," and he foresaw launching spacecraft to Mars from the site.
Between 2012 and 2014, SpaceX considered seven potential locations around the United States for the new commercial launch facility. Generally, for orbital launches an ideal site would have an easterly water overflight path for safety and be located as close to the equator as possible in order to take advantage of the Earth's rotational speed. For much of this period, a parcel of land adjacent to Boca Chica Beach near Brownsville, Texas, was the leading candidate location, during an extended period while the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) conducted an extensive environmental assessment on the use of the Texas location as a launch site. Also during this period, SpaceX began acquiring land in the area, purchasing approximately and leasing by July 2014. SpaceX announced in August 2014, that they had selected the location near Brownsville as the location for the new non-governmental launch site, after the final environmental assessment completed and environmental agreements were in place by July 2014. An orbital launch of the Starship would make it SpaceX's fourth active launch facility, following three launch locations that are leased from the US government.
SpaceX conducted a groundbreaking ceremony on the new launch facility in September 2014, and soil preparation began in October 2015. The first tracking antenna was installed in August 2016, and the first propellant tank arrived in July 2018. In late 2018, construction ramped up considerably, and the site saw the fabrication of the first prototype test vehicle, Starhopper, which was tested and flown March–August 2019. Through 2021, additional prototype flight vehicles are being built at the facility for higher-altitude tests. By March 2020, there were over 500 people employed at the facility, with most of the work force involved in 24/7 production operations for the third-generation SpaceX launch vehicle, Starship.
History
Private discussions between SpaceX and various state officials about a future private launch site began at least as early as 2011, and SpaceX CEO Elon Musk mentioned interest in a private launch site for their commercial launches in a speech in September 2011. The company publicly announced in August 2014 that they had decided on Texas as the location for their new non-governmental launch site, the SpaceX South Texas launch site. Site soil work began in 2015 and major construction of facilities began in late-2018, with rocket engine testing and flight testing beginning in 2019.
The name Starbase began to be used more widely by SpaceX after March 2021 when SpaceX had some discussions described as a "casual enquiry" about incorporating a city to be called Starbase, and by early 2022, the Starbase moniker for the SpaceX facilities in south Texas had become common. Starbase is also used sometimes to describe the region of the Boca Chica subdelta peninsula surrounding the SpaceX facilities; see .
Launch site selection and environmental assessment
As early as April 2012, at least five potential locations were publicly known, including "sites in Alaska, California, Florida, Texas and Virginia." In September 2012, it became clear that Georgia and Puerto Rico were also interested in pursuing the new SpaceX commercial spaceport facility. The Camden County, Georgia, Joint Development Authority voted unanimously in November 2012 to "explore developing an aero-spaceport facility" at an Atlantic coastal site to support both horizontal and vertical launch operations. The main Puerto Rico site under consideration at the time was land that had formerly been the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. By September 2012, SpaceX was considering seven potential locations for the new commercial launch pad around the United States. For much of the time since, the leading candidate location for the new facility was a parcel of land adjacent to Boca Chica Beach near Brownsville, Texas.
By early 2013, Texas remained the leading candidate for the location of the new SpaceX commercial launch facility, although Florida, Georgia and other locations also remained in the running. Legislation was introduced in the Texas Legislature to enable temporary closings of State beaches during launches, limit liability for noise and some other specific commercial spaceflight risks, as well as considering a package of incentives to encourage SpaceX to locate at the Brownsville, Texas location. 2013 economic estimates showed SpaceX investing approximately in the development and construction of the facility A incentive package was approved by the Texas Legislature in 2013.
From the beginning, one of the proposed locations for the new commercial-mission-only spaceport had been south Texas. In April 2012, the FAA's Office of Commercial Space Transportation initiated a Notice of Intent to conduct an Environmental Impact Statement and public hearings on the new launch site, which would be located in Cameron County, Texas. The summary then indicated that the Texas site would support up to 12 commercial launches per year, including two Falcon Heavy launches. The first public meeting was held in May 2012, and the FAA released a draft Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the location in south Texas in April 2013.
Public hearings on the draft EIS occurred in Brownsville, followed by a public comment period ending in June 2013.
The draft EIS identified three parcels of land—total of —that would notionally be used for the control center. In addition, SpaceX had leased of land adjacent to the terminus of Texas State Highway 4, of which would be used to develop the vertical launch area; the remainder would remain open space surrounding the launch facility.
In July 2014, the FAA officially issued its Record of Decision concerning the Boca Chica Beach facility, and found that "the proposal by Elon Musk’s Space Exploration Technologies would have no significant impact on the environment," approving the proposal and outlining SpaceX's proposal. The company formally announced selection of the Texas location in August 2014.
In September 2013, the State of Texas General Land Office (GLO) and Cameron County signed an agreement outlining how beach closures would be handled in order to support a future SpaceX launch schedule. The agreement is intended to enable both economic development in Cameron County and protect the public's right to have access to Texas state beaches. Under the 2013 Texas plan, beach closures would be allowed but were not expected to exceed a maximum of 15 hours per closure date, with no more than three scheduled space flights between the Saturday prior to Memorial Day and Labor Day, unless the Texas GLO approves.
In 2019, the FAA completed a reevaluation of the SpaceX facilities in South Texas, and in particular the revised plans away from a commercial spaceport to more of a spaceship yard for building and testing rockets at the facility, as well as flying different rockets—SpaceX Starship and prototype test vehicles—from the site than the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy envisioned in the original 2014 environmental assessment.
In May and August 2019, the FAA issued a written report with a decision that a new supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) would not be required.
In May 2021, the FAA issued a written FAQ regarding the FAA's Environmental Review of SpaceX Starship/Super Heavy Operations at the Boca Chica Launch Site.
Land acquisition
Prior to a final decision on the location of the spaceport, SpaceX began purchasing a number of real estate properties in Cameron County, Texas beginning in June 2012. By July 2014, SpaceX had purchased approximately and leased near Boca Chica Village and Boca Chica Beach through a company named Dogleg Park LLC, a reference to the "dogleg" type of trajectory that rockets launched from Boca Chica will be required to follow.
Prior to May 2013, five lots in the Spanish Dagger Subdivision in Boca Chica Village, adjacent to Highway 4 which leads to the proposed launch site, had been purchased. In May 2013, SpaceX purchased an additional three parcels, adding another , plus four more lots with a total of in July 2013, making a total of 12 SpaceX-purchased lots. In November 2013, SpaceX substantially "increased its land holdings in the Boca Chica Beach area from 12 lots to 72 undeveloped lots" purchased, which encompass a total of approximately , in addition to the leased from private property owners. An additional few acres were purchased late in 2013, raising the SpaceX total "from 72 undeveloped lots to 80 lots totaling about 26 acres." In late 2013, SpaceX completed a replat of 13 lots totaling into a subdivision that they have named "Mars Crossing."
In February 2014, they purchased 28 additional lots that surround the proposed complex at Boca Chica Beach, raising the SpaceX-owned land to approximately in addition to the lease. SpaceX's investments in Cameron County continued in March 2014, with the purchase of more tracts of land, bringing the total number of lots it now owns to 90. Public records showed that the total land area that SpaceX then owned through Dogleg Park LLC was roughly . This is in addition to that SpaceX then had under lease. By September 2014, Dogleg Park completed a replat of lots totaling into a second subdivision, this one named "Launch Site Texas", made up of several parcels of property previously purchased. This is the site of the launch site itself while the launch control facility is planned two miles west in the Mars Crossing subdivision. Dogleg Park has also continued purchasing land in Boca Chica, and now owns a total of "87 lots equaling more than 100 acres".
SpaceX has also bought and is modifying several residential properties in Boca Chica Village, but apparently planning to leave them in residential use, about west of the launch site.
In September 2019, SpaceX extended an offer to buy each of the houses in Boca Chica Village for three times the fair market value along with an offer of VIP invitations to future launch events. The 3x offer was said to be "non-negotiable." Homeowners were given two weeks for this particular offer to remain valid.
Construction
Major site construction at SpaceX's launch site in Boca Chica got underway in 2016, with site soil preparation for the launch pad in a process said to take two years, with significant additional soil work and significant construction beginning in late 2018. By September 2019, the site had been "transformed into an operational launch site – outfitted with the ground support equipment needed to support test flights of the methane-fueled Starship vehicles." Lighter construction of fencing and temporary buildings in the control center area had begun in 2014.
The Texas launch location was projected in the 2013 draft EIS to include a vertical launch area and a area for a launch control center and a launch pad directly adjacent to the eastern terminus of Texas State Highway 4. Changes occurred based on actual land SpaceX was able to purchase and replat for the control center and primary spaceship build yard.
SpaceX broke ground on the new launch site in September 2014, but indicated then that the principal work to build the facility was not expected to ramp up until late 2015 after the SpaceX launch site development team completed work on Kennedy Space Center Launch Pad 39A, as the same team was expected to manage the work to build the Boca Chica facility. Advance preparation work was expected to commence ahead of that. , SpaceX anticipated spending approximately over three to four years to build the Texas facility, while the Texas state government expected to spend to extend utilities and infrastructure to support the new spaceport.
The design phase for the facility was completed by March 2015. In the event, construction was delayed by the destruction of one of SpaceX two Florida launch facilities in a September 2016 rocket explosion, which tied up the launch site design/build team for over a year.
In order to stabilize the waterlogged ground at the coastal site, SpaceX engineers determined that a process known as soil surcharging would be required. For this to happen, some of new soil was trucked to the facility between October 2015 and January 2016. In January 2016, following additional soil testing that revealed foundation problems, SpaceX indicated they were not planning to complete construction until 2017, and the first launch from Boca Chica was not expected until late 2018. In February 2016, SpaceX President and COO Gwynne Shotwell stated that construction had been delayed by poor soil stability at the site, and that "two years of dirt work" would be required before SpaceX could build the launch facility, with construction costs expected to be higher than previously estimated. The first phase of the soil stabilization process was completed by May 2016.
Two S-band tracking station antennas were installed at the site in 2016–2017. They were formerly used to track the Space Shuttle during launch and landing and made operational as tracking resources for crewed Dragon missions in 2018.
A SpaceX-owned photovoltaic power station was installed on site to provide off-grid electrical power near the control center, The solar farm was installed by SolarCity in January 2018.
Progress on building the pad had slowed considerably through 2017, much slower than either SpaceX or Texas state officials had expected when it was announced in 2014. Support for SpaceX, however, remained fairly strong amongst Texas public officials. In January 2018, COO Shotwell said the pad might be used for "early vehicle testing" by late 2018 or early 2019 but that additional work would be required after that to make it into a full launch site. SpaceX achieved this new target, with prototype rocket and rocket engine ground testing at Boca Chica starting in March 2019, and suborbital flight tests starting in July 2019.
In late 2018, construction ramped up considerably, and the site saw the development of a large propellant tank farm including a 95,000 gallon horizontal liquid oxygen tank and 80,000 gallon liquid methane tank, a gas flare, more offices, and a small flat square launch pad. The Starhopper prototype was relocated to the pad in March 2019, and first flew in late July 2019.
In late 2018, the "Mars Crossing" subdivision developed into a shipyard, with the development of several large hangars, and several concrete jigs, on top of which large steel rocket airframes were fabricated, the first of which became the Starhopper test article. In February 2019, SpaceX confirmed that the first orbit-capable Starship and Super Heavy test articles would be manufactured nearby, at the "SpaceX South Texas build site." By September 2019, the facility had been completely transformed into a new phase of an industrial rocket build facility, working multiple shifts and more than five days a week, able to support large rocket ground and flight testing. As of November 2019 the SpaceX south Texas Launch Site crew has been working on a new launch pad for its Starship/Super Heavy rocket; the former launch site has been transformed to an assembly site for the Starship rocket.
On 7 March 2021, it was revealed by Michael Baylor on Twitter that the SpaceX South Texas Launch Site may eventually expand to the south. The expansion could see the addition of 2 Suborbital test stands along with one orbital launch pad code-named Orbital Launch Mount B. The expansion could also include a new landing pad, an expansion to the current tank farm, a new tank farm situated next to the proposed Orbital Launch Mount B, expanded Suborbital Pad B decking and two integration towers situated to under-construction Orbital Launch Mount A and the proposed Orbital Launch Mount B.
In March 2021, SpaceX received a "Determination of no hazard to air navigation" from the FAA for the launch tower that SpaceX is building that is intended to support orbital launches. The period of construction shown on the FAA documents was April–July 2021 but the expiration date on the regulatory approval was 18 September 2021.
The launch tower was fully stacked by late July 2021, when a crane lifted the ninth and final large steel section to the top of the tower at the orbital launch site (OLS). The tower is designed to have a set of large arms attached which will be used to stack both Super Heavy and the Starship second stage on the adjacent launch mount and, eventually, catch the rocket on return to the launch site as well. There will be no separate large crane attached to the top of the tower.
The launch mount ("Stage Zero") began construction in July 2020 when the rebar of the deep foundation began to rise above the ground. Soon six large steel circular launch supports rose from the ground which would eventually support the massive weight of the launch table some ten months later. The mount got to full height on 31 July 2021 with the rollout and craning into place of the launch table, which had been custom built at the manufacturing site over the preceding months. Musk has commented that Stage Zero is everything needed to both launch and catch the rocket, and that building it is at least as hard as the booster or ship. , launch mount and launch tower plumbing, electrical, and ground support equipment connections are yet to be completed. Soon after tests for Starships were taking a break, production started to get ready for the First Orbital Launch. They started making GSE tanks, Cyro shells, SN20, and Booster 4. As SN20 was completed, and Booster 4,, Booster 4 and SN20 were rolled out to the launch site for a full stack. On August 6th 2021, SN20 was stacked on top of Booster 4 showing a great view of the two on the Orbital Launch Table giving us a great view of the future. SN20 soon after was taken back to the Production site, and Booster 4 as well to finish what needed to be finished between the two.
As of October 28th, 2021, Starship SN20 and Booster 4 are at the launch site and are conducting proof tests for the First Orbital launch very soon. SN20 conducted two proof tests which were successful, but lost some heat tiles in the process, and recently conducted a pre burner test, and a raptor engine test firing up its engines, and lost some heat tiles again during the process which is very normal as tests are conducted to gather information for future tests. Booster 4 has not conducted any tests yet as it sits on its test stand waiting for its first proof tests or even a raptor engine test in the near future.
Operation
The South Texas Launch Site is SpaceX's fourth active launch facility, and its first private facility. , SpaceX leased three US government-owned launch sites: Vandenberg SLC 4 in California, and Cape Canaveral SLC-40 and Kennedy Space Center LC39A both in Florida.
The launch site is in Cameron County, Texas, approximately east of Brownsville, with launch flyover range over the Gulf of Mexico. The launch site is planned to be optimized for commercial activity, as well as used to fly spacecraft on interplanetary trajectories.
Launches on orbital trajectories from Brownsville will have a constrained flight path, due to the Caribbean Islands as well as the large number of oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. SpaceX has stated that they have a good flight path available for the launching of satellites on trajectories toward the commercially valuable geosynchronous orbit.
Although SpaceX initial plans for the Boca Chica launch site were to loft robotic spacecraft to geosynchronous orbits, Elon Musk indicated in September 2014 that "the first person to go to another planet could launch from [the Boca Chica launch site]", but did not indicate which launch vehicle might be used for those launches. In May 2018, Elon Musk clarified that the South Texas launch site would be used exclusively for Starship.
By March 2019, two test articles of Starship were being built, and three by May. The low-altitude, low-velocity Starship test flight rocket was used for initial integrated testing of the Raptor rocket engine with a flight-capable propellant structure, and was slated to also test the newly designed autogenous pressurization system that is replacing traditional helium tank pressurization as well as initial launch and landing algorithms for the much larger rocket. SpaceX originally developed their reusable booster technology for the 3-meter-diameter Falcon 9 from 2012 to 2018. The Starhopper prototype was also the platform for the first flight tests of the full-flow staged combustion methalox Raptor engine, where the hopper vehicle was flight tested with a single engine in July/August 2019, but could be fitted with up to three engines to facilitate engine-out tolerance testing. Starhopper currently stands to the side of the launchpad, hosting what appears to be radar equipment.
The launch site has been the main production and testing site of the Starship/Super Heavy system. All Starship vehicles have been constructed here besides the Mk2 prototype, which was built in Florida but never completed, and eventually scrapped.
By March 2020, SpaceX had doubled the number of employees onsite for Starship manufacturing, test and operations since January, with over 500 employees working at the site. Four shifts are working 24/7—in 12-hour shifts with 4 days on then 3 off followed by 3 days on and 4 off—to enable continuous Starship manufacturing with workers and equipment specialized to each task of serial Starship production.
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service claimed that SpaceX had caused 1,000 hours of highway closures in 2019, well above the permitted 300 hours. In June 2021, Cameron County District Attorney Luis Saenz threatened to prosecute SpaceX for unauthorized road and beach closures, as well as employing security officers who may not be licensed to carry handguns.
Impact
The new launch facility was projected in a 2014 study to generate of economic activity in the city of Brownsville and eventually generate approximately in annual salaries from some 500 jobs projected to be created by 2024.
A local economic development board was created for south Texas in 2014—the Cameron County Space Port Development Corporation (CCSPDC)—in order to facilitate the development of the aerospace industry in Cameron County near Brownsville. The first project for the newly established board is the SpaceX project to develop a launch site at Boca Chica Beach. In May 2015, Cameron County transferred ownership of 25 lots in Boca Chica to CCSPDC, which were stated could be used in the future to develop event parking.
Effects on nearby homeowners
The launch facility was approved to be constructed two miles from approximately thirty homes, with no indication that this would cause problems for the homeowners. Five years later in 2019, following an FAA revaluation of the environmental impact and the issuance of new FAA requirements that residents be asked to voluntarily stay outside their houses during particular tanking and engine ignition tests, SpaceX decided that a couple dozen of these homes were now too close to the launch facility over the long term and began seeking market acquisition of these properties. An attorney with expertise on such situations referred to the timeframe given by SpaceX for homeowners to consider their purchase offer as "aggressive".
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service claimed that SpaceX had caused 1,000 hours of highway closures in 2019, well above the permitted 300 hours. In June 2021, Cameron County District Attorney Luis Saenz threatened to prosecute SpaceX for unauthorized road and beach closures, as well as employing security officers who may not be licensed to carry handguns.
Environmental concerns
Some residents of Boca Chica Village, Brownsville, and environmental activists criticized the Starship development program, stating that SpaceX had harmed local wildlife, conducted unauthorized test flights along with infrastructure construction, and polluted the area with noise. Environmental groups warned that the program threatens wildlife in the area, including 18 vulnerable and endangered species. A rare beetle species, the Boca Chica Flea Beetle (Chaetocnema rileyi), is known only from the beachside dune system next to the launchpad.
A new ant species, Temnothorax misomoschus, was named in the wake of the explosion of a SN11 rocket on 30 March 2021. The type locality for T. misomoschus is Boca Chica, collected in 1968. The species epithet misomoschus means "hatred [of] Musk".
During the SN8 launch, SpaceX ignored FAA warnings that the flight profile posed a risk of explosion. Following the launch, the FAA's Associate Administrator Wayne Monteith commented that SpaceX does not have a strong safety culture for not conducting thorough checks and following the FAA's statements. Members of the United States Congress voiced concerns about the FAA's response, calling on the agency to not have too much influence over SpaceX. However, the FAA Administrator stated that while SpaceX had done several corrections for those violations, the FAA would not approve further flights if SpaceX did not continue to perform those corrections. David Newstead, the director of one local environmental group, said that the explosion of SN11 left rocket debris on parts of the wildlife refuge that took three months to clean up.
The FAA allowed the public to comment until 1 November on the environmental impact statement draft that is released on 19 September. SpaceX's environmental assessment missed important details about the propellant source. One such example is SpaceX's plan of building a 250-megawatt gas-fired power plant without specifying how it would obtain tens of millions of cubic feet of gas per day. Pat Parenteau, a law professor and senior counsel for the Environmental Advocacy Clinic at Vermont Law School, stated that it was unusual to exclude such details, which could violate the U.S. National Environmental Policy Act.
Research facilities
The Brownsville Economic Development Council (BEDC) was building a space tracking facility in Boca Chica Village on a site adjacent to the SpaceX launch control center. The STARGATE tracking facility is a joint project of the BEDC, SpaceX, and the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (formerly the University of Texas at Brownsville at the time the agreement was reached).
Tourism
In January 2016, the South Padre Island Convention and Visitors Advisory Board (CVA) recommended that the South Padre Island City Council "proceed with further planning regarding potential SpaceX viewing sites."
See also
List of spaceports
SpaceX reusable launch system development program
References
External links
SpaceX gets preliminary FAA nod for South Texas launch site, Waco Tribune-Herald, 16 April 2013.
Lone Star State Bets Heavily on a Space Economy, New York Times, 27 November 2014.
Spaceports in the United States
SpaceX facilities
Cameron County, Texas
2014 establishments in Texas
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Shays Rebellion was an armed uprising in Western Massachusetts and Worcester in response to a debt crisis among the citizenry and in opposition to the state government's increased efforts to collect taxes both on individuals and their trades. The fight took place mostly in and around Springfield during 1786 and 1787. American Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led four thousand rebels (called Shaysites) in a protest against economic and civil rights injustices. Shays was a farmhand from Massachusetts at the beginning of the Revolutionary War; he joined the Continental Army, saw action at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Battle of Bunker Hill, and Battles of Saratoga, and was eventually wounded in action.
In 1787, Shays' rebels marched on the federal Springfield Armory in an unsuccessful attempt to seize its weaponry and overthrow the government. The confederal government found itself unable to finance troops to put down the rebellion, and it was consequently put down by the Massachusetts State militia and a privately funded local militia. The widely held view was that the Articles of Confederation needed to be reformed as the country's governing document, and the events of the rebellion served as a catalyst for the Constitutional Convention and the creation of the new government.
There is still debate among scholars concerning the rebellion's influence on the Constitution and its ratification.
Background
The economy during the American Revolutionary War was largely subsistence agriculture in the rural parts of New England, particularly in the hill towns of central and western Massachusetts. Some residents in these areas had few assets beyond their land, and they bartered with one another for goods and services. In lean times, farmers might obtain goods on credit from suppliers in local market towns who would be paid when times were better. In contrast, there was a market economy in the more economically developed coastal areas of Massachusetts Bay and in the fertile Connecticut River Valley, driven by the activities of wholesale merchants dealing with Europe and the West Indies. The state government was dominated by this merchant class.
When the Revolutionary War ended in 1783, Massachusetts merchants' European business partners refused to extend lines of credit to them and insisted that they pay for goods with hard currency, despite the country-wide shortage of such currency. Merchants began to demand the same from their local business partners, including those operating in the market towns in the state's interior. Many of these merchants passed on this demand to their customers, although Governor John Hancock did not impose hard currency demands on poorer borrowers and refused to actively prosecute the collection of delinquent taxes. The rural farming population was generally unable to meet the demands of merchants and the civil authorities, and some began to lose their land and other possessions when they were unable to fulfill their debt and tax obligations. This led to strong resentments against tax collectors and the courts, where creditors obtained judgments against debtors, and where tax collectors obtained judgments authorizing property seizures. A farmer identified as "Plough Jogger" summarized the situation at a meeting convened by aggrieved commoners:
I have been greatly abused, have been obliged to do more than my part in the war, been loaded with class rates, town rates, province rates, Continental rates, and all rates ... been pulled and hauled by sheriffs, constables, and collectors, and had my cattle sold for less than they were worth... The great men are going to get all we have and I think it is time for us to rise and put a stop to it, and have no more courts, nor sheriffs, nor collectors nor lawyers.
Veterans had received little pay during the war and faced added difficulty collecting payments owed to them from the State or the Congress of the Confederation. Some soldiers began to organize protests against these oppressive economic conditions. In 1780, Daniel Shays resigned from the army unpaid and went home to find himself in court for non-payment of debts. He soon realized that he was not alone in his inability to pay his debts and began organizing for debt relief.
Early rumblings
One early protest against the government was led by Job Shattuck of Groton, Massachusetts in 1782, who organized residents to physically prevent tax collectors from doing their work. A second, larger-scale protest took place in Uxbridge, Massachusetts on the Rhode Island border on February 3, 1783, when a mob seized property that had been confiscated by a constable and returned it to its owners. Governor Hancock ordered the sheriff to suppress these actions.
Most rural communities attempted to use the legislative process to gain relief. Petitions and proposals were repeatedly submitted to the state legislature to issue paper currency, which would depreciate the currency and make it possible to pay a high-value debt with lower-valued paper. The merchants were opposed to the idea, including James Bowdoin, since they stood to lose from such measures, and the proposals were repeatedly rejected.
Governor Hancock resigned in early 1785 citing health reasons, though some suggested that he was anticipating trouble. Bowdoin had repeatedly lost to Hancock in earlier elections, but he was elected governor that year—and matters became more severe. He stepped up civil actions to collect back taxes, and the legislature exacerbated the situation by levying an additional property tax to raise funds for the state's portion of foreign debt payments. Even comparatively conservative commentators such as John Adams observed that these levies were "heavier than the People could bear".
Shutting down the courts
Protests in rural Massachusetts turned into direct action in August 1786 after the state legislature adjourned without considering the many petitions that had been sent to Boston. On August 29, a well-organized force of protestors formed in Northampton, Massachusetts and successfully prevented the county court from sitting. The leaders of this force proclaimed that they were seeking relief from the burdensome judicial processes that were depriving the people of their land and possessions. They called themselves Regulators, a reference to the Regulator movement of North Carolina which sought to reform corrupt practices in the late 1760s.
Governor Bowdoin issued a proclamation on September 2 denouncing such mob action, but he took no military measures beyond planning a militia response to future actions. The court was then shut down in Worcester, Massachusetts by similar action on September 5, but the county militia refused to turn out, as it was composed mainly of men sympathetic to the protestors. Governors of the neighboring states acted decisively, calling out the militia to hunt down the ringleaders in their own states after the first such protests. Matters were resolved without violence in Rhode Island because the "country party" gained control of the legislature in 1786 and enacted measures forcing its merchants to trade debt instruments for devalued currency. Boston's merchants were concerned by this, especially Bowdoin who held more than £3,000 in Massachusetts notes.
Daniel Shays had participated in the Northampton action and began to take a more active role in the uprising in November, though he firmly denied that he was one of its leaders. The Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts indicted 11 leaders of the rebellion as "disorderly, riotous, and seditious persons". The court was scheduled to meet next in Springfield, Massachusetts on September 26, and Shays organized an attempt to shut it down in Northampton, while Luke Day organized an attempt in Springfield. They were anticipated by William Shepard, the local militia commander, who began gathering government-supporting militia the Saturday before the court was to sit, and he had 300 men protecting the Springfield courthouse by opening time. Shays and Day were able to recruit a similar number but chose only to demonstrate, exercising their troops outside of Shepard's lines rather than attempting to seize the building. The judges first postponed hearings and then adjourned on the 28th without hearing any cases. Shepard withdrew his force (which had grown to some 800 men) to the Springfield Armory, which was rumored to be the target of the protestors.
Protests were also successful in shutting down courts in Great Barrington, Concord, and Taunton, Massachusetts in September and October. James Warren wrote to John Adams on October 22, "We are now in a state of Anarchy and Confusion bordering on Civil War." Courts were able to meet in the larger towns and cities, but they required protection of the militia which Bowdoin called out for the purpose. Governor Bowdoin commanded the legislature to "vindicate the insulted dignity of government". Samuel Adams claimed that foreigners ("British emissaries") were instigating treason among citizens. Adams helped draw up a Riot Act and a resolution suspending habeas corpus so the authorities could legally keep people in jail without trial.
Adams proposed a new legal distinction that rebellion in a republic should be punished by execution. The legislature also moved to make some concessions on matters that upset farmers, saying that certain old taxes could now be paid in goods instead of hard currency. These measures were followed by one prohibiting speech critical of the government and offering pardons to protestors willing to take an oath of allegiance. These legislative actions were unsuccessful in quelling the protests, and the suspension of habeas corpus alarmed many.
Warrants were issued for the arrest of several of the protest ringleaders, and a posse of some 300 men rode to Groton on November 28 to arrest Job Shattuck and other rebel leaders in the area. Shattuck was chased down and arrested on the 30th and was wounded by a sword slash in the process. This action and the arrest of other protest leaders in the eastern parts of the state angered those in the west, and they began to organize an overthrow of the state government. "The seeds of war are now sown", wrote one correspondent in Shrewsbury, and by mid-January rebel leaders spoke of smashing the "tyrannical government of Massachusetts".
Rebellion
The federal government had been unable to recruit soldiers for the army because of a lack of funding, so Massachusetts leaders decided to act independently. On January 4, 1787, Governor Bowdoin proposed creating a privately funded militia army. Former Continental Army General Benjamin Lincoln solicited funds and raised more than £6,000 from more than 125 merchants by the end of January. The 3,000 militiamen who were recruited into this army were almost entirely from the eastern counties of Massachusetts, and they marched to Worcester on January 19.
While the government forces assembled, Shays and Day and other rebel leaders in the west organized their forces establishing regional regimental organizations that were run by democratically elected committees. Their first major target was the federal armory in Springfield. General Shepard had taken possession of the armory under orders from Governor Bowdoin, and he used its arsenal to arm a militia force of 1,200. He had done this even though the armory was federal property, not state, and he did not have permission from Secretary at War Henry Knox.
The insurgents were organized into three major groups and intended to surround and attack the armory simultaneously. Shays had one group east of Springfield near Palmer. Luke Day had a second force across the Connecticut River in West Springfield. A third force under Eli Parsons was situated to the north at Chicopee. The rebels originally had planned their assault for January 25. At the last moment, Day changed this date and sent a message to Shays indicating that he would not be ready to attack until the 26th. Day's message was intercepted by Shepard's men. As such, the militias of Shays and Parsons approached the armory on the 25th not knowing that they would have no support from the west. Instead, they found Shepard's militia waiting for them. Shepard first ordered warning shots fired over the heads of Shays' men. He then ordered two cannons to fire grape shot. Four Shaysites were killed and 20 wounded. There was no musket fire from either side. The rebel advance collapsed with most of the rebel forces fleeing north. Both Shays' men and Day's men eventually regrouped at Amherst, Massachusetts.
General Lincoln immediately began marching west from Worcester with the 3,000 men that had been mustered. The rebels moved generally north and east to avoid him, eventually establishing a camp at Petersham, Massachusetts. They raided the shops of local merchants for supplies along the way and took some of the merchants hostage. Lincoln pursued them and reached Pelham, Massachusetts on February 2, some from Petersham. He led his militia on a forced march to Petersham through a bitter snowstorm on the night of February 3–4, arriving early in the morning. They surprised the rebel camp so thoroughly that the rebels scattered "without time to call in their out parties or even their guards". Lincoln claimed to capture 150 men but none of them were officers, and historian Leonard Richards has questioned the veracity of the report. Most of the leadership escaped north into New Hampshire and Vermont, where they were sheltered despite repeated demands that they be returned to Massachusetts for trial.
Aftermath
Lincoln's march marked the end of large-scale organized resistance. Ringleaders who eluded capture fled to neighboring states, and pockets of local resistance continued. Some rebel leaders approached Lord Dorchester for assistance, the British governor of the Province of Quebec who reportedly promised assistance in the form of Mohawk warriors led by Joseph Brant. Dorchester's proposal was vetoed in London, however, and no assistance came to the rebels. The same day that Lincoln arrived at Petersham, the state legislature passed bills authorizing a state of martial law and giving the governor broad powers to act against the rebels. The bills also authorized state payments to reimburse Lincoln and the merchants who had funded the army and authorized the recruitment of additional militia. On February 16, 1787, the Massachusetts legislature passed the Disqualification Act to prevent a legislative response by rebel sympathizers. This bill forbade any acknowledged rebels from holding a variety of elected and appointed offices.
Most of Lincoln's army melted away in late February as enlistments expired, and he commanded only 30 men at a base in Pittsfield by the end of the month. In the meantime, some 120 rebels had regrouped in New Lebanon, New York, and they crossed the border on February 27, marching first on Stockbridge, Massachusetts, a major market town in the southwestern corner of the state. They raided the shops of merchants and the homes of merchants and local professionals. This came to the attention of Brigadier John Ashley, who mustered a force of some 80 men and caught up with the rebels in nearby Sheffield late in the day for the bloodiest encounter of the rebellion: 30 rebels were wounded (one mortally), at least one government soldier was killed, and many were wounded. Ashley was further reinforced after the encounter, and he reported taking 150 prisoners.
Consequences
Four thousand people signed confessions acknowledging participation in the events of the rebellion in exchange for amnesty. Several hundred participants were eventually indicted on charges relating to the rebellion, but most of these were pardoned under a general amnesty that excluded only a few ringleaders. Eighteen men were convicted and sentenced to death, but most of these had their sentences commuted or overturned on appeal, or were pardoned. John Bly and Charles Rose, however, were hanged on December 6, 1787. They were also accused of a common-law crime, as both were looters.
Shays was pardoned in 1788 and he returned to Massachusetts from hiding in the Vermont woods. He was vilified by the Boston press, who painted him as an archetypal anarchist opposed to the government. He later moved to the Conesus, New York area, where he died poor and obscure in 1825.
The crushing of the rebellion and the harsh terms of reconciliation imposed by the Disqualification Act all worked against Governor Bowdoin politically. He received few votes from the rural parts of the state and was trounced by John Hancock in the gubernatorial election of 1787. The military victory was tempered by tax changes in subsequent years. The legislature cut taxes and placed a moratorium on debts and also refocused state spending away from interest payments, resulting in a 30-percent decline in the value of Massachusetts securities as those payments fell in arrears.
Vermont was an unrecognized independent republic that had been seeking independent statehood from New York's claims to the territory. It became an unexpected beneficiary of the rebellion by sheltering the rebel ringleaders. Alexander Hamilton broke from other New Yorkers, including major landowners with claims on Vermont territory, calling for the state to recognize and support Vermont's bid for admission to the union. He cited Vermont's de facto independence and its ability to cause trouble by providing support to the discontented from neighboring states, and he introduced legislation that broke the impasse between New York and Vermont. Vermonters responded favorably to the overture, publicly pushing Eli Parsons and Luke Day out of the state (but quietly continuing to support others). Vermont became the fourteenth state after negotiations with New York and the passage of the new constitution.
Impact on the Constitution
Thomas Jefferson was serving as ambassador to France at the time and refused to be alarmed by Shays' Rebellion. He argued in a letter to James Madison on January 30, 1787, that occasional rebellion serves to preserve freedoms. In a letter to William Stephens Smith on November 13, 1787, Jefferson wrote, "The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure." In contrast, George Washington had been calling for constitutional reform for many years, and he wrote in a letter dated October 31, 1786, to Henry Lee, "You talk, my good sir, of employing influence to appease the present tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be found, or, if attainable, that it would be a proper remedy for the disorders. Influence is not government. Let us have a government by which our lives, liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know the worst at once."
Influence upon the Constitutional Convention
At the time of the rebellion, the weaknesses of the federal government as constituted under the Articles of Confederation were apparent to many. A vigorous debate was going on throughout the states on the need for a stronger central government, with Federalists arguing for the idea, and Anti-Federalists opposing them. Historical opinion is divided on what sort of role the rebellion played in the formation and later ratification of the United States Constitution, although most scholars agree that it played some role, at least temporarily drawing some anti-Federalists to the strong government side.
By early 1785, many influential merchants and political leaders were already agreed that a stronger central government was needed. Shortly after Shays' Rebellion broke out, delegates from five states met in Annapolis, Maryland from September 11–14, 1786, and they concluded that vigorous steps were needed to reform the federal government, but they disbanded because of a lack of full representation and authority, calling for a convention of all the states to be held in Philadelphia in May 1787. Historian Robert Feer notes that several prominent figures had hoped that the convention would fail, requiring a larger-scale convention, and French diplomat Louis-Guillaume Otto thought that the convention was intentionally broken off early to achieve this end.
In early 1787, John Jay wrote that the rural disturbances and the inability of the central government to fund troops in response made "the inefficiency of the Federal government more and more manifest". Henry Knox observed that the uprising in Massachusetts clearly influenced local leaders who had previously opposed a strong federal government. Historian David Szatmary writes that the timing of the rebellion "convinced the elites of sovereign states that the proposed gathering at Philadelphia must take place". Some states delayed choosing delegates to the proposed convention, including Massachusetts, in part because it resembled the "extra-legal" conventions organized by the protestors before the rebellion became violent.
Influence upon the Constitution
The convention that met in Philadelphia was dominated by strong-government advocates. Delegate Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut argued that because the people could not be trusted (as exemplified by Shays' Rebellion), the members of the federal House of Representatives should be chosen by state legislatures, not by popular vote. The example of Shays' Rebellion may also have been influential in the addition of language to the constitution concerning the ability of states to manage domestic violence, and their ability to demand the return of individuals from other states for trial.
The rebellion also played a role in the discussion of the number of chief executives the United States would have going forward. While mindful of tyranny, delegates of the Constitutional Convention thought that the single executive would be more effective in responding to national disturbances.
Federalists cited the rebellion as an example of the confederation government's weaknesses, while opponents such as Elbridge Gerry, a merchant speculator and Massachusetts delegate from Essex County, thought that a federal response to the rebellion would have been even worse than that of the state. He was one of the few convention delegates who refused to sign the new constitution, although his reasons for doing so did not stem from the rebellion.
Influence upon ratification
When the constitution had been drafted, Massachusetts was viewed by Federalists as a state that might not ratify it, because of widespread anti-Federalist sentiment in the rural parts of the state. Massachusetts Federalists, including Henry Knox, were active in courting swing votes in the debates leading up to the state's ratifying convention in 1788. When the vote was taken on February 6, 1788, representatives of rural communities involved in the rebellion voted against ratification by a wide margin, but the day was carried by a coalition of merchants, urban elites, and market town leaders. The state ratified the constitution by a vote of 187 to 168.
Historians are divided on the impact the rebellion had on the ratification debates. Robert Feer notes that major Federalist pamphleteers rarely mentioned it and that some anti-Federalists used the fact that Massachusetts survived the rebellion as evidence that a new constitution was unnecessary. Leonard Richards counters that publications like the Pennsylvania Gazette explicitly tied anti-Federalist opinion to the rebel cause, calling opponents of the new constitution "Shaysites" and the Federalists "Washingtonians".
David Szatmary argues that debate in some states was affected, particularly in Massachusetts, where the rebellion had a polarizing effect. Richards records Henry Jackson's observation that opposition to ratification in Massachusetts was motivated by "that cursed spirit of insurgency", but that broader opposition in other states originated in other constitutional concerns expressed by Elbridge Gerry, who published a widely distributed pamphlet outlining his concerns about the vagueness of some of the powers granted in the constitution and its lack of a Bill of Rights.
The military powers enshrined in the constitution were soon put to use by President George Washington. After the passage by the United States Congress of the Whiskey Act, protest against the taxes it imposed began in western Pennsylvania. The protests escalated and Washington led federal and state militia to put down what is now known as the Whiskey Rebellion.
Memorials
The events and people of the uprising are commemorated in the towns where they lived and those where events took place. Sheffield erected a memorial (pictured above) marking the site of the "last battle” on the Sheffield-Egremont Road in Sheffield, across the road from the Appalachian Trail trailhead. Pelham memorialized Daniel Shays by naming the portion of US Route 202 that runs through Pelham the Daniel Shays Highway. A statue of General Shepard was erected in his hometown of Westfield.
In the town of Petersham, Massachusetts, a memorial was erected in 1927 by the New England Society of Brooklyn, New York in commemoration of General Benjamin Lincoln's rout of the Shaysite forces there on the morning of February 4. The lengthy inscription is typical of the traditional, pro-government interpretation, ending with the line, "Obedience to the law is true liberty."
There is a small memorial monument to Shay’s Rebellion on the Sheffield-Egremont Road in Sheffield Massachusetts. The monument is located across the road from the Appalachian Trail trailhead.
See also
Fries's Rebellion
List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
Paper Money Riot
Tax resistance in the United States
Whiskey Rebellion
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Additional scholarly sources
Gross, Robert A. "A Yankee Rebellion? The Regulators, New England, and the New Nation," New England Quarterly (2009) 82#1 pp. 112–135 in JSTOR
(Reprints a petition to the state legislature.)
(The earliest account of the rebellion. Although this account was deeply unsympathetic to the rural Regulators, it became the basis for most subsequent tellings, including the many mentions of the rebellion in Massachusetts town and state histories.)
Shattuck, Gary, Artful and Designing Men: The Trials of Job Shattuck and the Regulation of 1786–1787. Mustang, OK: Tate Publishing, 2013.
Fictional treatments
(Fictional depiction of the rebellion, as social commentary.)
(The rebellion is the central story of this children's novel.)
(The rebellion plays a central role in this novel.)
External links
Shays's Rebellion (George Washington's Mount Vernon)
"To Gen Washington from Gen. Benjamin Lincoln" (a letter extensively covering the events of Shays' Rebellion) (National Archives)
Agrarian politics
Conflicts in 1786
Conflicts in 1787
Rebellions in the United States
18th-century rebellions
1786 in Massachusetts
1787 in Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts
Great Barrington, Massachusetts
Chicopee, Massachusetts
Concord, Massachusetts
Taunton, Massachusetts
Northampton, Massachusetts
Palmer, Massachusetts
Pelham, Massachusetts
Petersham, Massachusetts
West Springfield, Massachusetts
History of Berkshire County, Massachusetts
History of Bristol County, Massachusetts
History of Hampden County, Massachusetts
History of Hampshire County, Massachusetts
History of Middlesex County, Massachusetts
History of Springfield, Massachusetts
History of Worcester, Massachusetts
History of Worcester County, Massachusetts
Tax resistance in the United States
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Hindi literature () includes literature in the various Hindi language which have writing systems. It is broadly classified into four prominent forms (styles) based on the date of production. They are:
Vir-Gatha kal (poems extolling brave warriors) – 11th–14th century
Bhakti kal poems (devotional poems) – 14th–18th century
Riti or Shringar kal poems (poems of romance) – 18th–20th century
Adhunik kal (modern literature) – 20th century onwards
The literature was produced in dialects such as Khariboli, Braj, Bundeli, Awadhi, Kannauji, as well as Marwari, Magahi, Bhojpuri and Chhattisgarhi. From the 20th century, works produced in Standard Hindi, a register of Hindustani written in the Devanagari script, are sometimes regarded as the only basis of modern literature in Hindi.
History
Adi Kal or Vir-Gatha kal (c. 1050 to 1375)
Literature of Adi kal (c. before the 15th century CE) was developed in the regions of Kannauj, Delhi, Ajmer stretching up to central India. Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem written by Chand Bardai (1149 – c. 1200), is considered one of the first works in the history of Hindi literature. Chand Bardai was a court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan, the famous ruler of Delhi and Ajmer during the invasion of Muhammad of Ghor.
Jayachandra, the last ruler of Kannauj gave more patronage to Sanskrit rather than local dialects. Harsha, the author of Naishdhiya Charitra, was his court poet. Jagnayak (sometimes Jagnik), the royal poet in Mahoba, and Nalha, the royal poet in Ajmer, were the other prominent literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat in the Second Battle of Tarain, most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed by the army of Muhammad of Ghor. Very few scriptures and manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted.
Some Siddha and Nathpanthi poetical works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is again, doubted. The Siddhas belonged to the Vajrayana, a later Buddhist sect. Some scholars argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not an earlier form of Hindi, but Magadhi Prakrit. Nathpanthis were yogis who practised the Hatha yoga. Some Jain and Rasau (heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period.
In the Deccan region in South India, Dakkhini or Hindavi was used. It flourished under the Delhi Sultanate and later under the Nizams of Hyderabad. It was written in the Persian script. Nevertheless, the Hindavi literature can be considered proto-Hindi literature. Many Deccani experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the word Hindavi to describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred to call it Deccani. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Deccani author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works – Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote Nishatul Ishq. The first Deccani poet was Nizami.
During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint-poets like Ramanand and Gorakhnath became famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some of Vidyapati's Maithili works.
Bhakti kaal (c. 1375 to 1700)
The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and composition of long, epic poems.
Awadhi and Braj Bhasha were the dialects in which literature was developed. The main works in Avadhi are Malik Muhammad Jayasi's Padmavat and Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas. The major works in Braj dialect are Tulsidas's Vinaya Patrika and Surdas's Sur Sagar. Sadhukaddi was also a language commonly used, especially by Kabir in his poetry and dohas.
The Bhakti period also marked great theoretical development in poetry forms chiefly from a mixture of older forms of poetry. These included Verse Patterns like Doha (two-liners), Sortha, Chaupaya (four-liners) etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterised under the various Rasas. Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha Kaal) which was characterised by an overdose of Poetry in the Vir Rasa (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut of rasas from Shringara rasa (love), Vir Rasa (Heroism).
Bhakti poetry had two schools – the Nirguna school (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and the Saguna school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations). Kabir and Guru Nanak belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Adi Sankaracharya. They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Brahma or the Shapeless Formless One. The Saguna school was represented by mainly Vaishnava poets like Surdas, Tulsidas and others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly Vaishnava in orientation as in seen in the main compositions like Ramacharitamanas, Sur Saravali, Sur Sagar extolling Rama and Krishna.
This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the Islamic elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets like Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana who was a minister to Mughal emperor Akbar and was also a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large number of followers irrespective of caste or religion.
Riti-kavya kal (c. 1700 to 1900)
In the Ritikavya or Ritismagra Kavya period, the erotic element became predominant in the Hindi literature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional aspects of poetry—the main characteristic of the Bhakti movement—and the actual content of the poetry became less important. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwardly related to Krishna Bhakti, their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to the
Shringar or erotic aspects of Krishna's life—his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis in Braj, and the description of the physical beauty of Krishna and Radha,(Krishna's Consort). The poetry of Bihari, and Ghananand Das fit this bill. The most well known book from this age is the Bihari Satsai of Bihari, a collection of Dohas (couplets), dealing with Bhakti (devotion), Neeti (Moral policies) and Shringar (love).
The first Hindi books, using the Devanagari script or Nāgarī script were one Heera Lal's treatise on Ain-i-Akbari, called Ain e Akbari ki Bhasha Vachanika, and Rewa Maharaja's treatise on Kabir. Both books came out in 1795. Munshi Lallu Lal's Hindi translation of Sanskrit Hitopadesha was published in 1809. Lala Srinivas Das published a novel in Hindi Pariksha guru in the Nāgarī script in 1886. Shardha Ram Phillauri wrote a Hindi novel Bhagyawati which was published in 1888.
Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi. The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement.
Adhunik kal (c. 1900 onwards)
In 1800, the British East India Company established Fort William College at Calcutta. The College president J. B. Gilchrist hired professors to write books in Hindustani. Some of these books were Prem Sagar by Lallu Lal, Naasiketopaakhyan by Sadal Mishra, Sukhsagar by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and Rani Ketaki ki kahani by Munshi Inshallah Khan.
The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales, entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have been translated into many other languages.
Dwivedi Yug
The Dwivedi Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing the modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of the Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform.
Dwivedi became the editor of Saraswati in 1903, the first Hindi monthly magazine of India, which was established in 1900. He used it to crusade for reforms in the Hindi literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period was Maithili Sharan Gupt's Bharat-bharati, which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar Prathak's Bharatgit is another renowned poem of the period.
Some scholars have labelled much of the poetry of this period as "versified propaganda". According to Lucy Rosenstein: "It is verse of public statement; its language is functional but aesthetically unappealing. Earnestly concerned with social issues and moral values, it is puritanical poetry in which aesthetic considerations are secondary. Imagination, originality, poetic sensibility and expression are wanting, the metre is restrictive, the idiom clumsy." She adds, however, that the period was important for laying the foundations to the modern Hindi poetry and that it did reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time. However, she also adds that the inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry, as she considers Modern Hindi.
Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were often presented not as individuals but as social types.
Chhayavaadi Yug
In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chhayavaad (shadowism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chhayavaadi. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major Chhayavaadi poets. Poet Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar' was another great poet with some Chayavaadi element in his poetry although he wrote in other genres as well.
This period of Neo-romanticism, represents the adolescence of Hindi Poetry. It is marked by beauty of expression and flow of intense emotion. The four representative poets of this era represent the best in Hindi Poetry. A unique feature of this period is the emotional (and sometimes active) attachment of poets with national freedom struggle, their effort to understand and imbibe the vast spirit of a magnificent ancient culture and their towering genius which grossly overshadowed all the literary 'talked abouts' of next seven decades.
Other important genres of Adhunik Sahitya (Modernism) are: Prayogvad (Experimentalism) of Ajneya and the Tar Saptak poets, also known as Nayi Kavita (New Poetry) and Nayi Kahani (New Story) of Nirmal Verma and others; followed by Pragativad (Progressivism) of Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh and other authors.
Nakenwad
Among the numerous schools of poetry which sprang up in the 1950s was Nakenwad, a school deriving its nomenclature from the first letters of the names of its three pioneers – Nalin Vilochan Sharma, Kesari Kumar, and Naresh Mehta all poets of note in their own right. Apart from being poets, Nalin Vilochan and Kesari Kumar were also brilliant critics, with a wide perspective on literary history. Their critical attitude is marked by a synthesis or coordination of various disciplines of human knowledge – philosophy, history, art and culture, all pressed into the service of literary appraisal and analysis.
Genres of Hindi Literature
Hindi Kavita (Poetry)
Hindi has a rich legacy of poetry. There are several genres of Kavita based on Ras, Chhand and Alankar e.g. Shringar, Karun, Veer, Hāsya etc.
Hasya Kavita is humorous comic poetry in Hindi. It is particularly famous due to Hindi kavi sammelans.
Bal Kavita is children's rhymes in Hindi.
Many attempts have been made to document Hindi poetry. Some of the most comprehensive online collections for Hindi poetry are Kavitakosh and Geeta-Kavita.
The most classy content that has created new audiences who were not looking for Hindi poetry or Hindi content is Hindi Kavita. This movement started in 2014 by Manish Gupta has generated an entirely new market and brought many projects to the fore. Many award-winning poets, scholars, journalists and celebrities from film, television and theatre have come forward to support the cause and take it further.
Vyangya (Hindi Satire)
The rhetoric of satire is called Vyangya in Hindi. Vyangya writings includes the essence of sarcasm and humour. Some of the better known writers in this genre are, Harishankar Parsai (Hindi: हरिशंकर परसाई) (22 August 1924 – 1995) was a Hindi writer. He was a noted satirist and humorist of modern Hindi literature and is known for his simple and direct style., Sri Lal Sukla, Suryakumar Pandey etc.
Hindi travel literature
Rahul Sankrityayan, Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' and Baba Nagarjun were some of the great Indian writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the Hindi Travel Literature (Yatra Vritanta). Rahul Sankrityayan was one of the greatest travelled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He is known as the ("Father of Hindi Travel literature"). Baba Nagarjun was a major Hindi and Maithili poet who has also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues, and was known as ("Janakavi- the People's Poet").
Hindi playwriting
The pioneer of Hindi theatre as well as playwrighting, Bhartendu Harishchandra wrote Satya Harishchandra (1875), Bharat Durdasha (1876) and Andher Nagari (1878), in the late 19th century, Jaishankar Prasad became the next big figure in Hindi playwriting with plays like Skanda Gupta (1928), Chandragupta (1931) and Dhruvswamini (1933).
As the Independence struggle was gathering steam playwrights broaching issues of nationalism and subversive ideas against the British, yet to dodge censorship they adapted themes from mythology, history and legend and used them as vehicle for political messages, a trend that continues to date, though now it was employed to bring out social, personal and psychological issues rather than clearly political, though street theatre broke this trend in coming decades in post-independence era, like IPTA-inspired, Naya Theatre of Habib Tanvir did in the 1950s–90s, Jana Natya Manch of Safdar Hashmi did in the 1970s–80s. Post-independence the emerging republic threw up new issues for playwrights to tackle and express, and Hindi playwriting showed greater brevity and symbolism, but it was not as prolific as in case with Hindi poetry or fiction. Yet we have playwrights like Jagdish Chandra Mathur (Konark) and Upendranath Ashk (Anjo Didi), who displayed a steadily evolving understanding of stagecraft. These were followed another generation of pioneers in Hindi playwrighting, Mohan Rakesh, who started with Ashadh Ka Ek Din (1958), Adhe Adhure and Lehron Ke Rajhans, Dharamvir Bharati, who wrote Andha Yug, and other playwrights like Surendra Verma, and Bhisham Sahni.
Hindi essay-writing
Kuber Nath Rai is one of the writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the form of essay-writing. His collections of essays Gandha Madan, Priya neel-kanti, Ras Aakhetak, Vishad Yog, Nishad Bansuri, Parna mukut have enormously enriched the form of essay.
A scholar of Indian culture and western literature, he was proud of Indian heritage. His love for natural beauty and Indian folk literatures and preference for agricultural society over the age of machines, his romantic outlook, aesthetic sensibility, his keen eye on contemporary reality and classical style place him very high among contemporary essayists in Hindi.
Prominent figures
Chand Bardai (1148–1191), author of Prithviraj Raso.
Amir Khusro (1253–1325 AD), author of and in the Hindavi dialect.
Vidyapati (1352–1448), a prominent poet of Eastern dialects.
Kabir (1398–1518), a major figure of the bhakti (devotional) movement.
Surdas (1467–1583), author of Sahitya Lahari, Sur Saravali, Sur Sagar etc.
Malik Muhammad Jayasi (1477–1542), author of the Padmavat (1540) etc.
Mirabai (1504–1560), author of Mira Padavali etc.
Tulsidas (1532–1623), author of Ramacharitamanas, Vinay Patrika etc.
Keshavdas (1555–1617), author of Rasikpriya etc.
Raskhan (1548–1628), a major figure of the bhakti (devotional) movement.
Banarasidas (1586–1643) who is known for his poetic autobiography - Ardhakathānaka, (The Half Story),.
Bihari (1595–1664) became famous by writing Satasai (Seven Hundred Verses).
Bhushan (1612–1713), author of Shivabavani, Chhatrasal Dashak etc.
Vrind (1643–1723), author of Nitisatsai, Vrind Satsai etc.
Guru Gobind Singh (1669–1708), author of Bichitra Natak etc.
Sūdan (1700–1753), author of Sujān Charitra etc.
Lallu Lal (1763–1835), translator of Baital Pachisi, Shakuntala etc and author of Prem Sagar etc.
Ganga Das (1823–1913), author of about fifty kavya-granthas and thousands of padas, he is known as Bhismpitama of the Hindi poetry.
Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850–1885), author of Andher Nagari etc; his works are compiled in Bharatendu Granthavali.
Devaki Nandan Khatri (1861–1913), author of mystery novels like Chandrakanta, Bhootnath etc.
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi (1864–1938), author of Kavya Manjusha, Sugandh, Sahitya Sandarbh, Sahitya Vichar etc.
Munshi Premchand (1880–1936), considered one of the greatest Hindi novelists of all time. His novels include Godaan, Karmabhoomi, Gaban, Mansarovar, Idgah etc.
Maithili Sharan Gupt (1886–1964), author of Saket, Yashodhara etc.
Jaishankar Prasad (1889–1937), poet, novelist, playwright, stalwart of the literary Chhayavaadi movement. His greatest works are Kamayani, Dhruvswamini, Skandagupta etc.
Makhanlal Chaturvedi (1889–1968), first recipient of Sahitya Akademi Award in Hindi for his work Him Taringini, works include Yug Charan, Pushp Ki Abhilasha etc.
Rahul Sankrityayan (1893–1963), the father of Indian travelled literature.
Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' (1896–1961), one of the "four pillars" of the Chhayavaad movement.
Sumitranandan Pant, (1900–1977) eminent Hindi poet who wrote mainly on nature.
Yashpal (1903–1976), author of Jhutha Sach, Meri Teri Uski Baat etc.
Jainendra Kumar (1905–1988), An extremely influential figure in 20th-century Hindi literature.
Hazariprasad Dwivedi (1907–1979), novelist, literary historian.
Mahadevi Varma (1907–1987), one of the "four pillars" of the Chhayavaad movement.
Ramdhari Singh Dinkar (1908–1974), hailed as a Rashtrakavi.
Nagarjun (1911–1998), hailed as Janakavi (The People's Poet).
Bhisham Sahni (1915–2003), novelist, playwright, author of Tamas, Madhavi etc.
Nalin Vilochan Sharma (1916–1961), one of the pioneers of Nakenwad movement.
Phanishwar Nath 'Renu' (1921–1977), novelist best known for Maila Anchal, Juloos etc.
Harishankar Parsai (1922–1995), known for satirical works.
Naresh Mehta (1922–2000), poet, playwright, one of the pioneers of Nakenwad movement.
Mohan Rakesh (1925–1972), novelist, playwright known for Ashadh Ka Ek Din, Andhere Band Kamre, Na Aane Wala Kal etc.
Dharmavir Bharati (1926–1997), a renowned writer, author of Gunaho Ka Devta, Suraj Ka Satvan Ghoda etc.
Raghuvir Sahay (1929–1990) was a versatile Hindi poet, translator, short-story writer and journalist.
Nirmal Verma (1929–2005), one of the founders of the Nai Kahani literary movement.
Kamleshwar (1932–2007), author of Kitne Pakistan.
Dushyant Kumar (1933–1975), prominent Hindi poet snd composer of ghazals.
Kashinath Singh (1937–) author of Rehan Par Ragghu, Kashi Ka Assi etc.
Narendra Kohli (1940–2021), known for reinventing the ancient form of epic writing in modern prose.
Eminent Hindi journalists
Bharatendu Harishchandra
Bharatendu Harishchandra began his career as a journalist at the age of 17. Published Kavi Vachan Sudha (1867) a monthly dedicated to ancient and medieval poetry. Published Harishchandra Magazine in 1873 – a general interest magazine.
Published Bala Bodhini from 1874 – for women and young girls.
KVS was acknowledged to be the finest literary journal in any Indian language of that time, and was on par with the best of English journals. Bharatendu kept the journal up until his death 1885.
Because of his extraordinary achievements, he is considered the most prolific Hindi journalist.
Madan Mohan Malaviya
Madan Mohan Malaviya was born in 1861 in Allahabad to a Brahmin family. From 1885 to 1887 was the editor of Indian Opinion. He was a strong supporter of the Congress. He helped launch the newspaper Dainik Hindustan and was its editor from 1887 to 1889. He was a close friend of many eminent Hindi writers like Gopalram Gehmari, Amrutlal Chakravarty and Pandit Pratap Narayan Mishra.
Along with Bal Mukund Gupta, he launched an Urdu journal 'Kohinoor' from Lahore. In those days, Gupta was not a facile Hindi scholar, but under Malviya's training, Gupta became editor of Bharat Mitra.
In 1908, Malviya founded a new revolutionary journal Abhyudaya from Prayag. The renowned writer Purushottam Das Tandon was a frequent contributor to it.
After Abhyudaya, Malviya founded a monthly magazine 'Maryada', in 1909 he founded a daily 'Leader' and later on another daily – 'Bharat'.
Malviya was a great patriot and his love for his country was seen in all of his writings.
He also contributed to Aaj, and helped to found the Hindustan Times in 1933, along with its Hindi counterpart Hindustan.
Babu Gulabrai (17 January 1888 – 13 April 1963) (pen name: Gulabrai MA) was one of the greatest literary figures of modern Hindi literature.
Durgaprasad Mishra
Born in Kashmir, he came to Calcutta and started Bharat Mitra in 1878.
In 1879, he began another weekly magazine- Saar Sudhanidhi but it closed down in that same year. On 17 August 1880, he started a 3rd weekly- Ucchit Vakta- meaning Right or Best Time. Ucchit Vakta focused on spreading the truth (about the British Raj) and fighting for justice. It became very popular for many years.
Mishra underwent a lot of difficulties trying to bring out a critical publication at the time of the British Raj. At times he was the editor, writer and also sold the paper himself.
He was an inspiration for many journalists, particularly Bal Mukund Gupta.
Dharmvir Bharati
Born on 25 December 1926, Dharamvir Bharati graduated in BA (first class) in 1945 and in 1947 completed his MA in Hindi literature (first class) and finally did his PhD from Allahabad University. For some time he was principal of Allahabad University.
He began his journalist career in Abhyudaya, a journal by Padmakant Malviya. He then joined Sangam, edited by Ilachand Joshi and then became editor of Dharmayug. Thanks to Bharati, this journal became very popular.
During the 1971 war, Bharati reported from the frontlines of the battle. He covered all the horrors of the war. His series of reports, the finest in Hindi war journalism, were published under the title of 'Yudh Yatra'. As an honest and dedicated reporter, Bharati was unrivaled. After the war, he became editor of 2 more journals- Aalochana and Nikarshak.
Bharati was also famous as a short story writer, poet, essayist and novelist. The best known of his works are 'Band Galli ka Aakhiri Makaan', 'Andha Yug', 'Kunpriya'.
See also
Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya, an Indian central university with a literary focus
Hindustani orthography
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Hindi Literature, by Ram Awadh Dwivedi. Published by Hindi Pracharak Pustakalaya, 1953.
A History of Hindi literature, by K. B. Jindal. Published by Kitab Mahal, 1955.
Hindi Literature from Its Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century, by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1984. .
Hindi Literature of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries, by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1974. .
A New Voice for New Times: The Development of Modern Hindi Literature, by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, 1981. .
An Encyclopaedia of World Hindi Literature, by Ganga Ram Garg. Published by Concept Pub. Co., 1986.
External links
Hindi Language and Literature
Hindi
Indian literature
Hindi-language literature
Literature by language
Indian literature by language
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Evelina "Eva" Palmer-Sikelianos (; January 9, 1874 – June 4, 1952) was an American woman notable for her study and promotion of Classical Greek culture, weaving, theater, choral dance and music. Palmer's life and artistic endeavors intersected with numerous noteworthy artists throughout her life. She was both inspired by or inspired the likes of dancers Isadora Duncan and Ted Shawn, the French literary great Colette, the poet and author Natalie Barney and the actress Sarah Bernhardt. She would go on to marry Angelos Sikelianos, a Greek poet and playwright. Together they organized a revival of the Delphic Festival in Delphi, Greece. Embodied in these festivals of art, music and theater she hoped to promote a balanced sense of enlightenment that would further the goals of peace and harmony in Greece and beyond.
Early life
Evelina Palmer was born on January 9, 1874 at Gramercy Park in New York City to Courtlandt Palmer Sr. and Catherine Amory Bennett. She was one of five children in a family of eclectic intellectuals and gifted artists. The family she was born into was one that promoted liberal thought, unconventional education and exploration of music, theater and literature. Her earliest memories were of her father's Nineteenth Century Club, whose early meetings were held at the Palmer home. The Nineteenth Century Club brought together people of disparate political ideologies, atheists and religious luminaries. Her father facilitated thoughtful and amiable discussions of politics, religion and morality. These discussions were witnessed by a young Palmer and she would write later they would lay the seeds of her own thoughts as a young woman and adult. Her father died in the summer of 1888 of appendicitis. Palmer's mother would later remarry, to a man named Robert Abbe. It was during the family's summer vacations at Bar Harbor in Maine she became acquainted with Natalie Barney. The two shared an interest in poetry, literature and horseback riding. Barney likened Palmer to a medieval virgin, an homage to her ankle-length red hair and fair countenance. The two would become young lovers and later be neighbors in Paris.
Palmer's siblings were also formative in her life, in particular her brother Courtlandt Palmer Jr. Her brother was a musical prodigy and could at a young age play at the piano most all of the works of renowned composers. As music was integral to their mother's life, all of the Palmer siblings were either exposed to or encouraged to pursue musical endeavors. She herself would go on to study independently, music theory and Greek choral arrangements.
Palmer was enrolled in various boarding schools and day schools sporadically and for brief periods of time. Her father established a short-lived experimental school called the Van Taube School. She herself was not enrolled but recalls its open format that encouraged creative minds to explore without a rigid curriculum. After coming of age Palmer would attend Bryn Mawr College. While at Bryn Mawr she studied literature and the theater arts. She left the school before completing a degree, choosing rather to join her brother Palmer Jr. in Rome for a year and to study independently.
Paris
Palmer settled in Neuilly, an expatriate neighborhood near Paris. Palmer occupied herself fine-tuning her fluency of the French language, attending theater as well as participating in impromptu theatrical performances at fetes in Natalie Barney's backyard garden. At one of these fetes Palmer performed with Colette, Pierre Louÿs' Dialogue au Soleil Couchant. During this time she also met Sarah Bernhardt and the two became acquainted. Palmer was asked to perform with Sarah on-stage, an arrangement that ultimately fell through. During a brief foray in London, Palmer was offered to join the theater company of Mrs. Patrick Campbell. Mrs. Campbell's precondition to Palmer joining the company however demanded that she publicly disassociate herself with Natalie Barney. While the offer pleased Palmer and could have proven fruitful to her artistic endeavors, she ultimately turned down the offer. She was unwilling to forgo her friendship with Barney despite the opportunity.
It was also during Palmer's time in Paris she became acquainted with Raymond Duncan, the brother of Isadora Duncan, and his wife Penelope, the sister of Angelos Sikelianos. Due to labor unrest in Paris in 1905, the married couple and their baby came to stay with Palmer at her small house in Neuilly. Palmer and the couple shared an interest in homespun garb and Greek art. With the hopes of reproducing the quality of authentic Greek robes, the trio fashioned a loom to create several garments for themselves. These efforts would ultimately lead Palmer to abandoning traditional dress of the times in favor of dresses and handcrafted leather sandals she would come to fashion herself and wear exclusively. Penelope's singing and reciting of Sikelianos' poetry further intrigued Palmer. She wished to learn more and to meet Sikelianos herself. The Duncans and Palmer would later leave Paris for Greece.
Greece
Palmer and the Duncans would settle for a time in the Grecian foothills of the Hymettos mountains, five miles east of Athens. The location was the unfinished remnants of the Duncan family home. It was here Penelope arranged for Palmer to meet her brother for the first time. Despite the language barrier Palmer and Sikelianos became acquainted, learning they shared a world view. Through their conversations regarding peace, debate and civility, much of it reminded her of her late father's debate society as well as her own formed opinions on the world. It was during this time the seeds for reviving the Delphic Idea and the Delphic Festival was laid. Both Palmer and Sikelianos sought to bring people together and through the devices of art, music and theater share their message of harmony among people of different ethnic, religious and political backgrounds.
Palmer followed Sikelianos to Lefkas, the Ionian island on the Western coast of Greece and his ancestral home. Here the two became further acquainted. He shared with her his poetry and they discussed in further depth the Delphic Idea. Palmer had built for her a loom so she could further pursue her interest in weaving homespun dresses in the style of the Greeks. In 1907 Palmer and Sikelianos traveled to America. Palmer was unprepared for the American press interest in her and especially in her chosen mode of dress. As her dress departed from the more typical and Parisian fashions dramatically, the New York newspapers found in Palmer, an heiress of her father's infamous reputation, ample material to write upon. Palmer eschewed the attention and was angered at the often false stories written about her. The purpose of their visit however was to introduce Palmer's mother to Sikelianos and to get married. The couple was married in Bar Harbor, Maine on September 9, 1907. Palmer assumed a hyphenated surname: Eva Palmer-Sikelianos. Her friendship with Barney did not survive this union. Barney feared the loss of Palmer in Sikelianos, while Palmer tired of life in Paris, a lifestyle she increasingly saw as frivolous. Their friendship would later be repaired by an exchange of letters and would later reunite as a friends.
Returning to Greece, the couple settled in Athens. Here Palmer gave birth to a son named Glafkos. The family also maintained a small residence in Lefkas where they would vacation, explore the beaches and fish. She would also begin studying Greek Ecclesiastical music and notation under Konstantinos Psachos, at the time named by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as Master Teacher of Music of the Great Church of Christ. Palmer's interest was in the complexity of Greek music as it cannot be recorded in notation in the same fashion as European music. To do so required learning Byzantine music notation. Palmer's scholarly pursuits in music instilled in her a desire to form a school whose purpose would be to preserve Greek indigenous music. Additionally, using her own funds as well as organizing donation drives, she and Psachos would raise the money necessary to commission the creation of a specialized harmonium. The instrument was manufactured by G.F. Steinmeyer in 1924 in Germany and named by Psachos the Evion Panharmonium after its most significant sponsor, Palmer. While the original Evion Panharmonium was believed to later be destroyed during World War II, two smaller versions were brought back to Greece by Psachos. Her goal of forming a school of music in Athens was laid to rest while other projects diverted her time and attention.
The relationship between Eva and Angelos is described by Takis Dimopoulos, a very close friend of Angelos and person that understood his work, in his article titled "The poet and Eva" Dimopoulos, initially deals with their relationship as secretly prepared for long and almost predetermined by fate. Angelos (who, at the time he met Palmer was in his prime both spiritually and mentally, “a young bull”, a young Dionysus and fabulous Adonis” from the "warm bosom of Mother Earth") and Eva, both urged to mate by the poet’s sister Penelope, are considered as two symbols: "[...] we have [...] the man, whose bowels are burning with desire for the Eternal female [...] and the woman who, like a crystal interacts with the "Male Speech" in many levels. [...]. "Sikelianos, after their acquaintance, travels to Egypt (where he writes his work “Alafroiskiotos" (The Light-Shadowed) and, when he returned to Lefkada, he gets into a relationship with her, which would soon lead to marriage. Eva as the new "Homeric Penelope", due to the waiting for his return, changes her spiritual targeting and recognizes the priority that a loyal attitude and focus on the vision of the great poet has: she becomes the "thirsty receiver" of unrestrained "bacchic" erotic and mystic intoxication, sets aside every obstacle that gets in his way (material or otherwise), guides him and supports him in difficult times (death of Penelope), in a word, she is trying to assure that he will remain undisturbed from anything will could stand in his course. He, in turn, tries to understand the Greek tradition, he knows the "great Mystics" of all cultures and times and is increasingly developing his "innate secretive mood" and the "first image of Mother Nature" in him. This spiritual quest ends with the birth of the Delphic Idea, the new concept for Delphi by Sikelianos. This idea will rush through him in a Dionysian and lyrical way. He wants to change the Present (a political act – in the broader meaning of the term) with “the Love for the Other person” as the means. Eva plays a very important role in this quest and essentially manages to become a “true Greek Bacchant”, she deals with all the organizational, practical and material aspects of the Festivals, allowing Angelos to be devoted to his vision. Her offer, however, is very important (she composes music for the chorus of the tragedies and sews the dresses for the dancers according to ancient Greek standards). Even with such fatigue and responsibility, things are going well and the Festivals (both) are successful. However, the money needed for the conduct of the Delphic Festivals were many and there is need for new resources, so Eva is obliged to return home. Her efforts to find financial resources and partners were long and fruitless and eventually failed. Angelos, influenced by her absence (which resulted in the cancellation of their wedding in 1934 and their separation), turned to another 'first image’" of the "Mother", trying to divert somewhere else his torrential Dionysian vision which is "affected" by the existential questions that have begun to torture him. This period of "existential" -almost- loneliness ends in 1938, when he met Anna Karamani, his future wife. Eva had become successively Daughter (the "intellectual exercise"), Wife ("fulfilling the Dionysian visions") and Sister, and now had reached the highest stage of this unique development: she became the Mother, who from afar tries to relieve her son of the final course to fulfill the "great longing", while she is alone and mourning. This is Eva’s role now in relation to Angelos, who asks her consent to his marriage with Anna (she "gives her blessings"). Ultimately, she turned back to her "spiritual home", Greece, only when her Dionysus had returned to his Mother, so that she would stay forever in Delphi.
First Delphic Festival
The first Delphic Festival organized by Palmer and her husband commenced May 9, 1927. Events were planned over the course of several days. These included a production of the Greek tragedy Prometheus Bound, performed amid the ruins of the theater at Delphi, an athletic competition at the stadium, and an assembly of local handicrafts in the nearby village. Preparations for the festival began nearly three years prior and featured both setbacks and unexpected successes. Organizing such an event required time, effort and money. The sponsorship and cooperation of the Greek government, educational institutions, businesses and interest groups was sought. Palmer used both her own inheritance as well as secured loans for the necessary money needed to execute the festival. Along the way she encountered apathy, outright disapproval and sometimes encouragement and support. Palmer's primary task was the production of Prometheus Bound, which involved directing the play, training the Greek chorus, and weaving all of the costumes from scratch. Psachos was recruited to produce the music for the play as she felt only he understood the true nature of the music required to imbue the performance with authenticity. Much to her dismay however Psachos insisted on the inclusion of an accompanying orchestra of musicians. Greek theatrical performances of antiquity did not feature such orchestras nor did the layout of the theater accommodate it. She felt that the theater production necessitated an authentic representation and to deviate from the authenticity would elicit an inaccurate production of the play and the overall message of the Delphic Festival would be marred. Despite her misgivings, the instrumental orchestra was included. To her relief and surprise the accompanying music of the orchestra was largely inaudible given the design of the theater. While she did not consider herself the sole source of accuracy and authenticity on Greek tragedy and chorus, she felt she had learned enough on the topics to know that there was no one alive who was. And so she set about the production relying on both her background in these studies as well as by instinct. A feature of the athletic performances was the Pyrrhic Dance, men dressed in armor dancing and keeping time by stomping their feet. Finding enough dedicated men to perform this dance, as well as creating the breastplates, helmets, swords and spears, was a monumental task. Coming to the rescue was the Greek Ministry of War and Alexandros Mazarakis-Ainian, who placed at her disposal all the men she needed for the Pyrrhic Dance as well as tents, trucks, and other supplies needed to carry out the festival.
The festival concluded successfully. The play and athletic competitions were recorded by the Greek filmmaker Dimitrios Gaziadis. The film was titled Prometheus in Chains and was reproduced in 1971. Press reports throughout Greece and Europe wrote positively of the festival and many previously disposed as skeptical of the idea were convinced otherwise.
Second Delphic Festival
The positive reception of the first festival ensured the cooperation of the Greek government for subsequent festivals. It was decided that a national lottery would be formed to both pay off the debts of the first and pay for the second Delphic Festival. Public support for the festival was high and the government passed the Delphic Lottery bill. At the time Greece had one lottery whose returns were divided between funding the country's archaeological endeavors and to the Greek Navy, but when it came time to print the tickets for the lottery, the effort was stymied. The Minister of the Navy apparently was at blame for the holdup, fearing that funds people spent on lottery tickets would go the festival rather than in support of the Navy. Disillusioned with this setback, Palmer traveled to America for approximately a year. She was asked to lecture at various schools, colleges and universities and wrote several papers on the topics embodied in the festival and the Delphic Idea. Palmer traveled from coast to coast and back again to New England. The lecturing tour afforded only a modest financial return and she largely bore her own travel expenses. She was asked to stay on and teach at Yale University the Greek choruses she had directed in Prometheus Bound. She turned down the offer however, feeling she would be unable to teach such things in an authentic and sustaining manner.
Palmer returned to Europe, staying in Paris for a time before being convinced to return to Greece in the autumn of 1929 and commence the planning of the second Delphic Festival. It is unclear if the issue of the Delphic Lottery and the Ministry of the Navy was resolved and how the festival would be paid for; if by the lottery, loans or by Palmer's own money. Her concerns regarding debt still owed from the first festival lend evidence to the unlikelihood she had sufficient funds herself to pay for all the costs of a second festival. Nevertheless she returned to Greece and planning for the second festival began. She and Sikelianos decided on The Suppliants as the featured play. This play featured the Greek Chorus as the centerpiece and antagonist of the play, and as such she dove into the preparations fully. Fifty chorus performers were needed and unlike the early struggles of the first festival, volunteers were plenty and enthusiastic. The Greek Ministry of War also again provided ready support in men and materials for the festival. The irony of this was not lost on Palmer. Though such an organization was preoccupied with the business of war, the very antithesis of the Delphic Idea, she reasoned who more than any knew the horrors of war than soldiers.
Psacos was again asked to write the music for the play and the old arguments from the first festival were revisited. She was given more of a free hand to decide upon the particulars of the production than before and Psachos and Palmer disagreed on the musical elements of the play. The two would not speak again and Psachos withdrew from the production. Both the athletic competitions and an exhibition of handicrafts were again part of the festival. The festival took place in 1930 and was a success.
Parallel to the Delphic Idea was the idea of a Delphic University, promoted largely by Sikelianos. Following on the success of the two festivals it was hoped such a school could be put together. The Greek government however did not warm to the idea and rather was more interested in how future festivals could promote Greek products and tourism. To Palmer and Sikelianos the festivals were but one means to an end and not the end itself. As such the Greek government was of little help beyond the promotion of the festivals. Tourism and the export of Greek wares could infuse the economy, whereas the studious pursuit of the Delphic Idea would not, in the eyes of the government, garner any returns in the foreseeable future.
Palmer would again return to America with hopes of stirring interest in the Delphic Idea and the lessons of Greek Tragedy and Drama. Her marriage with Sikelianos would be annulled in 1934 and he would later remarry in Greece. They continued to exchange correspondence and remained on good terms.
America
Palmer renewed her theatrical efforts in America. She was invited to join the Federal Theater Project in New York, a New Deal program to employ out-of-work artists, writers and directors. Under this project Palmer endeavored to produce The Persians by Aeschylus, which featured a chorus of fifty men. It was Palmer's desire to produce such a play that featured male dancers and singers, believing that such participation furthered the precepts of the Delphic Idea. Palmer was also involved in the production of a Christmas play, as well as in the writing and production of a comedy based on a Greek play by Aristophanes. None of these efforts however came to fruition. The competing agendas and in-fighting between committees and sub-committees of the Federal Theater Project, as well as an uneven participation and dedication by a motley crew of tap-dancers, vaudeville stars and circus performers she was given to work with, undermined Palmer's efforts. She was eventually dismissed from the program. Frustrated and disappointed, Palmer moved on. In the spring of 1938 she would give a lecture to a Greek society group called Philiko where she announced her intention on teaching The Persians. Participation was limited to four interested individuals.
Not long after Palmer developed a severe condition of pneumonia and was interred in bed for an extended period of time. This was a time of rest and introspection for Palmer. She maintained correspondence with her various friends and family, read and wrote until she recovered and was well enough again to pursue more active interests. For a time Palmer would stay with a friend in Greenwich, Connecticut.
In January 1939, Palmer took in a dance production at Irving Washington High School in New York, Dance of Ages by Ted Shawn and his company of male dancers. Her previous experiences with male dancers of this sort had not been positive. They were either entrenched in American style of dancing or unwilling to learn the Greek chorus methods. What she witnessed in Shawn and his production was akin to the style and spirit of what she sought. Shawn was familiar with Palmer's efforts and the two agreed to make time to discuss their particular endeavors. They quickly found they shared an understanding of dance and music. The two would collaborate the following years. Palmer would teach Shawn's dance troupe her interpretation of Greek chorus as well as produce costumes from her loom. In Shawn's group of dancers she found at long last a rapt audience and interested students. Shawn and Palmer would go on to produce several numbers that were seen in New York and Florida. Later they would arrive at an impasse and artistic disagreement that ultimately led to the end of their partnership.
Upward Panic
Upward Panic is both the title of Palmer's autobiography and a term she coined herself. The autobiography was assembled and edited by John P. Anton, Professor of Greek Philosophy and Culture at the University of South Florida. The autobiography is the fourth volume in a series of books that make up the Choreography and Dance Studies program and published by Harwood Academic Publishers in 1993. Professor Anton received a grant in 1985 which allowed him to travel to Greece and research what could be learned of Palmer there. She began writing her autobiography in 1938 and would continue to do so on and off again through 1948. The book is roughly divided into two parts, the first being more traditionally autobiographical where she speaks to her early life and family. The second half concerns accounts of the Delphic Festivals, her later experiences in America and theoretical essays.
Upward Panic as a term coined by Palmer describes the rising exhilaration experienced at the culmination of tragic drama, music and dance. She and Sikelianos believed that the pursuit of these arts would lead people towards peace and understanding of each other. The term itself has its roots in Arcadia, Greek Mythology and of Pan, from which the English word 'panic' is derived from. Use of the word panic in this context should not be confused with the negative connotation it holds in modern English.
Death and legacy
Palmer returned to Greece in the spring of 1952. Two weeks after her arrival she suffered a fatal stroke while attending a theatrical performance in Delphi. She was 78 years old. Pursuant to her wishes she was buried at Delphi.
Palmer's artistic endeavors and support of the Delphic Idea came in a period of time between world wars. In her latter years she would witness from afar the rise of Nazism, Hitler and WWII. It would seem as though their efforts had been all for naught. They were not the first to attempt a revival of the spirit of Delphi in Greece and they would not be the last. The Delphic Idea lives on in modern times through the International Delphic Council. Much of the same ideals and principals are embodied in these modern efforts of music, dance and athletics.
Notes
References
Angelos Sikelianos, Letters to Eva Palmer Sikelianos, Edited by Kostas Bournazakis, Ikaros Publisher, Athens 2008
Eva Palmer Sikelianos, Upward Panic – The Autobiography of Eva Palmer-Sikelianos, Edited By John P. Anton. Hardwood Academic Publishers, 1993
Suzanne Rodriquez, Wild Heart – Natalie Clifford Barney and the Decadence of Literary Paris, Harper Collins, 2003 (Ecco Paperback Edition)
Judith Thurman, Secrets of the Flesh: A life of Colette, Random House Publishing Group (Ballantine Books), 1999
Kenneth MacKinnon, Greek Tragedy into Film, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1986
Egon Wellesz, Miloš Velimirović, Studies in Eastern Chant, Volume 5, Edited By Dimitri Conomos. St. Vladimir's Press, 1990
Further reading
“Greek Poet's Wife to Talk on Delphi.” The San Francisco Examiner, 17 June 1928, p. 56. Newspapers.com.
Artemis Leontis, Eva Palmer Sikelianos: A Life in Ruins, Princeton University Press, 2019.
External links
Artemis Leontis,The Alternative Archaeologies of Eva Palmer Sikelianos
International Delphic Council
Modern Chronology of Delphic Festival (394 AD to 2007)
International Delphic Council (2008+)
Dance historians
American art historians
Women art historians
American choreographers
1874 births
1952 deaths
19th-century American women
20th-century American women
People from Gramercy Park
LGBT people from New York (state)
LGBT choreographers
Historians from New York (state)
Bisexual women
Angelos Sikelianos
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The Anglo-Scottish War (1650–1652), also known as the Third Civil War, was the final conflict in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists.
The English invasion of Scotland in 1650 was a pre-emptive military incursion by the English Commonwealth's New Model Army, intended to allay the risk of Charles II invading England with a Scottish army. The First and Second English Civil Wars, in which English Royalists, loyal to Charles I, fought Parliamentarians for control of the country, took place between 1642 and 1648. When the Royalists were defeated for the second time the English government, exasperated by Charles's duplicity during negotiations, had him executed on 30 January 1649. Charles I was also, separately, the king of Scotland, which was then an independent nation. The Scots fought in support of the Parliamentarians in the First Civil War, but sent an army in support of the king into England during the Second. The Parliament of Scotland, which had not been consulted before the execution, declared his son, Charles II, King of Britain.
In 1650 Scotland was rapidly raising an army. The leaders of the English Commonwealth government felt threatened and on 22 July the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland. The Scots, commanded by David Leslie, retreated to Edinburgh and refused battle. After a month of manoeuvring, Cromwell unexpectedly led the English army out of Dunbar in a night attack on 3 September and heavily defeated the Scots. The survivors abandoned Edinburgh and withdrew to the strategic bottleneck of Stirling. The English secured their hold over southern Scotland, but were unable to advance past Stirling. On 17 July 1651 the English crossed the Firth of Forth in specially constructed boats and defeated the Scots at the Battle of Inverkeithing on 20 July. This cut the Scottish army at Stirling off from its sources of supply and reinforcements.
Charles II, believing that the only alternative was surrender, invaded England in August. Cromwell pursued, few Englishmen rallied to the Royalist cause and the English raised a large army. Cromwell brought the badly outnumbered Scots to battle at Worcester on 3 September and completely defeated them, marking the end of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Charles was one of the few to escape. This demonstration that the English were willing to fight to defend the republic and capable of doing so effectively strengthened the position of the new English government. The defeated Scottish government was dissolved and the kingdom of Scotland was absorbed into the Commonwealth. Following much in-fighting Cromwell ruled as Lord Protector. After his death, further in-fighting resulted in Charles being crowned King of England on 23 April 1661, twelve years after being crowned by the Scots. This completed the Stuart Restoration.
Terminology
Some historians have referred to the conflict, which followed the First and Second English Civil Wars, as the Third Civil War. This view has been criticised: John Philipps Kenyon and Jane Ohlmeyer noted that the conflict was not an exclusively English affair, so cannot be considered part of the English Civil War; the historian Austin Woolrych observed that it was almost entirely a conflict between Scottish and English forces, involving very few English soldiers fighting on behalf of the king at the final battle at Worcester, so it was "seriously misleading" to refer to it as a civil war. Though the conflict was certainly a part of the wider Wars of the Three Kingdoms, rather than being a continuation of the English Civil War, it was by this stage a war between Scotland, ruled by the Covenanting government under Charles II, and the English Commonwealth.
Background
Bishops' Wars and English Civil Wars
In 1639, and again in 1640, Charles I, who was king of both Scotland and England in a personal union, went to war with his Scottish subjects in the Bishops' Wars. These had arisen from the Scots' refusal to accept Charles's attempts to reform the Scottish Kirk to bring it into line with English religious practices. Charles was not successful in these endeavours, and the ensuing settlement established the Covenanters' hold on Scottish government, requiring all civil office-holders, parliamentarians and clerics to sign the National Covenant, and giving the Scottish Parliament the authority to approve all the king's councillors in Scotland. After years of rising tensions the relationship between Charles and his English Parliament broke down, starting the First English Civil War in 1642.
In England Charles's supporters, the Royalists, were opposed by the combined forces of the Parliamentarians and the Scots. In 1643 the latter pair formed an alliance bound by the Solemn League and Covenant, in which the English Parliament agreed to reform the English church along similar lines to the Scottish Kirk in return for the Scots' military assistance. After four years of war the Royalists were defeated and Charles surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646. The Scots agreed with the English Parliament on a peace settlement which would be put before the king. Known as the Newcastle Propositions, it would have required all the king's subjects in Scotland, England and Ireland to sign the Solemn League and Covenant, brought the church in each kingdom into accordance with the Covenant and with Presbyterianism, and ceded much of Charles's secular authority as King of England to the English Parliament. The Scots spent some months trying to persuade Charles to agree to these terms, but he refused to do so. The Scottish army had remained in England after the war, pending payment of the large subsidy the Parliamentarians had promised. A financial settlement was reached, the Scots handed Charles over to the English Parliamentary forces and they left England on 3 February 1647.
Charles now engaged in separate negotiations with different factions. Presbyterian English Parliamentarians and the Scots wanted him to accept a modified version of the Newcastle Propositions, but in June 1647, Cornet George Joyce of the New Model Army seized Charles, and the army council pressed him to accept the Heads of Proposals, a less demanding set of terms which, crucially, did not require a Presbyterian reformation of the church. He rejected these as well and instead signed an offer known as the Engagement, which had been thrashed out with the Scottish delegation, on 26 December 1647. Charles agreed to confirm the Solemn League and Covenant by Act of Parliament in both kingdoms, and to accept Presbyterianism in England, but only for a trial period of three years, in return for the Scots' assistance in regaining his throne in England.
When the delegation returned to Edinburgh with the Engagement, the Scots were bitterly divided on whether to ratify its terms. Its supporters, who became known as the Engagers, argued that it offered the best chance the Scots would get of acceptance of the Covenant across the three kingdoms, and that rejecting it risked pushing Charles to accept the Heads of Proposals. It was opposed by those who believed that to send an army into England on behalf of the king would be to break the Solemn League and Covenant, and that it offered no guarantee of a lasting Presbyterian church in England; the Kirk went so far as to issue a declaration on 5 May 1648 condemning the Engagement as a breach of God's law. After a protracted political struggle, the Engagers gained a majority in the Scottish Parliament, by which time war had again broken out in England between Royalists and Parliamentarians. The Scots sent an army under the command of the Duke of Hamilton into England to fight on behalf of the king in July, but it was heavily defeated at Preston by a force led by Oliver Cromwell. The rout of the Engager army led to further political upheaval in Scotland, and the faction opposed to the Engagement was able to gain control of the government, with the assistance of a group of English Parliamentary cavalry led by Cromwell.
Accession of Charles II
Exasperated by Charles's duplicity and by Parliament's refusal to stop negotiating with him and accept the army's demands, the New Model Army purged Parliament and established the Rump Parliament, which appointed a court to try Charles for treason against the English people. He was convicted and on 30 January 1649 he was executed. On 19 May, with the establishment of Commonwealth of England, the country became a republic. The Scottish Parliament, which had not been consulted before the king's execution, declared his son, also Charles, King of Britain. Before they would permit him to return from exile in the Dutch Republic to take up his crown, they demanded he sign both Covenants: recognising the authority of the Kirk in religious matters, and that of Parliament in civil affairs. Charles II was initially reluctant to accept these conditions, but after Cromwell's campaign in Ireland crushed his Royalist supporters there, he felt compelled to accept the Scottish terms, and signed the Treaty of Breda on 1 May 1650. The Scottish Parliament set about rapidly recruiting an army to support the new king, and Charles set sail to Scotland, landing on 23 June.
English invasion of Scotland
The leaders of the English Commonwealth felt threatened by the Scots reassembling an army. They pressed Thomas Fairfax, lord general of the New Model Army, to launch a pre-emptive attack. Fairfax accepted the commission to lead the army north to defend against the possibility of a Scottish invasion, but was unwilling to strike the first blow against his former allies, believing England and Scotland were still bound by the Solemn League and Covenant. When a formal order to attack came on 20 June 1650, Fairfax resigned his commission. A parliamentary committee which included Cromwell, his close friend, attempted to dissuade him, pleading with him over the course of a whole night to change his mind, but Fairfax remained resolute, and retired from public life. Cromwell succeeded to his office as lord general, becoming commander-in-chief of the New Model Army. He received his commission on 28 June, and set out for Scotland the same day, crossing the Tweed at the head of 16,000 men on 22 July.
Once the Treaty of Breda had been signed, the Scottish Parliament started levying men to form a new army, under the command of the experienced general David Leslie. Their aim was to increase their forces to more than 36,000 men, but that number was never achieved; by the time Cromwell entered Scotland, Leslie had fewer than 10,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry, although these numbers fluctuated during the course of the campaign. The government instituted a commission to purge the army of anyone suspected of having supported the Engagement, as well as men considered sinful or undesirable. This was opposed, unsuccessfully, by much of the Scottish nobility and most of the experienced military leaders, including Leslie. The purge removed many experienced men and officers, and the bulk of the army was composed of raw recruits with little training or experience.
Leslie prepared a defensive line of earthworks between Edinburgh and Leith, and employed a scorched earth policy between this line and the English border. He then allowed Cromwell to advance unopposed. Lack of supplies, and the hostility of the local people towards the English invaders forced Cromwell to rely on a seaborne supply chain, and he captured the ports of Dunbar and Musselburgh to facilitate this. Operations were hampered by persistent bad weather. These adverse conditions caused a shortage of food and much sickness in the English army, substantially reducing its strength.
Cromwell attempted to bring the Scots to battle at Edinburgh. He advanced on Leslie's lines on 29 July, capturing Arthur's Seat and bombarding Leith from Salisbury Crags. Cromwell was not able to draw Leslie out, and the English retired to their camp at Musselburgh, where they were subjected to a night raid by a party of Scottish cavalry. Cromwell's attack coincided with a visit by Charles II to the Scottish army, where he was warmly received. Members of the Covenanter government, concerned that their godly war would be corrupted by feelings of personal loyalty to the king, asked Charles to leave. They then ordered a new purge, which was quickly enacted in early August, removing 80 officers and 4,000 of Leslie's men. This damaged morale as well as weakening the army's strength.
Throughout August Cromwell continued to try and draw the Scots out from their defences to enable a set piece battle. Leslie resisted, ignoring pressure from the secular and religious Scottish hierarchy to attack Cromwell's weakened army. He reasoned that the persistent bad weather, the difficult English supply situation, and the dysentery and fever that had broken out in the English camp would force Cromwell to withdraw back into England before winter set in.
On 31 August Cromwell did withdraw; the English army reached Dunbar on 1 September, having taken two days to march the from Musselburgh, harassed day and night by the pursuing Scots. The road was left littered with abandoned equipment and the men arrived hungry and demoralised. The Scottish army outflanked the English, blocking the road to Berwick and England at the easily defended Cockburnspath Defile. Their main force encamped on the Doon Hill, south of Dunbar, where it overlooked the town and the coastal road running south west from the town. The hill was all but invulnerable to direct assault. The English army had lost its freedom of manoeuvre, although they could supply themselves by sea and, if need be, evacuate the army the same way. On 2 September Cromwell surveyed the situation, and wrote to the governor of Newcastle warning him to prepare for a possible Scottish invasion.
Battle of Dunbar
Believing the English army was in a hopeless situation and under pressure to finish it off rapidly, Leslie moved his army off the hill and into a position to attack Dunbar. On the night of 2/3 September Cromwell manoeuvred his army so as to be able to launch a concentrated pre-dawn attack against the Scots' right wing. Whether this was part of a plan to decisively defeat them, or part of an attempt to break through and escape back to England is debated by historians. The Scots were caught by surprise, but put up a stout resistance. Their cavalry were pushed back by the English, and Leslie was unable to deploy most of his infantry into the battle because of the nature of the terrain. The battle was undecided when Cromwell personally led his cavalry reserve in a flank attack on the two Scottish infantry brigades that had managed to come to grips with the English and rolled up the Scottish line. Leslie executed a fighting withdrawal, but some 6,000 Scots, from his army of 12,000, were taken prisoner, and approximately 1,500 killed or wounded. The prisoners were taken to England; many died on the march south, or in captivity. At least some of those who survived were deported to become indentured workers on English possessions in North America.
Scottish retreat
When the news of the defeat reached Edinburgh, many people fled the city in panic, but Leslie sought to rally what remained of his army, and established a new defensive line at the strategic choke point of Stirling. There he was joined by the bulk of the government, clergy, and Edinburgh's mercantile elite. Major-general John Lambert was sent to capture Edinburgh, which fell on 7 September, while Cromwell marched on the port of Leith, which offered much better facilities for landing supplies and reinforcements than Dunbar. Without Leslie's army to defend them, both were captured with little difficulty. Cromwell took pains to persuade the citizens of Edinburgh that his war was not with them; he promised their property would be respected, and allowed them to come and go freely, hold markets, and observe their usual religious services, although the latter were restricted as most of the clergy had removed to Stirling. He also took steps to secure food for the city, which by this point was short on supplies. Edinburgh Castle held out until December, but since it was cut off from reinforcement and supplies and offered no threat, Cromwell did not assault it, and treated its commander with courtesy. Austin Woolrych described the behaviour of the occupying troops as "exemplary", and observed that after a short time many fugitives returned to the city, and its economic life returned to something akin to normality.
The defeat at Dunbar caused great damage to Leslie's reputation and authority. He attempted to resign as head of the army, but the Scottish government would not permit it, largely because of a lack of any plausible replacement. Several of his officers refused to take orders from him, and left Leslie's forces to join a new army being raised by the Western Association. Divisions already present in the Scottish government were widened by the new situation. The more practical blamed the purges for Leslie's defeat, and looked to bring the Engagers back into the fold; the more dogmatic thought God had deserted them because the purges had not gone far enough, and argued that too much faith had been put in a worldly prince who was not sufficiently committed to the cause of the Covenant. These more radical elements issued the divisive Western Remonstrance, which castigated the government for its failure to properly purge the army, and further widened the rifts between the Scots. The Remonstrants, as this group became known, took command of the Western Association army, and attempted to negotiate with Cromwell, urging him to depart Scotland and leave them in control; Cromwell rejected their advances and comprehensively destroyed their army at the Battle of Hieton (near the centre of modern Hamilton) on 1 December.
Battle of Inverkeithing
During December 1650 Charles and the Scottish government reconciled with the Engagers and those Highland chiefs who had been excluded due to their refusal to sign the Covenant. These competing factions were poorly coordinated and it was not until the late spring of 1651 that they were fully integrated into the Scottish army. In January 1651 the English attempted to outflank Stirling by shipping a force across the Forth of Firth, but this was unsuccessful. In early February the English army advanced against Stirling, then retreated in dreadful weather, Cromwell falling ill.
In late June the Scottish army advanced south. The English moved north from Edinburgh to meet them, but Leslie positioned his army north of Falkirk, behind the River Carron. This position was too strong for Cromwell to assault; Leslie resisted every provocation to fight another open battle and eventually withdrew. Cromwell followed and attempted to bypass Stirling, but was unable to. He then marched to Glasgow and sent raiding parties into Scottish held territory. The Scottish army shadowed the English, moving south west to Kilsyth on 13 July.
Early on 17 July, an English force of 1,600 men under Colonel Robert Overton crossed the Forth of Firth at its narrowest point in 50 specially constructed flat bottomed boats, landing at North Queensferry on the Ferry Peninsula. The Scottish garrison at Burntisland moved towards the English landing place and sent for reinforcements from Stirling and Dunfermline. The Scots dug in and awaited their reinforcements, and for four days the English shipped the balance of their own force across the Forth and Lambert took command.
On 20 July the Scots, more than 4,000 strong and commanded by Major-general James Holborne advanced against the English force of approximately 4,000 men. After a ninety-minute hiatus the cavalry of both forces engaged on each flank. In both cases the Scots initially had the better of it, but failed to exploit their advantage, were counter-charged by the English reserves, and routed. The previously unengaged Scottish infantry attempted to retreat, but suffered heavy casualties in the running battle that ensued, losing many men killed or captured.
After the battle, Lambert marched east and captured the deep-water port of Burntisland. Cromwell shipped most of the English army there, assembling 13,000 to 14,000 men by 26 July. He then ignored the Scottish army at Stirling and on 31 July marched on the seat of the Scottish government at Perth, which he besieged. Perth surrendered after two days, cutting off the Scottish army from reinforcements, provisions and materiel. Cromwell deliberately left the route south clear, reckoning that if the Scots abandoned their defensive positions, then once in the open they could be destroyed. Charles and Leslie, seeing no hope of victory if they stayed to face Cromwell, marched south on 31 July in a desperate bid to raise Royalist support in England. By this time they had only around 12,000 men, who were very short of firearms. Cromwell and Lambert followed, shadowing the Scottish army while leaving Lieutenant-general George Monck with 5,000 men in Scotland to mop up what resistance remained.
Mopping up
By the end of August, Monck had captured Stirling, Alyth, and St Andrews. Dundee and Aberdeen were the last major towns not under English control. The strength of Dundee's fortifications meant many Scots had deposited money and valuables there, to keep them safe from the English. Monck drew up his full army outside the town on 26 August and demanded its surrender. The governor, believing the town walls and the local militia strong enough to withstand the English, refused. Infuriated at having to risk his men's lives with an assault when the war was all but over, Monck gave permission for the town to be sacked once it was captured. After a three-day bombardment the English stormed the west and east ports on 1 September. They broke into the town and thoroughly sacked it; several hundred civilians, including women and children, were killed. Monck admitted to 500, but the total may have been as high as 1,000. Monck allowed the army 24 hours to pillage and a large amount of booty was seized. Subsequently, strict military discipline was enforced. Shortly afterwards Aberdeen, whose council saw no benefit in resisting an inevitable and costly defeat, promptly surrendered to a party of Monck's cavalry. The English army campaigned in the western Highlands to subdue the clans through the spring of 1652, and three significant but isolated fortresses held out for a time. Brodick Castle surrendered on 6 April, and the Bass Rock fell a few days later. Dunnottar Castle near Stonehaven, where the Honours of Scotland were being held, became the last major Scottish stronghold to surrender; its commander, George Ogilvy of Barras, surrendered on 24 May 1652, after the Honours had been smuggled out of the castle and buried in a nearby churchyard.
Scottish invasion of England
The army which Leslie and Charles led into England, despite being 12,000 strong, was desperately short of supplies and equipment. The lack of muskets meant many men were equipped with bows. The Scots marched rapidly south and were outside Carlisle by 8 August 1651. The town refused Charles entry and the Scots marched further into England. Cromwell sent two forces, each of about 4,000 mounted men to harass the Scots and followed with his main force of 10,000 men. On 13 August the Parliamentarians attempted to hold the bridge at Warrington, but when the Scots attacked in force the English withdrew. Twenty-two days after leaving Stirling the Scottish army reached Worcester, having marched some . The exhausted Scots paused in Worcester and hoped Royalist recruits would join them from Wales, the Welsh Marches and the West Country, but few did.
Charles had hopes of a major Royalist uprising, but very few Englishmen joined the army, partly because they found the prospect of a renewed monarchy bound by the Covenant unedifying. Little military support existed for Charles and this was rapidly suppressed by the Parliamentarians. A force of 1,500 from the Isle of Man gathered in Lancashire under the Earl of Derby and attempted to join the Royalist army, but they were intercepted at Wigan on 25 August by Parliamentarian troops and defeated. The largest single English contingent to join the army was only 60 strong. The English Council of State called up all the troops it could. Large musters took place at Northampton, Gloucester, Reading and Barnet. The London trained bands assembled 14,000 strong on 25 August and Fairfax secured Yorkshire. Parliamentarian forces concentrated around the Scottish army, where by the end of August Cromwell had 31,000 men against Charles's 12,000.
Battle of Worcester
The English not only far outnumbered the Scots, but were better trained, better equipped, better supplied and cut the Scots' line of retreat. Worcester was a naturally strong defensive position and was well fortified, and so Cromwell moved his forces into position deliberately. On 3 September he attacked from the south. The Scots attempted a desperate counter attack, but Cromwell moved his reserves to reinforce the threatened sector and the Scots were beaten back. The Parliamentarians broke into Worcester and captured it after fierce house-to-house fighting. The historian Barry Coward wrote "It was a divided enemy that Cromwell fought after Dunbar and decisively defeated at Worcester".
The defeated army lost more than 2,000 killed, and more than 6,000 Royalists were captured, nearly all Scots. The prisoners were either sent to work on drainage projects in the Fens or transported to North America to work as forced labour. Leslie, along with most of the Royalist commanders, was captured. Charles managed to escape to the continent. In the aftermath of the battle, Worcester was looted by the Parliamentarian army. Around 3,000 Scottish cavalry escaped northwards; en route back to Scotland they were harried by the local English and many were killed.
Aftermath
The Battle of Worcester was the last significant pitched battle in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Before Worcester, the Commonwealth faced widespread international hostility evoked by the execution of Charles I. The victory strengthened their position, since it was clear the English people were willing to fight to defend the republic and capable of doing so effectively. The reliance of Charles on a Scottish army in his attempts to regain the English crown had cost him support: Charles realised he would need to win over the English if he wished to regain the throne. On arrival in France, he declared he would rather be hanged than ever to return to Scotland. The conquest of Scotland, and that of Ireland, won the Commonwealth respect among its continental neighbours: by early 1652 its legitimacy had been recognised by the French, Spanish, Dutch and Danes, and its navy had been able to assert its control over the Channel and Scilly Isles, as well as England's possessions in Barbados and North America. The threat of imminent Royalist invasion had been nullified.
The defeated Scottish government was dissolved, and the English Parliament absorbed the kingdom of Scotland into the Commonwealth. Military rule was imposed, with 10,000 English troops garrisoned across the country to quell the threat of local uprisings. Negotiations between commissioners of the English Parliament and the deputies of Scotland's shires and burghs began to formalise the incorporation of Scottish legal and political structures into the new British state. By 1653 two Scottish representatives were invited to take seats in the English Barebone's Parliament.
After in-fighting between factions in Parliament and the army, Cromwell ruled over the Commonwealth as Lord Protector from December 1653 until his death in September 1658. On Oliver Cromwell's death, his son Richard became Lord Protector, but the Army had little confidence in him. In May 1659, seven months after Oliver Cromwell's death, the Army removed Richard and re-installed the Rump; military force shortly dissolved this as well. General George Monck, by then commander-in-chief of the English forces in Scotland, marched south with his army, crossing the Tweed on 2 January 1660 and entering London on 3 February, where he called new parliamentary elections. These resulted in the Convention Parliament which on 8 May 1660 declared that Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I. Charles returned from exile and was crowned King of England on 23 April 1661, completing the Restoration.
See also
Timeline of the English Civil War
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
Citations
Sources
1650 in England
1651 in England
1650 in Scotland
1651 in Scotland
Conflicts in 1650
Conflicts in 1651
England–Scotland relations
English Civil War
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
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The Three Musketeers (, ) is a French historical adventure novel written in 1844 by French author Alexandre Dumas. It is in the swashbuckler genre, which has heroic, chivalrous swordsmen who fight for justice.
Set between 1625 and 1628, it recounts the adventures of a young man named d'Artagnan (a character based on Charles de Batz-Castelmore d'Artagnan) after he leaves home to travel to Paris, hoping to join the Musketeers of the Guard. Although d'Artagnan is not able to join this elite corps immediately, he is befriended by three of the most formidable musketeers of the age – Athos, Porthos and Aramis, "the three musketeers" or "the three inseparables" – and becomes involved in affairs of state and at court.
The Three Musketeers is primarily a historical and adventure novel. However, Dumas frequently portrays various injustices, abuses and absurdities of the Ancien Régime, giving the novel an additional political significance at the time of its publication, a time when the debate in France between republicans and monarchists was still fierce. The story was first serialised from March to July 1844, during the July Monarchy, four years before the French Revolution of 1848 violently established the Second Republic.
The story of d'Artagnan is continued in Twenty Years After and The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later.
Origin
Dumas presents his novel as one of a series of recovered manuscripts, turning the origins of his romance into a little drama of its own. In the preface, he tells of being inspired by a scene in Mémoires de Monsieur d'Artagnan (1700), a historical novel by Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras, printed by Pierre Rouge in Amsterdam, which Dumas discovered during his research for his history of Louis XIV. According to Dumas, the incident where d'Artagnan tells of his first visit to M. de Tréville, captain of the Musketeers and how, in the antechamber, he encountered three young Béarnese with the names Athos, Porthos and Aramis, made such an impression on him that he continued to investigate. That much is true – the rest is fiction: He finally found the names of the three musketeers in a manuscript titled Mémoire de M. le comte de la Fère, etc. Dumas "requested permission" to reprint the manuscript; permission was granted:
Now, this is the first part of this precious manuscript which we offer to our readers, restoring it to the title which belongs to it, and entering into an engagement that if (of which we have no doubt) this first part should obtain the success it merits, we will publish the second immediately.
In the meanwhile, since godfathers are second fathers, as it were, we beg the reader to lay to our account and not to that of the Comte de la Fère, the pleasure or the ennui he may experience.
This being understood, let us proceed with our story.
The Three Musketeers was written in collaboration with Auguste Maquet, who also worked with Dumas on its sequels (Twenty Years After and The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later), as well as The Count of Monte Cristo. Maquet would suggest plot outlines after doing historical research; Dumas then expanded the plot, removing some characters, including new ones and imbuing the story with his unmistakable style.
The Three Musketeers was first published in serial form in the newspaper Le Siècle between March and July 1844.
Plot summary
In 1625 France, d'Artagnan leaves his family in Gascony and travels to Paris to join the Musketeers of the Guard. At a house in Meung-sur-Loire, an older man derides d'Artagnan's horse. Insulted, d'Artagnan demands a duel. But the older man's companions instead beat d'Artagnan unconscious with a cooking pot and a metal tong that breaks his sword. His letter of introduction to Monsieur de Tréville, the commander of the musketeers, is also stolen. D'Artagnan resolves to avenge himself upon the older man, who is later revealed to be the Comte de Rochefort, an agent of Cardinal Richelieu, who is passing orders from the cardinal to his spy, Lady de Winter, usually called Milady de Winter or simply "Milady".
In Paris, d'Artagnan visits Monsieur de Tréville at the headquarters of the musketeers, but without the letter, Tréville politely refuses his application. He does, however, write a letter of introduction to an academy for young gentlemen which may prepare his visitor for recruitment at a later time. From Tréville's window, d'Artagnan sees Rochefort passing in the street below and rushes out of the building to confront him, but in doing so he offends three musketeers, Athos, Porthos and Aramis, who each demand satisfaction; d'Artagnan must fight a duel with all of them that afternoon.
As d'Artagnan prepares himself for the first duel, he realizes that Athos's seconds are Porthos and Aramis, who are astonished that the young Gascon intends to duel them all. As d'Artagnan and Athos begin, Cardinal Richelieu's guards appear and attempt to arrest d'Artagnan and the three musketeers for illegal dueling. Although they are outnumbered four to five, the four men win the battle. D'Artagnan seriously wounds Jussac, one of the cardinal's officers and a renowned fighter. After learning of this, King Louis XIII appoints d'Artagnan to Des Essart's company of the King's Guards and gives him forty pistoles.
D'Artagnan hires a servant named Planchet, finds lodgings and reports to Monsieur des Essart, whose company is a less prestigious regiment in which he will have to serve for two years before being considered for the musketeers. Shortly after, his landlord speaks to him about the kidnapping of his wife, Constance Bonacieux. When she is presently released, d'Artagnan falls in love at first sight with her. She works for Queen Anne of France, who is secretly having an affair with the English duke of Buckingham. The king, Louis XIII, gave the queen a gift of diamond studs, but she gives them to her lover as a keepsake. Cardinal Richelieu, who wants war between France and England, plans to expose the tryst and persuades the king to demand that the queen wear the diamonds to a soirée that the cardinal is sponsoring.
Constance tries to send her husband to London to fetch the diamonds from Buckingham, but the man is instead manipulated by Richelieu and thus does not go, so d'Artagnan and his friends intercede. En route to England, the cardinal's henchmen repeatedly attack them and only d'Artagnan and Planchet reach London. Before arriving, d'Artagnan is compelled to assault and nearly to kill, the Comte de Wardes, a friend of the cardinal, cousin of Rochefort and Milady's lover. Although Milady stole two of the diamond studs, Buckingham provides replacements while delaying the thief's return to Paris. D'Artagnan is thus able to return a complete set of jewels to Queen Anne just in time to save her honour. In gratitude, she gives him a beautiful ring.
Shortly afterward, d'Artagnan begins an affair with Madame Bonacieux. Arriving for an assignation, he sees signs of a struggle and discovers that Rochefort and M. Bonacieux, acting under the orders of the cardinal, have assaulted and imprisoned Constance. D'Artagnan and his friends, now recovered from their injuries, return to Paris. D'Artagnan meets Milady de Winter officially and recognizes her as one of the cardinal's agents, but becomes infatuated with her until her maid reveals that Milady is indifferent toward him. Entering her quarters in the dark, he pretends to be the Comte de Wardes and trysts with her. He finds a fleur-de-lis branded on Milady's shoulder, marking her as a felon. Discovering his identity, Milady attempts to kill him but d'Artagnan eludes her. He is later ordered to the Siege of La Rochelle.
He is informed that the queen has rescued Constance from prison. At an inn, the musketeers overhear the cardinal asking Milady to murder Buckingham, a supporter of the Protestant rebels at La Rochelle who has sent troops to assist them. Richelieu gives her a letter that excuses her actions as under orders from the cardinal himself, but Athos takes it. The next morning, Athos bets that he, d'Artagnan, Porthos and Aramis and their servants can hold the recaptured St. Gervais bastion against the rebels for an hour, for the purpose of discussing their next course of action. They resist for an hour and a half before retreating, killing 22 Rochellese in total; d'Artagnan is made a musketeer as a result of this feat.
They warn Lord de Winter and the duke of Buckingham. Milady is imprisoned on arrival in England, but she seduces her guard, Felton (a fictionalization of the real John Felton) and persuades him to allow her to escape and to kill Buckingham himself. Upon her return to France, Milady hides in a convent where Constance is also staying. The naïve Constance clings to Milady, who sees a chance for revenge on d'Artagnan and fatally poisons Constance before d'Artagnan can rescue her. The musketeers arrest Milady before she reaches Cardinal Richelieu. They bring an official executioner, put her on trial, sentence her to death, and execute her.
After her execution, the four friends return to the Siege of La Rochelle. The cardinal's guards arrest d’Artagnan and take him to the cardinal. When questioned about Milady's execution, d'Artagnan presents her letter of pardon as his own. Impressed with d'Artagnan's wilfulness and secretly glad to be rid of Milady, the Cardinal destroys the letter and writes a new order, giving the bearer a promotion to lieutenant in the Tréville company of musketeers, leaving the name blank. D'Artagnan offers the letter to Athos, Porthos and Aramis in turn but each refuses it; Athos because it is below him, Porthos because he is retiring to marry his wealthy mistress and Aramis because he is joining the priesthood. D'Artagnan, though heartbroken and full of regrets, finally receives the promotion he had coveted.
Characters
Musketeers
Athos – Comte de la Fère: he has never recovered from his marriage to Milady and seeks solace in wine. He becomes a father figure to d'Artagnan.
Porthos – M. du Vallon: a dandy, fond of fashionable clothes and keen to make a fortune for himself. The least cerebral of the quartet, he compensates with his homeric strength of body and character.
Aramis – René d'Herblay, a handsome young man who hesitates between his religious calling and his fondness for women and scheming.
D'Artagnan – Charles de Batz de Castelmore d'Artagnan: a young, foolhardy, brave and clever man seeking to become a musketeer in France.
Musketeers' servants
Planchet – a young man from Picardy, he is seen by Porthos on the Pont de la Tournelle spitting into the river below. Porthos takes this as a sign of good character and hires him on the spot to serve d'Artagnan. He turns out to be a brave, intelligent and loyal servant.
Grimaud – a Breton. Athos is a strict master and only permits his servant to speak in emergencies; he mostly communicates through sign language.
Mousqueton – originally a Norman named Boniface; Porthos, however, changes his name to one that sounds better. He is a would-be dandy, just as vain as his master. In lieu of pay, he is clothed and lodged in a manner superior to that usual for servants, dressing grandly in his master's old clothes.
Bazin – from the province of Berry, Bazin is a pious man who waits for the day his master (Aramis) will join the church, as he has always dreamed of serving a priest.
Others
Milady de Winter – a beautiful and evil spy of the cardinal, she is also Athos's ex-wife. D'Artagnan impersonates a rival to spend a night with her, attracting her deadly hatred.
Rochefort is a more conventional agent of the cardinal. Following their duel on the road to Paris, d'Artagnan swears to have his revenge. He loses several opportunities, but their paths finally cross again towards the end of the novel.
Constance Bonacieux – the queen's seamstress and confidante. After d'Artagnan rescues her from the cardinal's guard, he immediately falls in love with her. She appreciates his protection, but the relationship is never consummated.
Monsieur Bonacieux – Constance's husband. He initially enlists d'Artagnan's help to rescue his wife from the Cardinal's guards, but when he himself is arrested, he and the cardinal discover they have an understanding. Richelieu turns Monsieur Bonacieux against his wife and he goes on to play a role in her abduction.
Kitty – a servant of Milady de Winter. She dislikes her mistress and adores d'Artagnan.
Lord Winter – brother of Milady's second husband, who died of a mysterious disease (apparently poisoned by Milady). He imprisoned Milady upon her arrival in England and decided to send her overseas in exile. Later, he took part in Milady's trial.
Historical characters
King Louis XIII of France – presented by Dumas as a fairly weak monarch often manipulated by his chief minister.
Queen Anne of Austria – the unhappy queen of France.
Cardinal Richelieu – Armand Jean du Plessis, the king's chief minister, who plots against the queen in resentment at having his advances rebuffed. Dumas describes him as being "36 or 37" though in 1625 Richelieu was 40.
M. de Tréville – captain of the musketeers and something of a mentor to d'Artagnan, though he has only a minor role.
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham – a handsome and charismatic man used to getting his way: he thinks nothing of starting a war between England and France for his personal convenience. His courtship of Anne of Austria gets her in trouble.
John Felton – a Puritan officer assigned to guard Milady and warned about her ways, he is nonetheless seduced and fooled by her in a matter of days and assassinates Buckingham at her request.
Editions
Les Trois Mousquetaires was translated into three English versions by 1846. One of these, by William Barrow (1817–1877), is still in print and fairly faithful to the original, available in the Oxford World's Classics 1999 edition. To conform to 19th-century English standards, all of the explicit and many of the implicit references to sexuality were removed, adversely affecting the readability of several scenes, such as the scenes between d'Artagnan and Milady.
One recent English translation is by Richard Pevear (2006), who, though applauding Barrow's work, states that most of the modern translations available today are "textbook examples of bad translation practices" which "give their readers an extremely distorted notion of Dumas' writing."
Adaptations
Film
The Three Musketeers (1921), a silent film adaptation starring Douglas Fairbanks.
The Three Musketeers (1948), a 1948 adaptation starring Van Heflin, Lana Turner, June Allyson, Angela Lansbury and Gene Kelly.
The Three Musketeers (1973), an adaptation by Richard Lester starring Oliver Reed, Frank Finlay, Richard Chamberlain and Michael York. This was only the first half of the Dumas novel, with the rest appearing in the following year's "The Four Musketeers".
D'Artagnan and Three Musketeers (1978), a popular Soviet musical featuring Mikhail Boyarsky
The Three Musketeers (1993), a 1993 Disney adaptation starring Charlie Sheen, Kiefer Sutherland, Oliver Platt and Chris O'Donnell.
The Musketeer, a 2001 film.
The Three Musketeers (2011), directed by Paul W. S. Anderson and starring Luke Evans, Ray Stevenson and Milla Jovovich.
Television
The novel has been adapted also for television in live-action and animation.
Live-action
The BBC has adapted the novel on three occasions.
The Three Musketeers, a 1954 BBC adaptation in six 30-minute episodes, starring Laurence Payne, Roger Delgado, Paul Whitsun-Jones and Paul Hansard
The Three Musketeers, a 1966 BBC adaptation in ten 25-minute episodes, directed by Peter Hammond and starring Jeremy Brett, Jeremy Young and Brian Blessed
The Musketeers, a 2014 series by Adrian Hodges, is the newest BBC adaptation starring Tom Burke, Santiago Cabrera, Howard Charles and Luke Pasqualino as the titular musketeers.
Young Blades is an American/Canadian television series that aired on PAX in 2005. The series serves as a sequel to the novels, centered on the son of d'Artagnan, played by Tobias Mehler.
A series adapted for Korean history aired in 2014.
Animation
Walt Disney Productions produced a Silly Symphony cartoon called, Three Blind Mouseketeers, which is loosely based on the novel in 1936, in which the characters are depicted as anthropomorphic animals.
A two-part adaptation aired on The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo, with Magoo portraying D'Artagnan.
The Three Musketeers was a series of animated shorts produced by Hanna-Barbera's as part of The Banana Splits Comedy-Adventure Hour and The Banana Splits & Friends show.
The Three Musketeers was a Hanna-Barbera animated special from 1973. It was part of the 1970s-80s CBS anthology series Famous Classic Tales that was produced by Hanna-Barbera's Australian division and often aired around the holidays between Thanksgiving and New Year's Day.
Dogtanian and the Three Muskehounds is a 1981 Spanish–Japanese anime adaptation, where the characters are anthropomorphic dogs. A sequel, The Return of Dogtanian, was released in 1989 by BRB Internacional, Thames Television and Wang Film Productions. Set 10 years after of the original, it's loosely based on the novel The Vicomte de Bragelonne. A key difference between the two Dogtanian adaptions and Dumas' novel is that the character traits of Athos and Porthos were interchanged, making Athos the extrovert and Porthos the secretive noble of the group.
In 1989, Gakken produced a new anime adaptation called The Three Musketeers Anime, this time with human characters, which features several departures from the original.
Albert the Fifth Musketeer is a 1994 French animated series featuring a new musketeer, the titular Albert.
Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers, a direct-to-video animated movie produced by Walt Disney Pictures and the Australian office of DisneyToon Studios, directed by Donovan Cook and released on 17 August 2004.
A Barbie adaption of the tale by the name of Barbie and the Three Musketeers was made in 2009.
Stage
The first stage production was in Dumas' own lifetime as the opera Les Trois Mousquetaires with a libretto by Dumas himself and music by Albert Visetti.
The Three Musketeers is a musical with a book by William Anthony McGuire, lyrics by Clifford Grey and P. G. Wodehouse and music by Rudolf Friml. The original 1928 production ran on Broadway for 318 performances. A 1984 revival ran for 15 previews and 9 performances.
In 2003, a Dutch musical 3 Musketiers with a book by André Breedland and music & lyrics by Rob & Ferdi Bolland premiered, which went on to open in Germany (both the Dutch and German production starring Pia Douwes as Milady De Winter) and Hungary.
Playwright Peter Raby, composer George Stiles and lyricist Paul Leigh have written another adaptation titled The 3 Musketeers, One Musical For All, originally produced by the now defunct American Musical Theatre of San Jose.
In 2006, an adaptation by Ken Ludwig premiered at the Bristol Old Vic. In this version, d'Artagnan's sister Sabine, "the quintessential tomboy," poses as a young man and participates in her brother's adventures.
In 2018, The Dukes performed an outdoor promenade production in Williamson Park, Lancaster, adapted by Hattie Naylor: in this version d'Artagnan was a young woman aspiring to be a musketeer.
Video games and board games
In 1995, publisher U.S. Gold released Touché: The Adventures of the Fifth Musketeer by video game developers Clipper Software, a classic point-and-click adventure game. In 2005, Swedish developer Legendo Entertainment published the side-scrolling platform game The Three Musketeers for Windows XP and Windows Vista. In July 2009, a version of the game was released for WiiWare in North America and Europe under the title The Three Musketeers: One for All!. In 2009, Canadian developer Dingo Games self-published The Three Musketeers: The Game for Windows and Mac OS X. It is the first game to be truly based on the novel (in that it closely follows the novel's story). 2009 also saw the publication of the asymmetric team board game The Three Musketeers "The Queen's Pendants" (Настольная игра "Три мушкетера") from French designer Pascal Bernard by the Russian publisher Zvezda. In 2010, a co-operative game called "Mousquetaires du Roy" was released by Ystari and Rio Grande. The alternative spelling of "Roy" was taken from the old French and is rumoured to be preferred over the regular spelling because the publishers desire to have a letter "Y" in the name of the games they publish. Designed by François Combe and Gilles Lehmann for 1-5 players, the medium heavy game depicts the quest to retrieve the Queen's diamonds, while at the same time fending off disasters back in Paris. A sixth player expansion, called "Treville" was also made available in 2010.
In 2010, Anuman Interactive launched The Three Musketeers, a hidden object game on PC and MAC. Players follow d'Artagnan in his quest to become a king's musketeer.
Web Series
In 2016, KindaTV launched a web series based on the story of The Three Musketeers, called "All For One". It follows a group of college students, mainly Dorothy Castlemore and is centred around a sorority- Mu Sigma Theta (MST). The majority of characters have been gender-swapped from the original story and most character names are based on the original characters.
It covers several themes including the LGBT community, mental health, long-distance relationships and college life.
Other
Publisher Albert Lewis Kanter (1897–1973), created Classic Comics for Elliot Publishing Company in 1941 with its debut issues being The Three Musketeers. The Three Mouseketeers was the title of two series produced by DC Comics; the first series was a loose parody of The Three Musketeers.
In 1939, American author Tiffany Thayer published a book titled Three Musketeers (Thayer, 1939). This is a re-telling of the story in Thayer's words, true to the original plot but told in a different order and with different points of view and emphasis from the original.
Fantasy novelist Steven Brust's Khaavren Romances series have all used Dumas novels (particularly the D'Artagnan Romances) as their chief inspiration, recasting the plots of those novels to fit within Brust's established world of Dragaera. His 2020 novel The Baron of Magister Valley follows suit, using The Count of Monte Cristo as a starting point.
Sarah Hoyt wrote a series of Historical Murder mysteries with the Musketeers as the protagonists. (Hoyt wrote the novels under the name Sarah d'Almeida.)
Tansy Rayner Roberts wrote Musketeer Space, a space opera retelling of the original book in which almost all characters have a different gender, as a weekly serialized novel from 2014 to 2016.
In popular culture
Literature
In the book The Assault, The Three Musketeers is quoted in the Prologue as the protagonist had the story read to him by Mr. Beumer, a lawyer who later becomes senile and in morbidity.
The American translator, Lawrence Ellsworth is currently translating The d'Artagnan Romances entirely and he has also written a 2-volume novel called The Rose Knight's Crucifixion that is a parallel novel to The Three Musketeers and most of the characters from The Three Musketeers and Sir Percy Blakeney from The Laughing Cavalier and The First Sir Percy by Baroness Orczy appear. The protagonist's physical appearance, however, is based on Quasimodo from Victor Hugo's Notre-Dame of Paris.
Film and television
In the movie The Man in the Iron Mask, the aging musketeers come out of retirement and reunite to save France from the spoiled, cruel young King Louis XIV (played by Leonardo DiCaprio). The movie features Jeremy Irons as Aramis, John Malkovich as Athos, Gerard Depardieu as Porthos and Gabriel Byrne as D’Artagnan.
In Slumdog Millionaire, Jamal Malik's final question was to correctly identify the name of the third musketeer- which was Aramis. Jamal did so and won twenty million rupees.
In the film Django Unchained, one of the slaves, owned by Calvin Candie, is named D'Artagnan.
Video games
In Pokémon Black and White, the Pokémon Cobalion, Terrakion and Virizion, known as the Swords of Justice, are based on the Three Musketeers. Cobalion represents Athos, Terrakion represents Porthos and Virizion represents Aramis. The fourth Sword of Justice, Keldeo, represents d'Artagnan.
Music
The Smiths song You've Got Everything Now features the line: "I've seen you smile, but I've never really heard you laugh" and is borrowed from a narrative description of Athos:
Ppcocaine's song "Three Musketeers" shares little with the novel but its title.
References
External links
. Plain text format.
History of Dumas' Musketeers, shows links between the characters and actual history.
Comprehensive collection of Dumas links
The Three Musketeers. Scanned public domain editions in PDF format from Archive.org, some w/ illustrations, introductions and other helpful material.
"The Paris of The Three Musketeers", by E. H. Blashfield and E. W. Blashfield. Scribner's Magazine, August 1890. Cornell University Library.
Cooper, Barbara T., "Alexandre Dumas, père", in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 119: Nineteenth-Century French Fiction Writers: Romanticism and Realism, 1800–1860, edited by Catharine Savage Brosman, Gale Research, 1992, pp. 98–119.
Hemmings, F. W. J., "Alexandre Dumas Père", in European Writers: The Romantic Century, Vol. 6, edited by Jacques Barzun and George Stade, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1985, pp. 719–43.
Foote-Greenwell, Victoria, "The Life and Resurrection of Alexandre Dumas", in Smithsonian, July 1996, p. 110.
Thayer, Tiffany, Three Musketeers, New York: Citadel Press, 1939. (On the hard cover, the title is printed as Tiffany Thayer's Three Musketeers.)
Discussion of the work, bibliography and links
Bibliography and references for ''The Three Musketeers
1844 French novels
French adventure novels
French historical novels
French novels adapted into films
French novels adapted into plays
Novels adapted into comics
Novels adapted into video games
French novels adapted into television shows
Novels by Alexandre Dumas
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in Early Modern France
Novels set in the 1620s
Works originally published in Le Siècle
1844 in France
Cultural depictions of Cardinal Richelieu
Cultural depictions of Louis XIII
Novels set in the 17th century
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The 21st United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1829, to March 4, 1831, during the first two years of Andrew Jackson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820. Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority.
Major events
March 4, 1829: Andrew Jackson became 7th President of the United States
May 10–14, 1830: Confrontational meetings between the French Chargé d'affaires in Washington DC and a group of leaders consisting of Mark Alexander, William S. Archer, Robert H. Adams, Thomas Hinds, Dixon H. Lewis, Clement Comer Clay, Powhatan Ellis and John McKinley grew incredibly contentious and hostile. Arguments began when the aforementioned representatives and senators charged that France owed the United States reparations from damages incurred during the Quasi-War. At one point Thomas Hinds threatened the French Chargé d'affaires with a pistol. Eventually, only intervention by John Forsyth prevented a major diplomatic incident. Shortly after this the governor of Virginia John Floyd formally asked France's economic attaché to leave Virginia. This foreshadowed conflict with France over the same issue that would dominate American politics in 1835, at that point the main instigator on the American side would be President Andrew Jackson.
May 28 – US congress passes the Indian Removal Act.
September 27 – Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek with Choctaw nation. (First removal treaty signed after the Removal Act.)
Major legislation
May 28, 1830: Indian Removal Act, ch. 148,
Not enacted
May 27, 1830: Maysville Road Bill vetoed
Treaties
September 27, 1830: The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, the first removal treaty after the passage of the Indian Removal Act, is signed with the Choctaw.
February 24, 1831: Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek proclaimed.
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: John C. Calhoun (J)
President pro tempore: Samuel Smith (J)
House of Representatives
Speaker: Andrew Stevenson (J)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1832; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, facing re-election in 1834; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1830.
Alabama
2. William R. King (J)
3. John McKinley (J)
Connecticut
1. Samuel A. Foot (NR)
3. Calvin Willey (NR)
Delaware
1. Louis McLane (J), until April 16, 1829
Arnold Naudain (NR), from January 7, 1830
2. John M. Clayton (NR)
Georgia
2. George Troup (J)
3. John M. Berrien (J), until March 9, 1829
John Forsyth (J), from November 9, 1829
Illinois
2. John McLean (J), until October 14, 1830
David J. Baker (J), November 12, 1830 – December 11, 1830
John M. Robinson (J), from December 11, 1830
3. Elias Kane (J)
Indiana
1. James Noble (NR), until February 26, 1831, vacant for remainder of term
3. William Hendricks (NR)
Kentucky
2. George M. Bibb (J)
3. John Rowan (J)
Louisiana
2. Edward Livingston (J)
3. Josiah S. Johnston (NR)
Maine
1. John Holmes (NR)
2. Peleg Sprague (NR)
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (J)
3. Ezekiel F. Chambers (NR)
Massachusetts
1. Daniel Webster (NR)
2. Nathaniel Silsbee (NR)
Mississippi
1. Powhatan Ellis (J)
2. Thomas B. Reed (J), until November 26, 1829
Robert H. Adams (J), January 6, 1830 – July 2, 1830
George Poindexter (J), from October 15, 1830
Missouri
1. Thomas H. Benton (J)
3. David Barton (NR)
New Hampshire
2. Samuel Bell (NR)
3. Levi Woodbury (J)
New Jersey
1. Mahlon Dickerson (J)
2. Theodore Frelinghuysen (NR)
New York
1. Charles E. Dudley (J)
3. Nathan Sanford (NR)
North Carolina
2. John Branch (J), until March 9, 1829
Bedford Brown (J), from December 9, 1829
3. James Iredell Jr. (J)
Ohio
1. Benjamin Ruggles (NR)
3. Jacob Burnet (NR)
Pennsylvania
1. Isaac D. Barnard (J)
3. William Marks (NR)
Rhode Island
1. Asher Robbins (NR)
2. Nehemiah R. Knight (NR)
South Carolina
2. Robert Y. Hayne (J)
3. William Smith (J)
Tennessee
1. John Eaton (J), until March 9, 1829
Felix Grundy (J), from October 19, 1829
2. Hugh Lawson White (J)
Vermont
1. Horatio Seymour (NR)
3. Dudley Chase (NR)
Virginia
1. John Tyler (J)
2. Littleton W. Tazewell (J)
House of Representatives
Members are listed by their districts.
Alabama
. Clement C. Clay (J)
. Robert E. B. Baylor (J)
. Dixon H. Lewis (J)
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Noyes Barber (NR)
. William W. Ellsworth (NR)
. Jabez W. Huntington (NR)
. Ralph I. Ingersoll (NR)
. William L. Storrs (NR)
. Ebenezer Young (NR)
Delaware
. Kensey Johns Jr. (NR)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Thomas F. Foster (J)
. Charles E. Haynes (J)
. Henry G. Lamar (J), from December 7, 1829
. Wilson Lumpkin (J)
. Wiley Thompson (J)
. James M. Wayne (J)
. Richard Henry Wilde (J)
Illinois
. Joseph Duncan (J)
Indiana
. Ratliff Boon (J)
. Jonathan Jennings (NR)
. John Test (NR)
Kentucky
. Henry Daniel (J)
. Nicholas D. Coleman (J)
. James Clark (NR)
. Robert P. Letcher (NR)
. Richard M. Johnson (J)
. Joseph Lecompte (J)
. John Kincaid (J)
. Nathan Gaither (J)
. Charles A. Wickliffe (J)
. Joel Yancey (J)
. Thomas Chilton (J)
. Chittenden Lyon (J)
Louisiana
. Edward D. White (NR)
. Henry H. Gurley (NR)
. Walter H. Overton (J)
Maine
. Rufus McIntire (J)
. John Anderson (J)
. Joseph F. Wingate (NR)
. George Evans (NR), from July 20, 1829
. James W. Ripley (J), until March 12, 1830
Cornelius Holland (J), from December 6, 1830
. Leonard Jarvis (J)
. Samuel Butman (NR)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Clement Dorsey (NR)
. Benedict J. Semmes (NR)
. George C. Washington (NR)
. Michael C. Sprigg (J)
. Elias Brown (J)
. Benjamin C. Howard (J)
. George E. Mitchell (J), from December 7, 1829
. Richard Spencer (J)
. Ephraim K. Wilson (J)
Massachusetts
. Benjamin Gorham (NR)
. Benjamin W. Crowninshield (NR)
. John Varnum (NR)
. Edward Everett (NR)
. John Davis (NR)
. Joseph G. Kendall (NR)
. George J. Grennell Jr. (NR)
. Isaac C. Bates (NR)
. Henry W. Dwight (NR)
. John Bailey (NR)
. Joseph Richardson (NR)
. James L. Hodges (NR)
. John Reed Jr. (NR)
Mississippi
. Thomas Hinds (J)
Missouri
. Spencer D. Pettis (J)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John Brodhead (J)
. Thomas Chandler (J)
. Joseph Hammons (J)
. Jonathan Harvey (J)
. Henry Hubbard (J)
. John W. Weeks (J)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Lewis Condict (NR)
. Richard M. Cooper (NR)
. Thomas H. Hughes (NR)
. Isaac Pierson (NR)
. James F. Randolph (NR)
. Samuel Swan (NR)
New York
There were three plural districts, the 20th & 26th had two representatives each, the 3rd had three representatives.
. James Lent (J)
. Jacob Crocheron (J)
. Churchill C. Cambreleng (J)
. Gulian C. Verplanck (J)
. Campbell P. White (J)
. Henry B. Cowles (NR)
. Abraham Bockee (J)
. Hector Craig (J), until July 12, 1830
Samuel W. Eager (NR), from November 2, 1830
. Charles G. DeWitt (J)
. James Strong (NR)
. John D. Dickinson (NR)
. Ambrose Spencer (NR)
. Perkins King (J)
. Peter I. Borst (J)
. William G. Angel (J)
. Henry R. Storrs (NR)
. Michael Hoffman (J)
. Benedict Arnold (NR)
. John W. Taylor (NR)
. Henry C. Martindale (NR)
. Isaac Finch (NR)
. Joseph Hawkins (NR)
. George Fisher (NR), until February 5, 1830
Jonah Sanford (J), from November 3, 1830
. Robert Monell (J), until February 21, 1831, vacant thereafter
. Thomas Beekman (NR)
. Jonas Earll Jr. (J)
. Gershom Powers (J)
. Thomas Maxwell (J)
. Jehiel H. Halsey (J)
. Robert S. Rose (Anti-M)
. Timothy Childs (Anti-M)
. John Magee (J)
. Phineas L. Tracy (Anti-M)
. Ebenezer F. Norton (J)
North Carolina
. William B. Shepard (NR)
. Willis Alston (J)
. Thomas H. Hall (J)
. Jesse Speight (J)
. Gabriel Holmes (J), until September 26, 1829
Edward B. Dudley (J), from November 10, 1829
. Robert Potter (J)
. Edmund Deberry (NR)
. Daniel L. Barringer (J)
. Augustine H. Shepperd (J)
. Abraham Rencher (J)
. Henry W. Connor (J)
. Samuel P. Carson (J)
. Lewis Williams (NR)
Ohio
. James Findlay (J)
. James Shields (J)
. Joseph H. Crane (NR)
. Joseph Vance (NR)
. William Russell (J)
. William Creighton Jr. (NR)
. Samuel F. Vinton (NR)
. William Stanbery (J)
. William W. Irvin (J)
. William Kennon Sr. (J)
. John M. Goodenow (J), until April 9, 1830
Humphrey H. Leavitt (J), from December 6, 1830
. John Thomson (J)
. Elisha Whittlesey (NR)
. Mordecai Bartley (NR)
Pennsylvania
There were six plural districts, the 7th, 8th, 11th & 16th had two representatives each, the 4th & 9th had three representatives each.
. Joel B. Sutherland (J)
. Joseph Hemphill (J)
. Daniel H. Miller (J)
. James Buchanan (J)
. Joshua Evans Jr. (J)
. George G. Leiper (J)
. John B. Sterigere (J)
. Innis Green (J)
. Joseph Fry Jr. (J)
. Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (J)
. Samuel D. Ingham (J), until March 1829
Peter Ihrie Jr. (J), from October 13, 1829
. George Wolf (J), until March 1829
Samuel A. Smith (J), from October 13, 1829
. James Ford (J)
. Alem Marr (J)
. Philander Stephens (J)
. Adam King (J)
. Thomas H. Crawford (J)
. William Ramsey (J)
. John Scott (J)
. Chauncey Forward (J)
. Thomas Irwin (J)
. William McCreery (J)
. Harmar Denny (Anti-M), from December 15, 1829, after William Wilkins resigned before qualifying
. John Gilmore (J)
. Richard Coulter (J)
. Thomas H. Sill (NR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Tristam Burges (NR)
. Dutee J. Pearce (NR)
South Carolina
. William Drayton (J)
. Robert W. Barnwell (J)
. John Campbell (J)
. William D. Martin (J)
. George McDuffie (J)
. Warren R. Davis (J)
. William T. Nuckolls (J)
. James Blair (J)
. Starling Tucker (J)
Tennessee
. John Blair (J)
. Pryor Lea (J)
. James I. Standifer (J)
. Jacob C. Isacks (J)
. Robert Desha (J)
. James K. Polk (J)
. John Bell (J)
. Cave Johnson (J)
. David Crockett (NR)
Vermont
. Jonathan Hunt (NR)
. Rollin C. Mallary (NR)
. Horace Everett (NR)
. Benjamin Swift (NR)
. William Cahoon (Anti-M)
Virginia
. Thomas Newton Jr. (NR), until March 9, 1830
George Loyall (J), from March 9, 1830
. James Trezvant (J)
. William S. Archer (J)
. Mark Alexander (J)
. Thomas T. Bouldin (J)
. Thomas Davenport (J)
. Nathaniel H. Claiborne (J)
. Richard Coke Jr. (J)
. Andrew Stevenson (J)
. William C. Rives (J), until April 17, 1829
William F. Gordon (J), from January 25, 1830
. Philip P. Barbour (J), until October 15, 1830
John M. Patton (J), from November 25, 1830
. John Roane (J)
. John Taliaferro (NR)
. Charles F. Mercer (NR)
. John S. Barbour (J)
. William Armstrong (NR)
. Robert Allen (J)
. Philip Doddridge (NR)
. William McCoy (J)
. Robert Craig (J)
. Lewis Maxwell (NR)
. Alexander Smyth (J), until April 17, 1830
Joseph Draper (J), from December 6, 1830
Non-voting members
. Ambrose H. Sevier
. Joseph M. White
. John Biddle, until February 21, 1831, vacant thereafter
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
Replacements: 4
Jacksonians (J): no net change
National Republicans (NR): no net change
Deaths: 4
Resignations: 4
Interim appointments: 1
Total seats with changes: 7
|-
| Georgia(3)
| | John M. Berrien (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, to become U.S. Attorney General.Successor elected November 9, 1829.
| | John Forsyth (J)
| Installed November 9, 1829
|-
| North Carolina(2)
| | John Branch (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of the Navy.Successor elected December 9, 1829.
| | Bedford Brown (J)
| Installed December 9, 1829
|-
| Tennessee(1)
| | John Eaton (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of War.Successor elected October 19, 1829.
| | Felix Grundy (J)
| Installed October 19, 1829
|-
| Delaware(1)
| | Louis McLane (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 29, 1829, to become U.S. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Kingdom.Successor elected January 7, 1830.
| | Arnold Naudain (NR)
| Installed January 7, 1830
|-
| Mississippi(2)
| | Thomas B. Reed (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died November 26, 1829.Successor elected January 6, 1830.
| | Robert H. Adams (J)
| Installed January 6, 1830
|-
| Mississippi(2)
| | Robert H. Adams (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died July 2, 1830.Successor appointed October 15, 1830, to continue the term, and subsequently elected.
| | George Poindexter (J)
| Installed October 15, 1830
|-
| Illinois(2)
| | John McLean (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died October 14, 1830.Successor appointed November 12, 1830, to continue the term.
| | David J. Baker (J)
| Installed November 12, 1830
|-
| Illinois(2)
| | David J. Baker (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Appointee retired with elected successor qualified.Successor elected December 11, 1830.
| | John M. Robinson (J)
| Installed December 11, 1830
|-
| Indiana(1)
| | James Noble (NR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died February 26, 1831.Seat filled next Congress.
| Vacant
| Not filled this Congress
|}
House of Representatives
Replacements: 5
Jacksonians (J): 1 seat net loss
National Republicans (NR): 1 seat net gain
Deaths: 2
Resignations: 10
Contested election: 2
Total seats with changes: 15
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Maryland elected its members October 5, 1829 after the term began but before Congress convened. Rep-elect sworn in December after convening.
| | George Edward Mitchell (J)
| Seated December 7, 1829
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | George Gilmer (Jacksonian) was redistricted from the 1st district and re-elected but failed to accept the position within the legal time frame. Governor ordered a new election.
| | Henry G. Lamar (J)
| Seated December 7, 1829
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Peleg Sprague resigned in previous Congress
| | George Evans (NR)
| Seated July 20, 1829
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | William Wilkins resigned before qualifying
| | Harmar Denny (AM)
| Seated December 15, 1829
|-
|
| | George Wolf (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned in 1829 before the convening of Congress
| | Samuel A. Smith (J)
| Seated October 13, 1829
|-
|
| | William C. Rives (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned some time in 1829
| | William F. Gordon (J)
| Seated January 25, 1830
|-
|
| | Samuel D. Ingham (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned in March 1829 after being appointed Secretary of the Treasury
| | Peter Ihrie Jr. (J)
| Seated October 13, 1829
|-
|
| | Gabriel Holmes (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died September 26, 1829
| | Edward B. Dudley (J)
| Seated November 10, 1829
|-
|
| | George Fisher (NR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Lost contested election February 5, 1830, to Silas Wright who in turn failed to qualify
| | Jonah Sanford (J)
| Seated November 3, 1830
|-
|
| | Thomas Newton Jr. (NR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Lost contested election March 9, 1830
| | George Loyall (J)
| Seated March 9, 1830
|-
|
| | James W. Ripley (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 12, 1830
| | Cornelius Holland (J)
| Seated December 6, 1830
|-
|
| | John M. Goodenow (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 9, 1830, after being appointed judge of the Supreme Court of Ohio
| | Humphrey H. Leavitt (J)
| Seated December 6, 1830
|-
|
| | Alexander Smyth (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died April 17, 1830
| | Joseph Draper (J)
| Seated December 6, 1830
|-
|
| | Hector Craig (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned July 12, 1830
| | Samuel W. Eager (NR)
| Seated November 2, 1830
|-
|
| | Philip P. Barbour (J)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned October 15, 1830, after being appointed judge of US Circuit Court of the Eastern District of Virginia
| | John M. Patton (J)
| Seated November 25, 1830
|-
|
| | Robert Monell (J)
| style="font-size:80%" |Resigned February 21, 1831
| Vacant
| Not filled this term
|-
|
| John Biddle
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 21, 1831
| Vacant
| Not filled this term
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Accounts of James Monroe (Select)
Agriculture (Chairman: William Marks)
Amending the Constitution on the Election of the President and Vice President (Select)
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Elias Kane then James Iredell)
Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles)
Commerce (Chairman: Levi Woodbury)
Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Ezekiel F. Chambers)
Dueling (Select)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: William Marks)
Finance (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
Foreign Relations (Chairman: Littleton Tazewell)
French Spoilations (Select)
Impeachment of James H. Peck (Select)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: Hugh Lawson White)
Judiciary (Chairman: John Rowan)
Manufactures (Chairman: Mahlon Dickerson)
Memorial of the Manufacturers Iron (Select)
Mileage of Members of Congress (Select)
Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton)
Militia (Chairman: Isaac D. Barnard)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Robert Y. Hayne)
Nomination of Amos Kendall (Select)
Pensions (Chairman: John Holmes)
Post Office Department (Select)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: George M. Bibb)
Private Land Claims (Chairman: Jacob Burnet)
Public Lands (Chairman: David Barton)
Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: William Hendricks)
Tariff Regulation (Select)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Jehiel H. Halsey)
Agriculture (Chairman: Ambrose Spencer)
American Colonization Society (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Elisha Whittlesey)
Commerce (Chairman: Churchill C. Cambreleng)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Gershom Powers)
Elections (Chairman: Willis Alston)
Establishing an Assay Office in the Gold Region (Select)
Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Augustine H. Shepperd)
Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Joel Yancey)
Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Jonas Earll)
Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: George G. Leiper)
Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Lewis Maxwell)
Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Michael C. Sprigg)
Foreign Affairs (Chairman: William S. Archer)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Bell)
Judiciary (Chairman: James Buchanan)
Manufactures (Chairman: Rollin C. Mallary)
Military Affairs (Chairman: William Drayton)
Military Pensions (Chairman: Isaac C. Bates)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Michael Hoffman)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson)
Private Land Claims (Chairman: Ralph R. Gurley)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: Thomas H. Hall)
Public Lands (Chairman: Jacob C. Isacks then Charles A. Wickliffe)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Dutee J. Pearce)
Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Tristam Burges)
Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: N/A)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Territories (Chairman: James Clark)
Ways and Means (Chairman: George McDuffie)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills
The Library
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Charles Bulfinch, until June 25, 1829 (office abolished)
Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan
Senate
Chaplain: William Ryland (Methodist), until December 14, 1829
Henry V. Johns (Episcopalian), elected December 14, 1829
Secretary: Walter Lowrie
Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Reuben Post (Presbyterian), until December 13, 1830
Ralph R. Gurley (Presbyterian), elected December 13, 1830
Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke
Doorkeeper: Benjamin Birch
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: John O. Dunn
See also
1828 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1828 United States presidential election
1828 and 1829 United States Senate elections
1828 and 1829 United States House of Representatives elections
1830 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1830 and 1831 United States Senate elections
1830 and 1831 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
From American Memory at the Library of Congress:
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Other U.S. government websites:
House Document No. 108-222 from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress (1774–2005)
House History from the U.S. House of Representatives
Statistics and Lists from the U.S. Senate
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The Battle of Gaza, also referred to as Hamas' takeover of Gaza, was a military conflict between Fatah and Hamas, that took place in the Gaza Strip between June 10 and 15, 2007. It was a prominent event in the Fatah–Hamas conflict, centered on the struggle for power, after Fatah lost the parliamentary elections of 2006. Hamas fighters took control of the Gaza Strip and removed Fatah officials. The battle resulted in the dissolution of the unity government and the de facto division of the Palestinian territories into two entities, the West Bank governed by the Palestinian National Authority, and Gaza governed by Hamas.
The ICRC estimated that at least 118 people were killed and more than 550 wounded during the fighting in the week up to 15 June.
Background
Palestinian Constitutional Contribution
In 2003, the Basic Law of the Palestinian Authority (PA) was amended and a semi-presidential form of government was established, whereby a constitution creates a directly elected fixed-term president, plus a prime minister and cabinet collectively responsible to the legislature. While some writers do point to the potential advantages of semi-presidentialism, the academic consensus is largely unsupportive of this form of government.
... in January 2006, Hamas gained a majority at the legislative elections. This led to 'cohabitation' between a Fatah president and a Hamas prime minister and government and created 'two competing centers of power', which is said to be so damaging for fragile democracies with semi-presidential constitutions. Following the election, and in the context of an extremely difficult domestic and international situation, the Palestinian Authority (PA) descended into civil war. By June 2007, the PA had, in effect, split in two, with Hamas ruling the Gaza Strip and Fatah retaining authority over the West Bank. In the same month President Abbas declared a state of emergency and dismissed the Hamas prime minister, Ismail Haniya, though Hamas maintains that this decision was unconstitutional and still considers Haniya to be the legitimate head of government. Whatever the legality of the situation, by this time the governance structures of the Basic Law had all but broken down.
It is very difficult to determine to what extent semi-presidentialism is responsible for the problems of governance in the PA in the period 2006–2007. Indeed, usually, the importance of institutions in shaping the behaviour of political actors in the Palestinian context is often neglected in favour of other factors, notably the inherently conflictual nature of the relationship between Fatah and Hamas. Moreover, the internal and external problems faced by the PA are greater than those faced by almost any other jurisdiction in the world and it would be naive to suggest that semi-presidentialism per se was anything other than a contributory factor to the problems faced by the Authority since January 2006.
The Palestinian Basic Law (2003) is by definition pertinent to the evaluation of the legality of actions of Palestinian parties in the aftermath of the 2006 Palestinian Legislature elections. President Abbas had very specific authorities under the Basic Law. Article 88 - If the president of the state or the prime minister, in case of necessity, suggest the dissolution of the Representative Council to the Council of Ministers, then its dissolution may be approved by a majority of two-thirds of its members. Under article 126 the President is the supreme head of the Palestinian national security forces which had to be headed by a 'cognizant minister' (appointed by the Prime Minister – article 137). Article 137 dictates that the Prime Minister forms the government of Palestine and speaks for it, is head of the Representative Council, and that he appoints ministers and senior positions. Article 153 forbids the formation of armed groups outside the network of national security forces. The police (article 154), on the other hand, form a civilian organisation, part of the Ministry of the Interior (appointed by the Prime Minister). The victors, Hamas, ruled this governing body in 2006/2007 via the Representative Council. Hamas's Ismail Haniyeh, was the prime minister.
The New 2005 Palestinian Authority
Yasser Arafat, the President of the Palestinian Authority, died on 11 November 2004. The Palestinian presidential election to fill the position took place on 9 January 2005 in both the West Bank and Gaza, but were boycotted by both Hamas and Islamic Jihad. The election resulted in PLO and Fatah chairman Mahmoud Abbas being elected President to a four-year term. On 8 February 2005 the Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas and Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon announced a cease-fire. On 17 March 2005 Hamas endorsed the ceasefire. On 19 March 2005 twelve Palestinian factions, including Fatah, Hamas, Islamic Jihad, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) signed the Palestinian Cairo Declaration, which reaffirmed the status of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people through the participation in it of all forces and factions according to democratic principles. The Declaration implied a reform of the PLO by the inclusion in the PLO of Hamas and Islamic Jihad. On 12 September 2005 Israel completed its disengagement from the Gaza strip.
2006 Palestinian legislative election and aftermath
The Addameer organisation recorded that, on 26 September 2005, during the lead-up to the 2006 elections, Israel launched a campaign of arrest against Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) members. Four hundred and fifty members of Hamas were detained, mostly involved in the 2006 PLC elections. On 25 January 2006 the Palestinian legislative election, judged to be free and fair by international observers, took place. It resulted in a Hamas victory, which surprised Israel and the United States which had expected their favoured partner, Fatah, to retain power. On 27 January U.S.President George Bush said "the landslide victory of the militant Islamic group Hamas was rejection of the "status quo" and a repudiation of the "old guard" that had failed to provide honest government and services". On 30 January 2006, the Quartet (United States, Russia, United Nations, and European Union) predicated future foreign assistance to the Palestinian Authority on the future government's commitment to non-violence, recognition of the State of Israel, and acceptance of previous agreements. Hamas rejected these conditions, saying that "the "unfair conditions would endanger the well-being of Palestinians". This view was echoed by Prince Saud of Saudi Arabia who believed that the international community are being "unreasonable". Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud al-Faisal told reporters in Malaysia: "The European Union insisted on having elections in Palestine, and this is the result of what they asked for. Now to come around, and say [they] don't accept the will of the people that was expressed through democratic means, seems an unreasonable position to take." The BBC's diplomatic correspondent, James Robbins, said the Quartet's response was chosen with care: "They did not demand a renunciation of violence or immediate recognition of Israel, but a commitment to these things in the future".
Shortly after Hamas established the new Palestinian government on 29 March 2006, which was led by Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh as Prime Minister and comprised mostly Hamas members, after Fatah and other factions refused to join in a national unity government. The Quartet suspended its foreign assistance program, and Israel imposed economic sanctions and a blockade of the Gaza Strip.
Following the abduction by Hamas militants of Gilad Shalit on 25 June 2006 in a cross-border raid via a tunnel out of Gaza, Israel arrested 49 senior Hamas officials, including 33 parliamentarians, nearly a quarter of PLC members and ministers on the West Bank, and intensified the boycott of Gaza and took other punitive measures.
Interventions in the election outcome
Mahmoud Abbas was under pressure by the Quartet on the Middle East, which considered Hamas' unacceptable as it was perceived to undermine decades of international efforts to secure a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Therefore, the international community decided to boycott the Hamas-led government by severing diplomatic ties and halting financial aid until Hamas would fulfill certain conditions. It was suggested that Abbas could use his constitutional powers to dismiss the government and call for new elections, which were intended to yield a different result and reinstall Fatah in power on the grounds that the Palestinian electorate would perceive Hamas as a failure. The threat of new elections was never carried out because it emerged that Hamas might in fact be returned to power despite its inability to implement its manifesto and because the movement itself strongly signalled that
calling new elections although a constitutional prerogative of the President, would amount to 'a coup against Palestinian legitimacy and the will of the Palestinian people'.
The U.S. and Israel attempted to undermine Hamas and force it from power while strengthening the position of President Abbas.
The new government clashed with President Abbas, who shared power with it based on the Basic Law. Through presidential decrees, Abbas took exclusive presidential authority over several administrative powers and periodically made threats of dismissal.
After refusing to accept the plan of the Hamas-led PA government to reform the security sector loyal to Abbas and Fatah, Abbas placed the security forces under his direct control and built up his own Presidential Guard. Hamas then created a parallel security force, which was made up of its own members of the al-Qassam Brigades. The two forces refused to cooperate. Hamas' forces represented a tradition of armed resistance, whereas those of Fatah's were committed to the upholding of the Oslo Accords.
Preceding confrontations
By 2007, Hamas was unable to pay salaries or get recognition from European donor countries and international organisations. This led to the first fighting between Hamas and Fatah. In the last month of 2006, factional fighting left 33 people dead. On 7 January 2007, Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas ordered the Hamas-led Interior Ministry's paramilitary police force, the most powerful armed unit outside his control in the factional fighting, to be incorporated into the security apparatus loyal to him. The ministry responded with defiance, announcing plans to double the size of its force. The combative announcements raised the prospect of an intensified armed standoff. Abbas' only means of enforcing the order appeared to be coercive action by police and security units under his command, but they were relatively weak in the Gaza Strip, Hamas's stronghold.
External involvement
Documents published in Palestine Papers reveal the British intelligence MI6, helped draw up a security plan for Fatah-led Palestinian Authority. The plan mentioned as objective "encourage and enable the Palestinian Authority (PA) to fully meet its security obligations under Phase 1 of the Roadmap". It proposes a number of ways of "degrading the capabilities of rejectionists", naming Hamas (the victorious party in the recently elected PA executive government), PIJ (Palestinian Islamic Jihad) and the Fatah-linked al-Aqsa Brigades. The plan was described by the Guardian as a "wide-ranging crackdown on Hamas".
In 2004, the plan was passed to Jibril Rajoub, a senior Fatah official of the PA. The bulk of the plan has since been carried out. Issues noted in the plan were suicide bombing, weapons smuggling, Qassam rockets and "terror finance". Its most controversial section recommended that "Degrading the capabilities of the rejectionists—Hamas, PIJ [Palestinian Islamic Jihad] and the [Fatah-linked] Al Aqsa Brigades—through the disruption of their leaderships' communications and command and control capabilities; the detention of key middle-ranking officers; and the confiscation of their arsenals and financial resources". Suggesting temporary internment of leaders and activists, the closure of radio stations and the replacement of imams in mosques.
After 2006 elections, Hamas announced the formation of its own security service, the Executive Force, appointing Jamal Abu Samhadana, a prominent militant, at its head. Abbas had denounced the move as unconstitutional, saying that only the Palestinian president could command armed forces. U.S. training program began after that. According to Lt. Gen. Keith Dayton, the U.S. security coordinator "We are involved in building up the Presidential Guard, instructing it, assisting it to build itself up and giving them ideas. We are not training the forces to confront Hamas," adding that "Hamas is receiving money and arms from Iran and possibly Syria, and we must make sure that the moderate forces will not be erased,".
The American effort was part of a broader international package proposed to the Quartet to strengthen Mahmoud Abbas's Palestinian security forces as Hamas threatens to increase its parallel Executive Force to 6,000 men. Training for Fatah Presidential Guard was provided by Egypt, Jordan and Turkey. Additional non-lethal equipment and fund for the purchase of arms were provided. Israel, too, allowed light arms to flow to members of the Presidential Guard, through Jordan and Egypt.
Israel's Security Agency supported President Abbas and the Presidential Guard, but was concerned about the weakness of Fatah. There was a plan to add the PLO's Jordan-based Badr Brigade to the Presidential Guard. As of October 2006, "while clashes between Hamas and elements of Fatah had been fierce", Israel Security Agency Director Yuval Diskin did not believe the Palestinians were on the verge of a civil war because neither side wanted one, but "should something happen to Haniyeh on the Hamas side, or Mohammed Dahlan or Rashid Abu Shabak on the Fatah side, anything could happen."
According to the IISS, the June 2007 escalation was triggered by Hamas' conviction that the PA's Presidential Guard, loyal to Mahmoud Abbas, was being positioned to take control of Gaza. The U.S. had helped build up the Presidential Guard to 3,500 men since August 2006.
Plan to replace government
The Hamas-led government met with Israeli opposition and Quartet sanctions, and President Abbas and the Fatah-dominated PLO developed a plan to replace the Hamas government with one acceptable to Israel and the international community. According to the plan, unveiled in Al Jazeera's Palestine Papers, a national unity government or a government of technocrats would be formed by the end of November to prepare early presidential and legislative elections by mid-2007. If the establishment of a government meeting the Quartet's conditions failed, President Abbas would announce a state of emergency, dismiss the government and form an emergency government, or call early elections. The developers of the plan were aware that an emergency government could legally govern only for one month without a vote of confidence by the PLC. An "Action Plan Leading to Early Elections" envisioned a strong enlargement of Fatah's Presidential Guard, internal reform of Fatah, empowering of presidential institutions, resumption of aid by the international community through the President's Office, and end of withholding of taxes by Israel.
By October 2006, the U.S. administration, Israel, many Arab governments, and much of Fatah—including most of Abbas' key advisors still held the view that if Hamas did not unambiguously accept the Quartet's conditions, it should and could be forced out of power through early elections, its dismissal and appointment of an emergency government or a popular referendum seeking Palestinian agreement to the Quartet's conditions. The plan had also been put forward by U.S. President Bush in his meeting with Abbas on 20 September 2006.
The plan was largely carried out:
In March 2007, a national unity government was established after the February 2007 Mecca Agreement.
On 14 June 2007, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas announced the dissolution of the unity government and declared a state of emergency.
On 17 June 2007, Abbas established an emergency government without the approval of the PLC.
Abbas-loyal troops were strengthened with international help and support from Israel.
Elections, however, did not take place. Already in December 2006, Abbas announced a plan for early elections "not be held until mid-2007", provoking tensions and some clashes between Hamas and Fatah supporters. In July 2007, he again called for early elections. Other calls were in October 2009 and in February 2011.
Battle
On June 10, 2007, the Fatah–Hamas conflict culminated in clashes, between the Fatah-allied forces on one side and the Hamas-allied forces on the other side. Major Fatah forces were the National Security Forces, particularly the "Presidential Guard". Main force of Hamas was the "Executive Force".
Hamas militants seized several Fatah members and threw one of them, Mohammed Sweirki, an officer in the elite Palestinian Presidential Guard, off the top of the tallest building in Gaza, a 15-story apartment building. In retaliation, Fatah militants attacked and killed the imam of the city's Great Mosque, Mohammed al-Rifati. They also opened fire on the home of Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh. Just before midnight, a Hamas militant was thrown off a 12-story building.
On June 11, the residences of both Mahmoud Abbas, Fatah's leader and the Palestinian Authority president, and of then-Prime Minister Ismail Haniya, of Hamas, were targeted with gun and shell fire.
On June 12, Hamas began attacking posts held by their Fatah faction rivals. Hundreds of Hamas fighters had moved on the positions after giving their occupants two hours to leave. A major Fatah base in the northern town of Jabaliya fell to Hamas fighters, witnesses told AFP news agency. Heavy fighting also raged around the main Fatah headquarters in Gaza City, with Hamas militants attacking with rocket-propelled grenades and automatic weapons.
On June 13, Hamas seized the headquarters of the Fatah-controlled National Security Forces in northern Gaza. Gunmen fought for control of high-rise buildings serving as sniper positions and Hamas said it had bulldozed a Fatah outpost controlling Gaza's main north-south road. Also on that day, an explosion wrecked the Khan Younis headquarters of the Fatah-linked Preventive Security Service, killing five people.
On June 14, Hamas gunmen completed the takeover of the central building of the Palestinian Preventive Security Service's headquarters in the Gaza Strip. The Hamas members took over vehicles and weapons in the compound, which was considered the Palestinian Authority's main symbol in the Strip. The Preventive Security Service cooperated with Israel in the past, and has been armed by the United States. It has been identified with Fatah powerhouse Mohammed Dahlan, who has become a figure hated by the Islamists in Gaza. The gunmen who entered the compound held a prayer there and waved a flag on the building's rooftop. At least 10 people were killed. Hamas TV broadcast a display of weapons inside the building, as well as jeeps, mortar shells and bulletproof vests seized in the compound, which according to Hamas, were smuggled to Fatah by Israel and the Americans in the past few months through the border with Egypt.
Hamas members held a prayer in the compound, which they referred to as the "heresy compound." Hamas also changed the name of the neighborhood where the building is located from "Tel al-Hawa" to "Tel al-Islam".
On the afternoon of June 14, the Associated Press reported an explosion that rocked Gaza City. According to Fatah officials, security forces withdrew from their post and blew it up in order to not let Hamas take it over. The security forces afterwards repositioned to another location. Later on June 14, Hamas also took control of the southern Gaza Strip city Rafah which lies near an already closed border crossing with Egypt, which is monitored by Israeli, Palestinian and European Union security forces. The EU staff had, at that time, already been relocated to the Israeli city of Ashkelon for safety reasons. On June 14, Abbas dissolved the Palestinian-Hamas unity government, on 15 June, Hamas completed the control over Gaza.
Alleged military coup
As a result of the battle, Hamas got complete control of Gaza. The pro-Fatah view is, that it was a plain military coup by Hamas. The pro-Hamas view is, that the U.S. drew up a plan to arm Fatah cadres with the aim of forcefully removing Hamas from power in Gaza. According to the pro-Hamas view, Fatah fighters, led by commander Mohammed Dahlan with logistical support from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, were planning to carry out a bloody coup against Hamas. Then, Hamas pre-emptively took control over Gaza.
In an April 2008 article in Vanity Fair magazine, the journalist David Rose published confidential documents, apparently originating from the U.S. State Department, which would prove that the United States collaborated with the Palestinian Authority and Israel to attempt the violent overthrow of Hamas in the Gaza Strip, and that Hamas pre-empted the coup. The documents suggest that a government with Hamas should meet the demands of the Middle East Quartet, otherwise President Mahmoud Abbas should declare a state of emergency, which effectively would dissolve the current unity government, or the government should collapse by other means. Rose quotes former Vice President Dick Cheney's chief Middle East adviser David Wurmser, accusing the Bush administration of "engaging in a dirty war in an effort to provide a corrupt dictatorship [led by Abbas] with victory." He believes that Hamas had no intention of taking Gaza until Fatah forced its hand. "It looks to me that what happened wasn't so much a coup by Hamas but an attempted coup by Fatah that was pre-empted before it could happen"
According to Alastair Crooke, the then British Prime Minister Tony Blair decided in 2003 to tie UK and EU security policy in the West Bank and Gaza to a US-led counter-insurgency against Hamas. This led to an internal policy contradiction that pre-empted the EU from mounting any effective foreign policy on the "peace process" alternative to that of the US. At a political level, the EU "talked the talk" of reconciliation between Fatah and Hamas, Palestinian state-building and democracy. At the practical level, the EU "walked the walk" of disruption, detention, seizing finances, and destroying the capabilities of one [Hamas] of the two factions and prevented the parliament from exercising any function.
According to Crooke, the Quartet conditions for engagement with Hamas, which the EU had endorsed after the 2006 elections, were conditions raised precisely in order to prevent Hamas from meeting them, rather than as guidelines intended to open the path for diplomatic solutions. Then, British and American intelligence services were preparing a "soft" coup to remove Hamas from power in Gaza.
Violations of international law
Human Rights Watch accused both sides of violating international humanitarian law, in some instances amounting to war crimes. The accusations include targeting and killing civilians, public executions of political opponents and captives, throwing prisoners off high-rise apartment buildings, fighting in hospitals, and shooting from a jeep marked with "TV" insignia. The International Committee of the Red Cross denounced attacks in and around two hospitals in the northern part of the Gaza strip.
During the fighting several incidents of looting took place: a crowd took furniture, wall tiles and personal belongings from the villa of the by now deceased Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat; the home of former Fatah commander Mohammed Dahlan was also looted: "An AFP correspondent witnessed dozens of Palestinians taking everything they could carry from Dahlan's villa—furniture, pot plants and even the kitchen sink, complete with plumbing fixtures such as taps"; and at the Muntada, Abbas's seafront presidential compound, witnesses reported seeing Hamas fighters remove computers, documents and guns.
Aftermath
Division of government
On June 14, 2007, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, reacted to the Hamas takeover by declaring a state of emergency. He dismissed the unity government led by Ismail Haniyeh, and by presidential decree installed Salam Fayyad as Prime Minister. Haniyeh refused to accept his dismissal, accusing Abbas of participating in a U.S.-led plot to overthrow him. Experts in Palestinian law and independent members of the PLC have questioned the legitimacy of the Fayyad government. According to the Palestinian Basic Law, the President can dismiss the prime minister but the dismissed government continues to function as a caretaker government until a new government is formed and receives a vote of confidence from an absolute majority of the Palestinian Legislative Council. The Hamas-majority PLC has never met to confirm the Fayyad government. President Abbas by presidential decree in September 2007 changed the voting system for the PLC into a full proportional representation system, bypassing the dysfunctional PLC.
With the dissolution of the Hamas-led unity government, the territory controlled by the Palestinian Authority was de facto divided into two entities: the Hamas-controlled government of the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank, governed by the Palestinian National Authority.
The international community recognized the emergency government. Within days, the U.S. recognized the Fayyad government and ended the 15-month economic and political boycott of the Palestinian Authority in a bid to bolster President Abbas and the new Fatah-led Fayyad government. The European Union similarly announced plans to resume direct aid to the Palestinians, while Israel released to Abbas Palestinian tax revenues that Israel had withheld since Hamas took control of the Palestinian Legislative Council. The Middle East Quartet reiterated their continued support to Abbas and resumed normal relations with the Fatah-led PA. UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon urged international support for Abbas's efforts "to restore law and order". Israel and Egypt began a blockade of the Gaza Strip.
Possible religious consequences
A Hamas spokesman in Gaza, Fouzi Barhoum, said earlier that Hamas was imposing Islamic law in Gaza but this was denied by exiled Hamas leader Khaled Mashal.
Sheik Abu Saqer, leader of Jihadia Salafiya, an Islamic outreach movement that recently announced the opening of a "military wing" to enforce Muslim law in Gaza. "I expect our Christian neighbors to understand the new Hamas rule means real changes. They must be ready for Islamic rule if they want to live in peace in Gaza." The sole Christian bookstore in Gaza was attacked and the owner murdered.
Weapons
Hamas has captured thousands of small arms and eight armored combat vehicles supplied by the United States, Egypt, and Jordan to the Palestinian Authority.
According to Muhammad Abdel-El of the Hamas-allied Popular Resistance Committees, Hamas and its allies have captured quantities of foreign intelligence, including CIA files. Abu Abdullah of Hamas' "military wing", the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, claims Hamas will make portions of the documents public, in a stated attempt to expose covert relations between the United States and "traitor" Arab countries.
While Hamas collected most of the 15,000 weapons registered to the former security forces, it failed to collect more than a fraction of the 400,000 weapons that are in the hands of various clans, and said that it would not touch weapons used for fighting Israel, only those that might be used against Hamas.
Notes
External links
June 7, 2007, Fatah official killed, truce broken
In pictures: Hamas takes Gaza (BBC)
Gaza
Gaza
Fatah–Hamas conflict
Politics of the Gaza Strip
2007 in the Gaza Strip
June 2007 events in Asia
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Mermaiding (also referred to as artistic mermaiding, mermaidry, or artistic mermaid performance) is the practice of wearing, and often swimming in, a costume mermaid tail.
It is difficult to determine exactly where the term "mermaiding" was coined; but some of the first professional freelance mermaids appeared on the world scene around 2004, such as Hannah Mermaid, Mahina Mermaid, and Mermaid Linden, who were all playing with the term. A little later on, the term was brought to a wider use and community by Iona the Mermaid, co-founder of MerNetwork.com. In the beginning of the twentieth century mermaiding was sometimes referred to as water ballet, but it is not currently a term that is commonly used. Mermaiding should not be confused with modern synchronized swimming, although there can be some overlap if a mermaid performance troupe is performing a synchronized routine.
Mermaiding is both a profession and a hobby. Professional mermaids will often swim in live, filmed, or photographed productions or shows and can be hired for special events. Nonprofessional enthusiasts swim in tails at their local pools if the pool allows it, lakes, rivers, and seashores, or take part in mermaid-themed photo shoots, birthday parties, or mermaid meetings with other Mers. Mermaiding is popular with all ages and genders. Mermaiding practitioners are sometimes called mermaids, professional mermaids, or occasionally, water ballerinas. Within the community, mermaid or merfolk can be shortened to "mer." Mermaiding is often seen as a form of extreme cosplay due to the nature of crafting the tails and other prosthetics used by practitioners. There are several tail-making companies supplying the community with everything from fabric tails to full SFX prostheses costing thousands of dollars.
History
Annette Kellerman
Annette Marie Sarah Kellerman (6 July 1886 – 6 November 1975) was an Australian professional swimmer, vaudeville star, film actress and writer. She was one of the first women to wear a one-piece bathing costume, instead of the then-accepted pantaloons, and inspired others to follow her example. In 1902, Kellerman decided to take her swimming seriously and subsequently won the ladies' 100 yards and mile championships of New South Wales in the record times of 1 minute, 22 seconds and 33 minutes, 49 seconds respectively. In that same year, her parents decided to move to Melbourne, and she was enrolled at Mentone Girls' Grammar School where her mother had accepted a music teaching position. During her time at school, Kellerman gave exhibitions of swimming and diving at the main Melbourne baths, performed a mermaid act at Princes Court entertainment centre and did two shows a day swimming with fish in a glass tank at the Exhibition Aquarium.
In June–July 1903 Kellerman performed sensational high dives in the Coogee scene of Bland Holt's spectacular, The Breaking of the Drought, at the Melbourne Theatre Royal. She is often credited with inventing the sport of synchronised swimming after her 1907 performance of the first water ballet in a glass tank at the New York Hippodrome. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The majority of Kellerman's films had themes of aquatic adventure. She performed her own stunts including diving from ninety-two feet into the sea and sixty feet into a pool of crocodiles. Many times she would play mermaids named Annette or variations of her own name. Her "fairy tale films", as she called them, started with The Mermaid (1911), in which she was the first actress to wear a swimmable mermaid costume on film. She designed her own mermaid swimming costumes and sometimes made them herself. Similar designs are still used by The Weeki Wachee Springs Mermaids, including her aquatic fairy costume first introduced in Queen of the Sea (1918).
Esther Williams
Esther Jane Williams (8 August 1921 – 6 June 2013) was an American competitive swimmer and actress. Williams set multiple national and regional swimming records in her late teens as part of the Los Angeles Athletic Club swim team. Unable to compete in the 1940 Summer Olympics because of the outbreak of World War II, she joined Billy Rose's Aquacade, where she took on the role vacated by Eleanor Holm after the show's move from New York City to San Francisco. While in the city, she spent five months swimming alongside Olympic gold medal winner and Tarzan star, Johnny Weissmuller. Williams caught the attention of MGM scouts at the Aquacade. After appearing in several small roles, alongside Mickey Rooney in an Andy Hardy film, and future five-time co-star Van Johnson in A Guy Named Joe, Williams made a series of films in the 1940s and early 1950s known as "aquamusicals", which featured elaborate performances with synchronised swimming and diving. In 1952, Williams appeared in her only biographical role, as Australian swimming star Annette Kellerman in Million Dollar Mermaid, which went on to become her nickname while at MGM. Williams left MGM in 1956 and appeared in a handful of unsuccessful feature films, followed by several extremely popular water-themed television specials, including one from Cypress Gardens, Florida.
Many of her MGM films, such as Million Dollar Mermaid and Jupiter's Darling, contained elaborately staged synchronized swimming scenes, with considerable risk to Williams. She broke her neck filming a 115 ft dive off a tower during a climactic musical number for the film Million Dollar Mermaid and was in a body cast for seven months. She subsequently recovered, although she continued to suffer headaches as a result of the accident. Her many hours spent submerged in a studio tank resulted in ruptured eardrums numerous times. She also nearly drowned after not being able to find the trap door in the ceiling of a tank. The walls and ceiling were painted black and the trap door blended in. Williams was pulled out only because a member of the crew realized the door was not opening.
Weeki Wachee Mermaids
Located an hour north of Tampa on Florida's Gulf Coast, Weeki Wachee Springs has hosted a mermaid show since 1947. Swimmers, trained by Newton Perry, performed synchronised ballet in the natural springs at the site. The resort was purchased and promoted by the American Broadcasting Co. (ABC) in 1959.
In 2008, Weeki Wachee Springs was incorporated into the State of Florida Park system.
Film
Miranda is a 1948 British comedy film, directed by Ken Annakin and written by Peter Blackmore, who also wrote the play of the same name from which the film was adapted. Denis Waldock provided additional dialogue. A light comedy, the film is about a beautiful and playful mermaid played by Glynis Johns and her effect on Griffith Jones. Googie Withers and Margaret Rutherford are also featured in the film. Glynis Johns and Margaret Rutherford reprised their roles in the 1954 sequel, Mad About Men. Miranda is the story of a fisherman who brings home a mermaid disguised as an invalid in a wheelchair. Her flirting causes some chaos and eventually she returns to the sea.
Mr. Peabody and the Mermaid is a 1948 fantasy film starring William Powell and Ann Blyth in the title roles. Irene Hervey played Mr. Peabody's wife. The film was based on the 1945 novel Peabody's Mermaid by Guy and Constance Jones. Sequences were shot at the Weeki Wachee Springs in Florida. Arthur Peabody, while in the midst of a mid-life crisis, captures a mermaid while on vacation with his wife. After hiding her in the resort's fish pond, hijinks ensue.
Million Dollar Mermaid (also known as The One Piece Bathing Suit in the UK) is a 1952 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer biographical musical film of the life of Australian swimming star Annette Kellerman, played by Esther Williams. It was directed by Mervyn LeRoy and produced by Arthur Hornblow Jr. from a screenplay by Everett Freeman. The music score was by Adolph Deutsch, the cinematography by George J. Folsey and the choreography by Busby Berkeley. "Million Dollar Mermaid" not only became Esther Williams' nickname around Hollywood, but it became the title of her autobiography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), co-written with Digby Diehl. Williams has often called this her favorite film.
Cinema and television post-1980
For simplicity's sake, this section focuses on film and shows with live-action swimmers and tails as the main characters. For an exhaustive list of mermaids in media, please see Mermaids in popular culture.
Cinema
Splash (1984): starring Daryl Hannah and Tom Hanks, Hannah played a mermaid who falls in love with a human. She could walk on dry land in human form, but her legs changed into a fish tail whenever she got wet. Much of the movie revolves around her humorous attempts to conceal her true identity from her lover. A made-for-television sequel, Splash, Too, followed in 1988, starring Amy Yasbeck and Todd Waring. Immensely popular, the film precipitated a surge in popularity of mermaids in general and mermaiding in particular, as it inspired many people to buy tails and get into the water.
Darryl Hannah's mermaid tail was designed and created by Academy Award-winning visual effects artist Robert Short. The tail was fully functional. Hannah swam with the mermaid tail so fast that her safety team could not keep pace with her. According to the DVD documentary, Hannah had been swimming "mermaid" style with her legs bound together since she was a child, due to her fascination with Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid" story. However, by the standards of swimmable mermaid tails, the exceptionally detailed film tail was difficult to remove. For the sake of efficiency, Hannah at first kept it on while the cast had lunch. In the documentary contained on the 20th-anniversary Splash! DVD, Tom Hanks recalled how the other cast members would drop French fries over the side of the tank to her as though she were a trained sea mammal, for she couldn't leave the water while her legs were "shrink-wrapped."
Mermaid Got Married (1994): this Hong Kong romantic-comedy tells the story of a school teacher who falls in love with a mermaid who'd rescued him as a young boy. The film stars Asian cinema idols Ekin Cheng, Christy Chung, and Takeshi Kaneshiro. The film is loosely based on Splash.
The Thirteenth Year (1999): a teen learns that his birth mother is a mermaid after he begins to grow fins and slimy scales on his thirteenth birthday.
Mermaids (2003): this 2003 television film was directed by Ian Barry and stars Serah D'Laine, Nikita Ager and Australian model Erika Heynatz as a trio of mermaid sisters who band together to avenge their father's death. The film is also known in other languages as Sereias (Brazil), Três Sereias (Portugal), Mermaids – Las sirenas (Spain), Oi treis gorgones (Greece), Seireenisiskokset (Finland), Sirènes (France), and Sirenas (Argentina). Some of the tails used in the production have been sold to professional mermaids.
Aquamarine (2006): the title character is a mermaid (Sara Paxton) who is washed ashore after a violent storm. She decides to search for true love on land, and makes two good friends (Joanna "JoJo" Levesque and Emma Roberts) along the way. The film, loosely based on a children's book of the same name by Alice Hoffman, and directed by American director Elizabeth Allen, was filmed in Queensland, Australia. There were three different tails used in the production, including an animatronic model that was operated remotely. At least one of the others was a fully swimmable tail worn by the actress.
Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2011): during his search for the Fountain of Youth, Jack Sparrow encounters several mermaids. This film is included in this list because, like Splash, it accounted for an increase in mermaid popularity upon its release, and includes a central mermaid character. However, no actual tails were used during filming; they were added during the editing process with CGI. On Stranger Tides employed 1,112 shots of computer-generated imagery, which were done by ten visual effects companies. Cinesite visual effects supervisor Simon Stanley-Clamp claimed that the most difficult part was doing the effects in 3D: "Rotoscoping is tricky. Cleaning up plates is double the work, and tracking has to be spot on." The lead companies, with over 300 effects each, were Industrial Light & Magic—responsible for, among others, the mermaids and most water effects—and Moving Picture Company, who created digital ships and environment extensions, such as changing weather and designing cliffs and waterfalls. Filming the mermaids involved eight model-actresses, who portrayed them outside the water, as well as 22 synchronized swimming athletes and a group of stuntwomen, both of whom wore motion capture suits to be later replaced by digital mermaids. Mermaid corpses were depicted by plaster models. The design tried to avoid the traditional representations of mermaids in paintings and literature, instead going for a scaly body with a translucent membrane inspired by both jellyfish and the fabric employed in ballet tutus. To make the mermaids more menacing underwater, the faces of the actresses had some digital touch-ups on the underwater scenes, adding sharper teeth and a shimmery fish scale quality on the skin.
H2O: Just Add Water (2006): this TV series involves three teenage girls who, after encountering a mysterious island grotto, transform into mermaids whenever water touches any part of their bodies. A spin-off series, Mako: Island of Secrets, was released on 26 July 2013. Three different types of mermaid tails are used on the show: custom-fitted tails that the girls swim in, a "floppy tail" used for stationary shots, and a "hard tail" for stunts. The custom costumes took six months to build, with the tails and tops made from body casts and comprising individually hand-crafted scales. The finished product weighs between . Inside the tail are leg straps where the girls are strapped up and then zipped up. Once in costume, the girls have to be lifted into the water. Attempts were made to minimise the on-screen visibility of the zips on the tails, such as adding extra scales and crafting a ridge of material around the length of the zip. The tail fin itself was designed with a foot pedal to assist the actresses with swimming. This, along with the fin, adds some to the length of the costume.
Dyesebel is a mermaid character based on graphic novelist Mars Ravelo's creation in GMA Network in the Philippines. The story was adapted into five films and a spin-off between 1953 and 1996.
Modern use
With the 1984 motion picture Splash, mermaiding caught the popular culture wave. Splash tailmaker Thom Shouse's website offered tails for a fee, but also inspired a do it yourself movement. (The Splash Mermaid was designed and created by the Academy Award-winning visual effects artist Robert Short. Shouse was the project foreman on Short's mermaid crew.) The early 2000s saw many performers and artists of varying ages, genders, body shapes, and ethnicities uploading videos and photographs of tails and underwater performances to YouTube and personal websites. Mahina Mermaid, Mermaid Linden, Hannah Mermaid and Katrin Gray aka Mermaid Kat are five of the most successful mermaids in the world.
By the beginning of the 2010s, websites dedicated to mermaiding helped to create a distinct subculture in which members ranged from hobbyists to professional performers. Today, many mermaid performers work at aquariums, casinos, or tourist attractions professionally. Some freedivers wear mermaid tails to add novelty to the water sport.
Although the vast majority of mers swim in their tails, a small handful of members of the mermaiding subculture do not actually swim. These mers might wear tails to raise awareness for ocean conservation issues, dry land cosplay, or as character performers at children's parties. This does not preclude them from being active in the wider community.
In many countries people can now join mermaid swimming classes, where they learn how to swim in mermaid tails. The Mermaid Kat Academy was the world's first mermaid school that made mermaiding accessible to everyone and opened in August 2012. Shortly after that the Philippine Mermaid Swimming Academy and several other mermaid schools opened around the world.
Equipment
The basic structure of the tail is that of a sleeve or tube that encompasses the legs from ankle to waist, enclosing fins or a monofin that is strapped to and extends from the wearer's feet. The stiff fin provides structure for the fluke as well as propulsion during swimming.
Materials
Tails can be made out of almost any material, from fabric to platinum cure silicone, and are priced accordingly, from $100 to several thousand dollars. Several tailmaking companies are currently operating, in addition to a vibrant "do it yourself" scene. Secondhand tails are frequently sold privately or through sites such as eBay.
Fabric: Due to their great elasticity and strength, lycra and spandex are the first choice in material for fabric tails. Fabric tails are recommended for beginners and children, as they are relatively inexpensive, easy to clean, and allow for growth. They hug the body closely without being too restrictive. Fabric tails come in a wide range of colors and patterns, and can be customized with paint. Other fabrics are often added to the tails in strategic locations for added flair; for instance, chiffon (fabric) is sometimes sewn onto the ends of flukes to give a greater impression of flow, or onto the hip area as decorative pectoral fins.
Neoprene: Neoprene or polychloroprene are synthetic rubbers produced by the polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability, and maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range. It is used in a wide variety of applications, such as laptop sleeves, orthopedic braces, electrical insulation, liquid and sheet applied elastomeric membranes or flashings, and wetsuits. It is a popular material for tails due in part to its thickness, which creates a smooth line, rendering the tail more lifelike; it is also waterproof and fairly durable. Like fabric, neoprene can be painted and customized. It is often used as the base for sequin tails due to its strength.
Sequin tails: In this variation on fabric and neoprene tails, individual sequins are sewn onto a tail for decoration. Occasionally, sequins are sewn onto only a few areas to serve as a highlight; more commonly, they are sewn over the entire tail, and provide all of the tail's color and patterning. Sequin tails are time-intensive to create, as each sequin must be sewn on by hand, and as a result these tails can be quite expensive. Variation is nearly unlimited due to the amounts and types of sequins available on the market.
Latex tails: Molded latex is sometimes used as a tail material. It can be molded into scale shapes, and gives a more lifelike impression than fabric, particularly when poured or otherwise affixed onto a neoprene backing. Some of the earliest tails available on the market were made of the same type of latex used in latex clothing, however, these tails went out of production when the company owner died. The material has very little elasticity, which renders the tail difficult to get on and off. Many mermaids cannot use latex due to allergies, and mermaids who specialize in children's parties or other events where a tail may be touched often stay away from this material for that same reason.
During the later part of the 2000s and up through about 2012–2013, partial tin-cure latex or tin-cure silicone spread over a neoprene or neoprin base became popular, due to the increased realism of the tails and the relatively low cost of materials (tin-cure tails generally retail around US$300–600). This proved problematic, however, as tin-cure silicones and latexes are not skin-safe materials. Effects over overexposure include "skin, respiratory, kidney and liver damage. Repeated or prolonged contact with the preparation may cause removal of natural fat from the skin resulting in non-allergic contact dermatitis and absorption through the skin. Prolonged and repeated skin contact may cause irritation and possibly dermatitis. Prolonged, repeated, or high exposures may cause weakness and depression of the central nervous system." Some of these ailments have been recorded by mermaids who have tails containing tin-cure materials, although this evidence is anecdotal. Tin-cure tails also degrade with prolonged exposure to water; the silicone becomes soft and white while peeling away from the neoprene on which it rests. It is currently advised that those who are considering making or purchasing tin-cure tails do so with extreme caution and at their own risk. Tin-cure tails have historically not been allowed in aquariums featuring live fish or other sea life, due to the chemicals leaching from the tail into the water and causing potential harm to the aquarium's ecosystem.
Silicone tails: Currently, silicone rubber tails (also known as platinum-cure silicone tails and Dragonskin silicone tails, after a silicone brand name) are the most popular and most expensive tails on the market. In addition to being relatively lifelike and durable, silicone tails are skin-safe and inert in most environments once cured. Neutral buoyancy in the water allows for ease of sinking and natural-looking swimming, although they are quite heavy (25–60 lbs) out of the water. Colors and patterns are only limited by the designer's imagination, and if produced properly, paint or pigment does not chip off the tail. The material has excellent elasticity, allowing relative ease in getting in and out of the tail, and fitting snugly once on. Silicone is slip-resistant and grips the skin, which results in less tail slip or gapping during vigorous swimming. It is rare to find silicone tails for less than US$1000, even used, and their prices increase with the amount of extra detail, color, and number of fins added. Silicone tails can costs many thousands of dollars. Due to the expense and heavier weight involved, platinum-cure silicone tails are not recommended for beginners.
Urethane tails: Urethane, a type of synthetic rubber, is a relatively durable material, and with proper care can last for years without need of repair. Currently, the only tailmaker working in urethane is Thom Shouse, owner of Mermaid Rentals and member of the original SFX team that created the tail for Splash. It is thought that he uses a urethane-latex mix, although he has never released his formula to the public.
Blankets: Over the past several years mermaid tail blankets have become popular. General they are made of specially woven and shaped knitted fabrics, but can also be found in polyester fleece fabrics. They are generally open at the back so that when tucked around the legs they give the illusion that the wearer has a tail. They are not meant to get wet and are not really used for character parties or cosplay. Patterns are available so that knitters and crafters can make their own.
Monofins
A monofin is a type of swimfin typically used in underwater sports such as finswimming, free-diving and underwater orienteering, in recreational freediving, and even sometimes just for fun. It consists of a single surface attached to footpockets for both of the diver's feet. They have become popular with the mermaiding community due to excellent propulsion during swimming and their realistically mermaidish silhouette. Monofins can be made of glass fiber or carbon fiber. The swimmer's muscle power, swimming style, and the type of aquatic activity the monofin is used for determines the choice of size, stiffness, and materials.
Monofins are carefully chosen when a tail is commissioned, taking into account the swimmer's ability, location of use, and desired look in the water. For instance, a large, stiff fiberglass monofin will serve a mermaid well in strong ocean currents, giving them speed and strength in the water. A mermaid who will be performing in a glass tank may choose a smaller, more flexible, plastic model, which imparts agility and graceful flow rather than strong propulsion. Some mermaids prefer to sand, cut, or otherwise alter their monofins into a preferred shape to suit their individual purposes; others prefer to create their monofins from scratch rather than purchase or alter an already existing model.
For safety reasons, it is recommended that beginners not create their own monofins from scratch. Some materials that have been used in monofins, such as acrylic or plexiglas, have shattered under hydraulic stress and have caused severe injury and could result in drowning. Plastic polycarbonate is also not recommended, as it will crack and snap under pressure, rendering the monofin useless and dangerous.
Humanitarian appeal
A common practice among professional mermaids is environmental and individualist advocacy. Many mermaids speak out, create internet campaigns, and work with major environmental or self-help organizations. Susan Rockefeller's 2012 short-form documentary Mission of Mermaids: A Love Letter to the Ocean employs several professional mermaids from around the world to shed light on ocean acidification, overfishing, and marine pollution.
Safety concerns
Children
The practice of mermaiding, especially by young children, has also raised safety concerns about how wearing and swimming in a tail may actually make it harder for children to swim and/or easier to drown, especially when they are not highly experienced swimmers. In 2015, a YouTube video surfaced in which a mother had to come over and rescue her daughter, who was drowning in a backyard pool after trying to do a flip while wearing a mermaid tail. Even as the video, which had gone viral, made efforts to express that mermaid tails can still be fun to play in with proper safety and supervision, various swimming pools in several countries, including Australian YMCA pools, began banning the tails around that time and in the years to come.
The bans did not come without criticism. Some contended that it would be better to emphasize safety and supervision while using the tails, rather than banning them outright. A few others suggested that having mermaiders pass swim tests would also be a viable alternative to bans.
Professionals
Professional mermaids also encounter safety risks. In general, they must contend with having only a limited amount of oxygen to swim and stay underwater, as they traditionally eschew scuba equipment. Tank performers have found ways to overcome this issue, such as using air tubes installed in certain areas of the tank to receive a fresh burst of oxygen without having to resurface. Another way to cope with the limited oxygen involves stationing scuba divers in the tank where the mermaid performs and have them bring the mermaid fresh air whenever they request it with a gesture, although this method requires careful vigilance and attention. Failure to recognize the need for air can prove life-threatening for the performer, with at least one report of a mermaid nearly asphyxiating during a performance when divers missed her requests for air.
Mermaids also incur various health risks while immersed in water. Without swim caps, mermaids fully expose their ears to water, subjecting them to ear pain and infection. The water they swim in may also contain bacteria that subjects them to waterborne illnesses and infections. Other potential minor health issues that mermaids can experience include foot blisters that occur as their tightly packed feet rub against the insides of the tail costume, muscle cramps in the legs from strenuous swimming movements in the tail costume, red eyes caused by continual exposure to chlorine in swimming pool water, along with cold and flu-like symptoms and minor respiratory problems induced from being in cold water. Mermaids who wear latex tin-cure tails are also subject to several toxic health effects that the chemicals of such material impart (see above).
Mermaids who swim in the open ocean can have their safety jeopardized if they get too close to particular sea animals. For instance, a mermaid who gets up close to a whale would be at risk of being struck hard and seriously injured by even the slightest of the whale's movements. Although there are no reports of mermaids getting attacked or bitten by sharks, two mermaids have recounted colliding with one. A few others have recalled getting stung by venomous jellyfish.
See also
Sip 'n Dip Lounge
Weeki Wachee, Florida
Mermaid
Synchronised swimming
Freediving
References
External links
Professional Mermaid Nina
Professional Mermaid Linden
Professional Real-Life Mermaid Melissa
Business Week article on professional mermaids
Huffington Post Interview with a Professional Mermaid
Oprah on Mission of Mermaids
MerNetwork
A guide for children on how to become a mermaid
Water sports
Cosplay
Mermaids in popular culture
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Kinkabool is a heritage-listed apartment block at 32-34 Hanlan Street, Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by John M. Morton of Lund Hutton Newell Black & Paulsen and built from 1959 to 1960 by J D Booker Constructions (Gold Coast) Pty Ltd. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 5 February 2009.
History
Prior to the 1950s Surfers Paradise was just one of a number of popular but modestly equipped beach holiday resorts that dotted the coast from Southport to the State border with New South Wales. During that decade it became the epicentre of the Gold Coast and what would become an internationally renowned holiday destination, instantly recognisable for its high-rise towers lining a long strip of sandy beach. This iconic image of Gold Coast high-rise development began with the construction of Kinkabool in 1959–1960.
Kinkabool is a ten-storey home-unit building located on Hanlan Street in the centre of Surfers Paradise, constructed by JD Booker Constructions Pty Ltd to the design of architect John M Morton working for the Brisbane office of the firm Lund Hutton Newell Black & Paulson Pty Ltd. Kinkabool was the brainchild of Stanley Korman, a Victorian entrepreneur whose other Gold Coast development projects, including Lennon's Hotel at Broadbeach (opened 1956, demolished 1987), the Chevron Hotel at Surfers Paradise (opened 1958, demolished 1987) and Paradise Island (opened 1958), embodied a vision of the place as a modern, international-standard holiday resort. The Gold Coast remains Queensland's premier beach tourism destination.
The coastal areas south of Brisbane - or what became known as the South Coast - had long been a destination for beach holidaymakers. From the 1860s holiday houses for the Brisbane elite and Darling Downs pastoralists were being constructed at Southport on the northern shore of the mouth of the Nerang River. Daily steamboat connections to Brisbane brought day-trippers. The construction of a rail link between Beenleigh and Southport in 1889 opened the area to nascent mass tourism.
The corridor of land now known as Surfers Paradise, between the Nerang River and the ocean beach, was attracting recreational visitors by the 1870s. The land on which Kinkabool stands was part of a selection taken up by James Beattie in 1869 and sold in 1877 to Johann Meyer, who established a vehicular ferry across the Nerang River in 1881, connecting the area with Southport. In clearing the road - later to become Cavill Avenue - that formed the northern boundary of his property he opened up public access to the ocean beach. At opposite ends of this road, Meyer established the first two hotels serving the area: Meyer's Ferry Hotel and the Main Beach Hotel. In 1885 he sold part of his land, which included the site Kinkabool now occupies, to James Stodart, who developed it as the area's first subdivision, Main Beach Estate, with streets named after world champion Australian scullers: Hanlan, Trickett, Laycock and Clifford. The Elston postal receiving office was established in Meyer's Ferry Hotel before the turn of the century, and gave its name to the area.
During the 1920s and 1930s a rapid rise in private motor vehicle ownership, the construction of a new coastal road between Brisbane and Southport, and the crossing of the Nerang River by the Jubilee Bridge led to the subdivision and sale of many estates between Southport and the New South Wales border. The intensity and complexion of this development was further evidenced by the first of Jim Cavill's famous hotels being built on the main road south through Elston in 1925, which was renamed Surfers Paradise in 1933 after successful lobbying by Jim Cavill and other local residents. This reflected the influence of American beach culture and a shift in preference from still-water bathing sites (as at Southport) to surf beaches. Further marketing in southern states of the "winter holiday" attractions of the South Coast was conducted in the years leading up to the commencement of World War II in 1939.
During World War II the South Coast proved a popular rest and recreation destination for combat troops, with many American, New Zealand and English servicemen and women enjoying the place and advertising its merits once home. Many of these international and interstate visitors were impressed by the beaches and climate and returned after the war to visit, reside or invest.
After building restrictions imposed during World War II were lifted in 1952, the South Coast changed rapidly. An intense period of building development and property speculation was ushered in, attracting a number of entrepreneurs focussed largely on the tourism potential of the place. The term "Gold Coast" was coined in response to this promise of prosperity and wealth, and despite beginning as a derisive term used by the Brisbane press, was embraced by locals and then officially adopted as the name of the Town Council in 1958. In the following year the municipality was declared a city. It is the spirit of this era that Kinkabool embodies. The dramatic changes to the built fabric of Surfers Paradise and the Gold Coast in general were succinctly described by Forbes and Spearritt in 2006: "Fibro holiday shacks, two-storey guesthouses and weatherboard boarding lodges were torn down and swept aside, first for three, four and five storey walk ups and later 10, 20, 30 and now 80 storey structures."
In the 1950s a greater capacity to pursue leisure (particularly among women, for whom a beach holiday had previously involved a continuation of everyday domestic tasks), the rise in private car ownership, and the growing preference among holidaymakers for American-style resorts, resulted in changed accommodation styles on the Gold Coast. Chief among these were motels (providing car parking outside each room), hotel resorts, and serviced apartments for visitors who had arrived not by car but by plane or coach. The hotel resorts, which were larger-scale tourist developments accommodating many more guests than the average public house, hotel or guest house, the forms relied upon in the past, included: the five-storey Lennon's Hotel in Broadbeach, designed by Dr Karl Langer in 1956, which included bars and beer garden, pool, tennis courts, dance floor and bandstand; and the three-storey Chevron Hotel in Surfers Paradise designed by David Bell and built for one of Stanley Korman's companies in 1958. The Carapark Motel at Mermaid Beach, designed by the Brisbane architectural firm Hayes and Scott in the mid-1950s was an example of a motel (with facilities for caravans). Others included the El Dorado and the Seabreeze. Serviced apartments were advertised as "luxurious", providing modern conveniences such as refrigerators, clothes washers and dryers, and stainless steel sinks. The kitchens of these apartments were comparatively small, suggesting that a holiday would also involve frequent dining out. Early examples included the South Pacific in Orchid Avenue and the Palm Grove in Clifford Street. All these places were low-rise buildings; all have been demolished.
The iconic Gold Coast skyline of high-rises overlooking long sandy beaches commenced with the construction of ten-storey Kinkabool on Hanlan Street in the heart of Surfers Paradise in 1959–1960; described at the time by the local press as a "giant". A number of high-rise, home-unit developments had been planned for the Gold Coast in the 1950s, but Kinkabool was the only scheme to come to fruition. For example: two 25-storey home-unit "skyscrapers", one at Surfers Paradise on Orchid Avenue and another at Burleigh Heads, were planned by Torbreck Pty Ltd following the success of its Torbreck high-rise blocks in Highgate Hill, Brisbane; a 20-storey accommodation tower was to be added to the Chevron Hotel, its foundations being laid with 350 guests in attendance; and a 17-storey tower called Taj was to be built on Beach Road in Surfers, foundation drilling having commenced in 1959.
The development and finance for Kinkabool were formally arranged by Booker Felton Pty Ltd however a number of companies contributed to its marketing and construction finance. One of the key figures in this matrix was Victorian entrepreneur, Stanley Korman, whose other major ventures on the Gold Coast were the nearby Chevron Hotel and Paradise Island, as well as Lennon's Hotel at Broadbeach and the remodelling of the Surfers Paradise Hotel - the area's leisure and civic hub - which he had purchased from Jim Cavill's widow in 1957. Polish-born Korman had emigrated to Australia in the late 1920s and established the Holeproof clothing company. His business ventures and the charisma he applied to them had established his popular profile as a successful entrepreneur in Victoria. He had a powerful vision of the Gold Coast, and in particular Surfers Paradise, as a modern holiday resort; his inspirations being resorts he visited in Hawaii and Florida. As historian Michael Jones reported in 1986, Korman made the startling suggestion at the time that "southern" businessmen should be able to fly to their Gold Coast holiday unit or home on Friday evening after work, enjoy the beach and warm climate over the weekend, and then fly back to work on Monday morning. And as Alexander McRobbie suggested in The Real Surfers Paradise (1988), Korman also foresaw that many average Australians would come to thrill at the prospect of spending their holidays in a high-rise apartment with a view of the beach, in contrast to their everyday lives and the low-set suburbs that formed its backdrop.
The "skyscraper" Kinkabool was designed for a small site occupied by the Flamingo, a pioneer nightclub started in the early 1950s; and in close proximity to the key entertainment venues of Surfers Paradise. Next door was Margot Kelly's Hibiscus Restaurant, another popular and pioneering Surfers Paradise nightclub and one of the first Queensland restaurants to gain a liquor license. At the end of Hanlan Street was Surfers Paradise Beach. Between Kinkabool and the beach were the Coral Court holiday units, described as a leading holiday establishment and a more typical style of Gold Coast accommodation in the 1950s and 1960s. Other significant Surfers Paradise tourist businesses were only a block in each direction. To the north were Cavill Avenue and the Surfers Paradise Hotel complex, Bernie Elsie's Beachcomber Hotel (along with the Seabreeze Motel, home of the infamous Pyjama Parties), and many popular restaurants. Beyond these were The Walk and the Black Dolphin shopping arcades. Nearby was Korman's Chevron Hotel with 83 rooms, pools, bars and cabaret.
The first sketch drawings for Kinkabool, originally known as Poinciana Place, were prepared by John M Morton of the Brisbane architectural firm Lund Hutton Newell Black and Paulson Pty Ltd, in March 1959. The client was variously listed as Home Units Pty Ltd and Multi Units Pty Ltd. Its original concept designs featured between three and six storeys above a ground floor of shops, but within a month the height had increased to nine storeys, and by construction time the name had changed to Kinkabool, reputedly derived from an Aboriginal word meaning "laughing water". The Gold Coast Town Council approved the nine storey home-unit building being designed to the Hanlan Street boundary and partially to the other boundaries. Morton explains that this was possible because the building regulations, introduced in 1954, were not conceived with this kind of high-rise building in mind. Kinkabool's financiers were eager to take advantage of the 1950s Gold Coast building boom before tighter building controls were introduced.
Construction began some time after July 1959 when the building agreement between Kinkabool Pty Ltd and Multi Units Pty Ltd (the latter appears to have encompassed JD Booker Constructions Pty Ltd), was signed. The cost of construction, including architect's and engineer's fees, was estimated at this point at . The first stage, comprising two rear car parking areas, two commercial tenancies to the ground floor and eight storeys of four units each was completed soon after May 1960. After this, but before October, twin two-bedroom units had been added over part of the ninth floor and facing the street, mirroring the layout below and designated as penthouses. Such a feature had formed part of the building's design from its inception; however, more lavish ideas for double-storey units with observation decks had been abandoned.
Architecturally, Kinkabool is a characteristic example of 1950s architecture in Queensland, being a competent essay in mid-twentieth century modernism with straight lines dominating the facade, flat roofs and an absence of ornament. Influences on the design included English modernism as derived from that country's extensive post-war reconstruction efforts and the work of internationally renowned modern architects like Mies van der Rohe. The chief architect, John M Morton, was born and trained in England, having been in Australia only two years before starting work on Kinkabool. Lund Hutton Newell Black & Paulsen Pty Ltd was an established Queensland architectural firm with offices in Brisbane and Townsville, and busy completing a range of larger-scale commercial, ecclesiastical and multi-residential projects throughout the State. Morton was to become a partner and the firm, which had started as Ford & Chambers, would eventually come under his sole charge. He was later responsible for the Central Library Building at the Queensland Institute of Technology and the master plan for the Queensland Government precinct near Parliament House and the City Botanic Gardens in Brisbane. Soon after completing Kinkabool the same design, building and finance team completed Glenfalloch, another high-rise residential tower, this time in Brisbane's New Farm.
Kinkabool was laid out on a symmetrical plan, the centreline of which ran north to south from the street to the rear of the lot. Entrance was gained through large, central doors on the street into an arcade, which divided the two shops and provided access to a vestibule connecting the stairwell on the eastern side and the lift core on the west. Beyond this, to the rear of the building, and partly underground, were the car parking levels, accessed via external ramps on either side. Above the ground floor and service levels, the units were laid out identically on each of the proceeding eight levels: the stairwell and lift, joined by a small lobby provided access to two 1-bedroom units at the rear and two 2-bedroom units on the street. The 1-bedroom units featured an open-plan living, dining and kitchen area opening onto a small, squarish balcony, facing either east or west. Access to the bedroom with built-in cupboards was from the living area. Its combined bathroom and toilet fitted in behind the kitchen, which also included the laundry facilities. The rooms of the 2-bedroom units opened off a central hall with the front door at one end and the living/dining/kitchen space, combined as in the 1-bedroom units, at the other. A thin, rectangular balcony opened off the open-plan living space on the north-east or north-west corners. A bathroom was inserted between the kitchen and the master bedroom and incorporated laundry facilities. On the tenth level there were two 2-bedroom units at the front next to the lift tower, and a roof garden and drying court to the rear.
The techniques used to erect Kinkabool were not new to Queensland, although they were new to the Gold Coast. The structural frame of the building was made up of reinforced concrete raft foundations, columns and slabs, with similarly made reinforced concrete party walls separating individual dwelling units. The roof areas were flat and sealed with bituminous felt. Exterior in-fill walls were made with a carefully orchestrated pattern of rendered concrete and columns of red face-brick panels. A range of timber-framed window types were used throughout the building, including sliding doors to the balconies. The facade to Hanlan Street was formed using a formal patterning of timber mullions, sashless glass sliders and glass panels painted black before a sill-height wall was installed behind. The balcony balustrading consisted of painted steel verticals with a steel top-rail. A full-height section comprising painted Oregon timber blades set on an angle shielded part of the balcony. A septic tank with associated pump and filter services was installed beneath the building. Water tanks on the roof provided the necessary water pressure for the building's plumbing system.
The detailing employed on the interior of Kinkabool was advertised as "luxurious" in 1960 and demonstrated the ideals of modernity that were to attract holidaymakers to this style of self-contained accommodation. The walls to the shops on the internal arcade were made with glass and Maple framing, and its floors were finished with terrazzo. The stairs were formed in reinforced concrete and lined with pre-cast terrazzo to the first level. The balusters and handrail were milled steel and Maple respectively. Ceilings throughout were sprayed with vermiculite plaster. Inside each unit, and demonstrating very clearly the preferences of the time for modern convenience, the kitchens featured laminated stainless steel sinks, plastic bench-tops, tiled splashbacks and floors, built-in cupboards with plywood doors, and sliding glass facing upper cupboards. They opened into the living area with bar units. The bathrooms were tiled in bright patterns.
The concept of strata title was not introduced into Australia until 1961 (and not into Queensland until 1965) so Kinkabool was developed and sold under company title wherein potential buyers became shareholders and leased their units and garage spaces from the company, depending on the number and class of shares they purchased. Kinkabool Pty Ltd was incorporated on 15 May 1959. Purchasers were required to submit personal references for approval by the company's Board of Directors, and its inaugural Board included Messrs Walter Oswald Burt, John Desmond Booker, Frank Maurice Felton, Roderick Consett Proctor, Ian Kenneth Redpath and Charles Hartley Wilson, who were largely the only shareholders prior to 1964. The "credit squeeze" imposed by the federal government in November 1960, which contributed to the collapse of the Korman empire, initially may have deterred investor demand for the units. Morton and others suggest that, as with Glenfalloch, buyers were cautious about this new style of living in the sky. The mode of ownership of Kinkabool would not be converted to strata title until 1999.
In late 1960 an adjoining land parcel of to the east was acquired and an easement was created, granting a right to light and air that would protect the views to the beach from Kinkabool's units. This block was subsumed into the Kinkabool holding in 1964, but a single-storeyed twelve-car garage was not built there until 1976, the parking spaces being offered for sale to Kinkabool owners.
Kinkabool was first marketed by LJ Hooker Ltd who produced a coloured brochure emphasising its appeal as a modern accommodation option for owner/occupiers as well as a valuable investment acquisition. By July 1961, Dolby and Rankine (Accommodation) Pty Ltd had been appointed sole managing agents for Kinkabool and reported to The South Coast Bulletin that some units had been let for the Christmas period, while others were being readied for such use. It was also reported that some units had been let for periods of three to five months to New Zealand residents; and the penthouse had been let for Christmas at 40 guineas a week. Laurie Wall, a well-known Gold Coast real estate agent and identity would eventually sell the majority of unit shares in 1964.
From the beginning, Kinkabool was used as holiday accommodation, both by unit owners and short-term tenants, who visited during the annual holiday seasons of Easter and Christmas. A resident building manager or caretaker was employed from the mid-1960s; his duties included assisting owners and tenants with such services as providing televisions, linen and cutlery, moving luggage, and cleaning units after short-term holiday tenants had departed.
The LJ Hooker marketing brochure boasted that Kinkabool was "changing the skyline". As the tallest building on the coast it towered above the rapidly expanding set of hotels and motels at its feet, being a Gold Coast landmark and prominent in photographs and postcards from the 1960s. In the decade after its construction other coastal high-rises followed, such as: The Sands in 1964-1966 (11 storeys) and Paradise Towers (14 storeys) next door in 1965–1966, both designed by Sydney architect EG Nemes for the developer Alexander Armstrong; Garfield Towers, designed by FB Oswell, in 1966–1967; and Suntower on the Esplanade in 1968. The two River Park Towers were built on Watson Esplanade facing the Nerang River in 1969.
Development of ever taller high-rise unit towers continued during the 1970s, booming between 1979 and 1982, and giving the Gold Coast a key component of its national and international identity. Approval had been granted for the construction of more than 5,000 units in the six months before the crash that brought this period of fevered property speculation to an end in mid-1982. Favourable development conditions returned during a number of later building phases, and high-rise developments continued. As Richard Allom, lead author of the 1997 Character Study of the Gold Coast, said in a Weekend Bulletin article from that year: "Dating from the 1960s, the Gold Coast had a form generated by a stretch of beach and a culture dependent on climate and tourism. ... It was a fantasy city like Las Vegas and its "wonderful Great Divide of high-rise buildings" was its most important icon."
Suburban and semi-industrial development has rapidly overtaken much of the Gold Coast and its immediate hinterland, as its permanent population has expanded and its economic base diversified. But its tourism industry has also grown, making it internationally recognisable. Many of Kinkabool's lower-rise contemporaries of the 1950s and 1960s have been lost to this latter kind of expansion.
Description
Kinkabool is a high-rise unit building located in the heart of Surfers Paradise a block to the south of Cavill Avenue and about 200m from the ocean beach to the east. It presents ten storeys to the street and nine to the rear. On the ground floor, the two shop spaces retain the timber-framed and glass partitioning. On the eight storeys above the original layout of the 34 units has been maintained. The two "penthouse" units on the tenth storey have been joined by a large opening in the shared wall between the original living areas and by enclosing part of the original vestibule space as a private lobby.
Founded on reinforced concrete footings, the frame of Kinkabool is constructed of reinforced concrete floors, columns and walls. The exterior is partly finished with alternating panels of painted render on concrete or face brick. The building has two areas of flat roof, access to which is gained first through double doors opposite the entry to the top level apartment, and then via a set of stairs to the upper roof space. A parapet encloses these roof areas.
More than half of the balconies have been enclosed with glass and aluminium framing, a process which began in the late 1960s, but has been kept within the line of the balustrading and completed in general keeping with the fenestration pattern employed elsewhere on the facade. Also, a number of the original timber-framed windows and exterior sliding doors have been replaced with aluminium alternatives, as has some of the balcony balustrading. The terrazzo flooring in the ground floor arcade has been covered with terracotta tiles; however it remains on the stairs to the first level. Vinyl lines the remainder of the stair floors and the floors of the vestibules, being differently patterned on each level.
Heritage listing
Kinkabool was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 5 February 2009 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.
Built in 1959–1960 at Surfers Paradise, the home-unit building known as Kinkabool was the Gold Coast's first high-rise and one of Queensland's earliest, built shortly after Torbreck was completed in Brisbane in 1960. It is important in demonstrating the pattern of Queensland's beach tourism development as it is the starting point for a style and scale of multiple-dwelling and multi-title building that appeared in the late 1950s/1960s and from which the Gold Coast, Queensland's premier tourist destination in terms of visitor numbers, gained its international reputation.
Kinkabool also illustrates a significant aspect of the evolving character of the quintessential Australian beach holiday, which was highly influenced by American standards of accommodation and entertainment, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s. It reflects a shift in the preferences of many post-World War II Australian tourists away from traditional holiday accommodation options like camping or caravanning, guest or boarding houses toward high-rise, self-contained apartments with a view of the beach and equipped with modern conveniences like time-saving kitchen appliances and on-site pools. This shift reflects major changes that have occurred in Australian society, including increased prosperity, the changing role of women, and the embrace of the private car.
Situated one block to the south of Cavill Avenue, near the intersection with the Gold Coast Highway, Kinkabool is one of the few buildings remaining that delineates what was the heart of burgeoning Surfers Paradise in the 1950s, with its modern accommodation, entertainment and shopping venues.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.
Kinkabool demonstrates the principal characteristics of a class of cultural place - high-rise beach holiday accommodation - that was rare in Queensland in the 1950s but is now common, particularly at the Gold Coast.
A number of components of Kinkabool have been maintained to the present day and reflect the standards marketed in the 1950s and 1960s as "luxurious", but which also exemplify the character of this type of building. These include: the overall disposition of units; their relationship to private balconies, some of which have been enclosed with framed glass, all of which retain the original timber blade screens; the two ground floor shop spaces either side of an arcade leading to the lift and stair lobby and enclosed with the original timber framing and fixed glass; and the scale and location of the penthouse apartments. Despite the scale of the building being diminished by later high-rise accommodation developments all along the coast from Southport to Coolangatta, the Kinkabool units maintain their views to the beach and the hinterland, which were also important components of the building's attraction to early buyers and holidaymakers.
Rather than detracting from its significance, the great disparity in scale and appointment between Kinkabool and buildings like the 80-storey Q1 tower, demonstrates dramatically how tourist preferences, architectural design and construction technologies have evolved on the Gold Coast since the 1950s.
References
Attribution
External links
Queensland Heritage Register
Surfers Paradise, Queensland
Apartment buildings in Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register
Buildings and structures on the Gold Coast, Queensland
Gold Coast Local Heritage Register
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On April 12, 2015, Baltimore Police Department officers arrested Freddie Gray, a 25-year-old African American resident of Baltimore, Maryland. Gray's neck and spine were injured while he was in a police vehicle and he went into a coma. On April 18, there were protests in front of the Western district police station. Gray died on April 19.
Further protests were organized after Gray's death became public knowledge, amid the police department's continuing inability to adequately or consistently explain the events following the arrest and the injuries. Spontaneous protests started after the funeral service, although several included violent elements. Civil unrest continued with at least twenty police officers injured, at least 250 people arrested, 285 to 350 businesses damaged, 150 vehicle fires, 60 structure fires, 27 drugstores looted, thousands of police and Maryland National Guard troops deployed, and with a state of emergency declared in the city limits of Baltimore. The state of emergency was lifted on May 6. The series of protests took place against a historical backdrop of racial and poverty issues in Baltimore.
On May 1, 2015, Gray's death was ruled by the medical examiner to be a homicide. Six officers were charged with various offenses, including second-degree murder, in connection with Gray's death. Three officers were subsequently acquitted; in July 2016, following the acquittals, Baltimore City State's Attorney Marilyn Mosby dropped charges against the remaining three officers.
Events
April 12: Gray's arrest
On April 12, 2015, Freddie Carlos Gray, Jr., a 25-year-old African-American man, was arrested by the Baltimore City Police Department for possession of a “switchblade”, in the 1700 block of Presbury Street in the Sandtown-Winchester neighborhood. Two weeks later, State’s Attorney Marilyn Mosby revealed that Gray had actually been carrying a legal pocketknife, not an illegal switchblade as alleged by police. Gray was seen to be in good health at the time of the arrest.
While being transported in a police van, Gray sustained injuries to his neck, including his vocal box and spinal cord. He fell into a coma and was taken to a trauma center. The BCPD could not immediately account for the injuries and released contradictory and inconsistent information regarding the timeline of the arrest, transportation and whether Gray had received appropriately prompt medical treatment. On May 23, 2016, officer Edward Nero was found not guilty of all charges against him in connection with the death of Freddie Gray. Shortly after that, the remaining officers who had not yet stood trial had all charges against them dropped.
April 18–24: Protests begin
On April 18, 2015, immediately outside the Western District police station, hundreds of Baltimore citizens protested against the apparent mistreatment of Freddie Gray as well against inadequate and inconsistent information on police actions during the arrest and transport. Gray died at approximately 7am on April 19, 2015. Later that day, in response to Gray's death, Baltimore City Police Commissioner, Anthony Batts said, "I extend my deepest sympathies to his family" while also saying, "All Lives Matter" in a nod to the "Black Lives Matter" mantra shouted at protests.
Protests continued during six nights in Baltimore's streets. On April 21, 2015, the Baltimore City Police Department released the identities of the six officers involved in Gray's arrest. That evening, protesters marched from the site of Gray's arrest to the Western District police station. On April 23, two people were arrested. Tensions flared, but according to the Baltimore City Police Department, the remaining protesters that day were peaceful. On April 24, a coalition of organizations including the ACLU, the NAACP, CASA de Maryland, and Leaders of a Beautiful Struggle requested Governor Larry Hogan to act and address issues of police brutality.
April 25: Violence escalates
On April 25, 2015, protests were organized in downtown Baltimore. Protesters marched from the Baltimore City Hall to the Inner Harbor. After the final stage of the official protest event, some people became violent, damaging at least five police vehicles and pelting police with rocks. Near Oriole Park at Camden Yards, some groups of violent protesters also smashed storefronts and fought with baseball fans arriving at the stadium for a scheduled game between the Baltimore Orioles and the Boston Red Sox. As a result of the violence, those attending the baseball game were forced to remain inside the stadium for their safety. At least 34 people were arrested during the riots, and six police officers were injured.
J.M. Giordano, a photographer for Baltimore City Paper, was taking pictures of the protest when he was "swarmed" and beaten by two police officers in riot gear. Sait Serkan Gurbuz, a Reuters photographer with visible press credentials, who photographed the scuffle from a public sidewalk, was tackled, handcuffed and walked to the Western District station. He was cited for failure to obey and later released. Subsequently, City Paper published a video on its website documenting the violence.
During a press conference, Baltimore mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake said, "most protesters were respectful but a small group of agitators intervened". She also stated that "It's a very delicate balancing act. Because while we try to make sure that they were protected from the cars and other things that were going on, we also gave those who wished to destroy space to do that as well. And we worked very hard to keep that balance and to put ourselves in the best position to de-escalate." The phrase "we also gave those who wished to destroy space to do that as well" was interpreted by some conservative-leaning news sources as an indication that the mayor was giving permission to protesters to destroy property.
Two days later, the mayor's Director of Strategic Planning and Policy, Howard Libit, released a statement clarifying the mayor's remarks:
April 27
Funeral
A funeral service was held for Freddie Gray at the New Shiloh Baptist Church on April 27 at 11 a.m., after a one-hour public viewing. A large attendance included civil rights leaders, families of other people killed by police, and politicians including Congressman Elijah Cummings, Cabinet Secretary Broderick Johnson, White House adviser Heather Foster, and Elias Alcantara of the Office of Intergovernmental Affairs.
Gray is buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in Baltimore County, Maryland.
Preemptive actions
A photograph of the April 25 rioters standing on a Baltimore police car was superimposed with the text "All HighSchools Monday @3 We Are Going To Purge From Mondawmin To The Ave, Back To Downtown #Fdl" ("Purge" being a reference to the film series) and distributed on social media and as flyers. In response, Mondawmin Mall was closed at 2:15 p.m. and police in riot gear were deployed to the area. In preparation for the 'purge' police shut down the Mondawmin metro stop and also blockaded many of the nearby streets. As a result, students from Frederick Douglass High School, which is across the street from Mondawmin Mall, had considerable difficulty leaving the area via public transportation when their classes ended an hour after the "purge" began, and contributed to the swelling crowd.
According to eyewitness reports, expecting the "purge" to start at 3 p.m., Baltimore police pre-emptively de-boarded all buses going through the area, shut down the nearby Mondawmin Metro station and cordoned off the area around the mall. Eyewitnesses saw police detain students in that general area. The police, in full riot gear, detained the students for a full half-hour before the first brick was thrown. Meghann Harris, a teacher in the Baltimore school system, said on Facebook, "If I were a Douglass student that just got trapped in the middle of a minefield BY cops without any way to get home and completely in harm's way, I'd be ready to pop off, too."
Other closings in preparation or response to the riot included the University of Maryland Baltimore, which closed its campus in downtown Baltimore at 2:00 p.m. citing a police warning regarding "activities (that) may be potentially violent and UMB could be in the path of any violence", Baltimore City Community College, Coppin State University, the Lexington Market, the National Aquarium, and the Enoch Pratt Free Library system. The Baltimore Kinetic Sculpture Race was rescheduled from May 2 to June 14. A Baltimore Orioles baseball game against the Chicago White Sox scheduled for the evening at Oriole Park at Camden Yards, and the first of a three-game series, was also postponed due to the unrest.
Spread of violence
Initially 75–100 people who appeared to be high school students began throwing bricks and bottles at police near Mondawmin Mall after police refused high school students access to their primary means of getting home (the transportation hub at Mondawmin Mall), while ordering them to disperse and go home. The violence rapidly spread, and by later that day two patrol cars were destroyed and fifteen officers were injured. A police cruiser was destroyed, and some officers suffered broken bones. A CVS Pharmacy location in West Baltimore was looted and burned by rioters; no one in the CVS was hurt because employees had been evacuated before the CVS was looted and burned. In East Baltimore, the Mary Harvin Senior Center, an under-construction senior housing and services project, burned to the ground; it was rebuilt and opened in April 2016.
April 28
Morning
At about 6:00 a.m., Baltimore television showed firefighters putting out fires and residents cleaning up after the overnight rioting. Soldiers from the 1st Battalion, 175th Infantry Regiment, Maryland Army National Guard arrived in Baltimore to provide security to vital infrastructure and to give additional support to police. At about 7:35 a.m., the Baltimore mayor's office reported that there were 144 vehicle fires, 15 structural fires, and nearly 200 arrests. One person had been badly hurt due to an arson.
At 8:25 a.m., it was announced that Maryland Gov. Larry Hogan was temporarily moving his office from Annapolis to Baltimore and that Hogan would visit scenes around Baltimore. At approximately 9:00 a.m., Hogan visited an intersection on West Baltimore that was heavily affected by the rioting with damaged vehicles and a looted convenience store, thanking those in the area for help cleaning up the streets.
In one incident that went viral during the previous night, Baltimore mother, Toya Graham, repeatedly struck and berated her son on TV for throwing rocks at police. Graham stated that she didn't want her son to end up like Freddie Gray, but also that he shouldn't seek justice by rioting. At 11:15 a.m. on April 28, Baltimore Police Commissioner Anthony Batts praised Graham, stating, "I wish I had more parents that took charge of their kids out there."
Baltimore County police spokesman Cpl. John Wachter also announced that Security Square Mall was going to be closed for the rest of the day following the spreading of rumors that planned actions were going to occur there. The Social Security Administration and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services also closed.
Afternoon and evening
At 12:00 p.m. in the area where Freddie Gray was arrested, volunteers numbering in the hundreds were seen cleaning up debris left from the rioting. Police blocked off some of the area to assist with the cleanup while hardware stores in the neighborhood donated trash bags and brooms and city workers drove in trucks to carry away piles of trash and shattered glass.
At 12:55 p.m., President Obama stated that there have been too many worrying interactions between police and black citizens, but said there was "no excuse" for the violence of rioters in Baltimore. At about 1:30 p.m., crowds gathered at a damaged drug store where Rev. Jesse Jackson was visiting, with Jackson stating, "It was painful because it destroyed a lot of neighborhood businesses and hurt a lot of people, but the violence is driven by that alienation." At a 2:30 p.m. speaking event by Capt. Eric Kowalczyk discussing incidents that occurred on April 27, demonstrators gathered peacefully, though one individual was arrested and pepper spray was used when some protesters became disorderly. At 3:00 p.m., Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake took back comments calling rioters "thugs", saying that occasionally, "my little anger interpreter gets the best of me." Baltimore religious leaders announced that 14 churches throughout the city were open to give food to children that relied on schools to provide daily meals.
At 8:30 p.m., the CEO of Baltimore City Public Schools, Gregory Thornton, announced that Baltimore City Public School classes and after-school events would occur on April 29. Just before 9:00 p.m., several hundred protesters gathered around the CVS store that was looted, with some individuals separating the protesters and police, while a local pastor told demonstrators over a loud speaker to respect the curfew, saying, "Let's show the world, because the eyes of the world are on Baltimore right now." A police spokesman, Captain Eric Kowalczyk, stated that authorities were attempting to inform Baltimore residents of the 10:00 p.m. curfew in multiple ways, through police in patrol cars, sending messages through a police helicopter over the city and by calling residents through a Reverse 911 system.
At 10:15 p.m., hundreds of demonstrators, some throwing bottles at police, remained in the streets while police in riot gear began to move the crowds with speakers from helicopters overhead broadcasting, "You must go home. You cannot remain here. You will be subject to arrest." Tensions began to grow after individuals began to throw objects at police. Shortly after 10:30 p.m., smoke bombs or fireworks were thrown from the crowd and police equipped with riot shields began to slowly advance on the gathering with some people beginning to disperse. At 10:32 p.m., Baltimore Police tweeted that "Officers are now deploying pepper balls at the aggressive crowd". They then tweeted at 10:34 p.m. "People who remain on the street – who do not meet the exceptions – are now in violation of the emergency curfew" with police moving across the intersection and the crowd dispersing down side streets away from the area. At 10:50 p.m., military vehicles were seen driving through the streets to disperse the remaining crowd numbered with dozens of people. At 11:00 p.m., the CVS intersection was clear except for police and media workers who were exempt from the curfew. At 11:40 p.m., Baltimore Police Commissioner Anthony Batts stated that the curfew seemed to work and that ten people were arrested; seven for violating the curfew, two people for looting and one for disorderly conduct.
Between start of curfew and late night, thirty-five people, including one juvenile, had been arrested for violating the curfew.
April 29 – May 3
After the riots, many small business owners struggled to clean up. Over 200 small businesses were unable to reopen by April 29. Residents of all ages, genders, and races came together to help clean Baltimore's streets. Eighteen were arrested for curfew violations on April 29.
From April 29-May 3, 2015 FBI surveillance aircraft used FLIR cameras to record video of civil unrest. In August 2016, 18 hours of footage was released following a FOIA request from the American Civil Liberties Union.
By April 30, over forty Korean American-owned businesses had been damaged by the riots. Chinese American and Arab American owned stores were also targeted, with looters directed by African American gangs towards those businesses.
Forty people were arrested for such night violations on May 1.
After the largest peaceful rally on Saturday, May 2, 2015, 46 people were arrested during the night time curfew.
One person arrested on May 2 was News2Share journalist Ford Fischer. He was handcuffed and initially charged with violating curfew, despite the police confirming that he was credentialed media. After confirming the charge as "curfew violation" to another journalist, the police changed it to a civil citation for "Disorderly Conduct." As of May 21, he still faces that citation. This all came after the police department had confirmed that media are exempt from the curfew via Twitter.
The night curfew on the city was lifted on May 3. Meanwhile, all charges against violators were dropped. It was found that in section 14-107 of the state's public safety code, only the governor and not the mayor has the authority to issue a curfew. It was decided that the arrests of violators were punishment enough. Those who committed violations of the law other than curfew violations have still been prosecuted.
The Maryland National Guard withdrew completely from Baltimore on May 4.
Result of investigation
Initially, the Baltimore Police Department suspended six officers with pay pending an investigation of Gray's death. The six officers involved in the arrest were identified as Lieutenant Brian Rice, Sergeant Alicia White, Officer William Porter, Officer Garrett Miller, Officer Edward Nero, and Officer Caesar Goodson. On April 24, 2015, Police Commissioner Anthony Batts said, "We know our police employees failed to get him medical attention in a timely manner multiple times." Batts also acknowledged police did not follow procedure when they failed to buckle Gray in the van while he was being transported to the police station. The U.S. Department of Justice also opened an investigation into the case.
Charges filed, acquittals, and charges dropped
On May 1, 2015, after receiving a medical examiner's report ruling Gray's death a homicide, state prosecutors said that they had probable cause to file criminal charges against the six officers involved. Mosby said that the Baltimore police had acted illegally and that "No crime had been committed [by Freddie Gray]". Mosby said that Gray "suffered a critical neck injury as a result of being handcuffed, shackled by his feet and unrestrained inside the BPD wagon." Mosby said officers had "failed to establish probable cause for Mr. Gray's arrest, as no crime had been committed", and charged officers with false imprisonment, because Gray was carrying a pocket knife of legal size, and not the switchblade police claimed he had possessed at the time of his arrest. All six officers were taken into custody and processed at Baltimore Central Booking and Intake Center.
The trial of Officer William G. Porter, a black officer and the first of the six charged officers to go to trial, ended in a mistrial. The Prosecution had intended to have Porter testify against both his supervisor on the day, Sgt. Alicia White, and the driver of the van, Officer Caesar Goodson Jr. The trials ran into significant delays due to multiple motions being filed by both sides in the cases. On May 23, 2016, Officer Edward Nero was found not guilty on all four counts he was charged with, including two counts of misconduct in office, misdemeanor reckless endangerment, and misdemeanor assault in the second degree.
In addition to Nero, two others officers were subsequently acquitted. In July 2016, following the acquittals, Baltimore City State's Attorney Marilyn Mosby dropped charges against Porter and the remaining two officers.
Related protests
On April 29, 2015, protesters marched through New York City, blocking off traffic in key areas, including the Holland Tunnel and West Side Highway. Carmen Perez, director of the criminal justice reform group Justice League, said, "It's all about solidarity, We're here to spread the message of peace from Baltimore's initial protests." More than 100 people were arrested, and the police did not allow the protest to take form before making arrests.
Anti-police brutality protests were also held in Denver in solidarity with the Baltimore protests. Eleven people were arrested on April 29, 2015 following physical altercations in which police used pepper spray on protesters who rallied around Colfax Avenue and Broadway street. The confrontation occurred shortly after 7 p.m. when an officer was knocked off his motorcycle by a protester and assaulted by five others. Police reported force was used in response to the incident. By 7:40 p.m., Broadway street was cleared for traffic as protesters relocated to the 16th Street Mall.
There were also solidarity protests in the cities of Ann Arbor, Albuquerque, Boston, Cincinnati, Minneapolis, Oakland, Philadelphia, Seattle, and Washington, D.C.
Reactions
Preventive actions
Government actions
At a press conference in the evening, the mayor announced there would be a citywide curfew of 10:00 p.m. to 5:00 a.m. starting April 28. The Baltimore solicitor's office stated that a limitation of the curfew to only certain neighborhoods could potentially be viewed as racial discrimination. Neighboring Anne Arundel and Baltimore Counties cancelled school field trips and activities scheduled in Baltimore City until May 3. Officials also announced that Baltimore's city schools would be closed on Tuesday.
Maryland Governor Larry Hogan declared a state of emergency and activated the Maryland National Guard. Major General Linda Singh of the Maryland National Guard commented that there would be a "massive number" of soldiers in Maryland on the night of April 27, and that up to 5,000 soldiers could be deployed. Maryland State Police activated 500 officers for duty in Baltimore, and requested an additional 5,000 state police officers from other states.
Business owners in the city complained that the curfew required establishments with later hours to close their doors early, thereby costing them revenue from later hours customers and hurting their employees by forcing them to work fewer hours. Some businesses complained that the curfew cost them as much as $50,000. While those with night jobs were given an exemption to be allowed to travel to work, early closing hours continued to cost employees work hours. Despite criticism of curfew enforcement, Mayor Rawlings-Blake stood by the curfew, saying it was necessary to maintain control.
U.S. Attorney General Loretta Lynch requested an independent civil rights investigation into the Freddie Gray case in hopes of calming the violence in Baltimore.
Sports actions
The Baltimore Ravens had canceled their NFL Draft party in response to the riots.
After consulting with Major League Baseball, the Baltimore Orioles announced that their second game in a series against the Chicago White Sox would also be postponed, and that their game on April 29 would be played in the afternoon behind closed doors. This was believed to be the first behind closed doors game in Major League Baseball history (it is occasionally seen in soccer as punishment for spectator behavior). The attendance for the game was officially recorded as zero, thus breaking the previous record (of six, set in 1882) for the lowest attendance at a Major League Baseball game. The two cancelled games were made up as a doubleheader on May 28. The team also moved its May 1–3 series against the Tampa Bay Rays from Camden Yards to Tropicana Field, but still played as the home team (despite the Rays hosting it).
Gang involvement
After Baltimore police determined there was a "credible threat" of gang violence against police officers across the country, many departments across the US heightened their security in response: for example the Los Angeles Police Department ordered their officers to ride in pairs. Baltimore police claimed evidence to support the idea that the Black Guerrilla Family, the Bloods, and the Crips were "teaming up" to target police officers. Later, however, leaders of both the Bloods and the Crips denied the allegations, released a video statement asking for calm and peaceful protest in the area, and joined with police and clergy to enforce the curfew. At one occasion, gang members helped to prevent a riot at the Security Square Mall by dispersing would-be rioters. On other occasions, rival gang members helped each other to protect black-owned businesses, black children, and reporters, diverting rioters to Korean-, Chinese-, and Arab-owned businesses instead. On yet another occasion, the Bloods, the Crips, and the Nation of Islam were seen taking a picture together and working together to dispel violence while peacefully demonstrating.
Critical opinions
On April 28, President Barack Obama strongly condemned the violence during a White House press conference, saying, "There's no excuse for the kind of violence that we saw yesterday. It is counterproductive. ... When individuals get crowbars and start prying open doors to loot, they're not protesting. They're not making a statement. They're stealing. When they burn down a building, they're committing arson. And they're destroying and undermining businesses and opportunities in their own communities. That robs jobs and opportunity from people in that area." Obama went on to applaud the actions of peaceful protesters who he felt were being undermined by the violence, and called upon the nation to take meaningful action to collectively solve poverty and law enforcement issues fueling what he described as "a crisis".
On social media and elsewhere, Mayor Rawlings-Blake and President Obama were criticized for calling the rioters "thugs" on April 28.
When asked about the postponement of the Baltimore Orioles game, the Orioles' chief operating officer, John P. Angelos, said:
Online reaction
The protests were originally covered on social media with the hashtag #BaltimoreRiots. However, by April 28, the more popular hashtag to cover the protests became #BaltimoreUprising. The change may have occurred in response to a decline in violent actions, or may have been the promotion of a new political narrative by social media users.
Dr. Denise Meringolo, an Associate Professor and public historian at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, and Joe Tropea, Curator of Films & Photographs at the Maryland Historical Society, co-founded the Preserve the Baltimore Uprising digital archive to capture images and oral histories related to the protests directly from the local community.
Increase in violence and decrease in policing
Baltimore recorded 43 homicides in the month of May, the second deadliest month on record and the worst since December 1971 when 44 homicides were recorded. There have also been more than 100 non-fatal shootings in May 2015. Police commissioner Anthony Batts blames looted drugs, stolen from 27 pharmacies and two methadone clinics, as well as street distribution and turf wars for the spike in crime.
The increase in shootings has occurred along with a 50% decline in arrests since the charging of six officers in Gray's death in custody. The heavy police presence in crime-ridden neighborhoods is no longer apparent with one resident stating, "Before it was over-policing. Now there's no police." One officer speaking anonymously stated, "After the protests, it seems like the citizens would appreciate a lack of police presence, and that's exactly what they're getting." Batts stated that his officers are "not holding back" despite encountering hostility in the Western District whenever they make an arrest with "30 to 50 people surrounding them at any time;" he also stated that his officers feel "confused and unsupported" in the wake of the charges. The president of the police union said his members are "afraid of going to jail for doing their jobs properly."
According to media reports, looting at 27 drugstores and two methadone clinics resulted in an increase in black market access to opiates.
See also
List of incidents of civil unrest in Baltimore
List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
Ferguson unrest
George Floyd protests
Baltimore Rising
References
Further reading
Why Baltimore Rebelled. Jacobin. April 28, 2015.
The rebellion in Baltimore is an uprising against austerity, claims top US academic. The Guardian. May 2, 2015.
Linda Steiner and Silvio Waisbord (Ed.): News of Baltimore : race, rage and the city, New York : Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2017,
External links
Timelines
CNN
The New York Times
Live blogs:
The Baltimore Sun
CBS Baltimore
The Washington Post
The New York Times, CNN , Slate
Maps:
The Baltimore Sun
Helicopter video:
East of Mondawmin (beginning at Woodbruck and Westbury)
North and Pennsylvania (attack on police car 057, CVS looted, CVS burning)
North and Fulton (liquor store looted)
2015 controversies in the United States
2015 crimes in the United States
2015 in Maryland
2015 protests
2015 riots
2015 protests
African-American history in Baltimore
African-American riots in the United States
April 2015 crimes in the United States
Articles containing video clips
Black Lives Matter
Civil rights protests in the United States
Death of Freddie Gray
History of African-American civil rights
May 2015 crimes in the United States
Protests in Maryland
Race and crime in the United States
2015 protests
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Uttama Villain () is a 2015 Indian Tamil-language comedy-drama film directed by Ramesh Aravind and written by Kamal Haasan. The film was presented by N. Lingusamy in association with Kamal Haasan and produced by S. Chandrahasan for Raaj Kamal Films International and N. Subash Chandrabose for Thirupathi Brothers Film Media. It features an ensemble cast that includes Kamal Hassan, K. Viswanath, K. Balachander, Jayaram, Andrea Jeremiah, Pooja Kumar, Nassar, Parvathy Thiruvothu and Urvashi in prominent roles. This is the posthumous film of actor and director, K. Balachander following his death in December 2014.
It follows Superstar Manoranjan (Kamal Haasan), who is affected by brain tumour, learns that he has only a few days to live and approaches his mentor, director Margadarisi (K. Balachander) to direct his next project — a folklore-ish comedy about a man who keeps cheating death and his role in saving a kingdom. Meanwhile, he has to sort out his personal lives, which involves an estranged son and a daughter from the love of his life.
The project was materialised in late 2013, and the film's principal photography commenced on 3 March 2014. Filming which took place in Chennai, Bengaluru and Turkey was completed on 9 August 2014. The cinematography was handled by Shamdat and Vijay Shankar did the editing work. The music is composed by Ghibran, in his first collaboration with Kamal Haasan, the soundtrack album received high praise upon its release.
Uttama Villain, after many postponements, was scheduled to release on 1 May 2015, but was released a day later, after sorting out the disputes between financiers and producers. The film received outstanding reviews from critics. While it performed well overseas, it underperformed at the Indian box-office. Despite the fact that it became a commercial failure, the film received several awards from International Film Festivals.
Plot
Manoranjan is a leading film star who is immensely popular among his fans but is beset with several personal problems. 25 years back, he had been forced to marry Varalakshmi, the daughter of noted film director Poornachandra Rao, despite being in a relationship with a woman named Yamini (not shown on-screen). He is an alcoholic and his teenage son Manohar despises him. He has a daughter Manonmani who was born out of wedlock to Yamini and was raised by Yamini's husband Jacob Zachariah after Yamini's death. She also despises Manoranjan. He has been diagnosed with advanced stage brain cancer and has only a few more months to live, which is unknown to anyone including his own family. He is treated by his family doctor Dr. Arpana, with whom he has an extramarital affair.
One day, Manoranjan decides to withdraw from a film produced by Poornachandra Rao and instead act in a film produced by himself and directed by Margadarsi, who was his mentor. They both had fallen out when Manoranjan married Varalakshmi and started acting in films directed and produced by Poornachandra Rao, who is Margadarsi's rival. Despite their personal differences, Manoranjan wants Margadarsi to be the director of his last film before he dies. Margadarsi initially refuses to direct Manoranjan, but when he hears from Arpana about Manoranjan's terminal illness, he becomes moved and accepts to direct Manoranjan. When Poornachandra Rao and Varalakshmi find out about Manoranjan's plan, they get enraged and leave his house along with Manohar. Undaunted, Manoranjan goes ahead with his film.
Manoranjan's film with Margadarsi is titled Uttama Villain. It is a fantasy comedy film which tells the story of a street artist named Uttaman who has dodged death several times and hence is believed to be immortal. With the help of a princess named Karpagavalli, he works to defeat the evil Muttharasan, who is obsessed to gain Karpagavalli and the whole Theeyam empire. During the shooting of the film, Manoranjan's condition worsens, and he is hospitalised several times. Margadarsi convinces Manoranjan to inform his family about his condition. This leads to a rapprochement with Poornachandra Rao (and also between Margadarsi and Poornachandra Rao) and a father-son bonding with Manohar. Varalakshmi, on the other hand, suffers a heart attack on hearing the news, though she soon recovers. She apologises to Manoranjan for her actions to forcibly separate him from Yamini so that she could marry him. Later, Manoranjan finds out that a letter he had written to Yamini shortly after they had separated, had not been delivered to her. When Manonmani reads this letter, which tells about Manoranjan's support for Yamini's decision to not undergo an abortion despite being pregnant out of wedlock, her hatred towards her biological father turns to love and she finally accepts him as her father.
After completing the shooting of Uttama Villain, Manoranjan becomes very sick, suffering from delirium as well as slurred speech and movement, and faints. He is immediately rushed to the hospital. Margadarsi completes editing the film and plays it in the hospital. The people present in the hospital, including all the loved ones of Manoranjan, enjoy the film, which ends with Uttaman killing Muttharasan in a stage drama (Iraniya Naadagam), thus dodging death yet again. However, in real life, Arpana informs Manohar and Manonmani that Manoranjan had died.
The film ends with a screening of Uttama Villain in a theatre, which is enjoyed by the audience and becomes a hit.
Cast
Kamal Haasan as Manoranjan, a popular actor in Tamil Nadu (plays Uthaman)
K. Balachander as Margadarisi, reputed film director and Manoranjan's guru
K. Viswanath as Poornachandra Rao, Manoranjan's father-in-law
Jayaram as Jacob Zachariah, Yamini's husband
Urvashi as Varalakshmi
Andrea Jeremiah as Dr Arpana
Pooja Kumar as Parveen (Karpagavalli)
Parvathy Thiruvothu as Manonmani/Yamini (seen in photos)
Nassar as Nassar, an actor (plays Muttharasan)
Shanmugarajan as Shanmugarajan (plays Sudalaimuthu)
M. S. Bhaskar as Chokkalingam Chettiar, Manoranjan's personal assistant
G. Gnanasambandam as Kaakapusundar
Vaiyapuri as Snake charmer
Chithra Lakshmanan as PRO Lakshmanan
Ajay Rathnam as King Sadayavarman
Dheepa Ramanujam as Queen
Ashwin Arvind as Manohar, Manoranjan's son
Parvathy Nair as Indira
Ajay Raj as Parthi
Bhargavi Narayan as Dhanalakshmi
Prakash Belawadi as Dr. D. S. (Neurosurgeon) (cameo appearance)
Ghibran, Subbu Arumugam, Shamdat and Vijai Shankar make cameo appearances as themselves, working as technicians on the film in the film. Rajesh M. Selva, the first assistant director, appears as a spy in the film.
Production
Development
In early 2013, director-producer N. Lingusamy made an official statement confirming that Kamal Haasan had agreed to direct and feature in a film to be produced by the production house, Thirrupathi Brothers. The actor had handed Lingusamy three scripts with the pair chose the most commercially viable option, with the early working title of the film being Bitter Chocolate. In June 2013, the project was retitled Uttama Villain, with Kamal Haasan himself writing the script for the film, while Crazy Mohan was involved in early discussions for the film's dialogues. Eventually, Kamal Haasan wanted to do Uttama Villain as a full-fledged comedy film after the production of Vishwaroopam (2013), due to Haasan's commitments of acting in comedy films soon after he finishes an experimental film, with the controversies he faced during the release of Vishwaroopam being added as one of the factors.
Yuvan Shankar Raja was signed on to compose the film's music, after being the first choice for Haasan's Vishwaroopam, when Selvaraghavan handled the direction duties for the film. Reports also incorrectly suggested that Rajesh was added to the scripting team for the film. In July 2013, Ramesh Aravind took over the task of directing the film from Kamal Haasan, for whom the film became his directorial debut in Tamil, after previously directed films in Kannada. However, it was not being the first film; his proposed directorial debut was titled KG (2004) with Haasan which was shelved after Haasan's commitments with Mumbai Xpress (2005). In February 2014, Ghibran was announced as the film's music composer instead of Yuvan Shankar Raja. Sanu John Varghese and Mahesh Narayanan was initially reported to be the film's cinematographer and editor respectively after working with Haasan in Vishwaroopam. However, Haasan chose Shamdat Sainudeen and Vijay Shankar as the director of photography and editor of the project respectively and Gautami was selected to handle the costume designing for the film. According to Ramesh Aravind, Kamal Haasan wrote the majority of the dialogue and that Crazy Mohan's input and suggestions were recorded.
Casting
Kamal Haasan was reported to play two roles for the film: one being a 21st-century cinema superstar named Manoranjan and an 8th-century drama actor named Uthaman. Kajal Aggarwal was initially reported to have signed on to play the lead female role, though her manager later confirmed that she was not approached and that her dates were already allotted for other projects. Similarly, Santhanam was also reported to play comedian in the film but the actor denied such claims. Asin and Deepika Padukone were also reported by the media to be cast in the lead female role, though neither reports materialised. The team later held discussions with actresses Divya Spandana and Lekha Washington for roles in the film, though neither were signed. A month prior to shoot, three female lead characters were touted to appear in the film, with the names of Kajal Aggarwal (who initially refused the film), Tamannaah and Trisha Krishnan were surfaced.
In a turn of events, the team chose Pooja Kumar and Andrea Jeremiah as the female leads, whom earlier worked with Haasan in Vishwaroopam, and Parvathy Thiruvothu was also offered for the third female lead role. Pooja played the role of a non-Tamil-speaking modern-day actress, who was offered a character that spoke classical Tamil. Pooja also performed 3 song sequences in the film, unlike in Vishwaroopam (2013), where she had no song sequences. Kamal Haasan's daughter Shruti Haasan was considered for the role of his on-screen daughter in the film but her unavailability meant that the team chose to pick a new actress instead. Another actress Parvathy Nair was added to the cast after impressing the team in an audition and was select to be paired opposite Ashwin, a debutant who plays Kamal Haasan's son in the film. Actors Sarath Kumar and Vivek were reported to have been added to the preliminary cast, but the actors later noted the news as untrue.
In January 2014, noted director K. Balachander was selected to play a pivotal role in the film and sported a beard for his character. He was reported to play Manoranjan's mentor Margadarshi, who guided him to this status of superstardom, ironically Balachander was also Haasan's real-life mentor. Producer Lingusamy himself was reported to be playing a role in the venture, after being seen sporting a new look during the making of his directorial project Anjaan (2014). Director K. Viswanath also joined the film's cast as did Jayaram, and the pair began filming scenes in March 2014. Anant Mahadevan, who featured in Vishwaroopam (2013), was given the role of the manager of Kamal Haasan's character in the film. More details about the film were shown in mid-March with a detailed cast and character list released to the media. In May 2014, actor Nassar was signed for a supporting role. In July 2014, director Chithra Lakshmanan joined the team to play a small role in the film. Actress Abhirami was selected to dub for Pooja Kumar in the film. Ramesh Aravind himself was to make a cameo appearance in the film, but the director did not reveal much about it and kept his decision under wraps. Following the death of K. Balachander, the team released the film as a homage to the late director.
Filming
In mid February 2014, the team carried out make up tests involving Kamal Haasan in Bangalore with a photo shoot being held with the actor. Following this, the first teaser of the film unveiled on 1 March 2014 with the title and logo design. A series of posters were also unveiled by the film's team on the following days and the principal photography began on 3 March 2014. The team then shot for two weeks in Bangalore, before moving on to film sequences in Chennai with Gouthami joining the team as a costume designer. In early April, parts of the film were shot in Madhya Pradesh before the team returned to Bangalore to film scenes involving Parvathy Nair and Ashwin. Further scenes involving Kamal Haasan in the role of a star actor were filmed at a shopping mall in Bangalore, with several hundred onlookers used as extras. Posters from a fictional film in the plot, Veera Vilaiyaatu, were put up around the mall by the film's art direction team.
After initially planning a trip to Australia to film the songs from the soundtrack for a week, the team later opted to fly to Turkey instead. Many scenes in the film, including a song featuring Kamal Haasan and Pooja Kumar was consequently shot in Istanbul. The cast performed night rehearsals to get their expressions and dialogues right. The portions featuring Kamal Haasan as an aging superstar were completed with the shoot of the song, followed by the 21st century portions which were completed by mid-May 2014. In between, Kamal Haasan took a break from the shoot to attend the 2014 Cannes Film Festival and to inaugurate the Indian Pavilion there. Another schedule was started on 21 May 2014 in Madhya Pradesh and then at a private studio in Chennai, with the team filming scenes that take place in the 8th century. Actor Nasser joined the film playing the antagonist and also has a dual role in the film. In early June 2014, Andrea had completed her portions in the film.
Kamal Haasan sustained a small muscle pull during the film's shooting and was advised a day's rest. However, he attended an award ceremony following his commitments to be a part of it and the makers released the teaser of the film on the same event. The majority of the film's portions were shot by the end of July, with only patchwork and dubbing left. A 10-minute climax sequence of the film was shot during the schedule which was touted to be a "spellbinding experience for moviegoers". On 9 August 2014, Ramesh Aravind confirmed on his Twitter account that the shooting of the film had been completed at the Chennai Film Institute with a song sequence which would feature in the 8th century segment of the film.
Music
The soundtrack and film score were composed by Ghibran in his maiden collaboration with Kamal Haasan. Ghibran signed the project along with Haasan's Vishwaroopam II, but as the film's production got delayed, he has signed for the actor's other two projects: Papanasam and Thoongaa Vanam. Kamal Hassan bought musical instruments from Bali, Indonesia for recording songs in a mythical segment in the film because the instruments sounded both Indian and exotic and both Ghibran and Hassan wanted the music to be creative. According to Ghibran, traditional tunes were mixed with orchestral symphony backgrounds and were fused with Villu Paatu and Theyyam. Ghibran also said that he and Kamal Haasan decided to not use instruments traditionally used in period films such as tabla, ghatam and dholak. The composer further told that Kamal Hassan had sung in three songs and might sing in a few more. Ghibran had spent a year-and-a-half on the score.
The music album of Uttama Villain was released on 1 March 2015 after multiple postponements. The album which featured 17 tracks including seven themes from the score, with lyrics written by Haasan, Viveka and Subbu Arumugam, was released on a mobile application instead of conventional CDs, as a first-of-its-kind approach. The soundtrack release coincided with a promotional launch event held at Chennai Trade Centre on 1 March 2015, with prominent celebrities along with the film's cast and crew being present. The audio launch of the film took place on 29 March 2015 in Hyderabad.
The soundtrack received high critical acclaim and Ghibran won accolades for his work in the film. Siddharth K. of Sify rated it 4.5 out of 5 and wrote, "Ghibran has grown leaps and bounds with this album and has indeed delivered his career-best...If anyone has any problems in recognizing the effort that has gone into this album, they need to get their musical buds examined. Uttama Villain is an album to be cherished by film buffs and is not for the typical frontbenchers". M. Suganth of The Times of India wrote, "Uttama Villain is that rare Tamil film album which doesn't merely push the envelope but has managed to create a new, different envelope". Vipin Nair of Music Aloud gave it a score of 9 out of 10, calling it "one hell of a soundtrack". A reviewer from Behindwoods gave it 3.75 out of 5 and stated it was "one of its kind gems in Tamil cinema music". Karthik Srinivasan of Milliblog called it "one of the most daring and inventive musical attempts in recent Tamil cinema history".
== Release ==
Kamal Haasan revealed that the film would release before Vishwaroopam II, another film which featured him in the lead role. The film was initially touted to be released on 2 October 2014, coinciding with Gandhi Jayanthi, further also clashing with Hrithik Roshan-starrer Bang Bang! and Sivakarthikeyan's Kakki Sattai. However, the director Ramesh Aravind clarified that the film involved extensive visual effects work to be done and that it would be completed in 10 weeks. Then, the release of 7 November 2014, which coincides Kamal Haasan's birthday also proved to be untrue. The film was then speculated to release on 20 February 2015, following information from a popular ticket booking website. The release was later pushed to April 2015.
In February 2015, Eros International which purchased the worldwide distribution rights of the film announced that the film will be released worldwide on 2 April 2015. Thirrupathi Brothers acquired the domestic theatrical rights while Raajkamal Films International handled the distribution for the overseas theatres. Studio Green bought the Tamil Nadu theatrical rights. The release was later pushed to 10 April 2015, coinciding the five-day Tamil New Year weekend; and trade analysts believed about the increase in footfalls, following school examinations which will be completed within the same date. However, due to the delay in completion of visual effects, the producers later postponed the film to 24 April and 1 May. Then the film was scheduled to release on 1 May 2015, which was confirmed by the producers. But, it was released on 2 May after sorting out issues between financiers and producers. The entire team attended the film's premiere at the Golden Cinemas in Dubai on 30 April 2015, a day before the Indian release.
Marketing
Before the film's production, the first look and title logo of the film were released on 1 March 2014, depicting a Theyyam art form sketched on Haasan's face and few more posters were subsequently released. Thirrupathi Brothers attached the teaser trailer for the film along with Suriya starrer Anjaan (another film produced by the studio), at the 8th Vijay Awards held on 5 July 2014, and was simultaneously uploaded to YouTube. The film's trailer was supposed to be released on Pongal, but after being unofficially leaked through the internet on 13 January 2015, the trailer was launched the next day morning by the makers. The second trailer of the film was released at the film's audio launch event on 1 March 2015, and the third trailer was unveiled on 29 March 2015. Few more trailers were released, ahead of the film's release. Shortly after the film's release, the makers unveiled six deleted scenes of the film, which was well received.
Home media
Herotalkies.com (VS Ecommerce Ventures) legally released the film for audiences outside India in June 2015. Initially, the satellite rights were acquired by Jaya TV, but it was later sold to Zee Tamil.
Lawsuit
Plagiarism allegations
There was speculation that the first look of the film was inspired by a photograph taken by French photographer Eric Lafforgue, but Kamal Hassan denied the allegations by saying, "Theyyam is more than a 1000-year-old art. The make-up was done by a good artist who is probably a third-generation practitioner of this art. My film has a Theyyam dance fusion with Tamil Nadu's Kooththu tradition". Admitting that the lighting might have had a few similarities to the photograph of the French photographer, he said that comparing the photo with his first look poster was like saying two lovers leaning on one another's chest looking in the same direction is a copy of the Ek Duje Ke Liye poster. He also stated that the poster did not depict a mask, but make-up painted on his face and that it took four hours to paint it.
Protests by Vishva Hindu Parishad
Vishva Hindu Parishad's (VHP) Tamil Nadu wing called for banning the film's release, as they alleged that the lyrics of a song in the film had belittled a conversation between Prahalada and Hiranyakashipu, which offend the religious sentiments of Hindu people. They also criticised the makers for the objectionable portrayal of Lord Vishnu in a song. Furthermore, the Indian National League, a Muslim organisation also protested against the film citing that it may hurt religious sentiments.
Financial allegations
Lingusamy sold the film's distribution rights to Eros International, in order to overcome the losses suffered by the failure of Suriya-starrer Anjaan, and Studio Green agreed to market the film in Tamil Nadu. A few days before the film's release, producer and distributor R. Thangaraj of Thangam Cinemas, filed a petition to stay the release of the film, as producer has to pay , to settle down the losses. Thirrupathi Brothers had also borrowed from various local financiers, promising them films distribution areas. As per sources, the film was in deficit to the tune of nearly at the time of release. The financiers were unwilling to waive a part of the loan for a smooth release. The overseas release of the film happened as the rights for the overseas territory belonged to Raaj Kamal, while the Indian theatrical rights were with Thirrupathi Brothers.
Due to the disputes between financiers and producers, the film's release date which was scheduled for 1 May 2015, has been stalled. Theatres across TN had sold tickets in advance for the opening day, but most of the shows were been cancelled, which led to outrage and dismay with the film union and producers. Kamal Haasan, after the Dubai premiere on 30 April, flew back to India late on Friday, to sort out the issue along with trade bodies like Tamil Film Producers Council and Nadigar Sangam. After the dispute has been settled, the film opened in India on 2 May 2015.
Reception
Critical response
On the review aggregator Rotten tomatoes it holds an audience score of 68% rating.
M. Suganth, editor-in-chief of The Times of India rated the film three-and-a-half out of five, lauding it as one of the "rare films with a meta-narrative where the line between the real and the reel becomes hard to distinguish and further called it as glorious showcase for Kamal the writer as he superbly blends subtlety with slapstick and the emotional moments never descend into full-blown melodrama that turns all eyes misty throughout the film". A critic from Behindwoods also rated the film three-and-a-half out of five and felt it was an "excellent cinematic viewing experience" appreciating its "unique narrative". Siddharth K of Sify gave Uttama Villain four out of five stars and called it "a courageous film which breaks away from being a routine fare", describing it as "emotional as well as gripping". They also felt that "The sheer thrill of watching a film and not knowing what will happen next is one of the great pleasures offered by director Ramesh Aravind", summing it up as "a good example of an entertaining commercial film that didn't need to be lazy or senseless". Karthik Keramalu of IBN Live appreciated Uttama Villain majorly for three particular conversations that they placed among the best in Tamil cinema, concluding that it is "a film worthy of a eulogy speech and the grandeur is not spoilt in the name of commercialization".
S. Saraswathi of Rediff.com appreciated director Ramesh Aravind for the narrative "that skilfully alternates between fake and real which is seemingly similar situations is ingenious" and lauded the brilliance of Kamal Haasan, "the master performer for essaying two totally contrasting characters amazingly". They wrote that the film may not appeal to all due to its almost three hours length and slow screenplay, but still judged that it is "a film worth watching for stunning music and performance" and rating it three out of five. Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV lauded Uttama Villain as a "terrific take on superstardom and mortality, feeling it is a satire in parts when Manoranjan, played by Kamal Haasan comes to know that he has only a few days to live, so he decides to make a film in which he's immortal". Anupama Subramanian of Deccan Chronicle wrote that the movie lived up to expectations partially as the first half drags, but post interval picks up the momentum summing up as a Kamal show all the way, sparkling as an ego bloated Manoranjan and the simpleton Uttaman, concluding, "There are few shortcomings. Nevertheless Kamals’ amazing screen presence pulls an otherwise bit dragging film with a runtime of 2 hours and 52 minutes". Baradwaj Rangan in his review for The Hindu wrote, "Kamal Haasan's writing is so dense and allusive and overstuffed and layered and indulgent that it's always a question whether even the best actors and directors in the world can come up with the kind of wit and timing needed to fully make the transition from page to screen — in other words, the best Kamal Haasan movies are probably locked up inside his head, where they reside in the most perfect possible manner. But with some of the lightweight cast and crew, he's been working with of late, this material doesn't stand a chance".
Box office
A delay of one-and-a-half day in release affected the collections in India. The film suffered huge loss and traders say that Uttama Villain lost approximately in India, whereas from Tamil Nadu alone the film lost and from the rest of India, the loss is , still the film collected from 170 shows in Chennai itself, while it has got a tremendous start at the US box office earning in 7 days from 98 screens. It earned from Malaysia, from Australia, from UK and Ireland and from Canada box office. The film collected in United States in three days. The film collected in Malaysia, in Australia and in Canada. In Kerala, the film had a slow start collecting only from two days.
Uttama Villain collected from 316 shows in its 2nd weekend and the film had 183 shows on weekdays raking up making the total collection in Chennai at and from US box office in two weeks beating Mani Ratnam's O Kadhal Kanmani, from US, from Canada, from UK and Ireland, from Australia and from Malaysia box office. The film also collected from various European markets and in the rest of the world Box Office.
The film's poor performance, led Thirrupathi Brothers, to huge financial tangle. Most of his upcoming projects were stalled and, the Sivakarthikeyan-starrer Rajinimurugan, which was produced by Lingusamy, faced delays during its release, because of his settlement to Eros International, which also distributed the film, and the payment allotted by latter ballooned to , after the failure of Uttama Villain.
Awards and nominations
Notes
References
External links
2015 films
Indian films
2010s dance films
Films about actors
2015 comedy-drama films
Indian dance films
2010s Tamil-language films
Films with screenplays by Kamal Haasan
Films scored by Mohamaad Ghibran
Indian comedy-drama films
Films shot in Bangalore
Films shot in Chennai
Films shot in Madhya Pradesh
Films shot in Istanbul
Indian nonlinear narrative films
2015 comedy films
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Kew () is a district in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, north-east of Richmond and west by south-west of Charing Cross; its population at the 2011 census was 11,436. Kew is the location of the Royal Botanic Gardens ("Kew Gardens"), now a World Heritage Site, which includes Kew Palace. Kew is also the home of important historical documents such as Domesday Book, which is held at The National Archives.
Julius Caesar may have forded the Thames at Kew in 54 BC during the Gallic Wars. Successive Tudor, Stuart and Georgian monarchs maintained links with Kew. During the French Revolution, many refugees established themselves there and it was the home of several artists in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Since 1965 Kew has incorporated the former area of North Sheen which includes St Philip and All Saints, the first barn church consecrated in England. It is now in a combined Church of England parish with St Luke's Church, Kew.
Today, Kew is an expensive residential area because of its suburban hallmarks. Among these are sports-and-leisure open spaces, schools, transport links, architecture, restaurants, no high-rise buildings, modest road sizes, trees and gardens. Most of Kew developed in the late 19th century, following the arrival of the District line of the London Underground. Further development took place in the 1920s and 1930s when new houses were built on the market gardens of North Sheen and in the first decade of the 21st century when considerably more river-fronting flats and houses were constructed by the Thames on land formerly owned by Thames Water.
Etymology
The name Kew, recorded in 1327 as Cayho, is a combination of two words: the Old French kai (landing place; "quay" derives from this) and Old English hoh (spur of land). The land spur is formed by the bend in the Thames.
Governance
Kew forms part of the Richmond Park UK Parliament constituency; the Member of Parliament is Sarah Olney. For elections to the London Assembly it is part of the South West London Assembly constituency, which is represented by Nicholas Rogers.
Kew was added in 1892 to the Municipal Borough of Richmond which had been formed two years earlier and was in the county of Surrey. In 1965, under the London Government Act 1963, the Municipal Borough of Richmond was abolished. Kew, along with Richmond, was transferred from Surrey to the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, one of 32 boroughs in the newly created Greater London.
Economy
The fashion clothing retailer Jigsaw's headquarters are in Mortlake Road, Kew.
A former industry in Kew was that of nameplate manufacturing, by the Caxton Name Plate Manufacturing Company, based on Kew Green. The company was founded in 1964 and folded in 1997.
It was in Kew that viscose was first developed into rayon, in a laboratory near Kew Gardens station run by Cowey Engineering. Rayon was produced in a factory on South Avenue, off Sandycombe Road, before Courtaulds acquired the patents for rayon in 1904.
Also on a site near Kew Gardens station, the engineering company F C Blake, now commemorated in the Kew street name Blake Mews, produced petrol-powered traction engines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Chrysler and Dodge
Currently, the Kew Retail Park stands on the site of a former aircraft factory established in 1918 by Harry Whitworth, who owned Glendower Aircraft Ltd. The factory built Airco DH.4s and Sopwith Salamanders for the British government in the First World War.
In 1923 the now-redundant aircraft factory was sold and it became a factory for road vehicles. From the 1920s until 1967, Dodge made lorries at this factory, with the model name Kew. Cars were also manufactured there. Dodge Brothers became a Chrysler subsidiary in 1928 and lorry production moved to Chrysler's car plant at Kew. In 1933 it began to manufacture a British chassis, at its works in Kew, using American engines and gearboxes. After Chrysler bought the Maxwell Motor Company and their Kew works, the cars of the lighter Chrysler range – Chryslers, De Sotos and Plymouths – were assembled at this Kew site until the Second World War. The various models of De Sotos were named Richmond, Mortlake and Croydon; Plymouths were Kew Six and Wimbledon.
During the Second World War this Chrysler factory was part of London Aircraft Production Group and built Handley Page Halifax aircraft assemblies. When wartime aircraft production ceased, the plant did not resume assembly of North American cars.
People
Royal associations with Kew
The Tudors and Stuarts
Charles Somerset, 1st Earl of Worcester (c.1460–1526) was granted lands at Kew in 1517. When he died in 1526 he left his Kew estates to his third wife, Eleanor, with the remainder to his son George. In 1538 Sir George Somerset sold the house for £200 to Thomas Cromwell (c.1485–1540), who resold it for the same amount to Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk. Brandon had probably already inhabited Kew during the life of his wife Mary Tudor, the daughter of Henry VII and widow of the French king Louis XII. According to John Leland's Cygnea Cantio ("Swan Song"), she stayed in Kew (which he refers to as "Cheva") for a time after her return to England.
One of Henry VIII's closest friends, Henry Norris (c.1482–1536), lived at Kew Farm, which was later owned by Elizabeth I's favourite, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (1532–1588). This large palatial house on the Thames riverbank predated the royal palaces of Kew Palace and the White House. Excavations at Kew Gardens in 2009 revealed a wall that may have belonged to the property.
In Elizabeth's reign, and under the Stuarts, houses were developed along Kew Green. West Hall, which survives in West Hall Road, dates from at least the 14th century and the present house was built at the end of the 17th century.
Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I, later known as the "Winter Queen", was given a household at Kew in 1608.
Queen Anne subscribed to the building of the parish church on Kew Green, which was dedicated to St Anne in 1714, three months before the Queen's death.
The Hanoverians
The Hanoverians maintained the strongest links with Kew, in particular Princess Augusta who founded the botanic gardens and her husband Frederick, Prince of Wales who lived at the White House in Kew. Augusta, as Dowager Princess of Wales, continued to live there until her death in 1721. Frederick commissioned the building of the first substantial greenhouse at Kew Gardens.
In 1772 King George III and Queen Charlotte moved into the White House at Kew. Queen Charlotte died at the Dutch House in Kew in 1818.
King William IV spent most of his early life at Richmond and at Kew Palace, where he was educated by private tutors.
Georgian expansion
During the French Revolution, many refugees established themselves in Kew, having built many of the houses of this period. In the 1760s and 1770s the royal presence attracted artists such as Thomas Gainsborough and Johann Zoffany.
Artists associated with Kew
Diana Armfield RA (born 1920) lives in Kew. She is known for landscapes, and has also painted portraits, literary subjects and still lifes. She has a particular interest in flower paintings, and is considered to owe much to the tradition of Walter Sickert.
Franz (later Francis) Bauer (1758–1840) was an Austrian microscopist and botanical artist who became the first botanical illustrator at Kew Gardens. By 1790 he had settled at Kew, where as well as making detailed paintings and drawings of flower dissections, often at microscopic level, he tutored Queen Charlotte, her daughter Princess Elizabeth and William Hooker in the art of illustration, and often entertained friends and botanists at his home. He is buried at St Anne's, next to Thomas Gainsborough.
The American-born English artist Walter Deverell (1827–1854), who was associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, lived at 352 Kew Road, then called Heathfield House. He had a studio at the end of the garden where there are now garages. In this setting he painted "The Pet".
Bernard Dunstan RA (1920–2017) lived in Kew. He was an artist, teacher, and author, best known for his studies of figures in interiors and landscapes. At the time of his death, he was the longest serving Royal Academician.
George Engleheart (1750–1829), who was born in Kew, was one of the greatest English painters of portrait miniatures.
Walter Hood Fitch (1817–1892), botanical illustrator, lived on Kew Green.
Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788) visited Kew many times, staying with his friend Joshua Kirby and, after Kirby's death, in a house probably rented by his daughter close to St Anne's Church, where he is buried.
Arthur Hughes (1832–1915), Pre-Raphaelite painter, lived and died at Eastside House, 22 Kew Green, Kew. The site is marked by a blue plaque.
Joshua Kirby (1716–1774) was a landscape painter, engraver, and writer, whose main artistic focus was "linear perspective", based on the ideas of English mathematician Brook Taylor. He was the son of topographer John Kirby, and the father of the writer Sarah Trimmer and the entomologist William Kirby. In 1760 he moved to Kew, where he taught linear perspective to George III. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society.
Sir Peter Lely (1618–1680), portrait painter, had a house on the north side of Kew Green. On almost exactly the same site, Jeremiah Meyer (1735–1789), miniaturist to Queen Charlotte and George III, built a house a century later. Meyer is buried at St Anne's.
Charles Mozley (1914–1991), artist and art teacher, lived and died at 358 Kew Road, Kew.
Victorian artist Marianne North (1830–1890) did not live in Kew, but she left to Kew Gardens her collection of botanic art, painted on her extensive overseas travels, and funded a gallery – the Marianne North Gallery – to house them.
French Impressionist painter Camille Pissarro (1830–1903) stayed in 1892 at 10 Kew Green, on the corner of Gloucester Road, which is marked by a blue plaque. During his stay he painted Kew Gardens – Path to the Great Glasshouse (1892), Kew Greens (1892) and Church at Kew (1892). His third son, Félix Pissarro (1874–1897), painter, etcher and caricaturist, died in a sanatorium at 262 Kew Road in 1897.
Matilda Smith (1854–1926), the first official botanical artist of the Royal Botanic Gardens, lived at Gloucester Road, Kew.
The painter Johan Zoffany (1725–1810), who lived at Strand-on-the-Green, is buried at St Anne's.
Other notable inhabitants
Historical figures
William Aiton (1731–1793), botanist, was appointed director in 1759 of the newly established botanical garden at Kew, where he remained until his death. He effected many improvements at the gardens, and in 1789 he published Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants cultivated there. When he died, he was succeeded as director at Kew Gardens by his son William Townsend Aiton (1766–1849), who was also botanist, and was born in Kew. William Townsend Aiton was one of the founders of the Royal Horticultural Society. He retired in 1841 but remained living at Kew, although passing much of his time with his brother at Kensington where he died in 1849. Both father and son lived at Descanso House on Kew Green and are buried in St Anne's churchyard where the substantial family tomb is a prominent feature. Inside the church there is also a memorial to them.
David Blomfield (1934–2016), leader of the Liberal Party group on Richmond upon Thames Council, writer, book editor and local historian, lived in Kew.
Richard Cook (1957–2007), British jazz writer, magazine editor and former record company executive, was born in Kew.
Stephen Duck (c.1705–1756), poet, lived in Kew.
Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau (1968–2013), brother of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, lived in Kew.
Liberal Party leader Jo Grimond (1913–1993) lived on Kew Green.
Sir William Hooker (1785–1865) and his son Sir Joseph Hooker (1817–1911), botanists and directors of Kew Gardens, lived at 49 Kew Green, Kew. The site is marked by a blue plaque.
John Hutchinson (1884–1972), botanist, lived on Kew Green, near Kew Gardens' Herbarium, during the Second World War.
Alfred Luff (1846–1933), English cricketer, was born in Kew.
Phil Lynott (1949–1986), Irish rock guitarist, songwriter, vocalist and leader of Thin Lizzy, lived in Kew.
Andrew Millar (1705–1768), Scottish bookseller and publisher, owned a country home on Kew Green.
Samuel Molyneux (1689–1728), Member of Parliament, and an amateur astronomer, who was married to Lady Elizabeth Diana Capel, the eldest daughter of the Earl of Essex, inherited Kew House on the death of Lady Capel of Tewkesbury. Molyneux set up an observatory at the house and collaborated there with James Bradley in innovative designs for reflecting telescopes. Kew House which later, as the White House, became the home of Prince Frederick and Princess Augusta, was pulled down in 1802 when George II's short-lived gothic "castellated palace" was built.
Desmond Morton (1891–1971), soldier, intelligence officer and personal assistant to Winston Churchill, 1940–45, lived at 22 Kew Green 1952–71.
Conrad Noel (1869–1942), Church of England priest and prominent British Christian socialist, was born in Royal Cottage, Kew Green.
Daniel Oliver (1830–1916), Professor of Botany at University College, London (1861–1888) and Keeper of the Herbarium at Kew Gardens (1864–1890), who lived on Kew Green.
Harold Pinter (1930–2008), playwright, dramatist, actor and director, lived at Fairmead Court, Taylor Avenue, Kew.
Sir Hugh Portman, 4th Baronet (died 1632), MP for Taunton, lived in a house opposite Kew Palace.
Sir John Puckering (1544–1596), lawyer, politician, Speaker of the English House of Commons, and Lord Keeper from 1592 until his death, lived in Kew.
Anthony Saxton (1934–2015), advertising executive and headhunter, lived at 3 Mortlake Road in Kew, and was a churchwarden of St Anne's Church, Kew.
John Smith (1798–1888), British botanist, first curator of Kew Gardens, lived on Kew Green.
John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (1713–1792), botanist and honorary director of Kew Gardens, 1754–72, adviser to Princess Augusta and tutor to George III and, later, Prime Minister of Great Britain (1762–63), lived at King's Cottage, 33 Kew Green.
Patrick Troughton (1921–1987), actor, most famous for playing the Second Doctor in the TV series Doctor Who, lived in Kew.
George Vassila (1857–1915), English cricketer, was born in Kew.
Andrew Watson (1856–1921), the world's first black person to play association football at international level, retired to London in around 1910 and died of pneumonia at 88 Forest Road in 1921. He is buried in Richmond Cemetery.
Living people
Geoffrey Archer, fiction writer and former Defence Correspondent of ITN, lives in Kew.
Mick Avory, musician and former drummer with The Kinks, lives in Kew.
Nick Baird, group corporate affairs director of energy firm Centrica, lives in Kew.
Ray Brooks, actor, lives in Kew.
Justin Lee Collins, comedian and television presenter, lives in Kew.
Sir David Durie, former Governor of Gibraltar, lives in Kew.
Simon Fowler, social historian and author, lives in Kew.
Krishnan Guru-Murthy, Channel 4 journalist, lives in Kew.
Sir Donald Insall, architect, conservationist and author, lives in Kew.
Milton Jones, comedian, was brought up in Kew.
Gabby Logan, TV presenter, and her husband Kenny Logan, rugby player, live in Kew.
Serge Lourie, former Leader of Richmond upon Thames Council, and councillor for Kew for 28 years, lives in Kew.
Steven McRae, dancer with the Royal Ballet, lives in Kew.
Paul Ormerod, economist, lives in Kew.
Helen Sharman, the first British woman in space, lives in Kew
Jenny Tonge, Baroness Tonge, former MP for Richmond Park, lives in Kew.
Sue Vertue, television producer, and her husband Steven Moffat, television writer and producer, live in Kew.
Demography
In the ten years from the time of the 2001 census, the population rose from 9,445 to 11,436, the sharpest ten-year increase in Kew since the early 20th century. This was partly accounted for by the conversion of former Thames Water land to residential use, and increases in property sizes. The figures are based on those for Kew ward, the boundaries of the enlarged parish having been adjusted to allow for all wards in the borough to be equally sized.
Homes and households
Ethnicity
In the 2011 census, 66.2% of Kew's population were White British. Other White was the second largest category at 16%, with 8.1% being Asian.
Transport
A main mode of transport between Kew and London, for rich and poor alike, was by water along the Thames which, historically, separated Middlesex (on the north bank) from Surrey: Kew was also connected to Brentford, Middlesex by ferry, first replaced by bridge in 1759. The current Kew Bridge, which carries the South Circular Road (the A205) was opened by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra in 1903.
The A205 road commencing there passes through Kew as a single carriageway. However Kew Road provides the main road link to Richmond. The M4 motorway starts a short distance north of Kew, providing access to Heathrow Airport and the west. The A316 road starts in Chiswick and continues over Chiswick Bridge and a complex junction with the South Circular Road at Chalker's Corner at the south-eastern end of the district.
Since 1869 rail services have been available from Kew Gardens station. London Underground (District line) services run to Richmond and to central London. London Overground trains run to Richmond and (via Willesden Junction) to Stratford.
The 65, 110 and R68 bus routes serve Kew.
River bus services supported by publicly funded Transport for London run from Kew Pier to Richmond and Hampton Court.
Nearest places
Brentford
East Sheen
Richmond
Gunnersbury
Chiswick
Mortlake
Barnes
Nearest railway stations
Kew Bridge station (South Western Railway)
Kew Gardens station (London Overground; London Underground District line)
North Sheen station (South Western Railway)
Bridges
Kew Bridge, which carries the A205 South Circular Road. Beside the bridge is Kew Pier, which serves tourist ferries operating under licence from London River Services.
Kew Railway Bridge
Parks and open spaces
Kew Green is used by Kew Cricket Club for cricket matches in the summer.
Kew Pond, near the northeast corner of Kew Green, believed to date from the tenth century, is originally thought to have been a natural pond fed from a creek of the tidal Thames. During high (spring) tides, sluice gates are opened to allow river water to fill the pond via an underground channel. The pond is concreted, rectangular in shape and contains an important reed bed habitat which is vital for conservation and resident water birds. The pond is managed in partnership with the Friends of Kew Pond.
North Sheen Recreation Ground in Dancer Road, known locally as "The Rec", was originally part of an orchard belonging to the Popham Estate, owned by the Leyborne Pophams whose family seat was at Littlecote House, Wiltshire. Opened in June 1909 and extended in 1923, it now contains football pitches, a running track, a children's paddling pool, two extensive playgrounds, a large dog-free grassed area and a pavilion set amongst trees and shrubs. It is also the home of a local football club, Kew Park Rangers. A sports pavilion was opened in September 2011.
Pensford Field, previously playing fields of the former Gainsborough School, is now a nature reserve and also the home of Pensford Tennis Club.
St Luke's Open Space, a quiet sitting area and toddlers' play area, was previously a playground for a former Victorian primary school.
Westerley Ware is at the foot of Kew Bridge. It was created as a memorial garden to the fallen in the First World War, and also has a grass area, three hard tennis courts and a children's playground. Its name refers to the practice of netting weirs or "wares" to catch fish.
Sport and leisure
Kew's several other sports clubs include:
North Sheen Bowling Club on Marksbury Avenue
Priory Park Club on Forest Road – tennis and (until 2017) bowls
Putney Town Rowing Club on Townmead Road
Richmond Gymnastics Association on Townmead Road
The nearest football club in the Premier League is Brentford FC, whose stadium, opened in 2021, is on the other side of Kew Bridge, near Kew Bridge station.
Societies
The Kew Horticultural Society, founded in 1938, organises an annual show in late August/early September as well as talks, events and outings throughout the year.
The Kew Society, founded in 1901 as the Kew Union, is a civic society that seeks to enhance the beauty of Kew and preserve its heritage. It reviews all planning applications in Kew with special regard to the architectural integrity and heritage of the neighbourhood, and plays an active role in the improvement of local amenities. The Society, which is a member of Civic Voice, organises community events including lectures and outings and produces a quarterly newsletter.
The Richmond Local History Society is concerned with the history of Kew, as well as that of Richmond, Petersham and Ham.
Education
Primary schools
Darell Primary and Nursery School is on Darell Road and Niton Road. It opened in 1906, as the Darell Road Schools, at the southern end of what had been the Leyborne-Popham estate. It was Richmond Borough Council's first primary school and was built in the "Queen Anne" style, in brick with white stone facings. Although it has been extended several times, it is now the only Richmond borough primary school still in its historic original pre-1914 building.
Kew Riverside Primary School, on Courtlands Avenue, opened in 2003.
The Queen's Church of England Primary School is in Cumberland Road, where it moved in 1969. In her will of 1719, Dorothy, Lady Capel of Kew House left to four trustees Perry Court Farm in Kent, which she had inherited from her father. One twelfth of the rent from the farm was to be given to St Anne's Church to establish a school in Kew. In 1810, a "Free School" was opened in the church for 50 children, financed by subscribers who gave one guinea a year, in addition to a contribution by King George III. In 1824 the school moved to a site near the pond on Kew Green. The foundation stone was laid on 12 August, the birthday of King George IV, who gave £300 on condition that it be called "The King's Free School". Queen Victoria gave permission for it to be called "The Queen's School" and decreed that its title should change with that of the monarch.
Independent preparatory schools
Broomfield House School, on Broomfield Road, was founded in 1876.
Kew College, a co-educational school for 3- to 11-year-olds, was founded in 1927 by Mrs Ellen Upton in rooms over a shop in Kew. Mrs Upton's young daughter was one of the first pupils. The school later moved to Cumberland Road. In 1953, Mrs Upton retired and sold the school to Mrs Hamilton-Spry who, in 1985, handed over the buildings to a charitable trust to ensure the school's long term continuity.
Kew Green Preparatory School, at Layton House, Ferry Lane, near Kew Green, opened in 2004.
Unicorn School, established in 1970, is a co-educational, parent-owned school on Kew Road, opposite Kew Gardens.
Places of worship
Four churches in Kew are currently in use:
Former churches include:
Kew Baptist Church, a Grace Baptist church, was founded in 1861 in Richmond as Salem Baptist Church. It moved in 1973 to a new building on Windsor Road in Kew, adopting the name Kew Baptist Church in 1990, and closed in 2020.
the late 19th-century Cambridge Road Wesleyan Methodist Chapel, previously known as the Gloucester Road Wesleyan Methodist Chapel and also known as Cambridge Road Methodist Church, which was in use from 1891 to 1969. It is now a private residence.
A late Victorian Salvation Army hall at 6 North Road, built in the style of a chapel, was converted into flats (1–5 Quiet Way) in the early 21st century.
Cemeteries and crematorium
Mortlake Crematorium and two cemeteries – North Sheen Cemetery and Mortlake Cemetery – are located in Kew.
Literary references to Kew
I am His Highness' dog at Kew;
Pray tell me, sir, whose dog are you?
Epigram, engraved on the Collar of a Dog which I gave to his Royal Highness (Frederick, Prince of Wales), 1736 (Alexander Pope, 1688–1744)
And the wildest dreams of Kew are the facts of Khatmandhu
In The Neolithic Age, 1892 (Rudyard Kipling, 1865–1936)
Go down to Kew in lilac-time, in lilac-time, in lilac-time;
Go down to Kew in lilac-time (it isn't far from London!)
And you shall wander hand in hand with love in summer's wonderland;
Go down to Kew in lilac-time (it isn't far from London!)
The Barrel-Organ, 1920 (Alfred Noyes, 1880–1958)
Trams and dusty trees.
Highbury bore me. Richmond and Kew
Undid me.
The Waste Land, 1922 (T. S. Eliot, 1888–1965)
Lady Croom: My hyacinth dell is become a haunt for
hobgoblins, my Chinese bridge, which I am assured is
superior to the one at Kew, and for all I know at Peking, is
usurped by a fallen obelisk overgrown with briars.
Arcadia, 1993 (Tom Stoppard, b. 1937)
See also
Dodge 100 "Kew"
Dodge 300
Kew Gardens and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Kew Green
Kew Letters
Kew Mortuary
Kew Observatory
Kew Palace
North Sheen
Notes
References
Sources
Blomfield, David (1994). Kew Past. Chichester, Sussex: Phillimore & Co Ltd.
Further reading
Cloake, John (1996). The Palaces and Parks of Richmond and Kew 2: Richmond Lodge and the Kew Palaces. Chichester: Phillimore & Co Ltd. . . OL 8627654M.
Cloake, John (2001). Cottages and Common Fields of Richmond and Kew. Chichester: Phillimore & Co Ltd. .
External links
Kew TW9 community website
Kew area profile
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Herbert Jansch (3 November 1943 – 5 October 2011) was a Scottish folk musician and founding member of the band Pentangle. He was born in Glasgow and came to prominence in London in the 1960s as an acoustic guitarist and singer-songwriter. He recorded more than 28 albums and toured extensively from the 1960s to the 21st century.
Jansch was a leading figure in the 1960s British folk revival, touring folk clubs and recording several solo albums, as well as collaborating with other musicians such as John Renbourn and Anne Briggs. In 1968, he co-founded the band Pentangle, touring and recording with them until their break-up in 1972. He then took a few years' break from music, returning in the late 1970s to work on a series of projects with other musicians. He joined a reformed Pentangle in the early 1980s and remained with them as they evolved through various changes of personnel until 1995. Until his death, Jansch continued to work as a solo artist.
Jansch's work influenced many artists, especially Jimmy Page, Mike Oldfield, Paul Simon, Pete Hawkes, Nick Drake, Donovan, and Neil Young.
Jansch received two Lifetime Achievement Awards at the BBC Folk Awards: one, in 2001, for his solo achievements and the other, in 2007, as a member of Pentangle.
Early years
Herbert Jansch was born at Stobhill Hospital in the Springburn district of Glasgow, on 3 November 1943, the descendant of a family originally from Hamburg, Germany, who settled in Scotland during the Victorian era. The family name is most often pronounced as , although Jansch himself, like several other members of his family, pronounced it .
Jansch was brought up in the residential area of Edinburgh known as West Pilton, where he attended Pennywell Primary School and Ainslie Park Secondary School. As a teenager, he acquired a guitar and started visiting a local folk club ("The Howff") run by Roy Guest. There, he met Archie Fisher and Jill Doyle (Davy Graham's half-sister), who introduced him to the music of Big Bill Broonzy, Pete Seeger, Brownie McGhee and Woody Guthrie. He also met and shared a flat with Robin Williamson, who remained a friend when Jansch later moved to London.
After leaving school, Jansch took a job as a nurseryman then, in August 1960, he gave this up, intending to become a full-time musician. He appointed himself as an unofficial caretaker at The Howff and, as well as sleeping there, he may have received some pay to supplement his income as a novice performer who did not own his own guitar. He spent the next two years playing one-night stands in British folk clubs. This was a musical apprenticeship that exposed him to a range of influences, including Martin Carthy and Ian Campbell, but especially Anne Briggs, from whom he learned some of the songs (such as "Blackwaterside" and "Reynardine") that would later feature strongly in his recording career.
Jansch travelled around Europe (and beyond) between 1963 and 1965, hitch-hiking from place to place, living on earnings from busking and casual musical performances in bars and cafes. Before leaving Glasgow, he married a 16-year-old girl, Lynda Campbell. It was a marriage of convenience which allowed her to travel with him, as she was too young to have her own passport. They split up after a few months, and Jansch was eventually repatriated to Britain after catching dysentery in Tangiers.
London (mid-1960s)
Jansch moved to London. There, in 1963, at the invitation of Bob Wilson – a Staffordshire folksinger who was also an art student at St Martin's School of Art – he was asked to take over as resident singer at Bunjies on Great Litchfield Street with Charles Pearce, another art student. They remained in that situation for a year before Pearce moved to south London to run several clubs south of the Thames. There was a burgeoning interest in folk music throughout London by then. There, he met the engineer and producer Bill Leader, at whose home they made a recording of Jansch's music on a reel-to-reel tape recorder. Leader sold the tape for £100 to Transatlantic Records, who produced an album directly from it. The album Bert Jansch was released in 1965, and went on to sell 150,000 copies. It included Jansch's protest song "Do You Hear Me Now", which was brought to the attention of the pop music mainstream later that year by the singer Donovan, who covered it on his Universal Soldier EP, which reached No. 1 in the UK EP chart and No. 27 in the singles chart. Pearce disappeared from Jansch's life after arranging for him to be one of the artists in the Liberal International concert, "Master of the Guitar" at the Royal Festival Hall in 1968. Also included on Jansch's first album was his song "Needle of Death", a stark anti-drugs lament written after a friend died of a heroin overdose.
In his early career, Jansch was sometimes characterized as a British Bob Dylan. During this period, Jansch stated that his musical influences were few: "the only three people that I've ever copied were Big Bill Broonzy, Davy Graham and Archie Fisher." Jansch followed his first album with two more, produced in quick succession: It Don't Bother Me and Jack Orion, which contained his first recording of "Blackwaterside", later to be taken up by Jimmy Page and recorded by Led Zeppelin as "Black Mountain Side". Jansch said, "The accompaniment was nicked by a well-known member of one of the most famous rock bands, who used it, unchanged, on one of their records." Transatlantic took legal advice about the alleged copyright infringement, and was advised that there was "a distinct possibility that Bert might win an action against Page." Ultimately, Transatlantic was dubious about the costs involved in taking on Led Zeppelin in the courts, and half the costs would have had to be paid by Jansch personally, which he simply could not afford, so the case was never pursued. The arrangement and recording of Jack Orion was greatly influenced by Jansch's friend, singer Anne Briggs.
In London, Jansch met other innovative acoustic guitar players, including John Renbourn, with whom he shared a flat in Kilburn, Davy Graham, Wizz Jones, Roy Harper and Paul Simon. They would all meet and play in various London music clubs, including the Troubadour in Old Brompton Road, and Les Cousins club in Greek Street, Soho. Renbourn and Jansch frequently played together, developing their own intricate interplay between the two guitars, often referred to as "Folk baroque".
In 1966, they recorded the Bert and John album together, featuring much of this material. Late in 1967, they tired of the all-nighters at Les Cousins and became the resident musicians at a music venue set up by Bruce Dunnet, a Scottish entrepreneur, at the Horseshoe pub (now defunct), at 264–267 Tottenham Court Road. This became the haunt of a number of musicians, including the singer Sandy Denny. Another singer, Jacqui McShee, began performing with the two guitarists and, with the addition of Danny Thompson (string bass) and Terry Cox (drums), they formed the group Pentangle. The venue evolved into a jazz club, but by then the group had moved on.
On 19 October 1968, Jansch married Heather Sewell. At the time, she was an art student and had been the girlfriend of Roy Harper. She inspired several of Jansch's songs and instrumentals, the most obvious being "Miss Heather Rosemary Sewell" from his 1968 album Birthday Blues, but Jansch says that, despite the name, "M'Lady Nancy" from the 1971 Rosemary Lane album was also written for her. As Heather Jansch, she became a well-known sculptor.
Pentangle years: 1968–73
Pentangle's first major concert was at the Royal Festival Hall in 1967, and their first album, The Pentangle, was released in the following year. Pentangle embarked on a demanding schedule of touring the world and recording and, during this period, Jansch largely gave up solo performances. He did, however, continue to record, releasing Rosemary Lane in 1971. The tracks for this album were recorded on a portable tape recorder by Bill Leader at Jansch's cottage in Ticehurst, Sussex—a process which took several months, with Jansch only working when he was in the right mood.
Pentangle reached their highest point of commercial success with the release of their Basket of Light album in 1969. The single "Light Flight", taken from the album, became popular through its use as theme music for a TV drama series, Take Three Girls, for which the band also provided incidental music. In 1970, at the peak of their popularity, they recorded a soundtrack for the film Tam Lin, made at least 12 television appearances, and undertook tours of the UK (including the Isle of Wight Festival) and America (including a concert at Carnegie Hall). However, their fourth album, Cruel Sister, released in October 1970, was a commercial disaster. This was an album of traditional songs that included a 20-minute-long version of "Jack Orion", a song that Jansch and Renbourn had recorded previously as a duo on Jansch's Jack Orion album.
Pentangle recorded two further albums, but the strains of touring and of working together as a band were taking their toll. Then Pentangle withdrew from their record company, Transatlantic, in a bitter dispute regarding royalties. The final album of the original incarnation of Pentangle was Solomon's Seal released by Warner Brothers/Reprise in 1972. Colin Harper describes it as "a record of people's weariness, but also the product of a unit whose members were still among the best players, writers and musical interpreters of their day." Pentangle split up in January 1973, and Jansch and his wife bought a farm near Lampeter, in Wales, and withdrew temporarily from the concert circuit.
Mid 1970s
Jansch spent two or three years in California in the mid-1970s. He recorded most of his 1974 album LA Turnaround and 1975 album Santa Barbara Honeymoon while there. The making of LA Turnaround was documented in a film produced by Mike Nesmith.
Late 1970s
After two years as a farmer, Jansch left his wife and family and returned to music, although Jansch and his wife would not be formally divorced until 1988. In 1977, he recorded the album A Rare Conundrum with a new set of musicians: Mike Piggott, Rod Clements and Pick Withers. He then formed the band Conundrum with the addition of Martin Jenkins (violin) and Nigel Smith (bass). They spent six months touring Australia, Japan and the United States. With the end of the tour, Conundrum parted company and Jansch spent six months in the United States, where he recorded the Heartbreak album with Albert Lee.
Jansch toured Scandinavia, working as a duo with Martin Jenkins and, based on ideas they developed, recorded the Avocet album (initially released in Denmark). Jansch rated this as among his own favourites from his own recordings. On returning to England, he set up Bert Jansch's Guitar Shop at 220, New King's Road, Fulham. The shop specialised in hand-built acoustic guitars but was not a commercial success and closed after two years.
1980s
In 1980, an Italian promoter encouraged the original Pentangle to reform for a tour and a new album. The reunion started badly, with Terry Cox being injured in a car accident, resulting in the band's debuting at the Cambridge Folk Festival as a four-piece Pentangle. They managed to complete a tour of Italy (with Cox in a wheelchair) and Australia, before Renbourn left the band in 1983. There then followed a series of personnel changes, including Mike Piggott replacing John Renbourn from 1983 to 1987 and recording Open the Door and In the Round, but ultimately leaving Jansch and McShee as the only original members. The final incarnation consisting of Jansch, McShee, Nigel Portman Smith (keyboards), Peter Kirtley (guitar and vocals) and Gerry Conway (drums) survived from 1987 to 1995 and recorded three albums: Think of Tomorrow, One More Road and Live 1994.
In 1985, two limited edition albums appeared, issued under the name of Loren Auerbach, who was to become Jansch's wife: After the Long Night was released in February 1985, the second, Playing the Game, appearing in October. Jansch was initially a guest player, but also became a writer on some of the songs, as well as an arranger and co-vocalist. Richard Newman was the primary guitarist and songwriter. Auerbach had worked alongside Newman for many years before meeting Jansch. Newman and Jansch were the key players on After the Long Night. On Playing the Game, Jansch and Newman joined Cliff Aungier, Geoff Bradford (lead guitarist from Cyril Davis' All Stars, from Long John Baldry's Hoochie Coochie Men, and in the first line-up of The Rolling Stones) and Brian Knight (British blues veteran of the Blues By Six). The two albums became one—After The Long Night / Playing The Game. Jansch played guitar with Richard Newman on the following Newman songs: "I Can't Go Back", "Smiling Faces", "Playing the Game", "Sorrow", "Days and Nights", "The Rainbow Man", "Frozen Beauty", "Christabel", "So Lonely" and "The Miller". All songs were sung by Auerbach with the exception of "The Miller", which was sung by Newman. Jansch married Auerbach in 1999.
He had always been a heavy drinker, but in 1987 Jansch fell ill while working with Rod Clements and Marty Craggs, and was rushed to hospital, where he was told that he was "as seriously ill as you can be without dying" and that he had a choice of "giving up alcohol or simply giving up." He chose the former option: Colin Harper states that "There can be no doubt that Bert's creativity, reliability, energy, commitment and quality of performance were all rescued dramatically by the decision to quit boozing." Jansch and Clements continued the work they had started before Jansch's illness, resulting in the 1988 Leather Launderette album.
Final years and death: 1992–2011
Bert was the prime mover in the Acoustic Routes film, first broadcast by the BBC in 1992. It shows him revisiting his old haunts and reminiscing with guests such as Al Stewart, Anne Briggs, John Renbourn, and Davy Graham.
From 1995, Jansch appeared frequently at the 12 Bar Club in Denmark Street, London. One of his live sets there was recorded direct to Digital Audio Tape (DAT) by Jansch's then manager, Alan King, and was released as the Live at the 12 Bar: an official bootleg album in 1996. In 2002, Jansch, Bernard Butler and Johnny "Guitar" Hodge performed live together at the Jazz Cafe, London. Butler had also appeared on Jansch's album of that year, Edge of a Dream, which features (among others) Ralph McTell and guitarist Paul Wassif. The instrumental "Black Cat Blues", featuring Wassif, appears in the 2003 film Calendar Girls, and Wassif became a frequent sideman at Bert's live shows. In 2003, Jansch celebrated his 60th birthday with a concert at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London. The BBC organised a concert for Jansch and various guests at the church of St Luke Old Street, which was televised on BBC Four.
In 2005, Jansch teamed up again with one of his early influences, Davy Graham, for a small number of concerts in England and Scotland. His concert tour had to be postponed, owing to illness, and Jansch underwent major heart surgery in late 2005. By 2006, he had recovered and was playing concerts again. Jansch's album The Black Swan, his first for four years, was released on Sanctuary on 18 September 2006, featuring Beth Orton and Devendra Banhart on tracks "Katie Cruel", "When the Sun Comes Up" and "Watch the Stars", among other guests. In 2007, he was featured on Babyshambles album, Shotter's Nation, playing acoustic guitar on the song "The Lost Art of Murder". After recording, he accompanied Babyshambles' lead singer Pete Doherty on several acoustic gigs, and performed on the Pete and Carl Reunion Gig, where Libertines and Dirty Pretty Things frontman and guitarist Carl Barât joined Doherty on stage.
In 2009, he played a concert at the London Jazz Cafe to celebrate the release of three of his older albums (LA Turnaround, Santa Barbara Honeymoon and A Rare Conundrum) on CD format. However, later that year, due to an unexpected illness, he had to cancel a 22-date North American tour that was due to start on 26 June. Jansch's website reported: "Bert is very sorry to be missing the tour, and apologises to all the fans who were hoping to see him. He is looking forward to rescheduling as soon as possible."
Jansch opened for Neil Young on his Twisted Road solo tour in the US and Canada, starting on 18 May 2010. He also performed at Eric Clapton's Crossroads festival in June 2010. These were Jansch's first shows since his illness. One of his last recording sessions was with Eric Clapton for Paul Wassif's 2011 album Looking Up Feeling Down. Jansch again opened for Young's 2011 tour, beginning on 15 April in Durham, North Carolina, and having a final solo performance in Chicago on 7 May. That same year, a few reunion gigs also took place with Pentangle, including performances at the Glastonbury Festival and one final concert at the Royal Festival Hall in London, which was also Jansch's last ever public performance.
Jansch died on 5 October 2011, aged 67, at a hospice in Hampstead after a long battle with lung cancer. His wife, Loren Jansch (née Auerbach), died of cancer on 9 December 2011. They are both buried in Highgate Cemetery.
Recognition and awards
In 2001, Jansch received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards, and on 5 June 2006, he received the MOJO Merit Award at the Mojo Honours List ceremony, based on "an expanded career that still continues to be inspirational." The award was presented by Beth Orton and Roy Harper. Rolling Stone ranked Jansch as No. 94 on its list of the 100 Greatest Guitarists of all Time in 2003.
In January 2007, the five original members of Pentangle (including Jansch) were given a Lifetime Achievement award at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards. The award was presented by Sir David Attenborough. Producer John Leonard said "Pentangle were one of the most influential groups of the late 20th century and it would be wrong for the awards not to recognise what an impact they had on the music scene." Pentangle played together for the event, for the first time in more than two decades, and their performance was broadcast on BBC Radio 2 on 7 February 2007. In 2007, Jansch was also awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music by Edinburgh Napier University, "in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the UK music industry."
Music
Jansch's musical influences included Big Bill Broonzy and Brownie McGhee, whom he first saw playing at The Howff in 1960 and, much later, claimed that he'd "still be a gardener" if he hadn't encountered McGhee and his music. Jansch was also strongly influenced by the British folk music tradition, particularly by Anne Briggs and, to a lesser extent, A.L. Lloyd. Other influences included jazz (notably Charles Mingus), early music (John Renbourn and Julian Bream) and other contemporary singer-songwriters – especially Clive Palmer. The other major influence was Davy Graham who, himself, brought together an eclectic mixture of musical styles. Also, in his formative years, Jansch had busked his way through Europe to Morocco, picking up musical ideas and rhythms from many sources. From these influences, he distilled his own individual guitar style.
Some of his songs feature a basic Travis picking style of right-hand playing, but these are often distinguished by unusual chord voicings or by chords with added notes. An example of this is his song "Needle of Death", which features a simple picking style, though several of the chords are decorated with added ninths. Characteristically, the ninths are not the highest note of the chord, but appear in the middle of the arpeggiated finger-picking, creating a "lumpiness" to the sound.
Another characteristic feature was his ability to hold a chord in the lower strings while bending an upper string—often bending up from a semitone below a chord note. These can be heard clearly on songs such as "Reynardine" where the bends are from the diminished fifth to the perfect fifth. Jansch often fitted the accompaniment to the natural rhythm of the words of his songs, rather than playing a consistent rhythm throughout. This can lead to occasional bars appearing in unusual time signatures. For example, his version of the Ewan MacColl song "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face", unlike most other covers of that song, switches from 4/4 time to 3/4 and 5/4. A similar disregard for conventional time signatures is found in several of his collaborative compositions with Pentangle: for instance, "Light Flight" from the Basket of Light album includes sections in 5/8, 7/8 and 6/4 time.
Instruments
Through the development of Pentangle, Jansch played a number of instruments: banjo, Appalachian dulcimer, recorder, and concertina—on rare occasions he was even known to play electric guitar. However, it is his acoustic guitar playing that was most notable.
Jansch's first guitar was home-made from a kit but when he left school and started work, he bought a Höfner cello-style guitar. Soon he traded this in for a Zenith which was marketed as the "Lonnie Donegan guitar" and which Jansch played in the folk clubs in the early 1960s. His first album was reputedly recorded using a Martin 00028 borrowed from Martin Carthy. Pictures of Jansch in the middle 1960s show him playing a variety of models, including Martin and Epiphone guitars. He had a guitar hand-built by John Bailey, which was used for most of the Pentangle recordings but was eventually stolen.
Jansch later played two six-string guitars built by the Coventry-based luthier Rob Armstrong, one of which appears on the front and back covers of the 1980 Shanachie release, Best of Bert Jansch. He then had a contract with Yamaha, who provided him with an FG1500 which he played, along with a Yamaha LL11 1970s jumbo guitar. Jansch's relationship with Yamaha continued and they presented him with an acoustic guitar with gold trim and abalone inlay for his 60th birthday—although Jansch was quoted as saying that, valued at about £3000, it was too good for stage use.
Influence
Jansch's music, and particularly his acoustic guitar playing, have influenced a range of well-known musicians. His first album (Bert Jansch, 1965) was much admired, with Jimmy Page saying, "At one point, I was absolutely obsessed with Bert Jansch. When I first heard that LP, I couldn't believe it. It was so far ahead of what everyone else was doing. No one in America could touch that." The same debut album included Jansch's version of the Davy Graham instrumental "Angie". This was a favourite of Mike Oldfield, who practised acoustic guitar alone as a child, and was then heavily influenced by Jansch's style. The title of the instrumental inspired Oldfield to call his first band (with sister Sally) the Sallyangie.
Jansch's version of "Angie" inspired Paul Simon's recording of the piece, which was retitled "Anji" and appeared on the Simon & Garfunkel album Sounds of Silence. From the same era, Neil Young is quoted as saying: "As much of a great guitar player as Jimi [Hendrix] was, Bert Jansch is the same thing for acoustic guitar... and my favourite." Nick Drake and Donovan were both admirers of Jansch. Both recorded cover versions of his songs, and Donovan went on to dedicate two of his own songs to Jansch: "Bert's Blues" appeared on his Sunshine Superman LP, and "House of Jansch" on his fourth album Mellow Yellow. Other tributes included Gordon Giltrap's album Janschology (2000) which has two tunes by Jansch, plus two others that show his influence.
Discography
References
Bibliography
Harper, Colin: Dazzling Stranger: Bert Jansch and the British Folk and Blues Revival (2000, Bloomsbury) (pbk)
Kennedy, Doug: The Songs and Guitar Solos of Bert Jansch, New Punchbowl Music, 1983. Although this is a book of music, it contains a great deal of biographical information and photographs of Bert Jansch.
External links
Bert Jansch website
Bert Jansch Complete Discography at the Folk Blues & Beyond website
Acoustic Magazine The UK's only dedicated Acoustic magazine – cover feature with Bert Jansch
Bert Jansch tablature page, from Ultimate Guitar
Interview with Bert Jansch on Trilogy Rock (Spain)
1943 births
2011 deaths
Acoustic guitarists
Appalachian dulcimer players
British blues guitarists
British folk rock musicians
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Deaths from cancer in England
Transatlantic Records artists
Charisma Records artists
Drag City (record label) artists
Fingerstyle guitarists
Scottish buskers
Scottish folk musicians
Scottish male guitarists
21st-century Scottish male singers
Scottish people of German-Jewish descent
People educated at Ainslie Park High School
Deaths from lung cancer
Pentangle (band) members
Musicians from Edinburgh
People from Ticehurst
20th-century Scottish male singers
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Ricci v. DeStefano, 557 U.S. 557 (2009), is a United States labor law case of the United States Supreme Court on unlawful discrimination through disparate impact under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Twenty city firefighters at the New Haven Fire Department, nineteen white and one Hispanic, passed the test for promotion to a management position, yet the city declined to promote them because none of the black firefighters who took the same test scored high enough to be considered for promotion. New Haven officials invalidated the test results because they feared a lawsuit over the test's disproportionate exclusion of a certain racial group (blacks) from promotion under a disparate impact cause of action. The twenty non-black firefighters claimed discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
The Supreme Court held 5–4 that New Haven's decision to ignore the test results violated Title VII because the city did not have a "strong basis in evidence" that it would have subjected itself to disparate impact liability if it had promoted the white and Hispanic firefighters instead of the black firefighters. Because the plaintiffs won under their Title VII claim, the Court did not consider the plaintiffs' argument that New Haven violated the constitutional right to equal protection.
Facts
In late 2003, the New Haven Fire Department had seven openings for Captain and eight openings for Lieutenant. To fill the open positions, it needed to administer civil service examinations. The examinations consisted of two parts: a written examination and an oral examination.
The examinations were governed in part by the City of New Haven's contract with the firefighters' union (which stated that the written exam result counted for 60% of an applicant's score and the oral exam for 40%, and that a total score above 70% on the exam would constitute a passing score). The final selection would be governed by a provision in the City Charter referred to as the "Rule of Three", which mandated that a civil service position be filled from among the three individuals with the highest scores on the exam.
Examinations
The New Haven Department of Human Resources issued an RFP for these examinations, as a result of which I/O Solutions ("IOS") designed the examinations. The examinations were administered in November and December 2003; 118 firefighters took the examinations (77 took the lieutenant exam and 41 took the captain exam).
When the results came back, the pass rate for black candidates was approximately half that of the corresponding rate for white candidates:
The pass rate for the captain exam was: 16 (64%) of the 25 whites; 3 (38%) of the 8 blacks; and 3 (38%) of the 8 Hispanics. Under the city charter's "Rule of Three", the top 9 scorers would be eligible for promotion to the 7 open captain positions. The top 9 scorers consisted of 7 whites, 2 Hispanics, and no blacks.
The pass rate for the lieutenant exam was: 25 (58%) of the 43 whites; 6 (32%) of the 19 blacks; 3 (20%) of the 15 Hispanics. Under the city charter's "Rule of Three", the top 10 scorers would be eligible for promotion to the 8 open lieutenant positions. The top 10 scorers were all white.
Parties
Ricci and eighteen other white test takers, plus one Hispanic, all of whom would have qualified for consideration for the promotions, sued the city including Mayor John DeStefano, Jr. The lead plaintiff was Frank Ricci, a decorated firefighter who had served at the New Haven station for 11 years. Ricci gave up a second job to make time to study for the test. Because he has dyslexia, he paid an acquaintance $1,000 to read his textbooks onto audiotapes. Ricci also made flashcards, took practice tests, worked with a study group, and participated in mock interviews. He placed 6th among 77 people who took the lieutenant's test; thus, under the "Rule of Three", Ricci would have been eligible for promotion.
Lt. Ben Vargas, the lone Hispanic petitioner, was ridiculed as an "Uncle Tom", a "turncoat", and a "token". After speaking with black co-workers in Humphrey's East Restaurant in 2004, he was assaulted from behind in the bathroom, knocked unconscious, and hospitalized. He alleged the attack was orchestrated by a black firefighter in retribution for filing the legal case, but the co-worker in question strongly denied the charge. Vargas quit the Hispanic firefighters' association, whose members include his brother, after the group declined to support his legal case.
In addition to Ricci and Vargas, other firefighters were equally involved and were named plaintiffs: Steven Durand, Greg Boivin, Mark Vendetto, John Vendetto, Kevin Roxbee, James Kottage, Matthew Marcarelli, Edward Riordan, Sean Patten, Brian Jooss, Michael Christoforo, Timothy Scanlon, Ryan DiVito, Christopher Parker, Michael Blatchley, William Gambardella, Thomas Michaels, and Gary Carbone. The press dubbed the group the 'New Haven 20.'
Claims
Among other things, the suit alleged that, by discarding the test results, the City and the named officials discriminated against the plaintiffs based on their race, in violation of both Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 78 Stat. 253, as amended, 42 U. S. C. §2000e et seq., and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The City and the officials defended their actions, arguing that if they had certified the results, they could have faced liability under Title VII for adopting a practice that had a disparate impact on the minority firefighters.
Judgment
District Court
Judge Janet Bond Arterton in the federal district court ruled for the city, granting its motion for summary judgment.
Second Circuit
On appeal, a three-judge panel of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals (Pooler, Sack and Sotomayor, C.JJ.) heard arguments in this case of discrimination. Judge Sotomayor (who was subsequently elevated to Associate Justice to the U.S. Supreme Court) vigorously questioned the attorneys in the case, and repeatedly discussed whether the city had a right to attempt to reformulate its test if it was afraid that the original test was discriminatory or that it would result in litigation. The three-judge panel affirmed the district court's ruling in a summary order, without opinion, on February 15, 2008.
After a judge on the Second Circuit requested that the court hear the case en banc, however, the panel withdrew its summary order. On June 9, 2008 it issued instead a unanimous per curiam opinion. The panel's June 9, 2008 per curiam opinion was eight sentences long. It characterized the trial court's decision as "thorough, thoughtful and well-reasoned" while also lamenting that there were "no good alternatives" in the case. The panel expressed sympathy with the plaintiffs' situation, particularly Ricci's, but ultimately concluded that the Civil Service Board was acting to "fulfill its obligations under Title VII [of the Civil Rights Act]." The panel concluded by adopting the trial court's opinion in its entirety.
A petition for a rehearing en banc was denied on June 12, 2008 by a vote of 7–6. Judge José Cabranes and Chief Judge Dennis Jacobs wrote opinions in dissent from the denial of rehearing, urging review by the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court granted certiorari and heard oral arguments on April 22, 2009.
Supreme Court
The Court held the city of New Haven violated the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by discarding the test scores. It said the city failed to establish any "genuine dispute that the examinations were job-related and consistent with business necessity." In the majority's view, the employer should have "demonstrate[d] a strong basis in evidence that, had it not taken the action, it would have been liable under the disparate-impact statute."
The Supreme Court upheld the fairness and validity of the examinations that IOS developed and administered. IOS is an Illinois company that specializes in designing entry-level examinations and promotional examinations for fire and police departments; and other public safety and corporate organizations. The Court cited examples of how the IOS test design, criteria, and methodology included: interviews, observations, education, test format compliance, and independent assessors. With that information, IOS produced a test that reduced adverse impact to the protected class.
Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote, "In order to fit the examinations to the New Haven Department, IOS began the test-design process by performing job analyses to identify the tasks, knowledge, skills, and abilities that are essential for the lieutenant and captain positions."
The process that IOS used to design their test for the job analyses portion included interviews of incumbent captains and lieutenants and their supervisors, and ride-along observations of other on-duty officers. Using that information, IOS wrote job-analysis questionnaires and administered them to most of the incumbent battalion chiefs, captains, and lieutenants in the Department.
"
Kennedy J continued, "At every stage of the job analysis, IOS, by deliberate choice, over-sampled minority firefighters to ensure that the results which IOS would use to develop the examinations—would not intentionally favor white candidates."
Kennedy J included in the Opinion the following procedures IOS used to develop the written examinations to measure the candidates' job-related knowledge. "IOS compiled a list of training manuals, Department procedures, and other materials to use as sources for the test questions and received approval from the New Haven fire chief and assistant fire chief. Then, using the approved sources, IOS drafted a 100 question multiple-choice test written below a 10th-grade reading level. The City then opened a 3-month study period in which it gave candidates a list that identified the source material (or references list) for the questions, including the specific chapters from which the questions were taken."
IOS also developed the oral examinations that concentrated on job skills and abilities. Using the job-analysis information, IOS wrote hypothetical situations to test incident-command skills, firefighting tactics, interpersonal skills, leadership, and management ability, among other things. Candidates were then asked these hypotheticals and had to respond to a panel of three assessors.
The Court agreed that IOS demonstrated due diligence by, "assembling a pool of 30 assessors who were superior in rank to the positions being tested. At the City's insistence (because of controversy surrounding previous examinations), all the assessors came from outside Connecticut. "IOS submitted the assessors' resumes to City officials for approval. They were battalion chiefs, assistant chiefs, and fire chiefs from departments of similar sizes to New Haven's throughout the country. Sixty-six percent of the panelists were minorities, and each of the nine three-member assessment panels contained two minority members. They received training on how to score the candidates' responses consistently using checklists of desired criteria.
Section II-A reiterated the doctrines underlying a disparate-treatment claim.
First, Kennedy rejected arguments that the City did not discriminate. It engaged in "express, race-based decisionmaking" (i.e., disparate treatment/intentional discrimination) when it declined to certify the examination results because of the statistical disparity based on race — "i.e., how minority candidates had performed when compared to white candidates". The District Court was wrong to argue that respondents' "motivation to avoid making promotions based on a test with a racially disparate impact ... does not, as a matter of law, constitute discriminatory intent." "That argument turns upon the City's objective — avoiding disparate-impact liability — while ignoring the City's conduct in the name of reaching that objective."
Second, Kennedy examined the statutory framework of Title VII, to determine whether Title VII's proscription of disparate treatment is afforded any lawful justifications in the disparate impact provision that it seems to conflict with. Looking to analogous Equal Protection cases, he reached the statutory construction that, in instances of conflict between the disparate-treatment and disparate-impact provisions, permissible justifications for disparate treatment must be grounded in the strong-basis-in-evidence standard.
He concluded that "once [a] process has been established and employers have made clear their selection criteria, they may not then invalidate the test results, thus upsetting an employee's legitimate expectation not to be judged on the basis of race. Doing so, absent a strong basis in evidence of an impermissible disparate impact, amounts to the sort of racial preference that Congress has disclaimed, §2000e–2(j), and is antithetical to the notion of a workplace where individuals are guaranteed equal opportunity regardless of race."
He rejected petitioners' "strict approach," that under Title VII, "avoiding unintentional discrimination cannot justify intentional discrimination." That assertion ignores the fact that, by codifying the disparate-impact provision in 1991, Congress has expressly prohibited both types of discrimination, and would render a statutory provision "a dead letter".
He rejected petitioners' suggestion that an employer "must be in violation of the disparate-impact provision before it can use compliance as a defense in a disparate-treatment suit." This rule would run counter to what we have recognized as Congress's intent that "voluntary compliance" be "the preferred means of achieving the objectives of Title VII."
He rejected the respondents' position that "an employer's good-faith belief that its actions are necessary to comply with Title VII's disparate-impact provision should be enough to justify race-conscious conduct." This position would ignore "the original, foundational prohibition of Title VII," which bars employers from taking adverse action "because of ... race." §2000e–2(a)(1); and when Congress codified the disparate-impact provision in 1991, it made no exception to disparate-treatment liability for actions taken in a good-faith effort to comply with the new, disparate-impact provision in subsection (k). Respondents' policy would encourage race-based action at the slightest hint of disparate impact — e.g. causing employers to discard the results of lawful and beneficial promotional examinations even where there is little if any evidence of disparate-impact discrimination — which would amount to a de facto quota system, in which a "focus on statistics ... could put undue pressure on employers to adopt inappropriate prophylactic measures." "That operational principle could not be justified, for Title VII is express in disclaiming any interpretation of its requirements as calling for outright racial balancing." §2000e–2(j). The purpose of Title VII "is to promote hiring on the basis of job qualifications, rather than on the basis of race or color."
He cited Justice Powell who, announcing the strong-basis-in-evidence standard for the plurality in Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education, recognized the tension between eliminating segregation and discrimination on the one hand and doing away with all governmentally imposed discrimination based on race on the other, stating that those "related constitutional duties are not always harmonious," and that "reconciling them requires ... employers to act with extraordinary care." The plurality required a strong basis in evidence because "[e]videntiary support for the conclusion that remedial action is warranted becomes crucial when the remedial program is challenged in court by nonminority employees." The Court applied the same standard in Richmond v. J. A. Croson Co., observing that "an amorphous claim that there has been past discrimination ... cannot justify the use of an unyielding racial quota."
The same interests are at work in the interplay between the disparate-treatment and disparate-impact provisions of Title VII: Congress imposes liability on employers for unintentional discrimination, in order to rid the work-place of "practices that are fair in form, but discriminatory in operation." But Congress also prohibits employers from taking adverse employment actions "because of" race. Applying the strong-basis-in-evidence standard to Title VII gives effect to both provisions, allowing violations of one in the name of compliance with the other only in certain, narrow circumstances.
The standard leaves ample room for employers' voluntary compliance efforts, which are essential to the statutory scheme and to Congress's efforts to eradicate workplace discrimination. See Firefighters, supra, at 515.
And the standard appropriately constrains employers' discretion in making race-based decisions: It limits that discretion to cases in which there is a strong basis in evidence of disparate-impact liability, but it is not so restrictive that it allows employers to act only when there is a provable, actual violation.
Resolving the statutory conflict in this way allows the disparate-impact prohibition to work in a manner that is consistent with other provisions of Title VII, including the prohibition on adjusting employment-related test scores on the basis of race. See §2000e–2(l). Examinations like those administered by the City create legitimate expectations on the part of those who took the tests. As is the case with any promotion exam, some of the firefighters here invested substantial time, money, and personal commitment in preparing for the tests. Employment tests can be an important part of a neutral selection system that safeguards against the very racial animosities Title VII was intended to prevent. Here, however, the firefighters saw their efforts invalidated by the City in sole reliance upon race-based statistics. If an employer cannot rescore a test based on the candidates' race, §2000e–2(l), then it follows a fortiori that it may not take the greater step of discarding the test altogether to achieve a more desirable racial distribution of promotion-eligible candidates — absent a strong basis in evidence that the test was deficient and that discarding the results is necessary to avoid violating the disparate-impact provision. Restricting an employer's ability to discard test results (and thereby discriminate against qualified candidates on the basis of their race) also is in keeping with Title VII's express protection of bona fide promotional examinations.
Next, Kennedy inquired whether the city's justifications for its disparate-treatment discrimination met this strong basis in evidence standard. He concluded that they did not: "Even if respondents were motivated as a subjective matter by a desire to avoid committing disparate-impact discrimination ... [t]here is no evidence — let alone the required strong basis in evidence — that the tests were flawed because they were not job-related or because other, equally valid and less discriminatory tests were available to the City. Fear of litigation alone cannot justify an employer's reliance on race to the detriment of individuals who passed the examinations and qualified for promotions."
The test results produced significant racial adverse impact, and confronted the City with a prima facie case of disparate-impact liability. That compelled them to "take a hard look at the examinations" to determine whether certifying the results would have had an impermissible disparate impact. The problem for respondents is that a prima facie case of disparate-impact liability — essentially, a threshold showing of a significant statistical disparity, and nothing more — is far from a strong basis in evidence that the City would have been liable under Title VII had it certified the results. That is because the City could be liable for disparate-impact discrimination only if the examinations were not job related and consistent with business necessity, or if there existed an equally valid, less-discriminatory alternative that served the City's needs but that the City refused to adopt. §2000e–2(k)(1)(A), (C). Neither condition holds:
He found no genuine dispute that the examinations were job-related and consistent with business necessity. The City's assertions to the contrary are "blatantly contradicted by the record." (Section II-C-1)
He found that respondents also lacked a strong basis in evidence of an equally valid, less-discriminatory testing alternative that the City, by certifying the examination results, would necessarily have refused to adopt. (Section II-C-2.)
Respondents raise three arguments to the contrary, but each argument fails.
First, respondents refer to testimony before the CSB that a different composite-score calculation — weighting the written and oral examination scores 30/70 — would have allowed the City to consider two black candidates for then-open lieutenant positions and one black candidate for then-open captain positions. (The City used a 60/40 weighting as required by its contract with the New Haven firefighters' union.) But respondents have produced no evidence to show that the 60/40 weighting was indeed arbitrary. In fact, because that formula was the result of a union-negotiated collective bargaining agreement, we presume the parties negotiated that weighting for a rational reason.
Second, respondents argue that the City could have adopted a different interpretation of the "rule of three" that would have produced less discriminatory results. Respondents claim that employing "banding" here would have made four black and one Hispanic candidates eligible for then-open lieutenant and captain positions. But banding was not a valid alternative for this reason: Had the City reviewed the exam results and then adopted banding to make the minority test scores appear higher, it would have violated Title VII's prohibition of adjusting test results on the basis of race.
Third, and finally, respondents refer to statements by Hornick in his telephone interview with the CSB regarding alternatives to the written examinations. But when the strong-basis-in-evidence standard applies, respondents cannot create a genuine issue of fact based on a few stray (and contradictory) statements in the record. And there is no doubt respondents fall short of the mark by relying entirely on isolated statements by Hornick.
He concluded: The record in this litigation documents a process that, at the outset, had the potential to produce a testing procedure that was true to the promise of Title VII: No individual should face workplace discrimination based on race. Respondents thought about promotion qualifications and relevant experience in neutral ways. They were careful to ensure broad racial participation in the design of the test itself and its administration. As we have discussed at length, the process was open and fair. The problem, of course, is that after the tests were completed, the raw racial results became the predominant rationale for the City's refusal to certify the results. The injury arises in part from the high, and justified, expectations of the candidates who had participated in the testing process on the terms the City had established for the promotional process. Many of the candidates had studied for months, at considerable personal and financial expense, and thus the injury caused by the City's reliance on raw racial statistics at the end of the process was all the more severe. Confronted with arguments both for and against certifying the test results — and threats of a lawsuit either way — the City was required to make a difficult inquiry. But its hearings produced no strong evidence of a disparate-impact violation, and the City was not entitled to disregard the tests based solely on the racial disparity in the results.
Our holding today clarifies how Title VII applies to resolve competing expectations under the disparate-treatment and disparate-impact provisions. If, after it certifies the test results, the City faces a disparate-impact suit, then in light of our holding today it should be clear that the City would avoid disparate-impact liability based on the strong basis in evidence that, had it not certified the results, it would have been subject to disparate-treatment liability.
Concurrence
Justice Scalia held the Court declined to clarify the conflict between Title VII's disparate-impact provisions and the Constitution's guarantee of equal protection. Specifically, although the Court clarified that the disparate-treatment provisions forbid "remedial" race-based actions when a disparate-impact violation would not otherwise result, "it is clear that Title VII not only permits but affirmatively requires such [remedial race-based] actions" when such a violation would result. In the latter situations, Title VII's disparate-impact provisions "place a racial thumb on the scales, often requiring employers to evaluate the racial outcomes of their policies, and to make decisions based on (because of) those racial outcomes." "That type of racial decision making is, as the Court explains, discriminatory."
Dissent
Ginsburg, joined by Stevens, Souter and Breyer, dissented. They would have held that New Haven was entitled to refrain from promoting the white firefighters, and its concern of being open to litigation – whether or not accurate – was legitimate.
Significance
New Haven reinstated the examination results and promoted 14 of the 20 firefighters within months of the decision. The city settled the lawsuit by paying $2 million to the firefighter plaintiffs; giving each promotable individual three years of "service time" towards their pension; and paying their attorney, Karen Lee Torre, $3 million in fees and costs.
This case has been criticized by those who say that the decision neither accounted for other potential remedies' ineffectiveness nor was called for based on the history of the case. One hypothesis is that the court was looking for a case that raised an issue having to do with racial discrimination, as it has before in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 and Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. 1 v. Holder.
See also
US labor law
Boise Kimber
Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
United Steelworkers v. Weber
Marino v. Ortiz
Piscataway v. Taxman
Hayden v. County of Nassau (2d Cir. 1999)
Bushey v. N.Y. State Civil Serv. Comm'n (2nd Cir. 1984)
Kirkland v. New York State Department of Correctional Services (2nd Cir. 1983)
Washington v. Davis
Wygant v. Jackson Bd. of Ed.
Watson v. Fort Worth Bank & Trust
City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 557
List of United States Supreme Court cases
Notes
External links
Scotus wiki – briefs, documents, and analysis
The website of the plaintiffs
United States affirmative action case law
United States employment discrimination case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court
United States labor case law
2009 in United States case law
African-American people
Government of New Haven, Connecticut
Firefighting in Connecticut
United States racial discrimination case law
Legal history of Connecticut
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Racism has been a recurring part of the history of Europe. A study of social attitudes conducted at Harvard University from 2002 to 2015 has mapped the countries in Europe with the highest incidents of racial bias, based on data from 288,076 Europeans. It used the Implicit-association test (a reaction-based psychological test that is designed to measure implicit racial bias). The weakest racial bias was found in Serbia and Slovenia, and the strongest racial bias was found in the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Malta, Moldova, Bulgaria, Italy, Slovakia, and Portugal.
Austria
There has been racism in various parts of Austria. Since the start of the European migrant crisis in 2015, there has been increase in the number of cases of racism.
Belarus
Bulgaria
On 9 October 1992, the Bulgarian president signed the Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, signaling a new commitment to uphold minority rights.
In 2011 the parliamentary party Ataka, identifying itself as nationalist, attacked the mosque in the center of Sofia during the Friday prayer. In 2013 one of the leaders of another nationalist party, VMRO, Angel Djambasky was put under investigation for calling the people to arm themselves against the immigrants.
At least 6 racist crimes are perpetrated between 3 and 13 November of every year.
112 intellectuals sign a petition to the attorney general not to register the party Ataka, which was rejected by the attorney general.
In October 2019, Bulgarian supporters shouted racist abuse towards Black English footballers during a match.
Cyprus
The National Popular Front, or National People's Front (Greek: Εθνικό Λαϊκό Μέτωπο (ΕΛΑΜ), Ethniko Laiko Metopo ELAM (Cyprus)), is an ultranationalist movement (and later, political party) founded in 2008 in the Republic of Cyprus. The party has been the subject of controversy in the Cypriot media and broader political scene. It has been repeatedly accused of promoting racism and being involved in acts of violence. In 2021, the World Population Review rated Cyprus the most racist country in the European Union.
Denmark
Pew Research Center ranks Denmark as the third most racist in western Europe. 29% are intolerant of black people, Jews, Muslims, Romas or gays. 72% rated Romas as "totally negative" while 45% had negative feelings towards Muslims. In 2014 it was reported that Adoptees with foreign background are often racially abused.
Young non-ethnic Danes have complained that some police officers have acted in a racist manner.
Estonia
In the mid-2010s, NATO soldiers from the U.S. stationed in Estonia as part of Enhanced Forward Presence were subject to racist attacks by local civilians, resulting in condemnations from the Estonian Air Force's commander, Jaak Tarien, and the U.S. embassy's chargé d'affaires. Some Estonians, particularly from the Conservative People's Party, voiced their displeasure at the condemnations.
The Conservative People's Party of Estonia has been described by critics as xenophobic and racist.
Finland
Reports say that racial hate crime is a recent phenomenon, and that they are on the rise. The numbers of reported hate crimes in 2003 and 2004 were 522 and 558, respectively. In 2009, they had increased to over 1 000 (including non-racist hate crimes). Racial hate crimes have fluctuated from 858 (2009) to 641 (2012) and the typical suspect have been a Finnish-born young man. However, over 60% of the targets were reported to have been Finland-born, although those with foreign-born parents were counted as well. The most targeted immigrants in 2004 were reported to be of Somali, Kurdish, Russian, Iraqi and Iranian origin. One-third of the hate crimes were reportedly aimed at the Kale, and only one in six were members of the native population.
In European Social Surveys since 2002, Finns have proved to be least racist just after Swedes. Earlier Finnish scientific data reveals that attitudes had been improving continuously for a long time. Professor of Social Policy and responsible of Finnish ESS, Heikki Ervasti, denies a common thought of increased negative attitudes against immigrants.
A poll made in late 2011 revealed that the majority of the Finns viewed Finland as a racist country. Two thirds considered the country to be fairly racist, 12% recognised a moderate amount of racism, and 2% admitted to be very racist; 35% agreed partly or wholly to the statement "Islam is a threat to Western values and democracy", and 29% agreed more or less to that "people belonging to certain races simply are not suited to live in a modern society". One in five thought "it needs to be recognised as a fact that some nations are more intelligent than others", and 11% agreed partly or completely to "people whose appearance and culture differ much from those of the Finns are unpredictable and frightening".
Of the countries in the European Union Finland tops the list of countries with the most racism.
France
Jewish leaders perceive an intensifying anti-Semitism in France, mainly among Muslims of Arab or Berber heritage.
In 1998 the Council of Europe's European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) made a report stating concern about racist activities in France and accused the French authorities of not doing enough to combat this. The report and other groups have expressed concern about organizations like Front National (France). In a recent Pew Survey, 47% of the French deem immigration from Central and Eastern Europe (mainly from Poland, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia and Romania, including Slavic and Romani people) to be a very bad thing. Likewise, the majority of French respondents revealed negative views on the immigration of Muslims from Africa and Middle East. A small minority showed signs of anti-Semitism. Roughly 11% had an unfavorable view of Jews and 8% felt that US policy was most influenced by the Jews.
Germany
The period after Germany lost World War I led to an increased use of anti-Semitism and other forms of racism in political discourse, for example among the right-wing Freikorps, emotions that finally culminated in the ascent to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1933. The Nazi racial policy and the Nuremberg Race Laws against Jews and other non-Aryans represented the most explicit racist policies in Europe in the twentieth century. These laws deprived all Jews including even half-Jews and quarter-Jews as well as other non-Aryans from German citizenship. Jews official title became "subject of the state". The Nuremberg Race Laws forbid racially mixed sexual relations and marriage between Aryans and at first Jews but was later extended to "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring". Such interracial relations became a criminal and punishable offence under the race laws known as "racial pollution" Rassenschande.
Greece
Golden Dawn emerged as a fringe movement when it was founded in the early 1980s and since then, it has evolved into a far-right group within Greece. Members of Golden Dawn have been accused of carrying out acts of violence as well as hate crimes against immigrants, political opponents, homosexuals and ethnic minorities. In late 2020, the party's leader, Nikolaos Michaloliakos, and six other prominent members and former MPs, were charged with running a criminal organization and guilty verdicts on charges of murder, attempted murder, and violent attacks on immigrants and left-wing political opponents were delivered and they were sent to prison.
Hungary
An EU report found that legal policies that should protect people from racism and xenophobia were "not implemented effectively", and it also found that Hungarian public officials denied the fact that racism and discrimination were a problem in their country, despite evidence to the contrary. It noted that such factors contributed to the increase in extremist ideologies in Hungarian politics and media. The Council of Europe has also criticized Hungary in a new report, condemning xenophobia and violence against migrants and minorities.
2013 FRA online survey shows a middle to high level of anti-Semitism in Hungary, compared to other European countries. The banned Hungarian Guard and some Jobbik politicians are sometimes described as xenophobic and racist.
As in other European countries, the Romani people faced disadvantages, including unequal treatment, discrimination, segregation and harassment. Negative stereotypes are often linked to the high level of unemployment among Romani people and their reliance on state benefits. In 2008 and 2009 nine attacks took place against Romani in Hungary, resulting in six deaths and multiple injuries. According to the Hungarian curia (supreme court), these murders were motivated by anti-Romani sentiment and sentenced the perpetrators to life imprisonment.
Ireland
Historically, the most serious racial problems in Ireland stemmed from the colonization of the country by the British, and the racist attitude of the colonists to the native Irish. The English considered themselves to be a distinct race from the Irish, who were classified as 'melanocroix', or 'half black' by Thomas Huxley. Depictions of the Irish in the popular British press throughout the centuries of British colonisation were noted for their portrayal of the Irish as subhuman. Laws suppressing Irish culture and enfranchisement, outlawing the use of the Irish language, education, and the practice of the Roman Catholicism were enforced during various periods from the 14th century onward (see Statutes of Kilkenny and Penal Laws (Ireland)).
20th century
During the second world war, although Ireland was officially neutral, Taoiseach Éamon de Valera was accused of sympathizing with and supporting the Nazi regime of Adolf Hitler in Germany. Following the death of Hitler in 1945, de Valera was one of many who signed a book of condolence and offered sympathies to the German ambassador at the Embassy in Dublin. This led to the belief among Allied leaders such as Churchill that de Valera and the Irish in general were supportive of the Nazi regime. The substantial influx of Nazi war criminals to Ireland following the war and their acceptance into society both officially by the Government of Ireland and by the general public also lead to claims Ireland was tolerant if not supportive of the Nazi regime. However, it must also be borne in mind that Germany had supplied guns to the Irish war of independence 20 years earlier, and so Irish sympathies to the Germans rather than their long-standing British oppressors can easily be understood in this way, rather than due to anti-semitism. (Main article: History of the Jews in Ireland).
In mid-twentieth century Ireland there was traditionally very little immigration in general to the Republic of Ireland, and hence little racial diversity, though in recent decades growing prosperity in the country (see: Celtic Tiger) attracted increasing numbers of immigrants, mainly from Central and Eastern Europe (primarily Poland), China and Sub-Saharan Africa. Also the absence of colonialist baggage has meant that foreign people are not drawn to Ireland by "mother country" factors that have affected other European countries. Descendants of Irish people who emigrated in the past also started moving to the country. Most immigrants have settled in Dublin and the other cities. Though these developments have been somewhat tolerated by most, there has been a steady rise in racist attitudes among some sections of society. A 2001 survey found that 51% of Irish people surveyed considered the country inherently racist and 60% of those in the 25 to 34 age-group considered "racism" to be an Irish trait. In 2005, Minister of State for Overseas Development, Conor Lenihan famously advised Socialist politician Joe Higgins to "stick with the kebabs" – referring to his campaigning on behalf of Turkish contract workers who had been paid less than the statutory minimum wage. The Minister later retracted his remarks and apologized. A 2008 EU-MIDIS survey of attitudes to minorities in the 27 EU States found that Ireland had the most racist attitudes to Afro-Europeans in the entire EU.
21st century
While most racist abuse in Ireland is verbal or confined to social media, violent hate crimes have occurred. In 2000, a white man was stabbed and seriously injured when defending his Jamaican-born wife from racist abuse by a group of adult men. In 2002, a Chinese man Zhao Liu Tao (29) was murdered in Dublin in what was described as the Republic of Ireland's first racially motivated murder. Later that year Leong Ly Min, a Vietnamese man who had lived in Dublin since 1979, was mortally wounded by two assailants who had been racially abusing him. In February 2008, two Polish mechanics, Paweł Kalita (29) and Mariusz Szwajkos (27) were attacked by a group of Dublin youths and died outside their home after each being stabbed in the head with a screwdriver. In 2010, 15-year-old schoolboy Toyosi Shittabey, born in Nigeria but brought up in Dublin, was killed. The only man to stand trial for the murder was acquitted on the direction of the trial Judge.
The Shelta or Irish Travellers, a nomadic ethnic group once speaking their own language, have also experienced persecution in past and modern times throughout Ireland.
The Mayor of Naas Darren Scully was forced to resign on 22 November 2011 over comments on live radio about the "aggressive attitude" of "black Africans".
In June 2020, Hazel Chu, a Green Party politician and Irish woman of Chinese heritage, was elected to the office of Lord Mayor of Dublin. In the run-up to the election, she was targeted by National Party leader Justin Barrett and he was captured in a video stating that if his party were to gain power, he would work to strip her of her citizenship, despite the fact she had been born in Ireland and lived there since birth. He stated, "She is an Irish citizen, I accept that, that is the law until we get the law in our own hands". Later, a Twitter account operated by Barrett's wife made disparaging and racist comments towards Chu. Chu, in response, stated that she refused to be intimidated by such tactics.
The Irish Network Against Racism raises awareness of and records incidents of racism in Ireland. Its report for 2020 documents 700 racist incidents, including graffiti, hate speech and assaults.
Italy
Italy has been classified as the most racist country in Western Europe.
Latvia
Lithuania
Netherlands
In 2006 the Dutch Equal Treatment Commission got 694 requests to judge if a treatment legislation law had been broken. By far the most cases concerned age discrimination (219), race discrimination followed (105) and lesser number of sex discrimination cases. The Dutch Equal Treatment Commission brought out 261 judgements; 46 per cent of the cases were declared discrimination.
In the early 2012 the Dutch right-wing Party for Freedom established an anti-Slavic (predominantly anti-Polish) and anti-Romani website, where native Dutch people could air their frustration about losing their job because of cheaper workers from Poland, Bulgaria, Romania and other non-Germanic Central and Eastern European countries. This led to commentaries involving hate speech and other racial prejudice mainly against Poles and Roma, but also aimed at other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups.
A Dutch immigrant to South Africa, Hendrik F. Verwoerd, intensified apartheid.
In a 2016 Pew Research Center survey conducted of the US and several European countries designed to measure countries' citizens acceptance of people of different ethnic groups, the Netherlands scored lowest for the percentage of people who said that having people of different races living in their country improved it, with the vast majority of Dutch respondents whether of liberal or conservative political leanings responding in the negative. In contrast, the US scored highest among all the countries surveyed, being more welcoming to people of different races and ethnic groups than even the highest-scoring European nation, the UK.
The researchers from the University of Amsterdam and Utrecht University conducted between 2016 and 2018 a research where they sent 4,200 job application letters to companies. The fictional applicants were between 23 and 25 years old, with four years of work experience who applied for real vacancies. All the applicants had a Dutch nationality, but the names and mother tongue of the applicants were adjusted. The conclusion was that Dutch people had the most chances of being invited for a job interview. The candidates with a Western immigrant background had 20% less chance of being invited. And the candidates who had a non-Western immigrant background faced the biggest discrimination with 40% of the applicants not being invited to a job interview. Especially applicants with a Turkish, Moroccan or Antillean background are discriminated against. A side note from the research was that during economic downturns there was an increased amount of discrimination. And applicants who were discriminated against with an improved CV didn't have a higher chance of being invited either.
Portrayals of "Zwarte Piet" in the Netherlands have been condemned by some as being racist in recent years.
The police have also been multiple times accused of jeopardizing the safety of anti-Zwarte Piet protest groups during violent attacks by pro-Zwarte Piet protest groups.
According to lawyer Jelle Klaas, the pro-Pete movement is starting to become more radicalized. And according to terrorism expert Teun Van Dongen, violence by the pro-Pete movement is becoming normalized. Because white supremacist groups like Pegida and football hooligans have joined the pro-Pete movement. Geert Wilders, leader of far-right populist party the PVV, was also accused of indirectly supporting the violence behavior of the pro-Pete movement by tweeting, "There is only 1 #blackpete and he/she is BLACK!" (Original: "Er is maar 1 #zwartepiet en die is ZWART!") after a violent attack by the pro-Pete movement against the anti-Pete movement.
Poland
Far-right marches have gathered 60,000 participants. Mostly families with kids, the elderly and normal people. Few houndred were chanting slogans like "We want God" and "Poland for Poles" as well as anti-semitic slogans. Poland also have a major problem with racist football hooligans.
The ruling Law and Justice party has been described as far-right.
The number of racist incidents in Poland is increasing. In 2013 there were more than 800 racially motivated crimes and in 2016 it had increased to over 1600. Poland tops the list of countries with most attacks on Indian students with 9 of 21 incidents.
Portugal
In one survey measuring nationalist, anti-immigrant and anti-religious minority sentiments, Portugal had the second highest average prevalence score among several European countries.
Romania
Romani people are the most hated ethnic group in Romania.
Russia
The term "pogrom" became commonly used in English after a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots swept through south-western Czarist Russia in 1881–1884. A much bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in 1903–1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead. By the beginning of the 20th century, most European Jews lived in the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western frontier of the Russian Empire consisting generally of the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and neighboring regions. Many pogroms accompanied the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000.
In the 2000s, neo-Nazi groups inside Russia had risen to include as many as tens of thousands of people. Racism against both the Russian citizens (peoples of the Caucasus, indigenous peoples of Siberia and Russian Far East, etc.) and non-Russian citizens of Africans, Central Asians, East Asians (Vietnamese, Chinese, etc.) and Europeans (Ukrainians, etc.) is a significant problem.
Since 2008, the number of hate crimes in Russia declined significantly.
The Russian Orthodox Church "believes it is vital for Russia to pursue anti-extremist campaign and develop a sustainable strategy." As a result, it has called for immigrants to be given jobs and the opportunity to learn more about Russian culture. In addition, it has called for skinheads to refocus their mission to legally preventing crime and immoral behavior.
Slovenia
Romani people have become the main target of Slovenian racists in the 21st century as the population is otherwise extremely homogeneous.
Spain
Gitanos are viewed with less sympathy than other groups.
Racist abuse aimed at black footballers has been reported at Spanish football league matches in recent years. This has led to protests and UEFA fines against clubs whose supporters continue the abuse. Several players in the Spanish league including Barcelona striker Samuel Eto'o and Espanyol goalkeeper Carlos Kameni have suffered and spoken out against the abuse. In 2006, Real Zaragoza player Ewerthon stated: "the Spanish Federation have to start taking proper measures and we as Afro-European players also have to act."
Sweden
In 1922 Sweden established the Statens institut för rasbiologi, or state institute for race biology. The institute recommended the sterilization by force of the mentally ill, physically disabled, homosexuals and ethnic minorities, which was allowed by Swedish law until 1975.
According to the report Racism and Xenophobia in Sweden by the Board of Integration, Muslims are exposed to the most religious harassment in Sweden. Almost 40% of the interviewed said they had witnessed verbal abuse directed at Muslims. European Network Against Racism in Sweden claims that in today's Sweden there exists a clear ethnic hierarchy when ethnic Swedes are at the top and non-European immigrants are at the bottom.
In 1999, Neo-Nazis in Malexander murdered two policemen during a robbery to obtain funds for a fascist organization.
Sveriges Radio reported that the punishments for driving under the influence of alcohol tended to be harsher for immigrants than for Swedes; while over 50% of immigrants were sent to jail for driving under the effect of alcohol, only less than 30% of ethnic Swedes were sent to jail with the same level of alcohol found in blood. There has been evidence that the Swedish police used "Neger Niggersson" as a nickname for a criminal in a police training; this was published in Swedish media. Lately however, many incidents of racial attitudes and discrimination of the Swedish police have led for the first time to the control of racial attitudes of police students under police education A recent research done by the Swedish Confederation for Professional Employees (TCO) found that people with foreign background have much lower chances of finding a job that is appropriate for their education, even when they have grown up in Sweden and got their education in Swedish institutes.
In 2007, there were a total of 3,536 hate crimes (defined as crimes with an ethnic or religious motive) reported to the police, including 118 cases of anti-Semitic agitation. Racism in Sweden is reported to appear within Swedish health-care services as well. A nurse at a Stockholm suburb hospital lost his job after complaining on racial attitudes of the hospital staff to patients with immigrant background. Staff was cited saying "go back to Arabia", "the patient is screaming because it's in his culture."
Swedish social services have reported on racism in Swedish hospitals as well. A study of statistics Sweden (SCB) reveals that segregation is widespread for Swedish immigrants when there are large differences in the fields of education, housing, employment and politics between immigrants and ethnic Swedes. Sweden has been criticized by the UN human rights council for an increasing number of hate crimes which seldom resulted in criminal charges, when more hate crimes are Islamophobic, and homophobic, with an increasing amount of racist propaganda appearing on the internet and in Sweden's schools, for failing to provide adequate health care and education to immigrants, asylum seekers and undocumented migrants and the ongoing discrimination of the Roma and Sami minorities in Sweden.
A study was conducted in 2011 about the Swedes attitudes to mixed marriages. The conclusion was that the views in general were favorable, but that there was a strong hierarchy based on which groups to live with. Swedes primarily preferred relationships with Scandinavians, Western Europeans and Southern Europeans, and then Eastern Europeans, Central Europeans and Latin Americans. At the bottom were South and East Asians, Africans, and Middle Eastern people. Older individuals and women, as well as people with less education and people who were brought up outside of Malmö (the most multicultural city of Sweden), were generally more prone to having negative attitudes. Most were able to accept family members and friends living in mixed relationships, even if they did not want to do it themselves.
Swedish national television (SVT) has reported on a new research done in Sweden which identifies that job seekers with a Swedish name have 50% higher chances to be called for an interview than job seekers with middle-eastern names. The research enlightens that there is not much difference between foreign-born job seekers and job seekers born in Sweden if both don't have a Swedish name; this indicates that ethnic discrimination is the main cause of the variations.
In 2012, Swedish Minister for Culture Lena Adelsohn Liljeroth was labelled a racist by The Afro-Swedish Society (Afro-svenskarnas riksförbund) because she cut up a cake in the shape of a naked African woman in public. Ironically, the cake was made by an Afro-Swedish artist.
In 2015, a Swedish man motivated by racism attacked people at a school in Trollhättan with a sword, killing four, including the perpetrator.
Switzerland
The Swiss Confederation or Confederatio Helvetica is a nation composed of four subcultural groups: German-speaking (63.7%), French-speaking (20.4%), Italian-speaking (6.5%) and Romansh-speaking (0.5%).
Swiss "Confederation Commission Against Racism" which is part of the Swiss "Federal Department of Home Affairs" published a 2004 report, Black People in Switzerland: A Life between Integration and Discrimination (published in German, French, and Italian only). According to this report, discrimination based on skin colour in Switzerland is not exceptional, and affects immigrants decades after their immigration.
Swiss People's Party claims that Swiss communities have a democratic right to decide who can or cannot be Swiss. In addition, the report said "Official statements and political campaigns that present immigrants from the EU in a favourable light and immigrants from elsewhere in a bad light must stop", according to the Swiss Federal Statistics Office in 2006, 85.5% of the foreign residents in Switzerland are European. The United Nations special rapporteur on racism, Doudou Diène, has observed that Switzerland suffers from racism, discrimination and xenophobia. The UN envoy explained that although the Swiss authorities recognised the existence of racism and xenophobia, they did not view the problem as being serious. Diène pointed out that representatives of minority communities said they experienced serious racism and discrimination, notably for access to public services (e.g. health care), employment and lodging.
Turkey
Ukraine
United Kingdom
See also
Racism by country
Neo-Nazism in Europe
Environmental racism in Europe
Anti-Romany sentiment
Cagot
References
External links
European Commission against Racism and Intolerance
European Network Against Racism
Europe
Racism in Europe
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The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (England) Regulations 2020 (SI 2020/350), informally known as "the Lockdown Regulations", was a statutory instrument (SI) enacted on 26 March 2020 by the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, Matt Hancock, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. It became the principal delegated English legislation restricting freedom of movement, gatherings, and business closures during the COVID-19 emergency period until its revocation by The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (No. 2) (England) Regulations 2020 on 4 July 2020.
SI 2020/350 gave legal force to some of the 'lockdown' rules that had been announced by the Prime Minister Boris Johnson during a televised address on 23 March 2020.
The SI related to England only; there were separate regulations for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Initial responses, February to March 2020
In response to early concerns of the virus's potential effects in England the UK government brought in on 10 February 2020 The Health Protection (Coronavirus) Regulations 2020 under which the Secretary of State designated specific isolation facilities at which infected persons could be held and treated. Other early responses by the government to the developing COVID-19 pandemic took the form of guidance rather than legislation. Statements by ministers included advice to schools to cancel trips abroad (12 March); advice to the public to avoid non-essential travel, crowded places such as pubs and theatres, mass gatherings, and visits to care homes (16 March). Schools, colleges and nurseries were ultimately closed (announced 18 March, effective 21 March).
Earlier regulations, in force 21 March 2020
On 21 March the government enacted The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Business Closure) (England) Regulations 2020 (SI 2020/327) which enforced the closure in England of businesses selling food and drink for consumption on the premises, as well as a range of other businesses such as nightclubs and indoor leisure centres where a high risk of infection could be expected. SI 2020/350 revoked SI 2020/327, which had come into force only five days earlier, and re-enacted most of its provisions with more extensive restrictions.
On 25 March the emergency Coronavirus Act 2020 came into force, giving the government wide-ranging discretionary powers in a range of policy areas. However, the Lockdown Regulations and subsequent amendments continued, as a public health matter, to derive their legal authority from the emergency provisions contained within the Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984, as amended.
Initial regulations, in force 26 March 2020
Legal basis
SI 2020/350 was introduced by way of a Statutory Instrument made by the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, Matt Hancock, using emergency powers available to him under the Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984. The regulations themselves stated the legal basis for using such powers, namely "the serious and imminent threat to public health which is posed by the incidence and spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in England"; he also certified that the restrictions "are proportionate to what they seek to achieve, which is a public health response to that threat."
The regulations came into force immediately they were made, at 1pm on 26 March, and were laid before parliament at 2.30pm on the same day. The Secretary of State used section 45R of the Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984 to enact the regulations immediately subject to retrospective approval by resolution of each House of Parliament within twenty-eight days. In the regulations themselves he stated that "by reason of urgency, it is necessary to make this instrument" without – as would normally be the case – having first placed a draft before parliament for prior discussion and approval.
Scope and review
The regulations (which applied in England only), imposed restrictions during the "emergency period" which was defined as the period between 1pm on 26 March 2020 and such ending date as the Secretary of State may later specify. He was required to review the regulations at least every 21 days, and to terminate any restriction that he considered to be no longer necessary.
Business closures
The business closures originally set out in SI 2020/327 were re-enacted. With a few exceptions, all premises selling food or drink for consumption on the premises had to remain closed including cafes, restaurants, bars and pubs; any adjacent seating area was to be treated as part of the premises. Hotels were, however, allowed to continue to provide food to guests via room service. The provision of food for consumption off the premises was explicitly stated to be allowed.
The regulation set out a new and more detailed list of non food-related businesses that had to cease entirely, including most sports venues, sports courts and gyms; indoor leisure facilities; nightclubs; personal care services such as beauty parlours, nail bars and hairdressers; cultural venues such as cinemas, theatres and museums; car showrooms; and all outdoor markets except stalls selling food.
In addition, libraries and all types of non-food shops were required to close unless they were on an approved list or were able to fulfil orders by delivery or without allowing personal access to their premises. The approved list of business premises allowed to remain open included food retailers, supermarkets; hardware, homeware and convenience stores; off licences; banks, building societies and post offices; laundrettes and dry cleaners; medical centres, pharmacies; vets, pet shops; petrol stations; car repairs; bicycle shops; taxi and vehicle hire; funeral directors; storage facilities; building and agricultural suppliers; car parks, public toilets.
Subject to a few exceptions, all accommodation businesses such as hotels, B&Bs, holiday cottages and campsites had to cease operation.
Places of worship also had to be closed, except for funerals or to provide essential voluntary services such as food banks. Similarly, burial grounds and crematoria were off-limits to the public, except when actually in use for a burial or funeral.
Restrictions on movement
As a general rule, no person was allowed to leave the place where they are living without 'reasonable excuse' (though this did not apply to anyone already homeless). No exhaustive definition of 'reasonable excuse' was provided, though the need to leave home to do any of the following was specifically allowed: to obtain basic necessities (including food and medical supplies) for those in the same household or for a vulnerable person; to obtain supplies for the essential upkeep, maintenance and functioning of the household, or that of a vulnerable person; to obtain money; to take exercise either alone or with other members of the household; to seek medical assistance; to provide emergency assistance, or assistance to a vulnerable person; to donate blood; to move house where reasonably necessary; to fulfil a legal obligation; to access critical public services including childcare; to continue existing child-access arrangements between parents; to avoid injury or illness or to escape a risk of harm.
Travel for the purposes of work or voluntary service was considered a 'reasonable excuse' only if it was not reasonably possible to work at home. Religious leaders were allowed to leave home to attend their place of worship.
Leaving home to attend a funeral was allowed only if the deceased was a close family member or a member of the person's household. Attending the funeral of a friend was prohibited unless there were neither close family members nor members of the deceased's household in attendance.
Restrictions on gatherings
Generally, all public gatherings of more than two people were prohibited. The only exceptions were: where all persons are members of the same household; where the gathering was essential for work purposes; to attend certain funerals; or where reasonably necessary to facilitate a house move, provide emergency assistance, provide care to a vulnerable person, to participate in legal proceedings or fulfil a legal obligation.
Offences and enforcement
Enforcement of the regulations was in the hands of the police, with provision being made for the local authority and the Secretary of State to designate additional people for some purposes.
It was a criminal offence to breach the restrictions on movement, or without reasonable excuse to breach any of the gathering or business closure rules. Enforcement was by fixed penalty notice (£60 for a first offence, halved for prompt payment) or by prosecution.
A police officer had the power to direct anyone in breach of the restrictions on movement to return home, and to direct unlawful public gatherings to disperse, in both cases using force if necessary. Failure to comply was an offence.
Expiry
The regulations were set to expire on 26 September 2020, but in the event were revoked on 4 July 2020.
Amendments of 22 April 2020
SI 2020/350 was amended on 22 April 2020, after 26 days, by The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (England) (Amendment) Regulations 2020 (SI 2020/447).
Legal basis
As with the original regulations, this statutory instrument was introduced by Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, Matt Hancock, using emergency powers under the Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984. The legal basis for the use of the powers was stated to be as before. The regulations came into force at 11.00am on April, and were laid before parliament at 12.30pm on the same day. The Secretary of State again used section 45R of the 1984 act to enact the regulations "by reason of urgency" subject to retrospective approval by resolution of each House of Parliament within twenty-eight days.
Changes to the regulations
SI 2020/447 corrected some errors in the original drafting, and dealt with some unintended consequences. In connection with the restrictions on movement, it changed the wording from "no person may leave the place where they are living without reasonable excuse" to "no person may leave or be outside of the place where they are living without reasonable excuse" – thereby requiring a person travelling outside the home to have a reasonable excuse for the entire away-from-home period, and not just at the point of leaving the property.
To allow people to grieve for lost friends or household members, a new 'reasonable excuse' was added to allow some visits to burial grounds and gardens of remembrance. It was made clear that outdoor swimming pools must remain closed, but that livestock markets could continue. Cash points could also remain operational.
Amendments of 13 May 2020
SI 2020/350 was again amended on 13 May 2020, after a further 20 days, by The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (England) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2020 (SI 2020/500).
Legal basis
As with the original regulations, this statutory instrument was introduced by Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, Matt Hancock, using emergency powers under the Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984. The legal basis for the use of the powers was stated to be as before. The regulations came into force at midnight prior to 13 May, and were laid before parliament at 9.30am on the same day. The Secretary of State again used section 45R of the 1984 act to enact the regulations "by reason of urgency" subject to retrospective approval by resolution of each House of Parliament within twenty-eight days.
Changes to the regulations
SI 2020/500 provided for the opening of garden centres and outdoor sports courts. It expanded the list of "reasonable excuses" for leaving home to permit people to collect goods that had been pre-ordered from a business; to use a waste or recycling centre; and to move home and engage in related activities such as viewing properties to buy or rent.
The rules on exercise away from the home were relaxed to allow it to be taken with several members of the same household or with one member of another household. Visits to public open spaces (including public gardens) for the purposes of open-air recreation were also allowed, again if desired with several members of the same household or with one member of another household.
The fixed penalty for a first breach of the regulations was increased from £60 to £100 – as before, with a 50% reduction for prompt payment.
Amendments of 1 June 2020
SI 2020/350 was again amended on 1 June 2020, after a further 19 days, by The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (England) (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations 2020 (SI 2020/558).
The amendments increased the period for regular review of the regulations by the Secretary of State from 21 to 28 days.
Legal basis
As with the original regulations, this statutory instrument was introduced by Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, Matt Hancock, using emergency powers under the Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984. The legal basis for the use of the powers was stated to be as before. The regulations came into force at midnight prior to 1 June, and were laid before parliament at 11.30am on the same day. The Secretary of State again used section 45R of the 1984 act to enact the regulations "by reason of urgency" subject to retrospective approval by resolution of each House of Parliament within twenty-eight days.
Changes to business closures
Outdoor non-food markets could re-open, as could car showrooms. Outdoor sports amenities were also allowed to re-open, including water sports, stables, shooting and archery venues, golf courses and driving ranges.
Some types of venue, previously not mentioned, were now explicitly required to remain closed including indoor games, recreation and entertainment venues, theme and adventure parks, social clubs, model villages, aquariums and zoos, and farm attractions. In addition, indoor visitor attractions at venues which were otherwise allowed to open had to remain closed, including shops and visitor centres (but not toilets).
Changes to restrictions on movement
SI 2020/558 made significant changes to the earlier regulations and swept away entirely the general prohibition against leaving home. It was replaced with a new general rule that "No person may, without reasonable excuse, stay overnight at any place other than the place where they are living." As before, this rule did not apply to homeless persons. The list of "reasonable excuses" was also new, and included: the need to stay elsewhere while moving house, to attend certain funerals, to fulfil a legal obligation or participate in legal proceedings; or where it is reasonably necessary for work purposes or the provision of voluntary services, to provide care to a vulnerable person, to obtain medical assistance or provide emergency assistance, or to avoid injury or illness or escape a risk of harm.
It was also permitted to stay away overnight in order to continue existing child-access arrangements between parents; when the home was unsafe or unavailable; or where the person could not lawfully travel there or was required by law to stay elsewhere.
Additional exemptions were made for elite athletes, including permission to stay overnight away from home.
Changes to restrictions on gatherings
The previous regulation that restricted public gatherings was swept away, and was replaced by a new general prohibition that applied not only to public places but also to private places. This banned outdoor gatherings of more than six people, and all indoor gatherings of any size. A 'gathering' for this purpose was when two or more people were present together in the same place in order to engage in any form of social interaction with each other, or to undertake any other activity with each other. Outdoor gatherings of six or fewer people were allowed, no matter how many households were represented.
A list of exceptions to this general rule was given (the list being exhaustive, without any open-ended "reasonable excuse" provision). The exceptions were: where all the persons in the gathering were members of the same household; certain funeral gatherings; or where the gathering was reasonably necessary for work or voluntary services, to facilitate a house move, to provide care to a vulnerable person, to provide emergency assistance, to avoid injury or illness or to escape a risk of harm, or to continue existing child-access arrangements between parents.
Gatherings for education (within an educational facility) and registered early years childcare were also permitted, thus allowing schools to re-open. Places of worship could again be used by registered early years childcare providers.
Additional exemptions were made for elite athletes, including the use of indoor elite training facilities.
Changes to offences and enforcement
The previous offence of leaving or being away from home without reasonable excuse was abolished. It was replaced with a new offence of staying away from home overnight, without reasonable excuse. The police had the power to direct any person breaching the rule to return home.
The police continued to have the power to break up unlawful gatherings and to direct people to return home. Where the gathering was in a public place (but not where it was private) they further had the power to remove persons to their homes, using force if necessary.
Amendments of 13 & 15 June 2020
SI 2020/350 was amended on 12 June 2020, after a further 11 days, by The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (England) (Amendment No. 4) Regulations 2020 (SI 2020/588).
Legal basis
As with the original regulations, this statutory instrument was introduced by Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, Matt Hancock, using emergency powers under the Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984. The legal basis for the use of the powers was stated to be as before. The regulations came into force at on 13 and 15 June, and were laid before parliament at 2.30pm on 12 June, the first occasion that amendments had been presented to parliament before they entered into force. The Secretary of State again used section 45R of the 1984 act to enact the regulations "by reason of urgency" subject to retrospective approval by resolution of each House of Parliament within twenty-eight days.
Changes to business closures
Under previous regulations, most retail businesses were required to close unless they appeared on a list of specific exemptions. SI 2020/588 reversed this, allowing businesses to re-open from 15 June 2021 unless on a list of prohibitions. This was reported as allowing "non-essential stores" to start operating again.
Businesses which remained prohibited from opening include restaurants, cafes, bars, pubs; theatres, concert halls; most cinemas, museums & galleries; nightclubs, social clubs, bingo halls, casinos; barbers, massage parlours and certain other personal service venues; swimming pools, skating rinks, gyms, playgrounds; funfairs, theme parks, model villages; certain indoor facilities including leisure and entertainment venues, sports courts, fitness studios and soft play areas; indoor attractions (apart from shops) at otherwise-outdoor venues such as gardens, heritage sites, and places with outdoor animal exhibits including farms, zoos and safari parks. Libraries still had to remain closed.
In addition to the general re-opening of retail businesses, there were some more specific relaxations of the rules. Betting shops and auction houses could re-open, as could drive-in cinemas (but not other cinemas) and retail art galleries. Outdoor animal-related attractions such as farms, zoos and safari parks could open, as could most indoor shops within visitor attractions that were otherwise outside.
Where a library, a place of worship, or any business that was still required to remain closed had a shop in a self-contained unit with its own separate entrance, that shop could open. Similarly, a cafe in a self-contained unit was allowed to sell food and drink but for consumption off the premises only.
Places of worship could again be used for private prayer (but not for communal worship). The restrictions on community centres were relaxed to allow them once again to host indoor markets.
Changes to restrictions on gatherings and freedom of movement
SI 2020/588 introduced from 13 June the concept of "linked households" (described by the government as "support bubbles"). This in limited circumstances allowed two previously-separate households to be treated as one for the purpose of meeting up (being part of a 'gathering', to use the wording of the regulation) either outside or indoors. It also allowed the members of one household to stay overnight at the home of the other.
In order to become linked, one of the households had to consist of exactly one adult (no more), while the other could have any number of adults. Both households could include any number of children under the age of 18 on 12 June 2020. All the adults had to agree to the linking, and each household could become linked to only one other household. If the linkage was later broken, neither household could subsequently link with any other.
The rules on gatherings were also relaxed from 13 June to allow medical appointments and births to be accompanied, and to permit certain visits to people in hospital, hospices and care homes. Some visits could also be made, regardless of location, to any person that the visitor reasonably believed to be dying. Where necessary the visitor in each of these situations was also allowed to stay overnight away from home.
Review
The powers granted by SI 2020/350 had to be reviewed every 28 days. On 16 April, the government extended the lockdown for a further 21 days (to 7 May).
Revocation 4 July 2020
On 4 July 2020 the regulations were revoked in their entirety and were replaced with The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (No. 2) (England) Regulations 2020 (SI 2020/684). These regulations relaxed many of the restrictions, but introduced a new power for the Secretary of State to close outdoor public areas.
Government announcements
On 23 March the Cabinet Office and the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government issued guidance listing the affected types of businesses, premises and venues, and the exceptions; this document was reissued on 13 May to reflect the SI 2020/500 amendments, and for the first time referenced separate guidance issued by the three devolved administrations.
Following SI 2020/500, the government published updated guidance on spending time outdoors, and updated earlier guidance around moving home.
Contrary to widespread media reports that people could only exercise once per day, neither the initial regulations nor the amendments make any mention of frequency or duration; nor did they require people by law to maintain the recommended two-metre separation.
Response
The cross-bench peer and human rights barrister David Anderson said:
Barrister Kevin Holder said:
Lawyer and legal journalist David Allen Green said:
However, following amendment by SI 2020/447, Green also said:
Former Justice of the Supreme Court, Lord Sumption, said that there is no moral or principled justification for these restrictions, saying:
Legal challenges
Businessman Simon Dolan sought judicial review of the regulations on the following grounds:
Whether the regulations are unlawful because they are outside of the powers conferred by Parliament,
Whether the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care had acted unlawfully by, fettering his discretion to review the Regulations by requiring that five tests be met before reviewing the Regulations, failing to take relevant considerations into account in the decision-making process, acting irrationally in making or maintaining the Regulations or failing to act proportionately when deciding not to terminate the Regulations,
Whether the restrictions on movement contained in the regulations involved a breach of the right to liberty guaranteed by Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights,
Whether the restrictions on movement and gathering contained in the regulations involved a breach of the right to a private and family life guaranteed by Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights,
Whether the requirement to close places of worship breaches the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion guaranteed by Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights,
Whether the restriction on gatherings breaches the right to freedom of assembly and association guaranteed by Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights
Whether the regulations involve a deprivation of property or an unlawful control on the use of property, and
Whether requiring schools to close constitutes a breach of Article 2 of the first protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights.
These claims were all dismissed by Mr Justice Lewis on 6 July 2020. The judge concluded that:
The decision to deny a judicial review of the regulations was subsequently challenged by Simon Dolan. On 4 August 2020, Lord Justice Hickinbotom overturned the decision of Mr Justice Lewis allowing for permission to appeal in a full and open court. Lord Justice Hickinbotom stated that he was persuaded that the claims potentially raise fundamental issues concerning the proper sphere for democratically accountable ministers and that the grounds should be considered by the full court in open court.
On 1 December 2020 the Court of Appeal published their judgement and dismissed the challenges raised against the regulations. The court found that the only argument for which judicial review could be sought was the vires argument (that the secretary of state did not have a legal authority to make the regulations). The court found that the secretary of state did in fact have the requisite powers to make the regulations and therefore dismissed this claim. The court refused permission to appeal the findings of Mr Justice Lewis in respect of domestic law arguments or the arguments that had been made under the Human Rights Act 1998.
See also
Coronavirus Act 2020
Health Protection (Coronavirus) Regulations 2020
The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (No. 2) (England) Regulations 2020
COVID-19 local lockdown regulations in England
Health Protection (Coronavirus, Wearing of Face Coverings on Public Transport) (England) Regulations 2020
The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Wearing of Face Coverings in a Relevant Place) (England) Regulations 2020
The Health Protection (Coronavirus, International Travel) (England) Regulations 2020
List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom, 2020
References
Bibliography
External links
The Health Protection (Coronavirus) (Restrictions) (Scotland) Regulations 2020
The Health Protection (Coronavirus Restrictions) (Wales) Regulations 2020
The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2020
Coronavirus outbreak FAQs: guidance for England from the Cabinet Office (via Internet Archive)
29 March: first issued (archived 1 April)
1 May: following SI 2020/447 (archived 1 May)
11 May: for upcoming SI 2020/500 relaxations (archived 11 May)
1 June: for SI 2020/558 relaxations (archived 1 June)
12 June: for upcoming SI 2020/588 relaxations (archived 13 June)
24 June: for 4 July relaxations (archived 24 June)
Coronavirus: Business re-opening – House of Commons Library briefing paper, 6 July; compares the four nations
Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom
2020 in England
COVID-19 pandemic in England
Public health in the United Kingdom
2020 in British law
Health law in the United Kingdom
Law associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom
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Antiquity
Retail markets have existed since ancient times. Archaeological evidence for trade, probably involving barter systems, dates back more than 10,000 years. As civilizations grew, barter was replaced with retail trade involving coinage. Selling and buying are thought to have emerged in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) in around the 7th-millennium BCE, Herodotus claims that it was Lydia where - along with gold and silver coins - retail originated from. Gharipour points to evidence of primitive shops and trade centers in Sialk Hills in Kashan (6000 BCE), Catalk Huyuk in modern-day Turkey (7,500–5,700 BCE), Jericho (2600 BCE) and Susa (4000 BCE). Open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia, and Egypt. These markets typically occupied a place in the town's center. Surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied permanent premises in alleys that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days. In ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, an open space where, on market days, goods were displayed on mats or temporary stalls. In ancient Rome, trade took place in the forum. Rome had two forums; the Forum Romanum and Trajan's Forum. The latter was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with shops on four levels. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shop-front. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling via merchants or peddlers and bartering systems were commonplace.
The Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by the 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, and nuts. Their trading skills necessitated a network of colonies along the Mediterranean coast, stretching from modern-day Crete through to Tangiers and onto Sardinia The Phoenicians not only traded in tangible goods, but were also instrumental in transporting culture. The Phoenician's extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed a consonantal alphabet which was much easier to learn than the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Phoenician traders and merchants were largely responsible for spreading their alphabet around the region. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in archaeological sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and Carthage in North Africa.
In the Graeco-Roman world, the market primarily served the local peasantry. Local producers, who were generally poor, would sell small surpluses from their individual farming activities, purchase minor farm equipment and also buy a few luxuries for their homes. Major producers such as the great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm-gates, obviating the producers' need to attend local markets. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting and importing. The nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. The Romans preferred to purchase goods from specific places: oysters from Londinium, cinnamon from a specific mountain in Arabia, and these place-based preferences stimulated trade throughout Europe and the Middle East. Markets were also important centers of social life.
The rise of retailing and marketing in England and Europe has been extensively studied, but less is known about developments elsewhere. Nevertheless, recent research suggests that China exhibited a rich history of early retail systems. From as early as 200 BCE, Chinese packaging and branding were used to signal family, place names and product quality, and the use of government imposed product branding was used between 600 and 900 CE. Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song Dynasty (960–1127), Chinese society developed a consumerist culture, where a high level of consumption was attainable for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite. The rise of a consumer culture led to the commercial investment in carefully managed company image, retail signage, symbolic brands, trademark protection and sophisticated brand concepts.
Medieval Europe
In Medieval England and Europe, relatively few permanent shops were to be found; instead, customers walked into the tradesman's workshops where they discussed purchasing options directly with tradesmen. In 13th-century London, mercers, and haberdashers were known to exist and grocers sold "miscellaneous small wares as well as spices and medicines" but fish and other perishables were sold through markets, costermongers, hucksters, peddlers or other types of itinerant vendor.
In the more populous cities, a small number of shops were beginning to emerge by the 13th century. In Chester, a medieval covered shopping arcade represented a major innovation that attracted shoppers from many miles around. Known as "The Rows" this medieval shopping arcade is believed to be the first of its kind in Europe. Fragments of Chester's Medieval Row, which is believed to date to the mid-13th century, can still be found in Cheshire. In the 13th or 14th century, another arcade with several shops was recorded at Drapery Row in Winchester. The emergence of street names such as Drapery Row, Mercer's Lane and Ironmonger Lane in the medieval period suggests that permanent shops were becoming more commonplace.
Medieval shops had little in common with their modern equivalent. As late as the 16th century, London's shops were described as little more than "rude booths" and their owners "bawled as loudly as the itinerants." Shopfronts typically had a front door with two wider openings on either side, each covered with shutters. The shutters were designed to open so that the top portion formed a canopy while the bottom was fitted with legs so that it could serve as a shopboard. Cox and Dannehl suggest that the Medieval shopper's experience was very different. The lack of glazed windows, which were rare during the medieval period, and did not become commonplace until the eighteenth century, meant that shop interiors were dark places. Outside the markets, goods were rarely out on display and the service counter was unknown. Shoppers had relatively few opportunities to inspect the merchandise prior to consumption. Many stores had openings onto the street from which they served customers.
More specialized purchases of goods made by artisans such as clothes, furniture, metalwork, decorative pottery and art were often made by visiting the workshop where they were made, often first to discuss the objects and later to approve and collect it. Except at the lowest level, dressmakers typically visited the customer in their home for instructions or fittings.
Outside the major cities, most consumable purchases were made through markets or fairs. Markets were held daily in the more populous towns and cities or weekly in the more sparsely populated rural districts. Markets sold fresh produce; fruit, vegetables, baked goods, meat, poultry, fish and some ready to eat foodstuffs; while fairs operated on a periodic cycle and were almost always associated with a religious festival. Fairs sold non-perishables such as farm tools, homewares, furniture, rugs and ceramics. Market towns dotted the medieval European landscape while itinerant vendors supplied less populated areas or hard-to-reach districts. Peddlers and other itinerant vendors operated alongside other types of retail for centuries. The political philosopher, John Stuart Mill compared the convenience of markets/fairs to that of the itinerant peddlers:
"The contrivance of fairs and markets was early had recourse to, where consumers and producers might periodically meet, without any intermediate agency; and this plan answers tolerably well for many articles, especially agricultural produce … but were inconvenient to buyers who have other occupations, and do not live in the immediate vicinity … and the wants of the consumers must either be provided for so long beforehand, or must remain so long unsupplied, that even before the resources of society admitted of the establishment of shops, the supply of these wants fell universally into the hands of itinerant dealers: the pedlar, who might appear once a month, being preferred to the fair, which only returned once or twice a year."
Blintiff has investigated the early Medieval networks of market towns across Europe and suggests that by the 12th century there was an upsurge in the number of market towns and the emergence of merchant circuits as traders bulked up surpluses from smaller regional, different day markets and resold them at the larger centralized market towns. Market-places appear to have emerged independently outside Europe. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul is often cited as the world's oldest continuously-operating market; its construction began in 1455. The Spanish conquistadors wrote glowingly of markets in the Americas. In the 15th century, the Mexica (Aztec) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas.
English market towns were regulated from a relatively early period. The English monarchs awarded a charter to local Lords to create markets and fairs for a town or village. This charter would grant the lords the right to take tolls and also afford some protection from rival markets. For example, once a chartered market was granted for specific market days, a nearby rival market could not open on the same days. Across the boroughs of England, a network of chartered markets sprang up between the 12th and 16th centuries, giving consumers reasonable choice in the markets they preferred to patronize. A study on the purchasing habits of the monks and other individuals in medieval England, suggests that consumers of the period were relatively discerning. Purchase decisions were based on purchase criteria such as consumers' perceptions of the range, quality, and price of goods. This informed decisions about where to make their purchases and which markets were superior.
Braudel and Reynold have made a systematic study of these European market towns between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. Their investigation shows that in regional districts markets were held once or twice a week while daily markets were common in larger cities. Gradually over time, permanent shops with regular trading days began to supplant the periodic markets, while peddlers filled in the gaps in distribution. The physical market was characterized by transactional exchange and the economy was characterized by local trading. Braudel reports that, in 1600, goods traveled relatively short distances – grain 5–10 miles; cattle 40–70 miles; wool and woollen cloth 20–40 miles. Following the European age of discovery, goods were imported from afar – calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World.
The English essayist, Joseph Addison, writing in 1711, described the exotic origin of produce available to English society in the following terms:
"Our Ships are laden with the Harvest of every Climate: Our Tables are stored with Spices, and Oils, and Wines: Our Rooms are filled with Pyramids of China, and adorned with the Workmanship of Japan: Our Morning's Draught comes to us from the remotest Corners of the Earth: We repair our Bodies by the Drugs of America and repose ourselves under Indian Canopies. My Friend Sir ANDREW calls the Vineyards of France our Gardens; the Spice-Islands our Hot-beds; the Persians our Silk-Weavers, and the Chinese our Potters. Nature indeed furnishes us with the bare Necessaries of Life, but Traffick gives us greater Variety of what is Useful, and at the same time supplies us with every thing that is Convenient and Ornamental."
Luca Clerici has made a detailed study of Vicenza’s food market during the sixteenth century. He found that there were many different types of reseller operating out of the markets. For example, in the dairy trade, cheese and butter were sold by the members of two craft guilds (i.e., cheesemongers who were shopkeepers) and that of the so-called ‘resellers’ (hucksters selling a wide range of foodstuffs), and by other sellers who were not enrolled in any guild. Cheesemongers’ shops were situated in the town hall and were very lucrative. Resellers and direct sellers increased the number of sellers, thus increasing competition, to the benefit of consumers. Direct sellers, who brought produce from the surrounding countryside, sold their wares through the central market place and priced their goods at considerably lower rates than cheesemongers.
The 17th to 19th centuries
By the 17th century, permanent shops with more regular trading hours were beginning to supplant markets and fairs as the main retail outlet. Provincial shopkeepers were active in almost every English market town. These shopkeepers sold general merchandise, much like a contemporary convenience store or a general store. For example, William Allen, a mercer in Tamworth who died in 1604, sold spices alongside furs and fabrics. William Stout of Lancaster retailed sugar, tobacco, nails and prunes at both his shop and at the central markets. His autobiography reveals that he spent most of his time preparing products for sale at the central market, which brought an influx of customers into town.
As the number of shops grew, they underwent a transformation. The trappings of a modern shop, which had been entirely absent from the sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century store, gradually made way for store interiors and shopfronts that are more familiar to modern shoppers. Prior to the eighteenth century, the typical retail store had no counter, display cases, chairs, mirrors, changing rooms, etc. However, the opportunity for the customer to browse merchandise, touch and feel products began to be available, with retail innovations from the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Glazing was widely used from the early 18th century. English commentators pointed to the speed at which glazing was installed, Daniel Defoe, writing in 1726, noted that "Never was there such painting and guildings, such sashings and looking-glasses as the shopkeepers as there is now."
Outside the major metropolitan cities, few stores could afford to serve one type of clientele exclusively. However, gradually retail shops introduced innovations that would allow them to separate wealthier customers from the "riff raff." One technique was to have a window opening out onto the street from which customers could be served. This allowed the sale of goods to the common people, without encouraging them to come inside. Another solution, that came into vogue from the late sixteenth century was to invite favored customers into a back-room of the store, where goods were permanently on display. Yet another technique that emerged around the same time was to hold a showcase of goods in the shopkeeper's private home for the benefit of wealthier clients. Samuel Pepys, for example, writing in 1660, describes being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack. The eighteenth-century English entrepreneurs, Josiah Wedgewood and Matthew Boulton, both staged expansive showcases of their wares in their private residences or in rented halls.
Savitt has argued that by the eighteenth century, American merchants, who had been operating as importers and exporters, began to specialize in either wholesale or retail roles. They tended not to specialize in particular types of merchandise, often trading as general merchants, selling a diverse range of product types. These merchants were concentrated in the larger cities. They often provided high levels of credit financing for retail transactions.
By the late eighteenth century, grand shopping arcades began to emerge across Europe and in the Antipodes. A shopping arcade refers to a multiple-vendor space, operating under a covered roof. Typically, the roof was constructed of glass to allow for natural light and to reduce the need for candles or electric lighting. Some of the earliest examples of shopping arcade appeared in Paris, due to its lack of pavement for pedestrians. Retailers, eager to attract window shoppers by providing a shopping environment away from the filthy streets, began to construct rudimentary arcades. Opening in 1771, the Coliseé, situated on the Champs Elysee, consisted of three arcades, each with ten shops, all running off a central ballroom. For Parisians, the location was seen as too remote and the arcade closed within two years of opening. Inspired by the souks of Arabia, the Galerie de Bois, a series of wooden shops linked the ends of the Palais Royal, opened in 1786 and became a central part of Parisian social life.
The architect, Bertrand Lemoine, described the period, 1786 to 1935, as l’Ère des passages couverts (the Arcade Era). In the European capitals, shopping arcades spread across the continent, reaching their heyday in the early 19th century: the Palais Royal in Paris (opened in 1784); Passage de Feydeau in Paris (opened in 1791) and Passage du Claire in 1799. London's Piccadilly Arcade (opened in 1810); Paris's Passage Colbert (1826) and Milan's Galleria Vittorio Emanuele (1878). Designed to attract the genteel middle class, arcade retailers sold luxury goods at relatively high prices. However, prices were never a deterrent, as these new arcades came to be the place to shop and to be seen. Arcades offered shoppers the promise of an enclosed space away from the chaos that characterised the noisy, dirty streets; a warm, dry space away from the elements, and a safe-haven where people could socialise and spend their leisure time. As thousands of glass covered arcades spread across Europe, they became grander and more ornately decorated. By the mid-nineteenth century, they had become prominent centres of fashion and social life. Promenading in these arcades became a popular nineteenth-century pass-time for the emerging middle classes. The Illustrated Guide to Paris of 1852 summarized the appeal of arcades in the following description:
"In speaking of the inner boulevards, we have made mention again and again of the arcades which open onto them. These arcades, a recent invention of industrial luxury, are glass-roofed, marble-paneled corridors extending through whole blocks of buildings, whose owners have joined together for such enterprises. Lining both sides of these corridors, which get their light from above, are the most elegant shops so that the arcade is a city, a world in miniature, in which customers will find everything they need."
The Palais-Royal, which opened to Parisians in 1784 and became one of the most important marketplaces in Paris, is generally regarded as the earliest example in the grand shopping arcades. The Palais-Royal was a complex of gardens, shops and entertainment venues situated on the external perimeter of the grounds, under the original colonnades. The area boasted some 145 boutiques, cafés, salons, hair salons, bookshops, museums, and numerous refreshment kiosks as well as two theatres. The retail outlets specialised in luxury goods such as fine jewellery, furs, paintings and furniture designed to appeal to the wealthy elite. Retailers operating out of the Palais complex were among the first in Europe to abandon the system of bartering, and adopt fixed-prices thereby sparing their clientele the hassle of bartering. Stores were fitted with long glass exterior windows which allowed the emerging middle-classes to window shop and indulge in fantasies, even when they may not have been able to afford the high retail prices. Thus, the Palais-Royal became one of the first examples of a new style of shopping arcade, frequented by both the aristocracy and the middle classes. It developed a reputation as being a site of sophisticated conversation, revolving around the salons, cafés, and bookshops, but also became a place frequented by off-duty soldiers and was a favourite haunt of prostitutes, many of whom rented apartments in the building. London's Burlington Arcade, which opened in 1819, positioned itself as an elegant and exclusive venue from the outset. Other notable nineteenth-century grand arcades include the Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert in Brussels which was inaugurated in 1847, Istanbul's Çiçek Pasajı opened in 1870 and Milan's Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II first opened in 1877. Shopping arcades were the precursor to the modern shopping mall.
While the arcades were the province of the bourgeoisie, a new type of retail venture emerged to serve the needs of the working poor. John Stuart Mill wrote about the rise of the co-operative retail store, which he witnessed first-hand in the mid-nineteenth century. Stuart Mill locates these co-operative stores within a broader co-operative movement which was prominent in the industrial city of Manchester and in the counties of Yorkshire and Lancashire. He documents one of the early co-operative retail stores in Rochdale in Manchester, England, "In 1853, the Store purchased for £745, a warehouse (freehold) on the opposite side of the street, where they keep and retail their stores of flour, butcher's meat, potatoes, and kindred articles." Stuart Mill also quoted a contemporary commentator who wrote of the benefits of the co-operative store:Buyer and seller meet as friends; there is no overreaching on one side, and no suspicion on the other... These crowds of humble working men, who never knew before when they put good food in their mouths, whose every dinner was adulterated, whose shoes let in the water a month too soon, whose waistcoats shone with devil's dust, and whose wives wore calico that would not wash, now buy in the markets like millionaires, and as far as pureness of food goes, live like lords.
Modern era
The modern era of retailing is defined as the period from the industrial revolution to the 21st century. In major cities, the department store emerged in the mid- to late 19th century, and permanently reshaped shopping habits, and redefined concepts of service and luxury. The term, "department store" originated in America. In 19th-century England, these stores were known as emporia or warehouse shops. In London, the first department stores appeared in Oxford Street and Regent Street, where they formed part of a distinctly modern shopping precinct. When London draper, William Whiteley attempted to transform his Bayswater drapery store into a department store by adding a meat and vegetable department and an Oriental Department in around 1875, he met with extreme resistance from other shop-keepers, who resented that he was encroaching on their territory and poaching their customers. Before long, however, major department stores began to open across the US, Britain and Europe from the mid-nineteenth century, including Harrod's of London in 1834; Kendall's in Manchester in 1836; Selfridges of London in 1909; Macy's of New York in 1858; Bloomingdale's in 1861; Sak's in 1867; J.C. Penney in 1902; Le Bon Marché of France in 1852 and Galeries Lafayette of France in 1905. Other twentieth-century innovations in retailing included chain stores, mail-order, multi-level marketing (pyramid selling or network marketing, 1920s), party plans ( 1930s) and B2C e-commerce.
Many of the early department stores were more than just a retail emporium; rather they were venues where shoppers could spend their leisure time and be entertained. Some department stores offered reading rooms, art galleries and concerts. Most department stores had tea-rooms or dining rooms and offered treatment areas where ladies could indulge in a manicure. The fashion show, which originated in the US in around 1907, became a staple feature event for many department stores and celebrity appearances were also used to great effect. Themed events featured wares from foreign shores, exposing shoppers to the exotic cultures of the Orient and Middle-East. One such market that used themed events was the Dayton Arcade. Its opening day celebrations in 1904 used themed stalls to introduce shoppers to goods from around the world.
During this period, retailers worked to develop modern retail marketing practices. Pioneering merchants who contributed to modern retail marketing and management methods include: A. T. Stewart, Potter Palmer, John Wanamaker, Montgomery Ward, Marshall Field, Richard Warren Sears, Rowland Macy, J.C. Penney, Fred Lazarus, brothers Edward and William Filene and Sam Walton.
Retail, using mail order, came of age during the mid-19th century. Although catalogue sales had been used since the 15th century, this method of retailing was confined to a few industries such as the sale of books and seeds. However, improvements in transport and postal services led several entrepreneurs on either side of the Atlantic to experiment with catalogue sales. In 1861, Welsh draper Pryce Pryce-Jones sent catalogues to clients who could place orders for flannel clothing which was then despatched by post. This enabled Pryce-Jones to extend his client base across Europe. A decade later, the US retailer, Montgomery Ward also devised a catalogue sales and mail-order system. His first catalogue which was issued in August 1872 consisted of an 8 in × 12 in (20 cm × 30 cm) single-sheet price list, listing 163 items for sale with ordering instructions for which Ward had written the copy. He also devised the catch-phrase "satisfaction guaranteed or your money back" which was implemented in 1875. By the 1890s, Sears and Roebuck were also using mail order with great success.
Edward Filene, a proponent of the scientific approach to retail management, developed the concept of the automatic bargain Basement. Although Filene's basement was not the first ‘bargain basement’ in the U.S., the principles of ‘automatic mark-downs’ generated excitement and proved very profitable. Under Filene's plan, merchandise had to be sold within 30 days or it was marked down; after a further 12 days, the merchandise was further reduced by 25% and if still unsold after another 18 days, a further markdown of 25% was applied. If the merchandise remained unsold after two months, it was given to charity. Filene was a pioneer in employee relations. He instituted a profit sharing program, a minimum wage for women, a 40-hour work week, health clinics and paid vacations. He also played an important role in encouraging the Filene Cooperative Association, "perhaps the earliest American company union". Through this channel he engaged constructively with his employees in collective bargaining and arbitration processes.
In the post-war period, an American architect, Victor Gruen developed a concept for a shopping mall; a planned, self-contained shopping complex complete with an indoor plaza, statues, planting schemes, piped music, and car-parking. Gruen's vision was to create a shopping atmosphere where people felt so comfortable, they would spend more time in the environment, thereby enhancing opportunities for purchasing. The first of these malls opened at Northland Mall near Detroit in 1954. He went on to design some 50 such malls. Due to the success of the mall concept, Gruen was described as "the most influential architect of the twentieth century by a journalist in the New Yorker."
Throughout the twentieth century, a trend towards larger store footprints became discernible. The average size of a U.S. supermarket grew from square feet in 1991 to square feet in 2000. In 1963, Carrefour opened the first hypermarket in St Genevieve-de-Bois, near Paris, France. By the end of the twentieth century, stores were using labels such as "mega-stores" and "warehouse" stores to reflect their growing size. In Australia, for example, the popular hardware chain, Bunnings has shifted from smaller "home centres" (retail floor space under ) to "warehouse" stores (retail floor space between and ) in order to accommodate a wider range of goods and in response to population growth and changing consumer preferences. The upward trend of increasing retail space was not consistent across nations and led in the early 21st century to a 2-fold difference in square footage per capita between the United States and Europe.
As the 21st century takes shape, some indications suggest that large retail stores have come under increasing pressure from online sales models and that reductions in store size are evident. Under such competition and other issues such as business debt, there has been a noted business disruption called the retail apocalypse in recent years which several retail businesses, especially in North America, are sharply reducing their number of stores, or going out of business entirely.
See also
History of retail in Southern California
History of marketing
Merchant § History
Marketplace § History
References
History of business
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The Rajneesh movement are people inspired by the Indian mystic Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (1931–1990), also known as Osho, particularly initiated disciples who are referred to as "neo-sannyasins". They used to be known as Rajneeshees or "Orange People" because of the orange and later red, maroon and pink clothes they used from 1970 until 1985. Members of the movement are sometimes called Oshoites in the Indian press.
The movement was controversial in the 1970s and 1980s, due to the founder's hostility to traditional moral values, first in India and later in the United States. In the Soviet Union, the movement was banned as being contrary to "positive aspects of Indian culture and to the aims of the youth protest movement in Western countries". The positive aspects were seen as being subverted by Rajneesh, who was seen as a reactionary ideologue of the monopolistic bourgeoisie of India, promoting the ideas of the consumer society in a traditional Hindu guise.
In Oregon, the movement's large intentional community of the early 1980s, called Rajneeshpuram, caused immediate tensions in the local community for its attempts to take over the nearby town of Antelope and later the county seat of The Dalles.
At the peak of these tensions, a circle of leading members of the Rajneeshpuram Oregon commune was arrested for crimes including an attempted assassination plot to murder U.S. Attorney Charles H. Turner as part of the United States's first recorded bio-terror attack calculated to influence the outcome of a local election in their favour, which ultimately failed. Salmonella bacteria was deployed to infect salad products in local restaurants and shops, which poisoned several hundred people. The Bhagwan, as Rajneesh was then called, was deported from the United States in 1985 as part of his Alford plea deal following the convictions of his staff and right hand Ma Anand Sheela, who were found guilty of the attack. After his deportation, 21 countries denied him entry. The movement's headquarters eventually returned to Poona (present-day Pune), India. The Oregon commune was destroyed in September 1985.
The movement in India gradually received a more positive response from the surrounding society, especially after the founder's death in 1990. The Osho International Foundation (OIF), previously Rajneesh International Foundation (RIF), is managed by an "Inner Circle" set up by Rajneesh before his death. They jointly administer Rajneesh's estate and operate the Osho International Meditation Resort in Pune.
In the late 1990s, rival factions challenged OIF's copyright holdings over Rajneesh's works and the validity of its royalty claims on publishing or reprinting of materials. In the United States, following a 10-year legal battle with Osho Friends International (OFI), the OFI lost its exclusive rights over the trademark OSHO in January 2009.
There are a number of smaller centres of the movement in India and around the world including the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands.
History
Prehistory
Rajneesh began speaking in public in 1958, while still a lecturer (later professor) in philosophy at Jabalpur University. He lectured throughout India during the 1960s, promoting meditation and the ideals of free love, a social movement based on a civil libertarian philosophy that rejects state regulation and religious interference in personal relationships; he also denounced marriage as a form of social bondage, especially for women. He criticised socialism and Gandhi, but championed capitalism, science, technology and birth control, warning against overpopulation and criticising religious teachings that promote poverty and subjection.
He became known as Acharya Rajneesh, Acharya meaning "teacher or professor" and "Rajneesh" being a childhood nickname (from Sanskrit रजनि rajani, night and ईश isha, lord). By 1964, a group of wealthy backers had initiated an educational trust to support Rajneesh and aid in the running of meditation retreats. The association formed at this time was known as Jivan Jagruti Andolan (Hindi: Life Awakening Movement). As Goldman expresses it, his rapidly growing clientele suggested "that he was an unusually talented spiritual therapist". Around this time he "acquired a business manager" from the upper echelons of Indian society, Laxmi Thakarsi Kuruwa, a politically well-connected woman who would function as his personal secretary and organisational chief. She became Rajneesh's first sannyasin, taking the name Ma Yoga Laxmi. Laxmi, the daughter of a key supporter of the Nationalist Congress Party, with close ties to Gandhi, Nehru and Morarji Desai, retained this role for almost 15 years.
Beginnings
University of Jabalpur officials forced Rajneesh to resign in 1966. He developed his role as a spiritual teacher, supporting himself through lectures, meditation camps and individual meetings (Darśana or Darshan—meaning "sight") for his wealthier followers. In 1971 he initiated six sannyasins, the emergence of the Neo-Sannyas International Movement. Rajneesh differentiated his sannyas from the traditional practice, admitting women and viewing renunciation as a process of renouncing ego rather than the world. Disciples still adopted the traditional mala, and ochre robe, and change of name. At this time, Rajneesh adopted the title "Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh".
By 1972, he had initiated 3,800 sannyasins in India. The total for the rest of the world at that time was 134, including 56 from the United States, 16 each from Britain and Germany, 12 each from Italy and the Philippines, 8 in Canada, 4 in Kenya, 2 in Denmark and 1 each from France, the Netherlands, Australia, Greece, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland. After a house was purchased for Rajneesh in Poona in 1974, he founded an ashram, and membership of the movement grew. More seekers began to visit from western nations, including therapists from the Human Potential Movement. They began to run group therapy at the ashram.
Rajneesh became the first Eastern guru to embrace modern psychotherapy. He discoursed daily upon religious scriptures, combining elements of Western philosophy, jokes and personal anecdotes. He commented on Hinduism, Zen and other religious sources, and Western psychotherapeutic approaches.
Swami Prem Amitabh (Robert Birnbaum), one of the therapists in the Poona ashram, estimates that there were about 100,000 sannyasins by 1979. Bob Mullan, a sociologist from the University of East Anglia, states that "at any one time there were about 6,000 Rajneeshees in Poona, some visiting for weeks or months to do groups or meditations, with about two thousand working and living on a permanent basis in and around the ashram." Lewis F. Carter, a sociologist from the Washington State University, estimates that 2,000 sannyasins resided at Rajneeshpuram at its height.
1984 bio-terror attack and subsequent decline
Several incidents that led to a decline of the movement occurred in The Dalles, the county seat and largest city of Wasco County, Oregon.
In 1984, Rajneeshee teams engaged in a bio-terror attack, poisoning salad products with salmonella at local restaurants and shops, poisoning 751 people. The motivation behind the attack was to rig the local election allowing the Rajneeshees to gain political power in the city and county.
The Rajneesh were also discovered to have been running what was called "the longest wiretapping operation ever uncovered".
These revelations brought criminal charges against several Rajneesh leaders, including Ma Anand Sheela, personal secretary to Rajneesh, who pleaded guilty to charges of attempted murder and assault.
The convictions would eventually lead to the deportation of the leader of the movement, Rajneesh, along with a 10-year suspended sentence and $400,000 fine, in 1985. Urban has commented that the most surprising feature of the Osho phenomenon lies in Rajneesh's "remarkable apotheosis upon his return to India", which resulted in his achieving even more success in his homeland than before. According to Urban, Rajneesh's followers had succeeded in portraying him as a martyr, promoting the view that the Ranch "was crushed from within by the Attorney General's office ... like the marines in Lebanon, the Ranch was hit by hardball opposition and driven out."
A long drawn out fight with land use non-profit organisation 1000 Friends of Oregon also hurt the organisation. This took the form of both organisations pursuing legal interventions against each other. 1000 Friends objected to Rajneesh proposed building plans. The fight lasted for several years and attracted the attention of the media.
In 1990, Rajneesh died and was buried at the ashram in Poona; which became the Osho International Meditation Resort. Identifying as the Esalen of the East, the resort has classes in a variety of spiritual techniques from a broad range of traditions and markets the facility as a spiritual oasis, a "sacred space" for discovering one's self, and uniting the desires of body and mind in a beautiful environment. According to press reports, it attracts some 200,000 people from all over the world each year; prominent visitors have included politicians, media personalities and the Dalai Lama.
The movement continued after Rajneesh's death. The Osho International Foundation (OIF), the successor to the Neo-Sannyas International Foundation, now propagates his views, operating once more out of the Pune ashram in India. The organization ran a pre-web, global computer network called "OSHONET". The movement has begun to communicate on the Internet. Current leaders downplay early controversies in Oregon in an effort to appeal to a wider audience.
After Rajneesh's death, various disagreements ensued concerning his wishes and his legacy. This led to the formation of a number of rival collectives. One of the central disagreements related to OIF's copyright control over his works. One group, Osho Friends International, spent 10 years challenging the OIF's use of the title OSHO as an exclusive trademark.
In 2003, sociologist Stephen Hunt wrote in Alternative Religions that "the movement has declined since 1985, and some would argue it is now, for all intents and purposes, defunct."
In the United States, on 13 January 2009, the exclusive rights that OIF held over the trademark were finally lost. OIF filed a Notice of Appeal on 12 March, but eventually filed for withdrawal in the Court of Appeals on 19 June, thus cancelling the trademarks of Osho in the US.
On 16 March 2018, Netflix released a six-part documentary entitled Wild Wild Country regarding the Rajneesh movement.
Beliefs and practices
Religion
A 1972 monograph outlined Rajneesh's concept of sannyas. It was to be a worldwide movement, rooted in the affirmation of life, playful, joyful and based on science rather than belief and dogma. It would not rely on ideology and philosophy, but on practices, techniques and methods aiming to offer every individual the chance to discover and choose their own proper religious path; the intent was to lead people to an essential, universal religiousness. The movement would be open to people of all religions or of none, experimenting with the inner methods of all religions in their pure, original form, not seeking to synthesise them but to provide facilities whereby each might be revived, maintained and defended and their lost and hidden secrets rediscovered. The movement would not seek to create any new religion.
To this end, communities would be founded around the world and groups of sannyasins would tour the world to aid seekers of spiritual enlightenment and demonstrate techniques of meditation. Other groups would perform kirtan (call and response chanting) and conduct experiments in healing. Communities would run their own businesses, and various publishing companies would be founded. A central International University of Meditation would have branches all over the world and run meditation camps, and study groups would investigate the key texts of Tantra, Taoism, Hinduism and other traditions.
In one survey conducted at Rajneeshpuram, over 70 percent of those surveyed listed their religious affiliation as "none"; however, 60 percent of sannyasins participated in activities of worship several times a month. In late 1981 Rajneesh, through his secretary Ma Anand Sheela (Sheela Silverman), announced the inception of the "religion of Rajneeshism", the basis of which would be fragments taken from various discourses and interviews that Rajneesh had given over the years. In July 1983 Rajneesh Foundation International published a 78-page book entitled Rajneeshism: An introduction to Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh and His Religion, in an attempt to systematise Rajneesh's religious teachings and institutionalise the movement. Despite this, the book claimed that Rajneeshism was not a religion, but rather "a religionless religion ... only a quality of love, silence, meditation and prayerfulness". Carter comments that the motivation for formalising Rajneesh's teachings are not easy to determine, but might perhaps have been tied to a visa application made to the Immigration and Naturalization Service to obtain "religious worker" status for him.
People followed the norms of wearing similar clothes and participating in the same activities. The people were allowed to come and go as they pleased as long as they did not hurt anybody. In the last week of September 1985, after Sheela had fled in disgrace, Rajneesh declared that the religion of "Rajneeshism" and "Rajneeshees" no longer existed, and that anything bearing the name would be dismantled.
His disciples set fire to 5,000 copies of the book Rajneeshism. Rajneesh said he ordered the book-burning to rid the sect of the last traces of the influence of Sheela, whose robes were added to the bonfire.
Society
Intentional community
Rajneesh held that families, large cities and nations would ultimately be replaced by small communities with a communal way of life. By 1972, small communes of disciples existed in India and Kenya, and a larger one, to be known as Anand Shila, was planned as a "permanent world headquarters" in India. However, this plan was repeatedly thwarted. Large communes were planned in the west. The Rajneesh organisation bought the Big Muddy Ranch near Antelope, Oregon in July 1981, renaming it Rancho Rajneesh and later Rajneeshpuram. Initially, approximately 2,000 people took up residence in the intentional community, and Rajneesh moved there too. The organisation purchased a reception hotel in Portland. In July 1983 it was bombed by the radical Islamic group Jamaat ul-Fuqra, a group that had connections with militants in Pakistani-held Azad Kashmir and sought to attack "soft" targets with Indian connections in the United States.
The Rajneesh movement clashed with Oregon officials and government while at Rajneeshpuram, resulting in tensions within the commune itself. A siege mentality set in among the commune's leaders, and intimidation and authoritarianism ensued. Disillusioned followers began to leave the organisation. Commune members were instructed to cease communication with anyone who left.
Marriage and the family
Although the movement was without clearly defined and shared values, it was well known that Rajneesh discouraged marrying and having children, since he saw families as inherently prone to dysfunction and destructiveness. Not many children were born at the communes in Oregon and England, and contraception, sterilisation, and abortion were accepted. According to Pike, some parents justified leaving their children when moving to the ashram by reasoning that spiritual development was more important.
Commerce
Hugh B. Urban comments that "one of the most astonishing features of the early Rajneesh movement was its remarkable success as a business enterprise". It "developed an extremely effective and profitable corporate structure", and "by the 1980s, the movement had evolved into a complex, interlocking network of corporations, with an astonishing number of both spiritual and secular businesses worldwide, offering everything from yoga and psychological counselling to cleaning services." It has been estimated that at least 120 million dollars were generated during the movement's time in Oregon, a period when the acquisition of capital, the collection of donations, and legal work were a primary concern. The popular press reported widely on the large collection of Rolls Royce cars Rajneesh had amassed, reported to be 93 at the final count. James S. Gordon reported that some sannyasins saw the cars as an unrivalled tool for obtaining publicity, others as a good business investment or as a test, others as an expression of Rajneesh's scorn for middle-class aspirations and yet others as an indication of the love of his disciples. Gordon opined that what Rajneesh loved most about the Rolls-Royces, apart from their comfort, was "the anger and envy that his possession of so many—so absurdly, unnecessarily, outrageously many—of them aroused". He wrote of a bumper sticker that was popular among sannyasins: "Jesus Saves. Moses Invests. Bhagwan Spends."
By the mid-1980s, the movement, assisted by a sophisticated legal and business infrastructure, had created a corporate machine consisting of various front companies and subsidiaries. At this time, the three main identifiable organisations within the Rajneesh movement were: the Ranch Church, or Rajneesh International Foundation (RIF); the Rajneesh Investment Corporation (RIC), through which the RFI was managed; and the Rajneesh Neo-Sannyasin International Commune (RNSIC). The umbrella organisation that oversaw all investment activities was Rajneesh Services International Ltd., a company incorporated in the UK but based in Zurich. There were also smaller organisations, such as Rajneesh Travel Corp, Rajneesh Community Holdings, and the Rajneesh Modern Car Collection Trust, whose sole purpose was to deal with the acquisition and rental of Rolls Royces. By the early 21st century, members of the movement were running stress management seminars for corporate clients such as BMW, and the movement was reported in 2000 to be making $15–45 million annually in the U.S.
Elections
During elections the Rajneesh would bring thousands of homeless people from New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Phoenix, and other cities to live and vote in Rajneeshpuram and Rajneesh. Representative Wayne H. Fawbush, who represented both areas, wanted a special session of the Oregon Legislature to be called to change Oregon's voter registration laws to prevent the homeless being brought by the Rajneesh from voting.
During the selection of Oregon's thirteen alternate delegates to the 1984 Republican National Convention Ma Prem Kavido, a precinct committee member from Rajneeshpuram and member of the Rajneesh city council, and Ma Prem Debal ran, but both were defeated placing 14th and 15th respectively. Four Rajneesh from Wasco and Jefferson counties were selected to serve as delegates the Oregon Republican Party's state convention.
Demographics
One of the first surveys of sannyasins was conducted in 1980 at the Poona ashram by Swami Krishna Deva (David Berry Knapp), an American clinical psychologist who would later serve as mayor of Rajneeshpuram. In the survey, Krishna Deva polled 300 American sannyasins and discovered that their median age was just over 30. 60 percent of them had been sannyasins for less than two years, and most continued to live in the United States. Half of them came from California, 97 percent were white, 25 percent were Jewish and 85 percent belonged to the middle and upper-middle classes. Almost two-thirds had university degrees and viewed themselves as "successful in worldly terms". Three-quarters had previously been involved in some therapy and more than half had previously experimented with another spiritual group. In 1984 the average age of members of the Rajneesh movement was 34; 64 percent of the followers had a four-year college degree.
A survey of 635 Rajneeshpuram residents was conducted in 1983 by Norman D. Sundberg, director of the University of Oregon's Clinical/Community Psychology Program, and three of his colleagues. It revealed a middle-class group of predominantly college-educated whites around the age of 30, the majority of whom were women. Nearly three-quarters of those surveyed attributed their decisions to become Rajneeshees to their love for Rajneesh or his teachings. 91 percent stated that they had been looking for more meaning in their lives prior to becoming members. When asked to rate how they felt about their lives as Rajneeshees, 93 percent stated they were "extremely satisfied" or nearly so, most of them choosing the top score on a scale of 0 to 8. Only 8 percent stated that they had been as happy before joining.
Legacy
Internationally, by 2005, and after almost two decades of controversy and a decade of accommodation, Rajneesh's movement had established itself in the market of new religions. His followers have redefined his contributions, reframing central elements of his teaching so as to make them appear less controversial to outsiders. Societies in North America and Western Europe have met them half-way, becoming more accommodating to spiritual topics such as yoga and meditation. The Osho International Foundation (OIF) in Pune runs stress management seminars for corporate clients such as IBM and BMW, with a reported (2000) revenue between $15 and $45 million annually in the US.
OSHO International Meditation Resort has described itself as the Esalen of the East, and teaches a variety of spiritual techniques from a broad range of traditions. It promotes itself as a spiritual oasis, a "sacred space" for discovering one's self and uniting the desires of body and mind in a beautiful resort environment. According to press reports, prominent visitors have included politicians and media personalities. In 2011, a national seminar on Rajneesh's teachings was inaugurated at the Department of Philosophy of the Mankunwarbai College for Women in Jabalpur. Funded by the Bhopal office of the University Grants Commission, the seminar focused on Rajneesh's "Zorba the Buddha" teaching, seeking to reconcile spirituality with the materialist and objective approach. As of 2013, the resort required all guests to be tested for HIV/AIDS at its Welcome Center on arrival.
In September 2020, the OSHO International Foundation, which owns the OSHO International Meditation Resort, decided to sell two 1.5 acre plots of land, currently housing a swimming pool and a tennis court. As a charitable trust, the OIF filed an application with the Charity Commissioner in Mumbai requesting permission for the sale. In the application, they cited financial distress due to the COVID19 pandemic. This has sparked controversy amongst Osho followers, and their representative Yogesh Thakkar was quoted saying “This place is made by Osho devotees for Osho devotees, and it belongs to Osho devotees.” Ten Osho disciples filed an objection to the sale with the Charity Commissioner.
People associated with the movement
Literature and thought
Joachim-Ernst Berendt, jazz musician, journalist and author. He became a member of the movement in 1983. When Rajneesh died in 1990, he wrote an obituary calling him the "master of the heart" as well as "the holiest scoundrel I ever knew".
Elfie Donnelly, Anglo-Austrian children's book author. She joined the movement in the 1980s and was among the disciples Rajneesh appointed to the "Inner Circle", the group entrusted with administering his estate after his death.
Jörg Andrees Elten, German writer and journalist. He was a reporter for Stern before joining the movement, and later took the name Swami Satyananda.
Tim Guest, journalist and author. He grew up in the movement with the name Yogesh and later wrote a critical book, My Life in Orange, about his difficult childhood.
Bernard Levin, English columnist. He joined the movement with his then girlfriend, Arianna Huffington, in the early 1980s and later published glowing accounts of Rajneesh and the movement in The Times. About Rajneesh, he stated: "He is the conduit along which the vital force of the universe flows." Levin later joined the Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness with Huffington.
Peter Sloterdijk, German philosopher. He joined the movement in the 1970s. In interviews given in 2006, he credited the experience with having had a fundamental, beneficial and continuing effect on his outlook on life.
Margot Anand, a teacher of tantra. She was a student of Rajneesh and first began to teach tantra in his ashram.
Jan Foudraine, Dutch psychiatrist, psychotherapist, writer and mystic. His sannyasin name is Swami Deva Amrito.
Nirmala Srivastava, Indian spiritual teacher. She was an early member of the Rajneesh movement and later founded a spiritual movement of her own, Sahaja Yoga, repudiating Rajneesh.
Ma Prem Usha, Indian tarot card reader, fortune teller and journalist. She was a member of the movement for 30 years, until her death in 2008.
Performance arts
Parveen Babi, Indian actress. She joined the movement in the mid-1970s together with her former boyfriend, the producer Mahesh Bhatt, and later became a devotee of philosopher U. G. Krishnamurti.
Mahesh Bhatt, Indian film director, producer and screenwriter. He became a sannyasin in the mid-1970s, but later left the movement and instead found spiritual companionship and guidance with U. G. Krishnamurti, whose biography he wrote in 1992.
Georg Deuter, also known as Swami Chaitanya Hari, Musician of the Rajneesh movement. He composed the music that accompanies Rajneesh's meditation recordings in Poona and later at Rajneeshpuram.
Mike Edwards, British former member of the Electric Light Orchestra, known as Swami Deva Pramada or simply Pramada.
Ted Gärdestad, Swami Sangit Upasani, Swedish singer and former tennis player.
Albert Mol, Dutch actor and author.
Nena, German singer and actress. In 2009, she stated that she had become a fan of Rajneesh, his books and meditation techniques, which she had discovered a few years earlier.
Ramses Shaffy, Dutch singer and actor. He was once a heavy drinker, but stopped drinking when he joined the movement in the early 1980s and became Swami Ramses Shaffy. He later relapsed into alcoholism.
Terence Stamp, British actor. In the 1970s, he spent time at the Poona ashram, meditating and studying the teachings of Rajneesh.
Kavyen Temperley, Australian lead singer who forms part of Australian band Eskimo Joe.
Anneke Wills (Ma Prem Anita), British actress most famous for her role as Doctor Who sidekick Polly. She moved to India to stay at the Poona ashram with her son Jasper (Swami Dhyan Yogi) during the 1970s and moved again to a sannyasin commune in California during the early 1980s.
Politics
Arianna Huffington, Greek-American political activist, and her then partner Bernard Levin were disciples in the early 1980s. They later joined the Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness.
Vinod Khanna, Indian film star and politician, was Rajneesh's gardener in Rajneeshpuram. He later became India's Minister of State for External Affairs (junior foreign minister), holding office from 2003 to 2004. He became a sannyasin on 31 December 1975 and received the name Swami Vinod Bharti.
Barbara Rütting, German actress, author and V-Partei3 politician. Her sannyasin name is Ma Anand Taruna.
Others
Pratiksha Apurv, an artist, is Rajneesh's niece and has been a member of the movement since the age of 11.
Prince Welf Ernst of Hanover, eldest son of Prince George William of Hanover and Princess Sophie of Greece and Denmark, joined the movement in 1975 and died from a ruptured cerebral haemorrhage at the age of 33, while at the Poona ashram. Rajneesh gave him the name of Swami Vimalkirti.
Shannon Jo Ryan, daughter of former Congressman Leo Ryan, who investigated the Jonestown commune of the People's Temple in Guyana and was killed there by followers of the Temple in 1978. She joined the Rajneesh movement in 1981, took the name Ma Prem Amrita Pritam, and married another sannyasin, Peter Waight (Swami Anand Subhuti), at Rajneeshpuram in 1982.
Ma Prem Pratiti – Lady Zara Jellicoe, daughter of Earl Jellicoe.
See also
1985 Rajneeshee assassination plot
Breaking the Spell: My Life as a Rajneeshee and the Long Journey Back to Freedom
Byron v. Rajneesh Foundation International
Rebellious Flower
Footnotes
a The Handbook of the Oneida Community claims to have coined the term around 1850, and laments that its use was appropriated by socialists to attack marriage, an institution that they felt protected women and children from abandonment.
Citations
Bibliography
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Further reading
O'Brien, Paula (2008) The Rajneesh sannyasin community in Fremantle Master's degree thesis at Murdoch University, Western Australia
External links
Osho International Meditation Resort
Moscow Osho Centre "Winds" and Osho-Commune "Bhavata"
The Sannyas Wiki
Neosannyas.org
Considering Controversy and Stagnation in the Osho Rajneesh Movement
Article The Rise and Fall of Rajneeshpuram in Ashé Journal
Rajneeshees in Oregon: The Untold Story – Five-part series in The Oregonian newspaper, April 2011
List of attacks attributed to the Rajneeshees on the START terrorism database
Hindu new religious movements
Hindu denominations
Articles containing video clips
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Activision Blizzard, Inc. is an American video game holding company based in Santa Monica, California. It was founded in July 2008 through the merger of Activision, Inc. (the publicly traded parent company of Activision Publishing) and Vivendi Games. It is traded on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the ticker symbol ATVI, and since 2015 has been a member of the S&P 500 Index. Activision Blizzard currently includes five business units: Activision Publishing, Blizzard Entertainment, King, Major League Gaming, and Activision Blizzard Studios.
The company owns and operates additional subsidiary studios, as part of Activision Publishing, including Treyarch, Infinity Ward, High Moon Studios, and Toys for Bob. Among major intellectual properties produced by Activision Blizzard are Call of Duty, Crash Bandicoot, Guitar Hero, Tony Hawk's, Spyro, Skylanders, World of Warcraft, StarCraft, Diablo, Hearthstone, Heroes of the Storm, Overwatch, and Candy Crush Saga. Under Blizzard Entertainment, it invested in esports initiatives around several of its games, most notably Overwatch and Call of Duty. Activision Blizzard's titles have broken a number of release records. , it was the largest game company in the Americas and Europe in terms of revenue and market capitalization.
The company has also been involved in multiple notable controversies, including allegations of infringed patents and unpaid royalties. In late July 2021, it was sued by the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing on allegations of sexual harassment and employee discrimination. The suit triggered an investigation by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, multiple workplace walkouts, the resignation or dismissal of several employees, the loss of multiple company event sponsors, and hundreds of workplace harassment allegations.
Microsoft announced its intent to acquire Activision Blizzard for $68.7 billion on January 18, 2022. If approved, Activision Blizzard would become a division of Microsoft Gaming, making Microsoft the third largest gaming company (behind Tencent and Sony).
History
Background and formation (2007–2008)
The original Activision company was founded in 1979, as a third-party developer for games on the Atari Video Computer System. In 1988 the company expanded into non-gaming software and renamed itself Mediagenic. This venture was not successful, incurring heavy losses. In 1991 a group of investors led by Bobby Kotick bought the company. Kotick instituted a large restructuring to reduce debt, including renaming the company back to Activision and moving it to Santa Monica, California. By 1997 the company was profitable again. Kotick spent the next decade expanding Activision's products through acquisitions of around 25 studios. This resulted in Activision publishing several successful series of games, including Tony Hawk's, Call of Duty, and Guitar Hero. However, by around 2006, the popularity of massively multiplayer online (MMO) games started to grow. Such games provide a constant revenue stream to their publishers, rather than only a single purchase, making them a more valuable proposition. None of Activision's subsidiaries had an MMO or the capability to make one quickly. Activision was also facing tougher competition from companies like Electronic Arts, as well as slowdowns in sales of their key game series.
Around 2006, Kotick reached out to Jean-Bernard Lévy, the CEO of the French media conglomerate Vivendi. Vivendi at that time had a small games division, Vivendi Games, a holding company principally for Sierra Entertainment and Blizzard Entertainment. Kotick wanted to get access to Blizzard's World of Warcraft, a successful MMO, and suggested a means to acquire this to Lévy. Lévy instead offered that he would be willing to merge Vivendi Games with Activision, but only if Vivendi kept majority control of the merged company. According to those close to Kotick, Kotick was concerned about this offer as it would force him to cede control of Activision. However, after talking to Blizzard's CEO Mike Morhaime, Kotick recognized that Vivendi would be able to give them inroads into the growing video game market in China.
Kotick proposed the merger to Activision's board, which agreed to it in December 2007. The new company was to be named Activision Blizzard and would retain its central headquarters in California. Bobby Kotick of Activision was announced as the new president and CEO, while René Penisson of Vivendi was appointed chairman. The European Commission permitted the merger to take place in April 2008, approving that there weren't any EU antitrust issues in the merger deal. On July 8, 2008, Activision announced that stockholders had agreed to merge, and the deal closed the next day for an estimated transaction amount of US$18.9 billion.
Vivendi was the majority shareholder, with a 52% stake in the company. The rest of the shares were held by institutional and private investors, and were to be left open for trading on the NASDAQ stock market for a time under , and subsequently as (Activision's stock ticker). At this point, Lévy replaced René Penisson as chairman of Activision Blizzard. While Blizzard retained its autonomy and corporate leadership in the merger, other Vivendi Games divisions such as Sierra ceased operation. With the merger, Kotick was quoted stating if a Sierra product did not meet Activision's requirements, they "won't likely be retained." Some of these games ultimately were published by other studios, including Ghostbusters: The Video Game, Brütal Legend, The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena, and 50 Cent: Blood on the Sand. However, a number of Sierra's games such as Crash Bandicoot, Spyro the Dragon, and Prototype were retained and are now published by Activision.
New titles and sales records (2009–2012)
In early 2010, the independent studio Bungie entered into a 10-year publishing agreement with Activision Blizzard. By the end of 2010, Activision Blizzard was the largest video games publisher in the world. The 2011 release of Activision Blizzard's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 grossed $400 million in the US and UK alone in its first 24 hours, making it the biggest entertainment launch of all time. It was also the third consecutive year the Call of Duty series broke the biggest launch record; 2010's Call of Duty: Black Ops grossed $360 million on day one; and 2009's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 brought in $310 million. Call of Duty: Black Ops III grossed $550 million in worldwide sales during its opening weekend in 2015, making it the biggest entertainment launch of the year.
In 2011, Activision Blizzard debuted its Skylanders franchise, which led to the press crediting the company with inventing and popularizing a new toys-to-life category. The first release Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure was nominated for two Toy Industry Association awards in 2011: "Game of the Year" and "Innovative Toy of the Year". Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure and its sequels were released for major consoles and PC, and many were released on mobile devices as well.
Split from Vivendi and growth (2013–2014)
On July 25, 2013, Activision Blizzard announced the purchase of 429 million shares from owner Vivendi for $5.83 billion, dropping the shareholder from a 63% stake to 11.8% by the end of the deal in September. At the conclusion of the deal, Vivendi was no longer Activision Blizzard's parent company, and Activision Blizzard became an independent company as a majority of the shares became owned by the public. Bobby Kotick and Brian Kelly retained a 24.4% stake in the company overall. In addition, Kotick remained the president and CEO, with Brian Kelly taking over as chairman. On October 12, 2013, shortly after approval from the Delaware Supreme Court, the company completed the buyback, along the lines of the original plan. Vivendi sold half its remaining stake on May 22, 2014, reducing its ownership to 5.8%. and completely exited two years later.
Activision Blizzard released a new title, Destiny, on September 9, 2014. The game made over $500 million in retail sales on the first day of release, setting a record for the biggest first day launch of a new gaming franchise. On November 5, 2013, the company released Call of Duty: Ghosts, which was written by screenwriter Stephen Gaghan. On its first release day the game sold $1 billion into retail. In 2014, Activision Blizzard was the fifth largest gaming company by revenue worldwide, with total assets of US$14.746 billion and total equity estimated at US$7.513 billion.
S&P 500 and new divisions (2015–2021)
Activision Blizzard joined the S&P 500 stock index on August 28, 2015, becoming one of only two companies on the list related to gaming, alongside Electronic Arts. The company released the next iteration of the Skylanders franchise in September 2015, which added vehicles to the "toys to life" category. On September 15, 2015, Activision and Bungie released Destiny: The Taken King, the follow up to the Destiny saga. Two days later, Sony announced that the game broke the record for the most downloaded day-one game in PlayStation history, in terms of both total players and peak online concurrency.
Activision Blizzard acquired social gaming company King, creator of casual game Candy Crush Saga, for $5.9 billion in November 2015.
In November 2015, Activision Blizzard announced the formation of Activision Blizzard Studios, a film production arm that would produce films and television series based on Activision Blizzard's franchises. The outfit is co-headed by producer Stacey Sher and former The Walt Disney Company executive Nick van Dyk.
In June 2017, Activision Blizzard joined the Fortune 500 becoming the third gaming company in history to make the list after Atari and Electronic Arts.
In its 2018 fiscal year earnings call to shareholders in February 2019, Kotick stated that while the company had seen a record year in revenue, they would be laying off around 775 people or around 8% of their workforce in non-management divisions, "de-prioritizing initiatives that are not meeting expectations and reducing certain non-development and administrative-related costs across the business", according to Kotick. Kotick stated that they plan to put more resources towards their development teams and focus on esports, Battle.net services, and the publisher's core games which include Candy Crush, Call of Duty, Overwatch, Warcraft, Diablo, and Hearthstone. Prior to this, Activision Blizzard and Bungie agreed to terminate their distribution deal with Destiny 2 as it was not bringing in expected revenue for Activision, with Bungie otherwise retaining all rights to Destiny. This transaction allowed Activision Blizzard to report as part of its 2018 fiscal year filings.
The company announced that Daniel Alegre would replace Coddy Johnson as president of Activision Blizzard effective April 7, 2020, with Johnson transitioning to special advisory role.
During the second quarter of 2020, the company's net revenues from digital channels reached $1.44bn due to the growing demand for online games driven by COVID-19 lockdowns. By January 2021, the company's net value was estimated to be based on its stock trading price due to the ongoing demand for video games from the COVID-19 pandemic.
The Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia acquired 14.9 million shares of Activision Blizzard, valued at , in February 2021.
In April 2021, Fernando Machado, former Brazilian executive at Burger King, joined the company as chief marketing officer (CMO). The company also announced in April 2021 that Kotick will remain CEO through April 2023, through Kotick agreed to take a 50% cut of his pay, equal to . Kotick will remain eligible to receive annual bonuses, and while he agreed to reduce his target bonus by 50% as well, he potentially can earn up to 200% of his base pay based on the company's performance.
Workplace misconduct lawsuit and acquisition by Microsoft (2021–present)
As a result of a two-year investigation, on July 20, 2021, the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing (DFEH) filed a suit alleging sexual harassment, employment discrimination and retaliation on the part of Activision Blizzard. The details of the allegations involve accusations of inappropriate behavior towards women and fostering a "frat boy" culture. The company's management initially tried to pass off the allegations as false, which led to employees sharply criticizing the management's lack of seriousness in the matter. Even after CEO's Bobby Kotick's open letter to employees that said their initial response was improper and that they would be internally reviewing matters, employees still staged a walk-off to protest the lack of action the company had taken in regards to the lawsuit. DFEH's lawsuit brought a second lawsuit against the company by its shareholders asserting it falsified knowledge of these problems in their financial statements, and led the Security and Exchange Commission to begin evaluating the company. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission had also filed suit against Activision-Blizzard from their own investigation of the workplace conditions but the company had settled the same day it was filed, which included setting aside an relief fund for affected employees. Kotick requested the board to reduce his pay to the bare minimum required by California law in August 2021 and withhold his bonuses until the lawsuit was resolved, after a bonus package he received in July 2021 following investors criticism on the size of the package. A Wall Street Journal report in November 2021 alleged that Kotick knew about misconduct and sexual harassment within the company without reporting them to the board of directors, leading to an increased pressure on Kotick to leave the company. The lawsuit became a debated matter in the industry as it touches on the Me Too movement and lack of unionization for video game developers to protect them from such mistreatment.
On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced that it would be acquiring Activision Blizzard for $68.7 billion in an all-cash deal, or approximately $95 per share. Activision Blizzard's stock price jumped nearly 40% that day in pre-market trading. The deal would make Microsoft the third-largest gaming company in the world and the largest headquartered in the Americas, behind Chinese company Tencent and the Japanese conglomerate Sony. Goldman Sachs will serve as the financial advisor to Microsoft, and Allen & Company will be Activision's financial advisors. Simpson Thacher will serve as legal advisor for Microsoft while Skadden will serve as legal advisor for Activision. The deal has been approved by both companies' board of directors and is expected to close in 2023 following international government regulatory review of the action. Upon completion of the deal, Activision Blizzard would be a sibling entity to Xbox Game Studios under a new Microsoft Gaming division with Phil Spencer as its lead. The deal would also allow Microsoft to offer Activision Blizzard games on its Xbox Game Pass service. Spencer also spoke to reviving some of the games in Activision Blizzard's past that he himself enjoyed, mentioning series such as King's Quest, Guitar Hero and Hexen: Beyond Heretic.
Kotick stated that he, Spencer, and Microsoft's CEO Satya Nadella have had discussions in 2021 on their concern of the power of Tencent, NetEase, Apple, Inc. and Google, and that Activision Blizzard lacked the computation expertise in machine learning and data analytics that would be necessary to compete with these companies. According to Kotick, this led to the idea of Microsoft, which does have those capabilities, acquiring Activision Blizzard at an attractive price point. In a statement released on Activision Blizzard's investor website, the company said its industry is the "most dynamic and exciting category of entertainment across all platforms" and that gaming will be the forefront of the development of the emerging metaverse. Some journalists saw this acquisition, and Microsoft's March 2021 acquisition of Bethesda Softworks, as a bid to compete against Meta Platforms, formerly known as Facebook.
The timing of the acquisition was reported by The Wall Street Journal and Bloomberg News to be in response to the ongoing DFEH lawsuit. Reports from both newspapers stated that Activision Blizzard had been considering a buyout from other companies, including Facebook parent company Meta Platforms, due to the weaker than expected financial performance of their latest game releases and production delays. Based on SEC filings related to the merger, Microsoft approached Activision Blizzard again in the days immediately following the November 2021 Wall Street Journal report regarding a buyout. While Kotick had been hesitant about selling the company, the board had gone ahead with the deal as they continued to fear the ongoing impact of the lawsuit while Kotick had remains on the board The buyout would provide a graceful exit for Kotick in the future, ranging in $252.2-292.9 million over most scenarios.
According to official announcements, under the deal Kotick will remain the CEO of Activision Blizzard, and is expected to keep the position while the deal goes through regulatory processes, as Activision Blizzard remains independent from Microsoft until the deal closes. According to The Wall Street Journal, Kotick "will depart once the deal closes" under Microsoft's management, while Kotick said in an interview that he has an interest in remaining in the company. Microsoft has yet to speak directly about the Activision Blizzard lawsuit following news of the acquisition, however the company announced a week prior that it would be reviewing its own sexual harassment and gender discrimination policies.
Several Activision Blizzard employees have expressed cautious optimism with respect to the deal, with the ABK Workers Alliance, a group of employees pushing for unionization in the wake of the DFEH lawsuit, saying the acquisition did "not change the goals" of the Alliance. A report by Business Insider suggested several Microsoft employees have raised their concern on the deal with respect to the sexual harassment scandals and Activision Blizzard workplace culture, hoping for "concrete steps to make sure we aren't introducing a dangerous and unwelcome culture." On January 19, 2022, World Bank president David Malpass criticized the acquisition as a questionable allocation of capital at a time when poor countries are struggling to restructure their debts and fight off the COVID-19 pandemic and poverty. After Sony had stated that they expect Microsoft to honor all of Activision Blizzard's publishing agreements for multiplatform games, Spencer and Microsoft president Brad Smith reassured that Microsoft will continue these existing agreements and expressed their desire to keep Call of Duty and other popular Activision Blizzard games on PlayStation beyond the terms of these agreements, as well as explore the opportunity to bring these games to the Nintendo consoles.
In the United States, the acquisition will be reviewed by the Federal Trade Commission rather than traditionally by the U.S. Department of Justice, as the agency had raised more concerns over mergers and acquisitions in the Big Tech sector in the last decade.
Corporate structure
Activision Blizzard is divided into three key business segments:
Activision Publishing, which handles the development, production, and distribution of video games from its subsidiary studios.
Blizzard Entertainment, which handles the development, production, and distribution of Blizzard's games. It also houses the company's esports activities including MLG and the Overwatch League.
King, which handles the development and distribution of its mobile games.
There are also two non-reporting segments within Activision Blizzard. Activision Blizzard Studios oversees the production of film and television entertainment based on the company's properties. Activision Blizzard Distribution provides logistical support for Activision Blizzard's distribution within Europe.
Esports initiatives
Activision Blizzard owns the Call of Duty and StarCraft franchises, both of which have been popular as esports. On October 21, 2015, Activision Blizzard announced the upcoming establishment of a new e-sports division. Named Activision Blizzard Media Networks, the division is led by sports executive Steve Bornstein and Major League Gaming (MLG) co-founder Mike Sepso, with assets from the acquisition of the now defunct IGN Pro League. Bornstein was appointed the new division's chairman. On December 31, 2015, it was reported that "substantially all" of Major League Gaming's assets would be acquired by Activision Blizzard. The New York Times reported that the acquisition was intended to bolster Activision Blizzard's push into e-sports, as well as its plan to develop an e-sports cable channel. Reports indicated that MLG would be shuttered and that the majority of the purchase price would go towards paying off the company's debt. Activision Blizzard acquired MLG on January 4, 2016 for $46 million.
In November 2016, Blizzard Entertainment, a subsidiary of Activision Blizzard, announced the launch of Overwatch League, a professional video gaming league. The league's first season began during the second half of 2017 with 12 teams. The league's structure is based on traditional sports structures, including recruiting traditional sports executives as team owners, such as Robert Kraft, owner of the New England Patriots, and Jeff Wilpon, COO of the New York Mets.
The inaugural Overwatch Grand Finals was played at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn in July 2018 and attracted 10.8 million viewers worldwide. The league hopes to have 18 teams competing during the second season in 2019, with the ultimate goal of 28 teams across the world.
In 2018, Activision Blizzard signed a multi-year deal with The Walt Disney Company to stream Overwatch League games on both ESPN and Disney XD cable channels. The company also secured an exclusive multi-year deal with Google to stream all subsequent Activision Blizzard esports events, including Call of Duty and Overwatch events, through YouTube, and to use Google's cloud services for its game hosting infrastructure; this came after a prior two-year deal with Twitch for the Overwatch League had concluded. The deal with YouTube was estimated to be valued at , double what it had with Twitch.
Call of Duty Endowment
Since 2009, when CEO Kotick launched Call of Duty Endowment (CODE), over 50,000 veterans have been placed in high-quality jobs. In 2013 CODE started the "Seal of Distinction" program, which recognizes non-profit organizations that are successful in placing veterans in good jobs. Winners receive a $30,000 grant to use in their veteran job placement activities. The goal of CODE is to help 100,000 US and UK veterans find high-quality jobs by 2024. The endowment helps soldiers transition to civilian careers after their military service by funding nonprofit organizations and raising awareness of the value veterans bring to the workplace.
Products
List of Activision games
List of Blizzard Entertainment games
Other legal disputes
Worlds, Inc.
Worlds, Inc. was issued several United States patents around 2009 related to "System and method for enabling users to interact in a virtual space", which generally described a method of server/client communications for multiplayer video games, where players would communicate through avatars. In early 2009, Worlds, Inc. stated its intent to challenge publishers and developers of MMOs, naming Activision as one of its intended targets. Worlds, Inc. had already challenged NCSoft for its MMOs in 2008. The companies ultimately settled out of court by 2010.
Worlds, Inc. launched its formal lawsuit against Activision Blizzard, including both Blizzard Entertainment and Activision Publishing, in March 2012, stating that Call of Duty and World of Warcraft infringed on their patents. Activision Publishing filed a separate patent infringement lawsuit in October 2013, asserting that Worlds, Inc. was using two Activision-owned patents in its Worlds Player software, but this suit was dismissed with prejudice by June 2014.
In Worlds, Inc. case against Activision, the judge issued a summary judgement in Activision's favor, as they had demonstrated that Worlds, Inc. had demonstrated the technologies of their patents in their client programs AlphaWorld and World Chat, released before the 1995 priority date, though this was related to filing irregularities that were subsequently corrected by the Patent Office. Activision did not challenge the updated patents through an inter partes review (IPR), and subsequently after a statutory one-year waiting period, Worlds, Inc. filed a subsequently lawsuit against Activision, asserting Call of Duty: Ghosts violated their resolved patents. Later, Worlds, Inc. stated the intent to add Bungie to the lawsuit contending that Destiny also fell afoul of their patents. Bungie subsequently filed three IPRs with the Patent Office for each of the three Worlds, Inc. patents at the core of the lawsuit. While Bungie initially won its IPR ruling at the USPTO, on appeal in September 2018, Worlds, Inc. won a ruling questioning whether Bungie had legal standing to file its IPRs.
The new Worlds, Inc. case against Activision Blizzard was heard on October 3, 2014. With Bungie's IPRs pending at the Patent Office, the judge put the trial on hold pending the outcome of the IPRs. Worlds, Inc. challenged the IPRs at the Patent Office, as they did not include Activision as an interested party, a requirement that would have been necessary given the publisher/developer relationship between Activision and Bungie. The Patent Office did not accept this argument, and subsequently agreed with the Bungie IPRs that portions of Worlds, Inc. patents were invalid. Worlds, Inc. appealed to the Federal Circuit Appeals Court, challenging the validity of the IPRs due to the lack of Activision's involvement. The Federal Circuit court ruled in favor of Worlds, Inc. in September 2018, invalidating the Patent Office's decision. Worlds, Inc.'s case presently remains at the Patent Office stage, which is re-reviewing the IPRs in consideration of the Federal Circuit's ruling. The lawsuit was dismissed in 2021, when a US district court ruled that "Worlds' patents were abstract ideas that were not sufficiently transformative to be legally patentable."
Infinity Ward
In early 2010, Activision fired Vince Zampella and Jason West, two of the founders of its studio Infinity Ward, on the basis of "breaches of contract and insubordination"; the move caused several other Infinity Ward staff to resign. Zampella and West created a new studio, Respawn Entertainment, with help from Electronic Arts' partner program, hiring the majority of those that departed Infinity Ward in their wake.
Zampella and West filed a lawsuit in April 2010 against Activision, claiming unpaid royalties on the studio's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. Activision filed a countersuit against the two, accusing the pair of being "self-serving schemers". Activision later sought to add Electronic Arts to their suit, discovering that Zampella and West had been in discussions with them while still working for Activision, and further added claims against Zampella and West that the two had not returned all material related to Call of Duty while they were working at Respawn. A separate lawsuit was filed against Activision in April 2010 by several current and former members of Infinity Ward on the same basis of lack of unpaid royalties.
All parties came to an undisclosed settlement to end all suits by May 2012. Electronic Arts and Activision had settled separately on Activision's charges of poaching employees, while the suits between Activision, Zampella, West, and the Infinity Ward employee group were settled by the end of May 2012. All settlements were made for undisclosed amounts.
See also
Lists of video game companies
List of video game publishers
Notes
References
External links
2008 establishments in California
American companies established in 2008
Companies based in Santa Monica, California
Former Vivendi subsidiaries
Holding companies established in 2008
Holding companies of the United States
Video game companies established in 2008
Video game companies of the United States
Video game development companies
Video game publishers
Announced mergers and acquisitions
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The Congress of Vienna (, ) of 1814–1815 was an international diplomatic conference to reconstitute the European political order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon I. It was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.
The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. More fundamentally, the conservative leaders of the Congress sought to restrain or eliminate the republicanism and revolution which had upended the constitutional order of the European old regime, and which continued to threaten it. In the settlement, France lost all its recent conquests, while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains. Prussia added smaller German states in the west, Swedish Pomerania, 60% of the Kingdom of Saxony, and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw; Austria gained Venice and much of northern Italy. Russia gained the central and eastern part of the Duchy of Warsaw. It ratified the new Kingdom of the Netherlands which had been created just months before from the formerly Austrian territory that in 1830 became Belgium.
The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Negotiations continued despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's dramatic return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's "final act" was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.
Historians have criticized the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of the emerging national and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary movement for the benefit of traditional monarchs.
In a technical sense, the "Congress of Vienna" was not properly a congress: it never met in plenary session. Instead, most of the discussions occurred in informal, face-to-face sessions among the Great Powers of Austria, Britain, France, Russia, and sometimes Prussia, with limited or no participation by other delegates. On the other hand, the Congress was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives came together to formulate treaties instead of relying mostly on messages among the several capitals. The Congress of Vienna settlement formed the framework for European international politics until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
Preliminaries
The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna of 1814–15. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades. Other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814.
Participants
The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.
Four Great Powers and Bourbon France
The Four Great Powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration:
Austria was represented by Prince Metternich, the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy, Baron Johann von Wessenberg. As the Congress's sessions were in Vienna, Emperor Francis was kept closely informed.
The United Kingdom was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh; then by the Duke of Wellington, after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. In the last weeks it was headed by the Earl of Clancarty, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the Hundred Days.
Tsar Alexander I controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count Karl Robert Nesselrode. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. He succeeded in forming the Holy Alliance (1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism.
Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt. King Frederick William III of Prussia was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes.
France, the "fifth" power, was represented by its foreign minister, Talleyrand, as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary the Duke of Dalberg. Talleyrand had already negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) for Louis XVIII of France; the king, however, distrusted him and was also secretly negotiating with Metternich, by mail.
Other signatories of the Treaty of Paris, 1814
These parties had not been part of the Chaumont agreement, but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814):
Spain – Pedro Gómez de Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador
Portugal – Plenipotentiaries: Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmela; António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo; Joaquim Lobo da Silveira.
Sweden – Count Carl Löwenhielm
Others
Denmark – Count Niels Rosenkrantz, foreign minister. King Frederick VI was also present in Vienna.
The Netherlands – Earl of Clancarty, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court, and Baron Hans von Gagern
Switzerland – Every canton had its own delegation. Charles Pictet de Rochemont from Geneva played a prominent role.
Kingdom of Sardinia – Marquis .
The Papal States – Cardinal Ercole Consalvi
The Order of St. John of Malta – Fra Antonio Miari, Fra Daniello Berlinghieri and Fra Augusto Viè de Cesarini
Republic of Genoa – Marquise Agostino Pareto, Senator of the Republic.
Grand Duchy of Tuscany – .
Kingdom of Sicily – Alvaro Ruffo della Scaletta, Luigi de' Medici di Ottajano, Antonio Maresca di Serracapriola and Fabrizio Ruffo di Castelcicala
On German issues,
Bavaria – Maximilian Graf von Montgelas
Württemberg –
Hanover, then in a personal union with the British crown – Ernst zu Münster. (King George III had refused to recognize the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and maintained a separate diplomatic staff as Elector of Hanover to conduct the affairs of the family estate, the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, until the results of the Congress were concluded establishing the Kingdom of Hanover).
Mecklenburg-Schwerin –
Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a copyright law and freedom of the press. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke it did not move, but danced.
Talleyrand's role
Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies.
The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on September 30th, 1814.
Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador.
Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.
Polish-Saxon crisis
The most dangerous topic at the Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would become king of Poland. Austria was fearful this would make Russia much too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed a secret treaty on 3 January 1815, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition.
When the Tsar heard of the secret treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland, with the tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. Russia, however, did not receive the majority of Greater Poland and Kuyavia nor the Chełmno Land, which were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen (Poznań), nor Kraków, which officially became a free city, but in fact was a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was unable to unite the new domain with the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony-later known as the Province of Saxony, with the remainder returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony.
Final Act
The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before the Battle of Waterloo). Its provisions included:
Russia received most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) and retained Finland (which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and would hold until 1917, as the Grand Duchy of Finland).
Prussia received three-fifths of Saxony, western parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (most of which became part of the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen), Gdańsk (Danzig), the Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine (merger of the former French departments of Rhin-et-Moselle, Sarre, and Roer (Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg (merger itself of the former Prussian Guelders, Principality of Moers, and the Grand Duchy of Berg))
A German Confederation of 39 states, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor, formed from the previous 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire. Only portions of the territories of each of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation (roughly the same portions that had been within the Holy Roman Empire).
The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands (approximately modern-day Belgium) became a united monarchy, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the House of Orange-Nassau providing the king (the Eight Articles of London).
To compensate for Orange-Nassau's loss of the Nassau lands to Prussia, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg were to form a personal union under the House of Orange-Nassau, with Luxembourg (but not the Netherlands) inside the German Confederation.
Swedish Pomerania, given to Denmark in January 1814 in return for The Kingdom of Norway, became part of Prussia. France received back Guadeloupe from Sweden, with yearly installments payable to the Swedish king.
The neutrality of the 22 cantons of Switzerland was guaranteed and a federal pact was recommended to them in strong terms. Bienne and the Prince-Bishopric of Basel became part of the Canton of Bern. The Congress also suggested a number of compromises for resolving territorial disputes between cantons.
The former Electorate of Hanover was expanded to a kingdom. It gave up the Duchy of Lauenburg to the Kingdom of Denmark, but gained former territories of the Bishop of Münster and of the formerly Prussian East Frisia.
Most of the territorial gains of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau under the mediatizations of 1801–1806 were recognized. Bavaria also gained control of the Rhenish Palatinate and of parts of the Napoleonic Duchy of Würzburg and Grand Duchy of Frankfurt. Hesse-Darmstadt, in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, received Rhenish Hesse with its capital at Mainz.
Austria regained control of the Tyrol and Salzburg; of the former Illyrian Provinces; of Tarnopol district (from Russia); received Lombardy-Venetia in Italy and Ragusa in Dalmatia. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden; the Austrian Netherlands were also not recovered.
Ferdinand III was restored as Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Archduke Francis IV was acknowledged as the ruler of the Duchy of Modena, Reggio and Mirandola.
The Papal States under the rule of the Pope were restored to their former extent, with the exception of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin, which remained part of France.
Britain retained control of the Cape Colony in Southern Africa; Tobago; Ceylon; and various other colonies in Africa and Asia. Other colonies, most notably the Dutch East Indies and Martinique, reverted to their previous overlords.
The King of Sardinia, re-established in Piedmont, Nice, and Savoy, gained control of Genoa (putting an end to the brief proclamation of a restored Republic of Genoa).
The Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were taken from the Queen of Etruria and given to Marie Louise for her lifetime.
The Duchy of Lucca was established for the House of Bourbon-Parma, with reversionary rights to Parma after the death of Marie Louise.
The slave trade was condemned.
Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers, notably the Rhine and the Danube.
Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway, and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817.
Subsequently, the Bourbon Ferdinand IV, King of Sicily, regained control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat, the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the Hundred Days and started the 1815 Neapolitan War by attacking Austria.
Other changes
The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria.
Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel, Norway had been ceded by the king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on 17 May 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden. Austria gained Lombardy-Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Duchy of Parma).
The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa. In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples, but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to the throne.
A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange, including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands. Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for a couple of hundred years: Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.
During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivenza to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of the Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz of 1801". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and this issue remains unresolved.
The United Kingdom received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland. Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII France ceded to Britain the islands of "Tobago and Saint Lucia, and of the Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles", and under the Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815), Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of the Ionian Islands.
Later criticism
The Congress of Vienna has frequently been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized.
In the 20th century, however, many historians came to admire the statesmen at the Congress, whose work prevented another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914). Among these is Henry Kissinger, who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation, A World Restored, on it. Historian Mark Jarrett argues that the Congress of Vienna and the Congress System marked "the true beginning of our modern era". He says the Congress System was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution." Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "balance of power" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.
Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia, Modena, Naples–Sicily, Parma, Piedmont–Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland, remaining under Russian control.
The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later.
See also
Diplomatic timeline for 1815
Precedence among European monarchies
Concert of Europe
European balance of power
Battle of Waterloo
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
Treaty of Paris (1814)
Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)
References
Further reading
Ferraro, Guglielmo. The Reconstruction of Europe; Talleyrand and the Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 (1941) online
Forrest, Alan. "The Hundred Days, the Congress of Vienna and the Atlantic Slave Trade." in Napoleon's Hundred Days and the Politics of Legitimacy (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018) pp. 163–181.
Gabriëls, Jos. "Cutting the cake: the Congress of Vienna in British, French and German political caricature." European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire 24.1 (2017): 131–157. illustrated
Gulick, E. V. "The final coalition and the Congress of Vienna, 1813–15" in C. W. Crawley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History, vol 9, 1793–1830 (1965) pp. 639–67.
online review
King, David. Vienna, 1814: How the conquerors of Napoleon made love, war, and peace at the congress of Vienna (Broadway Books, 2008), popular history
Kohler, Max James. "Jewish Rights at the Congresses of Vienna (1814–1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)" Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, No. 26 (1918), pp. 33–125 online
Kraehe, Enno E. Metternich's German Policy. Vol. 2: The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 (1984)
Kwan, Jonathan. "The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815: diplomacy, political culture and sociability." Historical Journal 60.4 (2020) online.
Lane, Fernanda Bretones, Guilherme de Paula Costa Santos, and Alain El Youssef. "The Congress of Vienna and the making of second slavery." Journal of global slavery 4.2 (2019): 162–195.
Langhorne, Richard. "Reflections on the Significance of the Congress of Vienna." Review of International Studies 12.4 (1986): 313–324.
Nicolson, Harold. The Congress of Vienna: a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822 (1946) online.
("Chapter II The restoration of Europe")
Peterson, Genevieve. "II. Political inequality at the Congress of Vienna." Political Science Quarterly 60.4 (1945): 532–554. online
Schenk, Joep. "National interest versus common interest: The Netherlands and the liberalization of Rhine navigation at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)." in Shaping the International Relations of the Netherlands, 1815–2000 (Routledge, 2018) pp. 13–31.
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (1996), pp. 517–582 online
Sluga, Glenda. "'Who Hold the Balance of the World?' Bankers at the Congress of Vienna, and in International History." American Historical Review 122.5 (2017): 1403–1430.
Vick, Brian. The Congress of Vienna. Power and Politics after Napoleon. Harvard University Press, 2014. .
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HMS Indefatigable was one of the 64-gun third-rate ships-of-the-line designed by Sir Thomas Slade in 1761 for the Royal Navy. She was built as a ship-of-the-line, but most of her active service took place after her conversion to a 44-gun razee frigate. She had a long career under several distinguished commanders, serving throughout the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. She took some 27 prizes, alone or in company, and the Admiralty authorised the issue of four clasps to the Naval General Service Medal in 1847 to any surviving members of her crews from the respective actions. She was broken up in 1816.
Construction
Indefatigable was ordered on 3 August 1780 (long after Slade's death), and her keel was laid down in May 1781 at the Bucklers Hard shipyard in Hampshire owned by Henry Adams. She was launched in early July 1784 and completed from 11 July to 13 September of that year at Portsmouth Dockyard as a 64-gun two-decked third rate for the Royal Navy. She had cost £25,210 4s 5d to build; her total initial cost including fitting out and coppering was £36,154 18s 7d. By that time, she was already anachronistic for the role of a ship of the line as the French only built the more powerful 74-gun ships, and was never commissioned in that role.
Design modification
In 1794, she was razéed; her upper gun deck was cut away to convert her into a large and heavily armed frigate. The original intention was to retain her twenty-six 24-pounder guns on her gundeck, and to mount eight 12-pounder guns on her quarterdeck and a further four on her forecastle, which would have rated her as a 38-gun vessel. However, it was at this time that the carronade was becoming more popular in the Navy, and her intended armament was altered on 5 December 1794 with the addition of four 42-pounder carronades to go on her quarterdeck and two on her forecastle. Indefatigable was thereafter rated as a 44-gun fifth-rate frigate, along with and , which were converted at about the same time. The work was carried out at Portsmouth from September 1794 to February 1795 at a cost of £8,764. On 17 February 1795, a further two 12-pounder guns were added to her quarterdeck, though her official rating remained unchanged.
French Revolutionary Wars
Captain Sir Edward Pellew
Indefatigable was first commissioned in December 1794 under Captain Sir Edward Pellew. He commanded her until early 1799.
On 9 March 1795, Indefatigable, , and captured numerous French prizes: Temeraire, Minerve, Gentille, Regeneration, and a brig and sloop of unknown names. In October, the Dutch East Indiaman Zeelilee was wrecked in the Isles of Scilly with the loss of 25 of her 70 crew. Indefatigable rescued the survivors.
On 20 March 1796, Indefatigable and her squadron chased three French corvettes, of which the Volage of 26 guns ran ashore under a battery at the mouth of the Loire. Volage lost her masts in running ashore, but the French were later able to refloat her. Her two consorts and Eclatant escaped into the river. In this action, had four men wounded.
The squadron also captured or sank a number of merchant vessels between 11 and 21 March.
Favorite Sultana, laden with salt—captured;
Friends, brig, laden with flour—captured;
Brig of unknown name, in ballast—sunk;
Chasse maree of unknown name, empty—sunk;
Providence, chasse maree, laden with wine and brandy—captured;
Brig of unknown name, laden with empty casks—sunk;
Four Marys, brig, in ballast—captured;
Aimable Justine, brig, in ballast—captured;
Nouvelle Union, brig, in ballast—captured.
The vessels sharing in the prize money were: Indefatigable, Concorde, , , , and the hired armed cutter Dolly and hired armed lugger Duke of York.
On 13 April 1796, Indefatigable was in pursuit of a French frigate. Pellew signalled to Révolutionnaire to cut her off from the shore. Révolutionnaire then captured the French frigate Unité after having fired two broadsides into her. Unité had nine men killed and 11 wounded; Révolutionnaire had no casualties. The Royal Navy took the frigate into service as HMS Unite.
On the morning of 20 April 1796, Indefatigable sighted the French 44-gun frigate off the Lizard. Indefatigable, Amazon, and Concorde chased Virginie, with Indefatigable catching her just after midnight on 21 April after a chase of 15 hours and . After an hour and three quarters of fighting, she still had not struck and had somewhat outmaneuvered Indefatigable when Concorde arrived. Seeing that she was outnumbered, Virginie struck.
Virginie carried 44 guns, 18 and 9-pounders, and had a crew of 340 men under the command of Citizen Bergeret, Capitaine de Vaisseau. She had 14 or 15 men killed, 17 badly wounded, and 10 slightly. She also had four feet of water in her hold from shot holes. Indefatigable had no casualties. Pellew sent Virginie into Plymouth under the escort of Concorde, and followed the next day with Amazon, which had sustained some damage. The Royal Navy took Virginie into service as .
In July 1796, there was an initial distribution of £20,000 of prize money for the capture of Unite and Virginie. Indefatigable shared this with Amazon, Révolutionnaire, Concorde, and Argo. Apparently, Duke of York also shared in some or all of the prize money. In 1847, the Admiralty authorised the issue of the Naval General Service Medal with clasp "Indefatigable 20 Apl. 1796".
On 12 June, Indefatigable, Amazon, Concorde, Revolutionaire, and took two French brigs off Ushant – the Trois Couleurs and the Blonde (alias Betsey) – after a chase of 24 hours. Trois Couleurs carried 10 guns and a crew of 70. Blonde had 16 guns and a crew of 95 men. Each was under the command of an ensign de vaisseau and both vessels had left Brest two days earlier for a six-week cruise, but had not yet taken any prizes.
In September 1796, Indefatigable, Phoebe, Révolutionnaire, and Amazon captured five Spanish ships.
On 1 October, Indefatigable, Amazon, Révolutionnaire, Phoebe, and Jason shared in the capture of the Vrow Delenea Maria. The next day, Pellew and Indefatigable captured the privateer schooner Ariel of Boston off Corunna. Earlier, Pellew had recaptured the brig Queen of Naples, which had been sailing from Lisbon to Cork. From her, he learned that there were two privateers around Corunna, one of which had captured a brig from Lisbon with a cargo of bale goods two days earlier. Pellew immediately set off towards Corunna and was able to intercept the Ariel. She had 12 guns and a crew of 75 men. She was 14 days out of Bordeaux. Her consort, the schooner Vengeur, was of the same strength, and Pellew yet hoped to catch her, too. The brig from Bristol, however, had made it into the port of Ferrol, where Pellew had earlier chased two French frigates.
In January 1797, Indefatigable and Amazon captured the packet Sangossee. On 7 January, Indefatigable and Amazon captured the Emanuel. Later that month, Indefatigable fought her most famous battle.
The Action of 13 January 1797 was an engagement off the Penmarks involving the two frigates Indefatigable and Amazon against the French , a 74-gun ship of the line. The battle ended with Droits de l'Homme being driven onto shore in a gale. Amazon also ran onto the shore; still, almost her entire crew survived both the battle and the grounding and were captured. Despite being embayed and having damaged masts and rigging, Indefatigable was able to repair the damage and beat off the lee shore, showing excellent seamanship. She had only 19 officers and men wounded, with most of those not being serious. This action resulted the award of the Naval General Service Medal with clasp "Indefatigable 13 Jany. 1797" for any crew surviving in 1847.
On 18 January Indefatigable was at Falmouth. There she saved all on board when a fire destroyed the American merchantman .
Subsequently, Indefatigable or Pellew's squadron took more vessels, including privateers, primarily in the Channel. Thus, Pellew reported that, on 30 April 1797, "we" captured the French brigantine privateer Basque. She was armed with eight guns and carried a crew of 50 men.
On 11 May, Indefatigable in company with Phoebe, , , and Duke of York captured Nouvelle Eugénie. She was a razee privateer of 16 guns and carried a crew of 120 men. She was four days out of Nantes on a 30-day cruise, but had taken no prizes. The Royal Navy took her into service as .
On 21 July, the Duke of York returned, having chased a French privateer lugger into the hands of Lieutenant Bray, who commanded the Revenue Cutter Hind. Hind also recaptured a sloop that the privateer had captured. The lugger was armed with two guns and carried a crew of 25 men.
On 14 October, Indefatigable arrived at Teneriffe. There at midnight she captured the French brig corvette . Ranger was armed with 14 guns and carried a crew of 70 men. She had been carrying dispatches to the West Indies, which she was able to destroy before capture. The next day, Pellew captured a Spanish schooner carrying a cargo of fish. Indefatigable was short of water, so he put the crew of Ranger on board the schooner (though not Rangers officers) and sent them ashore at Santa Cruz.
Ten days after that, Indefatigable captured the privateer Hyène after a chase of eight hours. She was armed with twenty-four 9-pounder guns and had a crew of 230 men. She was two weeks out of Bayonne but had not captured anything. Hyène had apparently mistaken Indefatigable for a vessel from Portuguese India. Pellew estimated that, had she not lost her foretopmast in the chase, she might have escaped. She had been the post-ship until her capture in 1793; the Royal Navy took her back into service under her original name.
Indefatigable returned to the Channel. On 11 January 1798, she was in company with and Childers when they captured the French privateer schooner Vengeur. Vengeur was a new vessel of 12 guns and 72 men. She was eight days out of Ostend but had taken no prizes. Pellew sent her into Falmouth.
Five days later, in the evening of the 16th, Pellew's squadron captured the French privateer Inconcevable. She was armed with eight guns and had a crew of 55 men. She was 10 days out of Dunkirk and had taken nothing. Prize money was paid to Indefatigable, Cambrian, and .
On 28 January, Indefatigable and Cambrian captured the privateer Heureuse Nouvelle. She was armed with 22 guns and had a crew of 130 men. She was 36 days out of Brest and, during that time, had captured only one ship, a large American vessel named the Providence which had a cargo of cotton and sugar. Pellew sent Cambrian in pursuit. Duke of York also shared in the capture.
On 30 April 1798, Indefatigable captured the brigantine privateer Basque. She was armed with eight guns and had a crew of 50 men. Indefatigable and Cleopatra captured the Hope on 11 July.
At daylight on 4 August, Indefatigable sighted the privateer Heureux together with a prize and gave chase. The two separated, with the prize heading directly for Bayonne. After a chase of 32 hours on a great circular route, Indefatigable and her quarry found themselves off Bayonne where Indefatigable intercepted the prize and captured her. The privateer was the Heureux, of 16 guns and 112 men. Her prize was the Canada, John Sewell Master, which had been sailing from Jamaica to London, having stopped in Charlestown, with a cargo of sugar, rum, and coffee. Pellew exchanged prisoners, taking off the crew of the Canada and putting on her the crew of Heureux. He then drove Canada on shore where he hoped that her cargo at least would be destroyed.
Indefatigable captured the French corvette Vaillante while cruising in the Bay of Biscay on 8 August, after a chase of 24 hours, which was under the command of Lieutenant de Vaisseau La Porte. The corvette fired a few shots before she struck. She was armed with twenty-two 9-pounder guns and had a crew of 175 men. She had left Rochefort on 1 August, and the Île de Ré on the 4th, where she had picked up 25 banished priests, 27 convicts, and a Madame Rovere and family, all of whom she was taking to Cayenne. She was only 18 months old, coppered, and a fast sailer. The British took her into service as . On 15 November 1798, Indefatigable captured the Mercurius.
At dawn on 31 December 1798, Indefatigable captured the Minerve, five leagues off Ushant. She was armed with 16 guns and carried a crew of 140 men. She was four weeks out of Saint-Malo and was waiting to enter Brest when captured. She had taken several prizes, one of which, the Asphalon, Indefatigable captured on 1 January 1799. Aspahalon, a Newcastle vessel, had been sailing from Halifax to London with a cargo of sugar, coffee, and tobacco. Other vessels which Minerve had captured included Martinus (Bremen brig), Tagus (Portuguese brig ), Minerva (English snow), and Ann and Dorothea (aka Beata Maria, Danish schooner).
On 14 January 1799, Indefatigable recaptured Argo, Rich, master, which had been sailing from Gothenburg for Boston when a French privateer had captured her. After her recapture Argo arrived at Falmouth.
More captures or recaptures of merchantmen followed. Indefatigable, , and recaptured the Providence on 10 January 1799, the Pomona on 5 February, and the Wohlfarden on 9 February.
Subsequent commanders
From March 1799 until the end of 1800 Indefatigable was under the command of Captain Henry Curzon. On 31 May she captured the brig Vénus. Venus was armed with twelve 4-pounder guns and two 9-pounders, and carried a crew of 101 men. She was nine weeks out of Rochefort and had captured two prizes, the schooner Clarence, sailing from Lisbon to London, and a ship from Lisbon sailing to Hamburg with a cargo of salt. Indefatigable was apparently also in company with Fisgard and Diamond.
On 9 October 1799 Indefatigable, Diamond, Cambrian, , Nymphe and shared in the capture of the Spanish brig Nostra Senora de la Solidad. Then on 7 November Nymphe, Indefatigable and Diamond shared in the recapture of the ship Brailsford.
Then on 6 January 1800 Indefatigable shared with , , and Stag in the capture of the French brig Ursule. On 11 February Indefatigable captured the Vidette.
On 12 June 1800, Indefatigable captured the French privateer brig Vengeur. She was armed with six long 4-pounders and ten 18-pounder carronades, and carried a crew of 102 men. She was two days out of Bordeaux and sailing for the coast of Brazil. Vengeur was sailing in company with three letters of marque – a ship, a brig and a schooner – that were bound for Guadeloupe. On 11 June Vengeur had captured the Jersey-privateer lugger Snake. Indefatigable shared the prize money with .
On 3 July Indefatigable recaptured the brig Cultivator, from the French. Eleven days later, Indefatigable and Sirius captured the French ship Favori. The next day Bordelais (or Bourdelois) captured the Phoenix. Indefatigable, Sirius and shared with Bordelais by agreement, and further shared with Bordelais.
Indefatigable then was with Sir John Borlase Warren's squadron at Ferrol. She apparently did not participate in the attack on a fort at the bay of Playa de Dominos (Doniños) on 25 August 1800.
On 22 October Indefatigable, took the French 28-gun frigate off the Portuguese coast. Indefatigable had been chasing Venus from the morning when in the afternoon Fisgard came in sight and forced Venus to turn. Both British vessels arrived at Venus at almost the same time (7pm). Venus was armed with 32-guns and had a crew of 200 men. She was sailing from Rochefort to Senegal. Indefatigable and Fisgard shared the prize money with Boadicea, Diamond, , and the hired armed schooner .
In January 1801 Indefatigable was under Captain Matthew Scott. Indefatigable was part of the squadron that shared by agreement in the prize money from the Temeraire, which had captured on 30 May. Similarly, the same vessels shared by agreement in Dashers capture of Bien Aimé on 23 July 1801. Indefatigable was then paid off later that year. Indefatigable was laid up in ordinary at Plymouth in March to April 1802, as a result of the peace of October 1801.
Napoleonic Wars
Following the resumption of hostilities, the Indefatigable was fitted out for sea between July and September 1803. She was recommissioned under Captain Graham Moore, younger brother of Sir John Moore of Rifle Brigade and Corunna fame.
On 9 August 1804 Indefatigable was in sight when recaptured the West Indiaman off Bayonne.
Action of 5 October 1804
Indefatigable, with Moore as commodore, and frigates , , and intercepted four Spanish frigates off Cadiz under the command of Rear-Admiral Don Joseph Bustamente, Knight of the Order of St. James, on 5 October 1804. They were carrying bullion from Montevideo, South America to Spain. Spain was a neutral country at the time, but was showing strong signs of declaring war in alliance with Napoleonic France. Acting on Admiralty orders, Moore required the Spaniards to change their course and sail for England. Admiral Bustamente refused and a short engagement ensued.
First Mercedes blew up. Then Indefatigable captured Medée, and Lively captured Clara. After a further chase, Lively and Medusa captured Fama.
Medée the flagship was armed with forty-two 18-pounder guns on her main deck and had a crew of 300 men. She lost two men killed and 10 wounded.
Fama, the Commodore's ship, was armed with thirty-six 12-pounder guns on her main deck and had a crew of 180 men. She lost 11 killed and 50 wounded.
Clara was armed with thirty-six 12-pounder guns on her main deck and had a crew of 300 men. She lost seven killed and 20 wounded.
Mercedes was armed with thirty-six 12-pounder guns on her main deck and had a crew of 280 men. After she exploded, the British were only able to rescue her second captain and 40 men.
Indefatigable had no casualties. Amphion had five men wounded, one badly. Lively had two killed and four wounded. Indefatigable and Amphion escorted Medée and Fama to Plymouth. Medusa and Lively brought in Clara. The Royal Navy took Medea into service as and Clara as .
The value of the treasure was very large and, if it had been treated as Prize of War, then Moore and his brother captains would have become extremely wealthy. As it was, the money and ships were declared to be "Droits of Admiralty" on the grounds that war had not been declared, and the captains and crew shared a relatively small ex gratia payment of £160,000 for the bullion, plus the proceeds of the sale of the hull and cargo.
Normal operations
On 4 November 1804 recaptured the ship William Heathcote from the French. Indefatigable shared by agreement.
In October 1805 Indefatigable, now under Captain John Tremayne Rodd (−1809), was part of the blockade of Brest. One boat each from the ships of the line of the squadron, plus three boats each from Indefatigable and entered the Gironde on 15 July 1806 to attack two French corvettes and a convoy. A change in the wind permitted all but one corvette to escape. The British captured the French corvette (or Caesar), which the Royal Navy took into service as HMS Cesar. She was armed with 18 guns, had a crew of 86 men, and was under the command of Monsieur Louis Francois Hector Fourré, lieutenant de vaisseau. The French were expecting the attack and put up a strong resistance. The British lost six men killed, 36 wounded and 21 missing. Indefatigable alone lost two killed and 11 wounded. The 21 missing men were in a boat from ; a later report suggested that most, if not all, had been taken prisoner. Most of the boats in the attack were so shot through that the British later abandoned them. The vessels claiming prize money included and the hired armed lugger , in addition to the various ships of the line and frigates. This cutting out expedition resulted in the participants qualifying for the Naval General Service Medal with clasp "16 July Boat Service 1806".
About a year later, on 19 October 1806, Indefatigable, , and captured the chasse marees Achille, Jenny, and Marianne. On 5 December 1807 Indefatigable captured the Pamelia. Then on the day after Christmas, Indefatigable and captured the American ship Eliza.
On 7 January 1808 Indefatigable and captured the French galiot Fanny and her cargo.
Then on 31 July, Indefatigable, in company with the gun-brig , captured the letter of marque Diane, which was on her way to Île de France, carrying naval stores, as well as letters and dispatches that she threw overboard during the chase. She was six years old, had a burthen of 482 tons (bm), was armed with fourteen 9 and 6-pounder guns, and had a crew of 68 men. She had left the Gironde the evening before on this, her second voyage, to India.
On 19 August Indefatigable, still in company with Conflict, captured Adele. In December a distribution of £10,000 was payable for the proceeds from Diane and Adele. On 1 and 9 September 1808 Indefatigable captured two American ships, Sally and Peggy. and were in company with Indefatigable at the time. On 1 November Indefatigable captured Bonne Louise.
On 14 January 1809 Indefatigable captured French privateer lugger Clarisse in the Channel. She was pierced for 14 guns but had only three mounted. She had left Saint-Malo the evening before and had not made any captures. At the time of the capture, , Iris, , and Goldfinch were in sight. They shared with Indefatigable in the proceeds for the hull, but not the bounty money for the captured crew. On 20 February captured the French schooner Matilda. Indefatigable was in company.
Indefatigable arrived at the Basque Roads on 25 February. While there she captured two vessels, the Danish ship Neptunus on 24 March and the French ship Nymphe on 28 March. For the capture of Neptunus Indefatigable was in company with the sloops and . Foxhound was also in company for the capture of Nymphe.
In April 1809 Indefatigable participated in the battle of the Basque Roads. The action earned her crew another clasp to the Naval General Service Medal: "Basque Roads 1809".
In October 1809 Indefatigable was under Captain Henry E. R. Baker. Captain John Broughton succeeded him in December 1809 and remained in command until 1812.
On 11 January 1810, Indefatigable captured Mouche № 26 near Cap de Peñas. Under the command of Enseigne de vausseau provisorie Fleury, she had sailed from Pasajes with despatches for Île de France. The next day Mouche № 26 foundered near the Penmarks. Fleury, presumably among others, was drowned.
Four months later, on 6 May Indefatigable captured two French chasse marees, Camilla and Bonne Rencontre; and were in company. Next, Indefatigable captured Flora on 13 June. On 20 October Indefatigable re-captured the Portuguese brig Intrigua.
On 15 January 1811, captured Matilda and her cargo. Indefatigable and were in sight.
Then in June 1812, under Captain John Fyffe, Indefatigable she was on the South American station, where she visited the Galápagos Islands. During this cruise she gave the second largest island, now known as Santa Cruz island, its English name – Indefatigable.
By July Indefatigable was back in Portsmouth. When news of the outbreak of the War of 1812 reached Britain, the Royal Navy seized all American vessels then in British ports. Indefatigable was among the Royal Navy vessels then lying at Spithead or Portsmouth and so entitled to share in the grant for the American ships Belleville, Janus, Aeos, Ganges, and Leonidas seized there on 31 July 1812.
On 17 September Indefatigable, , , , , and Cretan shared in the capture of Dankbarheide. When the gun-brig Hearty detained the Prussian vessel Friede on 29 September, Indefatigable, Desiree, Primrose, Cretan, Drake, were either in company or sharing by agreement.
Indefatigable was reported to have been at Lima on 11 July 1815, about to sail for the Galipagos Islands.
Fate
Indefatigable was finally paid off in 1815. She was broken up at Sheerness in August 1816.
In fiction
C. S. Forester chose Indefatigable under Pellew as the ship on which his fictional hero Horatio Hornblower spent most of his time as a midshipman in the novel Mr. Midshipman Hornblower. The Spanish flotilla incident is referred to by Forester in the novel Hornblower and the Hotspur. Indefatigable is featured even more prominently in the Hornblower television series.
Patrick O'Brian fictionalises this Spanish Flotilla incident in Post Captain, the second of his Aubrey–Maturin series of novels. In this novel, Captain Aubrey is in temporary command of HMS Lively, one of the other ships in the British squadron under the command of Moore. Also mentioned in “The Yellow Admiral” with reference to being cut down from a two decker
Alexander Kent mentions the Spanish Flotilla incident in a novel.
See also
and of the similar , both 64-gun ships, were also razéed around the same time as Indefatigable, but neither had as distinguished a career.
Notes, citations, and references
Notes
Citations
References
Fonds Marine. Campagnes (opérations ; divisions et stations navales ; missions diverses). Inventaire de la sous-série Marine BB4. Tome premier : BB4 210 à 482 (1805–1826)
Gardiner, Robert (2006) Frigates of the Napoleonic Wars. Chatham Publishing, London. .
Lavery, Brian (2003) The Ship of the Line – Volume 1: The development of the battlefleet 1650–1850. Conway Maritime Press. .
External links
Ships of the line of the Royal Navy
Ardent-class ships of the line
Frigates of the Royal Navy
1784 ships
Ships built on the Beaulieu River
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Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of molecules, groups of molecules, and solids. It is essential because, apart from relatively recent results concerning the hydrogen molecular ion (dihydrogen cation, see references therein for more details), the quantum many-body problem cannot be solved analytically, much less in closed form. While computational results normally complement the information obtained by chemical experiments, it can in some cases predict hitherto unobserved chemical phenomena. It is widely used in the design of new drugs and materials.
Examples of such properties are structure (i.e., the expected positions of the constituent atoms), absolute and relative (interaction) energies, electronic charge density distributions, dipoles and higher multipole moments, vibrational frequencies, reactivity, or other spectroscopic quantities, and cross sections for collision with other particles.
The methods used cover both static and dynamic situations. In all cases, the computer time and other resources (such as memory and disk space) increase quickly with the size of the system being studied. That system can be a molecule, a group of molecules, or a solid. Computational chemistry methods range from very approximate to highly accurate; the latter are usually feasible for small systems only. Ab initio methods are based entirely on quantum mechanics and basic physical constants. Other methods are called empirical or semi-empirical because they use additional empirical parameters.
Both ab initio and semi-empirical approaches involve approximations. These range from simplified forms of the first-principles equations that are easier or faster to solve, to approximations limiting the size of the system (for example, periodic boundary conditions), to fundamental approximations to the underlying equations that are required to achieve any solution to them at all. For example, most ab initio calculations make the Born–Oppenheimer approximation, which greatly simplifies the underlying Schrödinger equation by assuming that the nuclei remain in place during the calculation. In principle, ab initio methods eventually converge to the exact solution of the underlying equations as the number of approximations is reduced. In practice, however, it is impossible to eliminate all approximations, and residual error inevitably remains. The goal of computational chemistry is to minimize this residual error while keeping the calculations tractable.
In some cases, the details of electronic structure are less important than the long-time phase space behavior of molecules. This is the case in conformational studies of proteins and protein-ligand binding thermodynamics. Classical approximations to the potential energy surface are used, typically with molecular mechanics force fields, as they are computationally less intensive than electronic calculations, to enable longer simulations of molecular dynamics. Furthermore, cheminformatics uses even more empirical (and computationally cheaper) methods like machine learning based on physicochemical properties. One typical problem in cheminformatics is to predict the binding affinity of drug molecules to a given target. Other problems include predicting binding specificity, off-target effects, toxicity, and pharmacokinetic properties.
History
Building on the founding discoveries and theories in the history of quantum mechanics, the first theoretical calculations in chemistry were those of Walter Heitler and Fritz London in 1927, using valence bond theory. The books that were influential in the early development of computational quantum chemistry include Linus Pauling and E. Bright Wilson's 1935 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics – with Applications to Chemistry, Eyring, Walter and Kimball's 1944 Quantum Chemistry, Heitler's 1945 Elementary Wave Mechanics – with Applications to Quantum Chemistry, and later Coulson's 1952 textbook Valence, each of which served as primary references for chemists in the decades to follow.
With the development of efficient computer technology in the 1940s, the solutions of elaborate wave equations for complex atomic systems began to be a realizable objective. In the early 1950s, the first semi-empirical atomic orbital calculations were performed. Theoretical chemists became extensive users of the early digital computers. One major advance came with the 1951 paper in Reviews of Modern Physics by Clemens C. J. Roothaan in 1951, largely on the "LCAO MO" approach (Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals Molecular Orbitals), for many years the second-most cited paper in that journal. A very detailed account of such use in the United Kingdom is given by Smith and Sutcliffe. The first ab initio Hartree–Fock method calculations on diatomic molecules were performed in 1956 at MIT, using a basis set of Slater orbitals. For diatomic molecules, a systematic study using a minimum basis set and the first calculation with a larger basis set were published by Ransil and Nesbet respectively in 1960. The first polyatomic calculations using Gaussian orbitals were performed in the late 1950s. The first configuration interaction calculations were performed in Cambridge on the EDSAC computer in the 1950s using Gaussian orbitals by Boys and coworkers. By 1971, when a bibliography of ab initio calculations was published, the largest molecules included were naphthalene and azulene. Abstracts of many earlier developments in ab initio theory have been published by Schaefer.
In 1964, Hückel method calculations (using a simple linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method to determine electron energies of molecular orbitals of π electrons in conjugated hydrocarbon systems) of molecules, ranging in complexity from butadiene and benzene to ovalene, were generated on computers at Berkeley and Oxford. These empirical methods were replaced in the 1960s by semi-empirical methods such as CNDO.
In the early 1970s, efficient ab initio computer programs such as ATMOL, Gaussian, IBMOL, and POLYAYTOM, began to be used to speed ab initio calculations of molecular orbitals. Of these four programs, only Gaussian, now vastly expanded, is still in use, but many other programs are now in use. At the same time, the methods of molecular mechanics, such as MM2 force field, were developed, primarily by Norman Allinger.
One of the first mentions of the term computational chemistry can be found in the 1970 book Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences by Sidney Fernbach and Abraham Haskell Taub, where they state "It seems, therefore, that 'computational chemistry' can finally be more and more of a reality." During the 1970s, widely different methods began to be seen as part of a new emerging discipline of computational chemistry. The Journal of Computational Chemistry was first published in 1980.
Computational chemistry has featured in several Nobel Prize awards, most notably in 1998 and 2013. Walter Kohn, "for his development of the density-functional theory", and John Pople, "for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry", received the 1998 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt and Arieh Warshel received the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems".
Fields of application
The term theoretical chemistry may be defined as a mathematical description of chemistry, whereas computational chemistry is usually used when a mathematical method is sufficiently well developed that it can be automated for implementation on a computer. In theoretical chemistry, chemists, physicists, and mathematicians develop algorithms and computer programs to predict atomic and molecular properties and reaction paths for chemical reactions. Computational chemists, in contrast, may simply apply existing computer programs and methodologies to specific chemical questions.
Computational chemistry has two different aspects:
Computational studies, used to find a starting point for a laboratory synthesis, or to assist in understanding experimental data, such as the position and source of spectroscopic peaks.
Computational studies, used to predict the possibility of so far entirely unknown molecules or to explore reaction mechanisms not readily studied via experiments.
Thus, computational chemistry can assist the experimental chemist or it can challenge the experimental chemist to find entirely new chemical objects.
Several major areas may be distinguished within computational chemistry:
The prediction of the molecular structure of molecules by the use of the simulation of forces, or more accurate quantum chemical methods, to find stationary points on the energy surface as the position of the nuclei is varied.
Storing and searching for data on chemical entities (see chemical databases).
Identifying correlations between chemical structures and properties (see quantitative structure–property relationship (QSPR) and quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR)).
Computational approaches to help in the efficient synthesis of compounds.
Computational approaches to design molecules that interact in specific ways with other molecules (e.g. drug design and catalysis).
Accuracy
Computational chemistry is not an exact description of real-life chemistry, as our mathematical models of the physical laws of nature can only provide us with an approximation. However, the majority of chemical phenomena can be described to a certain degree in a qualitative or approximate quantitative computational scheme.
Molecules consist of nuclei and electrons, so the methods of quantum mechanics apply. Computational chemists often attempt to solve the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, with relativistic corrections added, although some progress has been made in solving the fully relativistic Dirac equation. In principle, it is possible to solve the Schrödinger equation in either its time-dependent or time-independent form, as appropriate for the problem in hand; in practice, this is not possible except for very small systems. Therefore, a great number of approximate methods strive to achieve the best trade-off between accuracy and computational cost.
Accuracy can always be improved with greater computational cost. Significant errors can present themselves in ab initio models comprising many electrons, due to the computational cost of full relativistic-inclusive methods. This complicates the study of molecules interacting with high atomic mass unit atoms, such as transitional metals and their catalytic properties. Present algorithms in computational chemistry can routinely calculate the properties of small molecules that contain up to about 40 electrons with errors for energies less than a few kJ/mol. For geometries, bond lengths can be predicted within a few picometers and bond angles within 0.5 degrees. The treatment of larger molecules that contain a few dozen atoms is computationally tractable by more approximate methods such as density functional theory (DFT).
There is some dispute within the field whether or not the latter methods are sufficient to describe complex chemical reactions, such as those in biochemistry. Large molecules can be studied by semi-empirical approximate methods. Even larger molecules are treated by classical mechanics methods that use what are called molecular mechanics (MM). In QM-MM methods, small parts of large complexes are treated quantum mechanically (QM), and the remainder is treated approximately (MM).
Methods
One molecular formula can represent more than one molecular isomer: a set of isomers. Each isomer is a local minimum on the energy surface (called the potential energy surface) created from the total energy (i.e., the electronic energy, plus the repulsion energy between the nuclei) as a function of the coordinates of all the nuclei. A stationary point is a geometry such that the derivative of the energy with respect to all displacements of the nuclei is zero. A local (energy) minimum is a stationary point where all such displacements lead to an increase in energy. The local minimum that is lowest is called the global minimum and corresponds to the most stable isomer. If there is one particular coordinate change that leads to a decrease in the total energy in both directions, the stationary point is a transition structure and the coordinate is the reaction coordinate. This process of determining stationary points is called geometry optimization.
The determination of molecular structure by geometry optimization became routine only after efficient methods for calculating the first derivatives of the energy with respect to all atomic coordinates became available. Evaluation of the related second derivatives allows the prediction of vibrational frequencies if harmonic motion is estimated. More importantly, it allows for the characterization of stationary points. The frequencies are related to the eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix, which contains second derivatives. If the eigenvalues are all positive, then the frequencies are all real and the stationary point is a local minimum. If one eigenvalue is negative (i.e., an imaginary frequency), then the stationary point is a transition structure. If more than one eigenvalue is negative, then the stationary point is a more complex one, and is usually of little interest. When one of these is found, it is necessary to move the search away from it if the experimenter is looking solely for local minima and transition structures.
The total energy is determined by approximate solutions of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation, usually with no relativistic terms included, and by making use of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation, which allows for the separation of electronic and nuclear motions, thereby simplifying the Schrödinger equation. This leads to the evaluation of the total energy as a sum of the electronic energy at fixed nuclei positions and the repulsion energy of the nuclei. A notable exception are certain approaches called direct quantum chemistry, which treat electrons and nuclei on a common footing. Density functional methods and semi-empirical methods are variants on the major theme. For very large systems, the relative total energies can be compared using molecular mechanics. The ways of determining the total energy to predict molecular structures are:
Ab initio methods
The programs used in computational chemistry are based on many different quantum-chemical methods that solve the molecular Schrödinger equation associated with the molecular Hamiltonian. Methods that do not include any empirical or semi-empirical parameters in their equations – being derived directly from theoretical principles, with no inclusion of experimental data – are called ab initio methods. This does not imply that the solution is an exact one; they are all approximate quantum mechanical calculations. It means that a particular approximation is rigorously defined on first principles (quantum theory) and then solved within an error margin that is qualitatively known beforehand. If numerical iterative methods must be used, the aim is to iterate until full machine accuracy is obtained (the best that is possible with a finite word length on the computer, and within the mathematical and/or physical approximations made).
The simplest type of ab initio electronic structure calculation is the Hartree–Fock method (HF), an extension of molecular orbital theory, in which the correlated electron-electron repulsion is not specifically taken into account; only its average effect is included in the calculation. As the basis set size is increased, the energy and wave function tend towards a limit called the Hartree–Fock limit. Many types of calculations (termed post-Hartree–Fock methods) begin with a Hartree–Fock calculation and subsequently correct for electron-electron repulsion, referred to also as electronic correlation. As these methods are pushed to the limit, they approach the exact solution of the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation. To obtain exact agreement with experiment, it is necessary to include relativistic and spin orbit terms, both of which are far more important for heavy atoms. In all of these approaches, along with choice of method, it is necessary to choose a basis set. This is a set of functions, usually centered on the different atoms in the molecule, which are used to expand the molecular orbitals with the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) molecular orbital method ansatz. Ab initio methods need to define a level of theory (the method) and a basis set.
The Hartree–Fock wave function is a single configuration or determinant. In some cases, particularly for bond breaking processes, this is inadequate, and several configurations must be used. Here, the coefficients of the configurations, and of the basis functions, are optimized together.
The total molecular energy can be evaluated as a function of the molecular geometry; in other words, the potential energy surface. Such a surface can be used for reaction dynamics. The stationary points of the surface lead to predictions of different isomers and the transition structures for conversion between isomers, but these can be determined without a full knowledge of the complete surface.
A particularly important objective, called computational thermochemistry, is to calculate thermochemical quantities such as the enthalpy of formation to chemical accuracy. Chemical accuracy is the accuracy required to make realistic chemical predictions and is generally considered to be 1 kcal/mol or 4 kJ/mol. To reach that accuracy in an economic way it is necessary to use a series of post-Hartree–Fock methods and combine the results. These methods are called quantum chemistry composite methods.
Density functional methods
Density functional theory (DFT) methods are often considered to be ab initio methods for determining the molecular electronic structure, even though many of the most common functionals use parameters derived from empirical data, or from more complex calculations. In DFT, the total energy is expressed in terms of the total one-electron density rather than the wave function. In this type of calculation, there is an approximate Hamiltonian and an approximate expression for the total electron density. DFT methods can be very accurate for little computational cost. Some methods combine the density functional exchange functional with the Hartree–Fock exchange term and are termed hybrid functional methods.
Semi-empirical methods
Semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods are based on the Hartree–Fock method formalism, but make many approximations and obtain some parameters from empirical data. They were very important in computational chemistry from the 60s to the 90s, especially for treating large molecules where the full Hartree–Fock method without the approximations were too costly. The use of empirical parameters appears to allow some inclusion of correlation effects into the methods.
Primitive semi-empirical methods were designed even before, where the two-electron part of the Hamiltonian is not explicitly included. For π-electron systems, this was the Hückel method proposed by Erich Hückel, and for all valence electron systems, the extended Hückel method proposed by Roald Hoffmann. Sometimes, Hückel methods are referred to as "completely emprirical" because they do not derive from a Hamiltonian. Yet, the term "empirical methods", or "empirical force fields" is usually used to describe Molecular Mechanics.
Molecular mechanics
In many cases, large molecular systems can be modeled successfully while avoiding quantum mechanical calculations entirely. Molecular mechanics simulations, for example, use one classical expression for the energy of a compound, for instance the harmonic oscillator. All constants appearing in the equations must be obtained beforehand from experimental data or ab initio calculations.
The database of compounds used for parameterization, i.e., the resulting set of parameters and functions is called the force field, is crucial to the success of molecular mechanics calculations. A force field parameterized against a specific class of molecules, for instance proteins, would be expected to only have any relevance when describing other molecules of the same class.
These methods can be applied to proteins and other large biological molecules, and allow studies of the approach and interaction (docking) of potential drug molecules.
Methods for solids
Computational chemical methods can be applied to solid state physics problems. The electronic structure of a crystal is in general described by a band structure, which defines the energies of electron orbitals for each point in the Brillouin zone. Ab initio and semi-empirical calculations yield orbital energies; therefore, they can be applied to band structure calculations. Since it is time-consuming to calculate the energy for a molecule, it is even more time-consuming to calculate them for the entire list of points in the Brillouin zone.
Chemical dynamics
Once the electronic and nuclear variables are separated (within the Born–Oppenheimer representation), in the time-dependent approach, the wave packet corresponding to the nuclear degrees of freedom is propagated via the time evolution operator (physics) associated to the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (for the full molecular Hamiltonian). In the complementary energy-dependent approach, the time-independent Schrödinger equation is solved using the scattering theory formalism. The potential representing the interatomic interaction is given by the potential energy surfaces. In general, the potential energy surfaces are coupled via the vibronic coupling terms.
The most popular methods for propagating the wave packet associated to the molecular geometry are:
the split operator technique,
the Chebyshev (real) polynomial,
the multi-configuration time-dependent Hartree method (MCTDH),
the semiclassical method.
Molecular dynamics
Molecular dynamics (MD) use either quantum mechanics, molecular mechanics or a mixture of both to calculate forces which are then used to solve Newton's laws of motion to examine the time-dependent behaviour of systems. The result of a molecular dynamics simulation is a trajectory that describes how the position and velocity of particles varies with time. The phase point of a system described by the positions and momenta of all its particles on a previous time point, will determine the next phase point in time by integrating over Newton's laws of motion.
Monte Carlo
Monte Carlo (MC) generates configurations of a system by making random changes to the positions of its particles, together with their orientations and conformations where appropriate. It is a random sampling method, which makes use of the so-called importance sampling. Importance sampling methods are able to generate low energy states, as this enables properties to be calculated accurately. The potential energy of each configuration of the system can be calculated, together with the values of other properties, from the positions of the atoms.
Quantum mechanics/Molecular mechanics (QM/MM)
QM/MM is a hybrid method that attempts to combine the accuracy of quantum mechanics with the speed of molecular mechanics. It is useful for simulating very large molecules such as enzymes.
Interpreting molecular wave functions
The atoms in molecules (QTAIM) model of Richard Bader was developed to effectively link the quantum mechanical model of a molecule, as an electronic wavefunction, to chemically useful concepts such as atoms in molecules, functional groups, bonding, the theory of Lewis pairs, and the valence bond model. Bader has demonstrated that these empirically useful chemistry concepts can be related to the topology of the observable charge density distribution, whether measured or calculated from a quantum mechanical wavefunction. QTAIM analysis of molecular wavefunctions is implemented, for example, in the AIMAll software package.
Software packages
Many self-sufficient computational chemistry software packages exist. Some include many methods covering a wide range, while others concentrate on a very specific range or even on one method. Details of most of them can be found in:
Biomolecular modelling programs: proteins, nucleic acid.
Molecular mechanics programs.
Quantum chemistry and solid state physics software supporting several methods.
Molecular design software
Semi-empirical programs.
Valence bond programs.
See also
Citations
General bibliography
C. J. Cramer Essentials of Computational Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons (2002).
T. Clark A Handbook of Computational Chemistry, Wiley, New York (1985).
A.K. Hartmann, Practical Guide to Computer Simulations, World Scientific (2009)
F. Jensen Introduction to Computational Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons (1999).
K.I. Ramachandran, G Deepa and Krishnan Namboori. P.K. Computational Chemistry and Molecular Modeling Principles and applications Springer-Verlag GmbH .
P. v. R. Schleyer (Editor-in-Chief). Encyclopedia of Computational Chemistry. Wiley, 1998. .
D. Sherrill. Notes on Quantum Mechanics and Computational Chemistry.
J. Simons An introduction to Theoretical Chemistry, Cambridge (2003) .
A. Szabo, N.S. Ostlund, Modern Quantum Chemistry, McGraw-Hill (1982).
D. Young Computational Chemistry: A Practical Guide for Applying Techniques to Real World Problems, John Wiley & Sons (2001).
D. Young's Introduction to Computational Chemistry.
Specialized journals on computational chemistry
Annual Reports in Computational Chemistry
Computational and Theoretical Chemistry
Computational and Theoretical Polymer Science
Computers & Chemical Engineering
Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
Journal of Chemical Software
Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation
Journal of Cheminformatics
Journal of Computational Chemistry
Journal of Computer Aided Chemistry
Journal of Computer Chemistry Japan
Journal of Computer-aided Molecular Design
Journal of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry
Molecular Informatics
Theoretical Chemistry Accounts
External links
NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark DataBase – Contains a database of thousands of computational and experimental results for hundreds of systems
American Chemical Society Division of Computers in Chemistry – American Chemical Society Computers in Chemistry Division, resources for grants, awards, contacts and meetings.
CSTB report Mathematical Research in Materials Science: Opportunities and Perspectives – CSTB Report
3.320 Atomistic Computer Modeling of Materials (SMA 5107) Free MIT Course
Chem 4021/8021 Computational Chemistry Free University of Minnesota Course
Technology Roadmap for Computational Chemistry
Applications of molecular and materials modelling.
Impact of Advances in Computing and Communications Technologies on Chemical Science and Technology CSTB Report
MD and Computational Chemistry applications on GPUs
Computational fields of study
Theoretical chemistry
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The is the high-performance version of the Civic compact car made by Honda. The first Civic Type R was the third model to receive Honda's Type R badge (after the NSX and Integra). Type R versions of the Civic typically feature a lightened and stiffened body, specially tuned engine, and upgraded brakes and chassis, and are offered only in five- or six-speed manual transmission. Red is used in the Honda badge background to give it a special sporting distinction and to separate it from lesser models.
EK9 (1997; based on sixth generation Civic)
The first Civic to receive the 'Type R' nameplate was based on the 6th-generation of the fan-base 'EK' Civic. The contributing base model was the JDM Civic 3-door hatchback called the SiR (code-named EK4). Like its sibling, the Integra Type R DC2/JDM DB8, the Civic SiR's transformation into a Type R was achieved by working on the base model and improving it to Honda's idea of a car capable of high performance on the circuit.
The first Civic to receive the Type R badge was introduced on August 19, 1997, as the EK9. The EK9 shared many characteristics with the Integra Type R DC2/JDM DB8 such as omission of sound deadening and other weight reduction measures, a hand-ported B16B engine, front helical limited-slip differential and a Close-ratio transmission. The B16B engine boasted one of the highest power output per liter of all time for a naturally aspirated engine with at 8,200 rpm and at 7,500 rpm of torque from of displacement. For the first time, a strategically seam welded monocoque chassis was used to improve chassis rigidity. The interior featured red RECARO bucket seats, red door cards, red Type R floor mats, a titanium shift knob, and a Momo leather-wrapped steering wheel. The EK9 was only available for sale in Japan.
Performance figures include a acceleration time of 6.7 seconds and a quarter-mile time of 15.3 seconds. The EK9 could attain a top speed of .
In 1998, the Civic Type R Motor Sports edition was introduced. It came with steel wheels, the standard grey EK interior, manual windows, no a/c and without any other creature comforts.
The Type Rx model introduced in 1999 was given a CD player, body-colored retractable electric door mirrors, power windows, auto air conditioning, keyless entry unlock system, aluminium sports pedals, and a carbon type centre panel. The Type Rx was the final model of the EK9 generation. Production of the EK9 Civic Type R totalled 16,000 units.
In 1999, Honda tuning company Spoon Sports designed a N1 racing version of the Type R that had the B16B engine redline increased from 8,400 rpm to 11,000 rpm.
EP3 (2001; based on seventh generation Civic)
In 2001, Honda introduced the next generation of the Civic Type R as a unique 3-door hatchback to the UK market, which was manufactured in Swindon, England. This European Domestic Market Civic Type R featured a 2.0-liter i-VTEC engine (K20A2) and the regular Type R treatment of seam welding, close-ratio 6-speed transmission and upgraded brakes, but did not include some of the other higher-end features, such as the helical LSD and red Recaro race-seats, that were standard on the EK9.
However, Honda marketed a JDM (Japanese domestic market) version of the EP3 (which was exclusively manufactured in Swindon, UK and was shipped to Japan), which retained the highly renowned helical LSD similar to that of the EK9 and red Recaro race-seats. Other differences of the JDM model included a more track-oriented chassis/undercarriage settings as compared to the European model as well as a more powerful engine having a power output of (designated K20A) had a fully balanced crankshaft assembly with the different intake manifold, exhaust manifold, higher-lift camshafts, higher-compression pistons, chrome-moly flywheel and ECU programming. All of the Japan-spec K20A Type R powertrains were built in Japan and shipped to the Swindon plant to be installed in the Japan-spec Type-R EP3. The JDM EP3 was also available in the traditional Type R Championship White while the EDM was not. The EDM has more relaxed gear ratios and some high rpm torque traded for low rpm torque compared to the JDM.
In 2003, the EP3 was updated with many improvements – revised EPS with quicker steering, revised suspension settings, projector headlamps (JDM came equipped with halogens only while the EDM came with an option for HIDs with self-leveling motors), lighter clutch and flywheel assembly, etc. Based on Honda literature, this facelifted (FL) model was targeted at addressing customers' and critics' feedback such as understeer on the limit (due to the front MacPherson strut setup), numb steering response and lack of low-end torque.
Performance (all figures are manufacturer claims)
0– in 5.8/6.5 seconds (JDM/EDM Pre-facelift), 5.8/6.4 seconds (JDM/EDM Facelift)
0– in 15.1/16 secs (JDM/EDM Facelift)
Top speed and (JDM/EDM)
Note: JDM (Japanese Domestic Model), EDM (European Domestic Model).
Mugen Motorsports developed an upgraded version of the JDM Civic Type R, with a sport exhaust system and engine tuning, special Mugen Grille, and anti-roll bars for pro racing activities.
30th Anniversary Edition
In 2003, Honda celebrated 30 years of the Civic badge by offering a special edition 30th Anniversary Civic Type R. This special edition features red bucket seats from Recaro, air conditioning, privacy glass on the rear windows, a leather MOMO steering wheel, red interior carpet and door cards. The 30th Anniversary models in the UK were available in Nighthawk Black, Satin Silver and Milano Red. Only 300 of these models were produced, 100 in each colour.
Premier Edition
In 2005, towards the end of the EP3's production run, Honda introduced the Civic Type R Premier edition which had Recaro Trendline seats (similar to those found in the Anniversary Edition, only in red and black rather than all red), a darker shade of fabric on the rear seat centre sections, a MOMO steering wheel, red carpet, door linings, "Type R" embossed into the front brake calipers and black privacy glass on the rear windows. Air conditioning was an option. They were available in Milano Red, Nighthawk Black, Cosmic Grey and Satin Silver.
C Package
In 2004, Honda introduced the "C Package" option (¥330,000 JPY) to Japan's Civic Type R line-up which included an additional colour, Satin Silver Metallic, HID lighting, rear privacy glass, automatic air conditioner and outside air temperature sensor.
Last year of production
For the last production year (2005), the EP3 Type R was offered in Vivid Blue Pearl for the European market. A total of 132 EP3's, which were all left-hand drive, were produced in Vivid Blue Pearl.
The 2005 Vivid Blue Pearl EP3 is often mistaken for a Premier Edition, which it is not. They were sold with the standard, facelifted Type R interior, although they had other variations, which were not to be found on the right hand driven EP3's sold for the UK market.
All 132 Vivid Blue Pearl EP3's were delivered with xenon headlights, which includes integrated headlight washer jets in the front bumpers, as well as a height-sensor in the right rear wheel arch, which will automatically adjust the height of the light beam as per required by EU regulations.
It is also fitted with rear privacy glass and outside air temperature sensor, as well as the EUDM center console with mechanical knobs placed over the radio unit, as opposed to the UKDM, USDM and JDM models with electronic knobs fitted on the side of the radio unit.
Sales figures
FD2/FN2 (2007; based on eighth generation Civic)
The third generation of the Civic Type R was offered in two distinct models: one developed one for the Japanese domestic market and the other for UK and international markets each matching the availability of their regular 8th generation counterparts.
FD2 (Japanese version)
The Japanese market Civic Type R (FD2) went on sale on 30 March 2007. For the first time, the JDM Civic Type R was sold as a four-door sedan, rather than a three-door hatchback. The FD2 Type R was bigger, wider and heavier than the EP3 Type R. The wheelbase grew from to , giving the FD2 more stability during high speed cornering. The Japanese model's engine power output is higher than the European versions, with being generated at 8,000 rpm and of torque peaking at 6,100 rpm (versus at 7,800 rpm and at 5,600 rpm for the European model). Honda quoted that mid-range is increased by . Power is sent to the front wheels through a close-ratio six-speed manual transmission, and a helical limited slip differential is fitted as standard. The front brake discs are diameter and fitted with four piston Brembo calipers. The car is fitted with Bridgestone Potenza RE070 tires having a size of 225/40 R18.
Honda claims the chassis is 50% more rigid than the previous Japan-only pre-facelift DC5 Integra Type R and 25% more rigid than the previous Japan-only facelift DC5 Integra Type R. The FD2 features an independent rear suspension rather than the torsion beam configuration used on the FN2 Type-R. To save weight, aluminium is used extensively and bonded with adhesive instead of welded. Though the chassis is larger and more rigid than the JDM Integra Type R, it is only heavier.
Exterior wise, the front bumper is wider and different from the standard Civic designed aerodynamically. The rear bumper features a diffuser built into the bumper and a large rear wing completes the aero package. Inside, the trademark black and red bucket seats are no longer made by Recaro as with previous versions but designed in-house by Honda. Also gone is the Momo made steering wheel, instead replaced by a Honda made version. The familiar red-on-black color scheme or black-on-black scheme is offered on Championship White and Super Platinum Metallic Silver while a black-on-black scheme with red stitching is for the Vivid Blue Pearl model only.
In October 2008, the Type R received new colors, those being Premium White Pearl, Premium Deep Violet Pearl and Crystal Black Pearl. The Vivid Blue Pearl color was dropped.
In back to back tests, the Civic Type R (FD2) was on average 1 second quicker than the Integra Type-R (DC5) at the Tsukuba Circuit and four seconds faster at the longer Suzuka Circuit.
In a back-to-back test on the United Kingdom TV program Fifth Gear, the FD2 Type-R was three seconds quicker than the equivalent FN2 UK version around Castle Combe Circuit in wet conditions. However, the FN2 managed a 13.1 second quarter mile pass at Killarney Raceway.
Approximately 13,000 units of FD2 Civic Type R were produced until it ceased production in August 2010 due to failure to meet the upcoming emission requirements. Following the previous success due to the introduction of the FN2 Civic Type R from Europe in 2009, another batch of FN2 Type R with minor updates was available in Japan from fall 2010. However, the engine was the same K20ZA straight-4 as used in the European version.
Civic Mugen RR (ABA-FD2)
In addition to Civic Type R, 300 units of Honda Civic Mugen RR cars available exclusively in Milano Red had also been produced for Japanese market, which reduced weight to using carbon fiber bumpers and aluminium for the hood. The engine is rated at at 8,000 rpm and torque at 7,000 rpm achieved through Mugen parts such as camshafts, exhaust system and ECU. Other exclusive items include Recaro SP-X racing bucket seats and other Mugen items on the interior while special 18 inch Mugen 7-spoke wheels come equipped as standard. It went on sale in Japan on 13 September 2007.
Mugen also debuted the Civic Type-RR Experimental Spec concept car at the 2008 Tokyo Auto Salon, which featured a K20A engine rated at at 8250 rpm and torque of at 6,750 rpm. Weight is further reduced using an aluminium hood (), as well as a new titanium exhaust system (). The interior was also updated with more carbon fiber parts. The car also features Intelligent-Tire Condition Monitoring System (i-TCMS) and Recaro seats.
The Honda Civic Mugen RR Advanced Concept was debuted at the 2009 Tokyo Auto Salon, based on the face-lifted FD2. It has a dry weight of . Brake disc size was increased to diameter (as compared to in Type R/RR).
Civic Mugen RC (2008)
A race version called Honda Civic Mugen RC was developed by Mugen for the 2008 Honda Exciting Cup Civic One-Make Race-Civic Series. The engine is the stock K20A engine from FD2 Honda Civic Type R. It came in the following models with the following prices:
Basic: (5,950,000+tax).
Standard: (6,850,000+tax). It adds a racing wheel package (Mugen RC 18-inch wheel with Yokohama tire), brake package (front and rear brake pads), seat and steering (Recaro bucket seat, seat rail, steering wheel with box, TAKATA harness), carbon inner part option A (carbon fiber right floor cover panel, footrest, door lining).
Complete: (7,450,000+tax). It adds carbon inner part option B (carbon-fiber console box, left floor cover panel, centre pillar cover), engine package (engine rebalancing and calibration)
The Civic Mugen RC was built in Mugen's M-TEC factory.
FN2 (European and international version)
The European and international market Civic Type R is offered only as a three-door hatchback and uses a different chassis and internal layout (notably tank placement below the driver's seat), which will serve as the base for the next European version of the Jazz. The rear suspension, formerly a double wishbone setup, was changed to a less complex torsion beam axle. The drive train is largely the same as the predecessor, offering at 7,800 rpm and of torque at 5,600 rpm, with 90 percent of peak torque is available from 2,500 rpm. The car is fitted with 225/40 R18 Y88 Bridgestone Potenza RE050A tires, while optional 19-inch Rage alloys fitted with Yokohama Advan Sport 225/35 ZR19 88Y tires were also available. The car has a kerb weight of .
Trims
Type R GT From introduction in 2007, The Type R GT trim includes dual-zone climate control (Left:right independent), rain-sensing windscreen wipers, refrigerated glove box, automatic headlights with dusk sensor, front fog lights, power-folding wing mirrors, cruise control, front and rear curtain airbags. In the UK market from 2009 model year, GT models also gained HID headlights with auto levelling, headlight washers with switch, USB and AUX connectors located in the arm rest storage area as well as a multi LED high level rear brake light to replace the previous design. An LSD was fitted to all GT models from April 2010 production also (this was never made available on base Type R models)
FN2 Type R’s were finished in the same four colors as the standard FN2, and a new color called Deep Sapphire Blue Pearl added to the colours offered from 2010, at the same time Deep Bronze Metallic was dropped.
In 2009, the Championship White Edition Type R was made available and added a Helical LSD to the Type R GT feature roster as well as trim items such as dark tint front grill and fuel filler cap as well as colour matched white wheels.
Type R HeritageAs often, names and trims vary even within domain markets down to local ones, and a Heritage trim replaces the GT version in some of them, adding Xenon/HID lights to the mix. The Heritage's infotainment system version adds Bluetooth telephone system and voice recognition DVD satellite navigation. This model was not offered in the UK.
Type R RaceA more radical trim dubbed Race differs from the Heritage by removing components (incl. HID, AC, fog lights, audio system, soundproofing, some airbags) to reduce weight as much as .
Type R (Aust)The Type R (Australasia) trim includes dual-zone climate control (Left:right independent), rain-sensing windscreen wipers, refrigerated glove box, front fog lights, power-folding wing mirrors, cruise control, CD/radio/apple integration, front and rear curtain airbags. It is finished in the same four colors as the Euro standard FN2.
Production for the European market ended in October 2010 due to the engine not meeting Euro V emissions regulations which came into effect in 2011. Over 12,000 Civic Type Rs were sold in the UK since January 2007, Honda continued to export the car to the Australian market into 2011. It was also exported to Japan and marketed as Civic Type-R EURO in a limited edition in fall 2010, following a successful run in November 2009.
Reception
Top Gear Magazine awarded the European Civic Type R its 'Hot Hatch of 2007', praising the car's controls and comparing it favourably as a driver's car to its rivals, the Stig qualifying it as 'an utter gem'. However the television show Top Gear later criticized the new FN2 Chassis version, due to the different suspension and added weight. Jeremy Clarkson said it "just doesn't feel that quick" and that "all the poise and controllability that you used to get in the old car is just sort of... gone".
Markets
AustraliaThe FN2 Civic Type R was available in Australia from mid-2007 until 2011.
SingaporeIn Singapore, the FN2 Civic Type R Hatchback (European version) was sold by authorized dealer, while the FD2 sedan was sold through parallel importers.
MalaysiaThe FD2 Civic Type R was officially launched in the Malaysian market on 2 August 2007. It was the first time Honda launched a Type R JDM outside of Japan.
JapanThe FD2 sedan was initially the only model available in Japan, but as of November 2009, Honda imported the European FN2 hatchback in limited numbers (about 2,010 units), giving it the name Civic Type R EURO. A second batch of 1,500 was imported in fall 2010 due to the initial sales success, with the color Crystal Black Pearl added.
FK2 (2015; based on ninth generation Civic)
In September 2012, there were rumours about the confirmation of the next-generation of the Honda Civic Type R at the Paris Motor Show. A preview took place at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2014.
Production
In January 2015, Honda announced that the production-ready model of the fourth generation of the Civic Type R (called the FK2) would debut at the 85th Geneva Motor Show held in March alongside the European debut of the NSX. It is the first factory turbocharged Civic Type R.
Performance
The FK2 Civic Type R is powered by the K20C1 Direct Fuel Injection turbocharged Inline-four engine with Earth Dreams Technology, having a power output of at 6,500 rpm and maximum torque of at 2,500–4,500 rpm. The engine is mated to a 6-speed manual transmission with a factory equipped plate-style limited-slip differential. Honda claimed that the Type R can accelerate from 0– in 5.7 seconds. The engine is manufactured at Honda's Anna Engine Plant in Ohio before being exported to the UK.
The fuel tank has a capacity of and fuel consumption is 30.1/46.3 mpg and 38.7 mpg (combined). Combined CO2 emission is 170g/km and the car has achieved Euro 6 Emission Standard.
Safety
The Civic Type R is equipped with dual front airbags, front side airbags and front and rear side curtain airbags. Larger brakes are fitted for improved stopping power with front brakes having ventilated and drilled discs and rear brakes having solid discs. The anti-lock braking system, electronic brake-force distribution, hill start assist, and vehicle stability assist are standard.
Special Editions
Mugen Type R concept
Introduced at the 2016 Tokyo Motor Show, the Mugen Civic Type R is an aerodynamic package for the Civic Type R. The package includes an adjustable front lip spoiler, front canards, side skirts and a rear diffuser. The rear wing has been replaced with a GT style fixed rear wing. These elements are made from carbon fiber, a carbon fiber hood was also included as an option. There were no changes made to the drivetrain although a new exhaust system having a single exhaust pipe instead of the quad was fitted.
Special Editions
The Black Edition marked the end of the production of the FK2 Civic Type R. Based on the GT Trim Type R, notable features include black exterior paint with red accents, black interior with red stitching and red brake calipers. Production was limited to 100 units in UK.
In other countries of Europe a White Edition was also released, still based on the GT Trim Type R, similar to the Black Edition but with white accents.
Regions
United Kingdom
The British were able to purchase the FK2 as of July 2015 with price tags of GBP 29,995 for the base Type R model and for the Type R GT model. Although they both were priced differently, differences are limited to additional equipment and amenities. Key specifications related to power figures remain the same for both variants.
Japan
In July 2015, Swindon, England (HUM) started exporting the FK2 Civic Type R to Japan, making it the third Civic Type R to be exported there. However, only 750 units were exported.
FK8 (2017; based on tenth generation Civic)
The Civic Type R Prototype was unveiled in September 2016 at the Paris Motor Show, and the production version unveiled at the 2017 Geneva Motor Show. The new car builds on Honda's heritage in developing high-performance hatchbacks.
Exterior
The design is based on the Civic Hatchback, with a winged carbon fiber splitter with red accent line, slatted ducts, diamond-mesh air intakes, red 'H' badge above a new air vent at the nose of the car, new air intake on the hood, an air scoop sited centrally in a trapezoidal recess, smoked lenses for the LED headlights, indicators and side repeaters, carbon fiber side skirts, 20-inch piano black alloy wheels with red accents, 245/30 R20 high-performance tires, enlarged wheel arches, a carbon fiber diffuser which runs below the wider rear bumper, 3 tailpipes with a pair of directional strakes at each side, central tailpipe in bright metallic red and unique peaks at the roof flanks that point backward.
Engine and other specifications
The FK8 Civic Type R uses the same engine, a turbocharged inline-4, from its predecessor but power has increased to in the European and Japanese version but remains the same in other markets. The engine is mated to a close-ratio 6-speed manual transmission continuing the tradition of its predecessors with limited-slip differential as standard. The aerodynamic elements increase downforce even further as compared to the outgoing model. The FK8 has a top speed of making it the fastest Civic Type R model to date.
In back-to-back testing involving an FK8 and FK2 Type R, the reviewers praised the FK8's comfortable ride and feedback and criticised the FK2's harsh ride on the road and worse handling when the R+ driving mode was activated. The reviewers also complained about the FK2's interior being dated but stated that this was due to the model's late arrival at the end of the base model's production run.
Interior and safety features
The interior of the Type R is based on the base model Civic and has a low driving position with the gear shift lever positioned high in order to allow for easy gear changes. The interior has red and black color as standard with sports seats along with faux carbon fiber trim. The driver's seat and the steering wheel are adjustable. A reversing camera is standard for easier rear visibility while reversing while parking sensors are standard in the GT Trim. The interior although lauded for its comfortability and user-friendliness is criticised for its infotainment system which has been described as slow and difficult to operate. The fit and finish are considered to be comparable with its competitors. Safety features include automatic emergency braking, traffic sign recognition, lane departure warning and automatic high beam assistance which are carried over from the base Civic. The GT trim adds blindspot monitoring and cross-traffic alert, parking sensors at the front and rear, dual-zone climate control, power-folding door mirrors and infotainment upgrades that include wireless phone charging and in-built sat-navigation along with a more powerful 11-speaker stereo. The Type R earned a Euro NCAP 5 star crash test rating.
Records
On 3 April 2017, the pre-production Type R achieved a lap time of 7:43.80 on the Nürburgring Nordschleife, almost 7 seconds faster than its predecessor, setting a new record for front-wheel drive cars. The car also set new front-wheel drive lap records at the Magny-Cours, Spa-Francorchamps, Silverstone, Estoril, Hungaroring and Mount Panorama circuits. The Nürburgring record was broken by the Renault Mégane RS Trophy-R in July 2019 which set a time of 7:40.10, but in 2020 the Limited Edition Civic Type R broke the Mégane's front-wheel drive lap record at the Suzuka Circuit by one and a half seconds.
Markets
United States
The Civic Type R went on sale in the United States on 14 June 2017, marking the first time the Civic Type R was officially available to the U.S market.
Due to emissions reasons it's only offered with 310 PS and the 320 PS model is not offered as it would violate the road vehicle emissions law and therefore be only legal for racing and not road legal.
United Kingdom
In the UK, the Civic Type R was available for consumer test drives in August 2017, with official delivery and sale dates coinciding with national vehicle registration plate changes on 1 September.
Australia
The FK8 Civic Type R went on sale in Australia in September 2017. Only one trim level was available about midway between the EDM Touring and GT specifications. Citing lower access to high octane fuels the engine was only offered in the 306 bhp tune. On the road cost without any options was approximately $53K.
Indonesia
The Civic Type R was launched in Indonesia during the 2017 Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show on 10 August 2017, with a starting price of Rp 995 million at selected Honda dealers. The facelifted model was also released there on 7 May 2021, with a starting price of Rp 1,177 billion.
Malaysia and Singapore
In Singapore, the Civic Type R was officially launched by Kah Motor on 27 July 2017 in limited numbers.
In Malaysia, the Civic Type R was launched in October 2017 during the Malaysia Autoshow with a price of RM320,000.
Thailand
In Thailand, the Civic Type R was launched in 2018 with a price of ฿ 4,600,000 and only 4 units.
Awards
The FK8 Civic Type R has won many accolades and awards. It was crowned Top Gear Magazines Hot Hatch of the Year 2017, it was also voted International Editors’ Choice and overall Car of the Year 2017. What Car? also awarded the Type R its Hot Hatch of the Year award. In Australia, the car was awarded Performance Car of the Year 2018. The car was chosen as one of the Top 10 Tech Cars by the IEEE in 2018.
FL2 (2022; based on eleventh generation Civic)
The sixth-generation Civic Type R will be introduced in 2022.
See also
Honda Type R
Honda Civic Si
References
External links
Honda U.S.Civic Type R
Honda Japan Civic Type-R Honda Motor Co. site (Japanese)
Honda Japan Civic Type-R Euro Honda Motor Co. site (Japanese)
Type R
Cars introduced in 1997
2000s cars
2010s cars
2020s cars
Hot hatches
Sports sedans
Sport compact cars
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
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ASCII art is a graphic design technique that uses computers for presentation and consists of pictures pieced together from the 95 printable (from a total of 128) characters defined by the ASCII Standard from 1963 and ASCII compliant character sets with proprietary extended characters (beyond the 128 characters of standard 7-bit ASCII). The term is also loosely used to refer to text based visual art in general. ASCII art can be created with any text editor, and is often used with free-form languages. Most examples of ASCII art require a fixed-width font (non-proportional fonts, as on a traditional typewriter) such as Courier for presentation.
Among the oldest known examples of ASCII art are the
creations by computer-art pioneer Kenneth Knowlton from around 1966, who was working for Bell Labs at the time. "Studies in Perception I" by Ken Knowlton and Leon Harmon from 1966 shows some examples of their early ASCII art.
ASCII art was invented, in large part, because early printers often lacked graphics ability and thus characters were used in place of graphic marks. Also, to mark divisions between different print jobs from different users, bulk printers often used ASCII art to print large banner pages, making the division easier to spot so that the results could be more easily separated by a computer operator or clerk. ASCII art was also used in early e-mail when images could not be embedded.
History
Typewriter art
Since 1867, typewriters have been used for creating visual art.
TTY and RTTY
TTY stands for "TeleTYpe" or "TeleTYpewriter", and is also known as Teleprinter or Teletype.
RTTY stands for Radioteletype; character sets such as Baudot code, which predated ASCII, were used. According to a chapter in the "RTTY Handbook", text images have been sent via teletypewriter as early as 1923. However, none of the "old" RTTY art has been discovered yet. What is known is that text images appeared frequently on radioteletype in the 1960s and the 1970s.
Line-printer art
In the 1960s, Andries van Dam published a representation of an electronic circuit produced on an IBM 1403 line printer. At the same time, Kenneth Knowlton was producing realistic images, also on line printers, by overprinting several characters on top of one another.
Note that it was not ASCII art in a sense that the 1403 was driven by an EBCDIC-coded platform and the character sets and trains available on the 1403 were derived from EBCDIC rather than ASCII, despite some glyphs commonalities.
ASCII art
The widespread usage of ASCII art can be traced to the computer bulletin board systems of the late 1970s and early 1980s. The limitations of computers of that time period necessitated the use of text characters to represent images. Along with ASCII's use in communication, however, it also began to appear in the underground online art groups of the period. An ASCII comic is a form of webcomic which uses ASCII text to create images. In place of images in a regular comic, ASCII art is used, with the text or dialog usually placed underneath.
During the 1990s, graphical browsing and variable-width fonts became increasingly popular, leading to a decline in ASCII art. Despite this, ASCII art continued to survive through online MUDs, an acronym for "Multi-User Dungeon", (which are textual multiplayer role-playing video games), Internet Relay Chat, Email, message boards and other forms of online communication which commonly employ the needed fixed-width.
ANSI
ASCII and more importantly, ANSI were staples of the early technological era; terminal systems relied on coherent presentation using color and control signals standard in the terminal protocols.
Over the years, warez groups began to enter the ASCII art scene. Warez groups usually release .nfo files with their software, cracks or other general software reverse-engineering releases. The ASCII art will usually include the warez group's name and maybe some ASCII borders on the outsides of the release notes, etc.
BBS systems were based on ASCII and ANSI art, as were most DOS and similar console applications, and the precursor to AOL.
Uses
ASCII art is used wherever text can be more readily printed or transmitted than graphics, or in some cases, where the transmission of pictures is not possible. This includes typewriters, teleprinters, non-graphic computer terminals, printer separators, in early computer networking (e.g., BBSes), email, and Usenet news messages. ASCII art is also used within the source code of computer programs for representation of company or product logos, and flow control or other diagrams. In some cases, the entire source code of a program is a piece of ASCII art – for instance, an entry to one of the earlier International Obfuscated C Code Contest is a program that adds numbers, but visually looks like a binary adder drawn in logic ports.
Some electronic schematic archives represent the circuits using ASCII art.
Examples of ASCII-style art predating the modern computer era can be found in the June 1939, July 1948 and October 1948 editions of Popular Mechanics.
Early computer games played on terminals frequently used ASCII art to simulate graphics, most notably the roguelike genre using ASCII art to visually represent dungeons and monsters within them. "0verkill" is a 2D platform multiplayer shooter game designed entirely in color ASCII art. MPlayer and VLC media player can display videos as ASCII art through the AAlib library. ASCII art is used in the making of DOS-based ZZT games.
Many game walkthrough guides come as part of a basic .txt file; this file often contains the name of the game in ASCII art. Such as below, word art is created using backslashes and other ASCII values in order to create the illusion of 3D.
Types and styles
Different techniques could be used in ASCII art to obtain different artistic effects. Electronic circuits and diagrams were implemented by typewriter or teletype and provided the pretense for ASCII.
"Typewriter-style" lettering, made from individual letter characters:
Line art, for creating shapes:
.--. /\
'--' /__\ (^._.^)~ <(o.o )>
Solid art, for creating filled objects:
.g@8g. db
'Y8@P' d88b
Shading, using symbols with various intensities for creating gradients or contrasts:
:$#$: "4b. ':.
:$#$: "4b. ':.
Combinations of the above, often used as signatures, for example, at the end of an email:
|\_/| **************************** (\_/)
/ @ @ \ * "Purrrfectly pleasant" * (='.'=)
( > º < ) * Poppy Prinz * (")_(")
`>>x<<´ * () *
/ O \ ****************************
As-pixel characters use combinations of ░ , █ , ▄ and ▀ (Block Elements) to make pictures:
▄▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄
░░▀███░░░░▀██░░░░██▀░░░░██░░
░░░▀██░░░░░▀██░░▄█░░░░░▄█░░░
░░░░███░░░░░▀██▄█░░░░░░█░░░░
░░░░░███░░░░░▀██░░░░░░█▀░░░░
░░░░░░███░░░░▄███░░░░█▀░░░░░
░░░░░░░██▄░░▄▀░███░░█▀░░░░░░
░░░░░░░▀██▄█▀░░░███▄▀░░░░░░░
░░░░░░░░▀██▀░░░░░███░░░░░░░░
░░░░░░░░░▀▀░░░░░░░▀░░░░░░░░░
Emoticons and verticons
The simplest forms of ASCII art are combinations of two or three characters for expressing emotion in text. They are commonly referred to as 'emoticon', 'smilie', or 'smiley'. There is another type of one-line ASCII art that does not require the mental rotation of pictures, which is widely known in Japan as kaomoji (literally "face characters".)
More complex examples use several lines of text to draw large symbols or more complex figures. Hundreds of different text smileys have developed over time, but only a few are generally accepted, used and understood.
ASCII comic
An ASCII comic is a form of webcomic.
The Adventures of Nerd Boy
The Adventures of Nerd Boy, or just Nerd Boy, was an ASCII comic, published by Joaquim Gândara between 5 August 2001 and 17 July 2007, and consisting of 600 strips. They were posted to ASCII art newsgroup alt.ascii-art and on the website. Some strips have been translated to Polish and French.
Styles of the computer underground text art scene
Atari 400/800 ATASCII
The Atari 400/800, which were released in 1979, did not follow the ASCII standard and had their own character set, called ATASCII. The emergence of ATASCII art coincided with the growing popularity of BBS Systems caused by availability of the acoustic couplers that were compatible with the 8-bit home computers. ATASCII text animations are also referred to as "break animations" by the Atari sceners.
C-64 PETSCII
The Commodore 64, which was released in 1982, also did not follow the ASCII standard. The C-64 character set is called PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963. As with the Atari's ATASCII art, C-64 fans developed a similar scene that used PETSCII for their creations.
"Block ASCII" / "High ASCII" style ASCII art on the IBM PC
So-called "block ASCII" or "high ASCII" uses the extended characters of the 8-bit code page 437, which is a proprietary standard introduced by IBM in 1979 (ANSI Standard x3.16) for the IBM PC DOS and MS-DOS operating systems. "Block ASCIIs" were widely used on the PC during the 1990s until the Internet replaced BBSes as the main communication platform. Until then, "block ASCIIs" dominated the PC Text Art Scene.
The first art scene group that focused on the extended character set of the PC in their art work was called "Aces of ANSI Art" (). Some members left in 1990, and formed a group called "ANSI Creators in Demand" (ACiD). In that same year the second major underground art scene group was founded, ICE, "Insane Creators Enterprise".
There is some debate between ASCII and block ASCII artist, with "Hardcore" ASCII artists maintaining that block ASCII art is in fact not ASCII art, because it does not use the 128 characters of the original ASCII standard. On the other hand, block ASCII artists argue that if their art uses only characters of the computers character set, then it is to be called ASCII, regardless if the character set is proprietary or not.
Microsoft Windows does not support the ANSI Standard x3.16. One can view block ASCIIs with a text editor using the font "Terminal", but it will not look exactly as it was intended by the artist. With a special ASCII/ANSI viewer, such as ACiDView for Windows (see ASCII and ANSI art viewers), one can see block ASCII and ANSI files properly. An example that illustrates the difference in appearance is part of this article. Alternatively, one could look at the file using the TYPE command in the command prompt.
"Amiga"/"Oldskool" style ASCII art
In the art scene one popular ASCII style that used the 7-bit standard ASCII character set was the so-called "Oldskool" style. It is also called "Amiga style", due to its origin and widespread use on the Commodore Amiga computers. The style uses primarily the characters: _/\-+=.()<>:. The "oldskool" art looks more like the outlined drawings of shapes than real pictures.
This is an example of "Amiga style" (also referred to as "old school" or "oldskool" style) scene ASCII art.
The Amiga ASCII scene surfaced in 1992, seven years after the introduction of the Commodore Amiga 1000. The Commodore 64 PETSCII scene did not make the transition to the Commodore Amiga as the C64 demo and warez scenes did. Among the first Amiga ASCII art groups were ART, Epsilon Design, Upper Class, Unreal (later known as "DeZign"). This means that the text art scene on the Amiga was actually younger than the text art scene on the PC. The Amiga artists also did not call their ASCII art style "Oldskool". That term was introduced on the PC. When and by whom is unknown and lost in history.
The Amiga style ASCII artwork was most often released in the form of a single text file, which included all the artwork (usually requested), with some design parts in between, as opposed to the PC art scene where the art work was released as a ZIP archive with separate text files for each piece. Furthermore, the releases were usually called "ASCII collections" and not "art packs" like on the IBM PC.
In text editors
_ ___ _ _
| ___|_ _/ ___| | ___| |_
| |_ | | | _| |/ _ \ __|
| _| | | |_| | | __/ |_
|_| |___\|_|\___|\__|
This kind of ASCII art is handmade in a text editor. Popular editors used to make this kind of ASCII art include Microsoft Notepad, CygnusEditor aka. CED (Amiga), and EditPlus2 (PC).
Oldskool font example from the PC, which was taken from the ASCII editor FIGlet.
Newskool style ASCII art
"Newskool" is a popular form of ASCII art which capitalizes on character strings like "$#Xxo". In spite of its name, the style is not "new"; on the contrary, it was very old but fell out of favor and was replaced by "Oldskool" and "Block" style ASCII art. It was dubbed "Newskool" upon its comeback and renewed popularity at the end of the 1990s.
Newskool changed significantly as the result of the introduction of extended proprietary characters. The classic 7-bit standard ASCII characters remain predominant, but the extended characters are often used for "fine tuning" and "tweaking". The style developed further after the introduction and adaptation of Unicode.
Methods for generating ASCII art
While some prefer to use a simple text editor to produce ASCII art, specialized programs, such as JavE have been developed that often simulate the features and tools in bitmap image editors. For Block ASCII art and ANSI art the artist almost always uses a special text editor, because to generate the required characters on a standard keyboard, one needs to know the Alt code for each character. For example, + will produce ▓, + will produce ▒, and + will produce ◘.
The special text editors have sets of special characters assigned to existing keys on the keyboard. Popular DOS-based editors, such as TheDraw and ACiDDraw had multiple sets of different special characters mapped to the function keys to make the use of those characters easier for the artist who can switch between individual sets of characters via basic keyboard shortcuts. PabloDraw is one of the very few special ASCII/ANSI art editors that were developed for Windows.
Image to text conversion
Other programs allow one to automatically convert an image to text characters, which is a special case of vector quantization. A method is to sample the image down to grayscale with less than 8-bit precision, and then assign a character for each value. Such ASCII art generators often allow users to choose the intensity and contrast of the generated image.
Three factors limit the fidelity of the conversion, especially of photographs:
depth (solutions: reduced line spacing; bold style; block elements; colored background; good shading);
sharpness (solutions: a longer text, with a smaller font; a greater set of characters; variable width fonts);
ratio (solutions with compatibility issues: font with a square grid; stylized without extra line spacing).
Examples of converted images are given below.
This is one of the earliest forms of ASCII art, dating back to the early days of the 1960s minicomputers and teletypes. During the 1970s, it was popular in US malls to get a t-shirt with a photograph printed in ASCII art on it from an automated kiosk containing a computer, and London's Science Museum had a similar service to produce printed portraits. With the advent of the web, HTML and CSS, many ASCII conversion programs will now quantize to a full RGB colorspace, enabling colorized ASCII images.
Still images or movies can also be converted to ASCII on various UNIX and UNIX-like systems using the AAlib (black and white) or libcaca (colour) graphics device driver, or the VLC media player or mpv under Windows, Linux or macOS; all of which render the screen using ASCII symbols instead of pixels.
There are also a number of smartphone applications, such as ASCII cam for Android, that generate ASCII art in real-time using input from the phone's camera. These applications typically allow the ASCII art to be saved as either a text file or as an image made up of ASCII text.
Non fixed-width ASCII
Most ASCII art is created using a monospaced font, where all characters are identical in width (Courier is a popular monospace font). Early computers in use when ASCII art came into vogue had monospaced fonts for screen and printer displays. Today, most of the more commonly used fonts in word processors, web browsers and other programs are proportional fonts, such as Helvetica or Times Roman, where different widths are used for different characters. ASCII art drawn for a fixed width font will usually appear distorted, or even unrecognizable when displayed in a proportional font.
Some ASCII artists have produced art for display in proportional fonts. These ASCIIs, rather than using a purely shade-based correspondence, use characters for slopes and borders and use block shading. These ASCIIs generally offer greater precision and attention to detail than fixed-width ASCIIs for a lower character count, although they are not as universally accessible since they are usually relatively font-specific.
Animated ASCII art
Animated ASCII art started in 1970 from so-called VT100 animations produced on VT100 terminals. These animations were simply text with cursor movement instructions, deleting and erasing the characters necessary to appear animated. Usually, they represented a long hand-crafted process undertaken by a single person to tell a story.
Contemporary web browser revitalized animated ASCII art again. It became possible to display animated ASCII art via JavaScript or Java applets. Static ASCII art pictures are loaded and displayed one after another, creating the animation, very similar to how movie projectors unreel film reel and project the individual pictures on the big screen at movie theaters. A new term was born: "ASCIImation" – another name of animated ASCII art. A seminal work in this arena is the Star Wars ASCIImation. More complicated routines in JavaScript generate more elaborate ASCIImations showing effects like Morphing effects, star field emulations, fading effects and calculated images, such as mandelbrot fractal animations.
There are now many tools and programs that can transform raster images into text symbols; some of these tools can operate on streaming video. For example, the music video for American singer Beck's song "Black Tambourine" is made up entirely of ASCII characters that approximate the original footage. VLC, a media player software, can render any video in colored ASCII through the libcaca module.
Other text-based visual art
There are a variety of other types of art using text symbols from character sets other than ASCII and/or some form of color coding. Despite not being pure ASCII, these are still often referred to as "ASCII art". The character set portion designed specifically for drawing is known as the line drawing characters or pseudo-graphics.
ANSI art
The IBM PC graphics hardware in text mode uses 16 bits per character. It supports a variety of configurations, but in its default mode under DOS they are used to give 256 glyphs from one of the IBM PC code pages (Code page 437 by default), 16 foreground colors, eight background colors, and a flash option. Such art can be loaded into screen memory directly. ANSI.SYS, if loaded, also allows such art to be placed on screen by outputting escape sequences that indicate movements of the screen cursor and color/flash changes. If this method is used then the art becomes known as ANSI art. The IBM PC code pages also include characters intended for simple drawing which often made this art appear much cleaner than that made with more traditional character sets. Plain text files are also seen with these characters, though they have become far less common since Windows GUI text editors (using the Windows ANSI code page) have largely replaced DOS-based ones.
Shift_JIS and Japan
In Japan, ASCII art (AA) is mainly known as Shift_JIS art. Shift JIS offers a larger selection of characters than plain ASCII (including characters from Japanese scripts and fullwidth forms of ASCII characters), and may be used for text-based art on Japanese websites.
Often, such artwork is designed to be viewed with the default Japanese font on a platform, such as the proportional MS P Gothic.
Kaomoji
Users on ASCII-NET, in which the word ASCII refers to the ASCII Corporation rather than the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, popularised a style of in which the face appears upright rather than rotated.
Unicode
Unicode would seem to offer the ultimate flexibility in producing text based art with its huge variety of characters. However, finding a suitable fixed-width font is likely to be difficult if a significant subset of Unicode is desired. (Modern UNIX-style operating systems do provide complete fixed-width Unicode fonts, e.g. for xterm. Windows has the Courier New font, which includes characters like ┌╥─╨┐♥☺Ƹ̵̡Ӝ̵̨̄Ʒ). Also, the common practice of rendering Unicode with a mixture of variable width fonts is likely to make predictable display hard, if more than a tiny subset of Unicode is used. ≽ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ≼ is an adequate representation of a cat's face in a font with varying character widths.
Control and combining characters
The combining characters mechanism of Unicode provides considerable ways of customizing the style, even obfuscating the text (e.g. via an online generator like Obfuscator, which focuses on the filters). Glitcher is one example of Unicode art, initiated in 2012: These symbols, intruding up and down, are made by combining lots of diacritical marks. It’s a kind of art. There’s quite a lot of artists who use the Internet or specific social networks as their canvas. The corresponding creations are favored in web browsers (thanks to their always better support), as geekily stylized usernames for social networks. With a fair compatibility, and among different online tools, [Facebook symbols] showcases various types of Unicode art, mainly for aesthetic purpose (Ɯıḳĭƥḙȡḯả Wîkipêȡıẚ Ẉǐḳîṗȅḍȉā Ẃįḵįṗẻḑìẵ Ẉĭḵɪṕḗdïą Ẇïƙỉpểɗĭà Ẅȉḱïṕȩđĩẵ etc.). Besides, the creations can be hand-crafted (by programming), or pasted from mobile applications (e.g. the category of 'fancy text' tools on Android). The underlying technique dates back to the old systems that incorporated control characters, though. E.g. the German composite ö would be imitated on ZX Spectrum by overwriting " after backspace and o.
Overprinting (surprint)
In the 1970s and early 1980s it was popular to produce a kind of text art that relied on overprinting. This could be produced either on a screen or on a printer by typing a character, backing up, and then typing another character, just as on a typewriter. This developed into sophisticated graphics in some cases, such as the PLATO system (circa 1973), where superscript and subscript allowed a wide variety of graphic effects. A common use was for emoticons, with WOBTAX and VICTORY both producing convincing smiley faces. Overprinting had previously been used on typewriters, but the low-resolution pixelation of characters on video terminals meant that overprinting here produced seamless pixel graphics, rather than visibly overstruck combinations of letters on paper.
Beyond pixel graphics, this was also used for printing photographs, as the overall darkness of a particular character space dependent on how many characters, as well as the choice of character, were printed in a particular place. Thanks to the increased granularity of tone, photographs were often converted to this type of printout. Even manual typewriters or daisy wheel printers could be used. The technique has fallen from popularity since all cheap printers can easily print photographs, and a normal text file (or an e-mail message or Usenet posting) cannot represent overprinted text. However, something similar has emerged to replace it: shaded or colored ASCII art, using ANSI video terminal markup or color codes (such as those found in HTML, IRC, and many internet message boards) to add a bit more tone variation. In this way, it is possible to create ASCII art where the characters only differ in color.
See also
Micrography
Types and styles: Alt code, ASCII stereogram, box-drawing characters, emoticon, FILE ID.DIZ, .nfo (release info file)
Pre-ASCII history: Calligram, Concrete poetry, Typewriter, Typewriter mystery game, Teleprinter, Radioteletype
Related art: ANSI art, ASCII porn, ATASCII, Fax art, PETSCII, Shift JIS art, Text semigraphics
Related context: Bulletin board system (BBS), Computer art scene, :Category:Artscene groups
Software: AAlib, cowsay
Unicode: Homoglyph, Duplicate characters in Unicode
References
Further reading
(Polish translators: Ania Górecka [ag], Asia Mazur [as], Błażej Kozłowski [bug], Janusz [jp], Łukasz Dąbrowski [luk], Łukasz Tyrała [lt.], Łukasz Wilk [wilu], Marcin Gliński [fsc])
External links
media4u.ch - ASCII Art (ASCII Art Movie. The Matrix in ASCII Art)
TexArt.io ASCII Art collection
Textfiles.com archive
Sixteen Colors ANSI Art and ASCII Art Archive
Defacto2.net Scene NFO Files Archive
Chris.com ASCII art collection
"As-Pixel Characters" ASCII art collection
ASCII Art Animation of Star Wars, "ASCIIMATION"
ASCII Keyboard Art Collection
Animasci
Computer art
Digital art
New media art
Internet art
Multimedia
Wikipedia articles with ASCII art
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Nicolae Crevedia (born Niculae Ion Cârstea; December 7, 1902 – November 5, 1978) was a Romanian journalist, poet and novelist, father of the writer-politician Eugen Barbu. Of Muntenian peasant roots, which shaped his commitment to agrarian and then far-right politics, as well as his dialectal poetry and humorous prose, he preferred bohemian life to an academic career. As a writer at Gândirea, Crevedia became a follower of Nichifor Crainic, and worked with him on various other press venues, from Calendarul to Sfarmă-Piatră. Turning to fascism, he sympathized with the Iron Guard, and, in the late 1930s, contributed to the press campaigns vilifying ideological enemies, while also putting out novels, reportage pieces, and anthologies. His affair with the Iron Guard muse Marta Rădulescu was at the center of a literary scandal, and was fictionalized by Crevedia in one of his novels.
Fluent in Bulgarian, Crevedia became press attaché in the Kingdom of Bulgaria under the National Legionary State, serving to 1946. He was sidelined by the Romanian communist regime in the late 1940s and early '50s, when he was employed as a minor clerk. With his mentor Crainic, Crevedia contributed to the propaganda review Glasul Patriei. He was more fully recovered under national communism in the 1960s, and lived to see the communist ascendancy of his son Barbu. His rural-themed poetry, much of it echoing Tudor Arghezi, Ion Minulescu and Sergei Yesenin, was reprinted in various installments to 1977. It is regarded by critics as a minor but picturesque contribution to modern Romanian literature.
Biography
Early life
The future writer was born in the eponymous Crevedia Mare, Vlașca County (now Giurgiu County), on . His parents were the peasants Ion Cârstea and his wife Floarea née Antonescu, described the poet as: "well-to-do people of the plow. I am the first one in my family to have worn a necktie." Crevedia also saw himself as "purely Romanian and from a fully Romanian region", but was rumored to be of Bulgarian ethnicity. His birth name was Niculae (or Nicolae) Ion Cârstea, although he later had it officially changed to N. Crevedia, his pseudonym of choice. One of two sons born to the Cârsteas, he sponsored his younger brother complete a high school education, while his older sisters (one of whom had 17 children of her own) remained largely illiterate.
After completing primary school in his native village, his high school education was interrupted by World War I. Niculae was mobilized as a telephone operator at the mayor's office in Crevedia Mare. He witnessed first-hand the Romanian defeat of November 1916, when Vlașca and all of Muntenia fell to the Central Powers; his father was drafted into the 45th Infantry Regiment, and withdrew with it to Iepurești. With Floarea and his sister Oana, Crevedia traveled there, meeting the caravans of refugees heading for Bucharest, the national capital. As revealed by his private notebooks, Niculae witnessed his father's humiliation by a young platoon leader, as well as his marching into the infantry counterattack of Bălăriile (part of the larger Battle of Bucharest).
Notoriously philandering into his old age, Crevedia boasted that his first sexual encounters were war widows. Upon the end of war, he walked to Bucharest in order to complete his education. In 1923–1924, he was a clerk at the War Ministry, making his published debut in 1924, in the journal Cultul Eroilor Noștri. Crevedia graduated from Saint Sava High School in 1925, and then pursued a degree in Slavic studies at the University of Bucharest. Although he learned Latin and the rudiments of Bulgarian, he never in fact took his degree. He belonged to the sociological research teams led by Dimitrie Gusti and worked for a while as a substitute teacher, then as a private tutor.
Moving between rented apartments, Crevedia had a sexual relationship with one of his landladies, resulting in the birth of son, the future novelist Eugen Barbu. According to eyewitnesses, father and son resembled each other perfectly. Crevedia recognized him as his own, but preferred to be discreet about his existence. Formally registered as the son of State Railways carpenter Nicolae Barbu, Eugen himself publicly denied his origins, but later admitted to them in private.
Complaining that teaching and studying made him a "misfit", Crevedia took up professional journalism, writing for Curentul, Epoca and Mișcarea; other magazines that ran his work include Rampa, Vremea, Adevărul Literar și Artistic, Bilete de Papagal, Azi and Revista Fundațiilor Regale. In 1930, Universuls literary supplement hosted his interview with writer Vasile Voiculescu, in which the latter spoke about his mystical experiences. Crevedia's first book, Epigrame ("Epigrams"), was published in 1930, followed in 1933 by poetry collection Bulgări și stele ("Clumps and Stars"). After frequenting the modernist club at Sburătorul, he became one of the most dedicated followers of the poet-theologian Nichifor Crainic, and "one of the most constant" contributors to his magazine, Gândirea.
Crevedia saw himself as "a man of the right, like my father before me". In his definition, this meant both "ardent" Romanian nationalism and calls for "social justice", with particular emphasis on "the peasant issue": "The [peasantry] is rotten with illness, still ignorant, morally ruined, and political parties have turned it into bedlam." Drifting toward Crainic's neo-traditionalist and Romanian Orthodox far-right, he served as editor-in-chief for the dailies Calendarul and Porunca Vremii. He also published in Cuvântul reportage pieces which documented the effects of the Great Depression on the Bucharest proletariat.
Crevedia followed up with humorous, satirical prose volumes: Bacalaureatul lui Puiu ("Puiu's Baccalaureate", 1933), Dragoste cu termen redus ("Short-term Love", 1934); together with Al. С. Calotescu-Neicu, he published Antologia epigramei românești ("An Anthology of Romanian Epigrams", 1933). He won the Romanian Writers' Society prize in 1934 and enjoyed commercial success, but was soon after accused of plagiarism by his Calendarul colleague Pan M. Vizirescu and by the epigrammatist Paul I. Papadopol. One of the accusations referred to Crevedia's translation of a Bulgarian poem, which appeared in both Viața Literară and Frize. The piece was later exposed as nearly identical to one of Crevedia's own works; when asked to justify himself, he noted that both poems were his own, and that he had presented one as a translation piece so as to ensure that I. Valerian would publish it.
Iron Guard sympathizer
This period also brought him and Crainic into contact with the radically antisemitic Iron Guard. In December 1933, Crevedia was one of the intellectuals who protested in Axa magazine against the government's decision to ban the Guard. During 1935, he was present at Maglavit, one of several Guard sympathizers claiming to have witnessed the religious miracles performed by shepherd Petrache Lupu. In Porunca Vremii, he claimed that Lupu had cured his own uncontrollable blinking. He penned panegyrics to the Guard's Captain Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, an "extraordinary organizer" and "profound thinker who reflects on the current issues facing our nation." In his words, Codreanu, an example of "virility, faith, and sacrifice, [had] managed to make us believe that this Nation has not disappeared." He alternated this cult with that of King Carol II and his "Prince Charming" son, Michael I. Nonetheless, Vizirescu accused him of being a disloyal "servant" of Crainic and an inconsistent, corrupt, ally of the Iron Guard. Reportedly, Crevedia complained to his peers that Crainic was exploiting him.
Crevedia had another publicized row with the literary critic and historian George Călinescu—later, he acknowledged Călinescu as a "titan of his generation" and "one of our great prose writers", but still criticized him for "work[ing], year upon year, for the Jews". He also applied his polemical energy to more personal causes, for instance attacking a putative former lover, Marta Rădulescu (daughter of the author Dan "Justus" Rădulescu), with a lampoon piece in Viața Literară. A resident of Cluj, she was locally famous as the editor of Revista Mea, a mouthpiece of the Iron Guard. They had allegedly been due to be married, and Rădulescu even wrote a short novel on the topic, but she eventually rejected him. In such texts, Crevedia accused Marta of having stolen his writings—a claim dismissed by Vizirescu and later also by researcher Ion Chinezu. In some of his notes on the scandal, Crevedia also claimed that Marta's ghostwriter was her father "Justus".
Crevedia took his final revenge on Rădulescu by having her satirized in the 1936 novel Buruieni de dragoste ("Love Weeds"). Some two years after the scandal, Crevedia married Maria Mutu, in a religious ceremony with Crainic as godfather. Maria was a niece of the Gândirea novelist Gib Mihăescu, in whose house she lived before marriage; she worked as a professor of French and Romanian. The couple had two daughters, Ioana and Diana. A flight enthusiast, Crevedia continued to travel throughout Europe, and announced by 1937 that he was planning to publish a travelogue of his trips through the Balkans, a theatrical version of Bacalaureatul lui Puiu, and an anthology of Bulgarian poetry, alongside a new novel, Mămăligă—referencing the folk dish. His play was reportedly finished, and Crevedia failed at convincing Camil Petrescu to include it in the National Theater program. Two other volumes of his poetry appeared around that time: Maria (1938), named after his wife, and Dă-mi înapoi grădinile ("Give Me Back My Gardens", 1939).
Still at Porunca Vremii, Crevedia responded to left-wing adversaries of Crainic, primarily the novelist Mihail Sadoveanu, director of Adevărul. During the far-right's anti-Masonic campaign of 1936–1938, he mocked Sadoveanu's obesity and urged him to shoot himself. In early 1937, at the height of the Spanish Civil War, he contributed to Iron Guard martyrology, depicting Romanian volunteers as "killed for Christ and the Latin race", seeds of "the iron phalanx of tomorrow." However, later that year he and Porunca Vremii had switched their allegiances to the National Christian Party (PNC), which took fourth place in the December elections. On January 1, 1938, Crevedia published an editorial calling for the PNC to take over and inaugurate a "new era" of antisemitic conservatism.
Before World War II, Crevedia was mainly contributing to Universul, which was increasingly favorable to fascism. In its literary supplement, he issued calls for a nationalist art, purified of "unhealthy, imported currents". As noted by the satirist Neagu Rădulescu, these were prosperous times for Crevedia, who had a firm contract with publisher Petre Georgescu-Delafras. At the time, he was keeping the aspiring novelist Constantin Virgil Gheorghiu as his salaried secretary and his țuțăr ("yes-man"), allowing him to wear his old clothes. At the Writers' Society, he notes, Crevedia acted as a person of importance, but was told off by other writers. As he moved up in his career, Crevedia built a modern home in his village, which he donated to his sister. He continued to rely on rented housing, but purchased himself residential land in Băneasa, where, in 1940, he still hoped to build himself a family villa.
Under the Iron Guard's National Legionary State regime of late 1940, he directed Crainic's own fascist newspaper, Sfarmă-Piatră. In mid 1940 the Ion Antonescu government sent him as a press attaché in Sofia. Serving there to 1946, he put together an edition on Romanian culture for Serdika and published Cultura românească și centrul ei: Bucureștii ("Romanian Culture and Its Center: Bucharest", 1943). He also began translating Bulgarian poetry from the original, in the hope of publishing it, and also arranged for "an esteemed Bulgarian colleague" to work on similar translations from the Romanian. No such work ever so print. He continued to publish in Universul, including 1941 verses which deplored the cession of Northern Transylvania to Romania's nominal ally, Regency Hungary, and claimed that Greater Romania would emerge again. In 1943, he penned in Viața Basarabiei an eulogy to his fellow poet and friend, Octav Sargețiu, whom he thus brought to public attention.
Sidelining and return
Although a fascist, Crevedia was spared during the first purge of the Writers' Society that followed the August 1944 Coup. In July 1945, the Petru Groza government assessed his case and ruled: "From [Crevedia's] articles in Porunca Vremii one can discern a fully antisemitic campaign with incitement and exhortation of the most violent actions. With his writing he serviced Hitlerism and fascism, popularizing hooligan, anti-democratic, frames of mind. Since Nicolae Crevedia's actively fascist journalism is limited to the year 1939 and given that in later years he stopped putting out such articles, sanction shall be limited to a ban on activities, for no longer than 5 years."
Following the establishment of Romanian communist regime in 1948, he found himself shunned from mainstream literature, and continued to write, secretly, poems which explicitly contradicted the guidelines of socialist realism. He resorted to informal channels, and, with Virgil Carianopol, Ion Buzdugan and Radu D. Rosetti, began frequenting the literary parties held at Ion Larian Postolache's home, on Dobroteasa Street, Bucharest. This salon also grouped younger writers, including C. D. Zeletin and Crevedia's own son, Eugen. According to one account, Postolache arranged for Crevedia to meet his son: they had been aware of each other, but never actually met, and Crevedia had heard that Barbu was reduced to poverty. Barbu became more acceptable to the regime, and published in 1957 his own novel The Pit, part of which fictionalizes Crevedia's youth. According to a persistent rumor, the whole book was actually ghostwritten by Crevedia.
Crevedia clerked at the virology institute (1955–1956) and at the Romanian Academy's linguistics institute (1957), before being called on by the regime to edit Glasul Patriei magazine, from 1957 to 1972. As noted by critic Ovid Crohmălniceanu, the latter enterprise, publishing propaganda aimed at the Romanian diaspora, was set up by former political prisoners Crainic and George Ivașcu, with Securitate agents as supervisors. According to Crohmălniceanu, Crevedia and others, supposed to show the world that freedom of speech existed behind the Iron Curtain, were not in fact "old defenders of democracy", but "had rather filled [with their names] the old fascist press."
Following relative liberalization and national communism under Nicolae Ceaușescu, Crevedia returned to the public eye with a Luceafărul article on his meetings with Gib Mihăescu (1965), followed by the self-selected anthology Versuri ("Verse", 1968). In 1969, with Vizirescu and Carianopol, alongside the Romanian Communist Party envoy Paul Niculescu-Mizil, he attended the official banquet marking Crainic's 80th birthday. Reportedly, the same year he was also the first reviewer of Barbu's other novel, Princepele, which he found to be a masterpiece.
Despite being left-wing and Jewish, Crohmălniceanu discovered that he liked the poetry of both Crainic and Crevedia, and made efforts to have it revisited; as he recounts, these were received with indignation by the communist poet Eugen Jebeleanu, who called Crevedia a "hooligan". Crevedia himself was moved by Crohmălniceanu's work, and the two, later joined by Crainic, had cordial meetings in the early 1970s. Before his 1978 death, Crevedia put out the anthology Epigramiști români de ieri și de azi ("Romanian Epigrammatists Past and Present", 1975) and included his previously unpublished verses in Vinul sălbatic ("Wild Wine", 1977).
Crevedia was survived by Barbu and his two half-sisters. Diana Crevedia, married Cristev, worked for the Museum of Romanian Literature and was an editor of Manuscriptum. A translator of works by her more famous writer brother, she later emigrated to Italy. In 2018, she and her sister provided the military magazine România Eroică some fragments from their father's unpublished Mămăligă. Well regarded by the Ceaușescu regime, Barbu remained active at the forefront of Romanian politics and literature through to the 1989 Revolution. A subset of protochronist ideology, his cell of pro-Ceaușescu writers was sometimes known as the "Barbu Group", with Barbu himself co-opted on the Communist Party Central Committee; however, his reputation as an author suffered after revelations of plagiarism, and he was sidelined in the 1970s. As editor of Săptămîna, he cultivated poet Corneliu Vadim Tudor, famous for introducing antisemitic themes to the national-communist discourse. Following the Revolution, Barbu, Tudor and Iosif Constantin Drăgan set up an ultra-nationalist Greater Romania Party.
Work
Poetry
From early on, Crevedia created a reputation as a haughty, blustering countryside poet and as a prose writer inclined toward the licentious; gradually, his lyricism became purer and more temperate, in line with an authentic peasant traditionalism. With Aron Cotruș, Radu Gyr, and other Gândirea poets, he exulted hajduk life, "bursting into explosions of vitality." The Gândirea house critic, Ovidiu Papadima, referred to Crevedia as a traveler on the "imperial road of poetry", emanating "warm and full light". When dealing with the poetic universe of Bucharest suburbia, Crevedia's work was infused with influences from Tudor Arghezi, who, Călinescu argues, was a "prototype", particularly with his Mildew Flowers cycle. Nevertheless, the critic points out that the thick Wallachian dialect of Crevedia's prose was only suited for comedic situations and "facile subjects", not "great lyricism". He viewed Crevedia as particularly hampered by his borrowings from the humorous verse of Ion Minulescu and his own "prankish temperament".
Crevedia and his friend George Dorul Dumitrescu both regarded Arghezi as "the prince of writers". Also supporting the hypothesis that Crevedia's work was largely shaped by Mildew Flowers, critic Șerban Cioculescu saw additional echoes from Sergei Yesenin, particularly in the "daring crudeness" of their shared vocabulary. This view was toned down by poet Mihai Beniuc, who though a direct comparison between the Romanian and Russian poet was exaggerated. Yesenian themes were traced by Cioculescu to poems such as Ceai dansant ("Tea Party"), which displays nostalgia for the countryside:
The modernist Eugen Lovinescu describes Crevedia as the most accomplished traditionalist, and notes that Bulgări și stele would have been a fully original work had it not been for Mildew Flowers. Crevedia's art was "neither folkloric nor a pastel, neither bucolic nor a fairy tale, and yet a rural poetry, or rather a plebeian poetry [...] of great plastic vigor, its vocabulary cruel to the brink of vulgarity and ugliness, but authentic". According to C. D. Zeletin, Crevedia had a "rural obsession", but actually disliked Romanian folklore; behind the "impression of aggressiveness and primitivism", he was secretly inspired by Arghezi's more cultivated and urbanite literature. Zeletin praised in particular Crevedia's use of alliteration and experiments with poetic language, arguing that they render a "savant charm". Călinescu also noted that Crevedia's poetic homage to his father as a man "seemingly made from stumps and soil", had "a certain xylographic vigor"; Lovinescu also called it an "admirable woodcut". Călinescu identified even "purer vibrations" in stanzas such as:
Prose
According to reviewer Silviu Bardeș, Crevedia's ten sketches in Bacalaureatul lui Puiu had "lively dialogue" and "verve", but alternated between the "remarkable" and the "salacious". The title story was "a fine portrait of today's educated guttersnipes." Dragoste cu termen redus, a comedic novel, shows the myopic cadet Vasile Țâgăran faking an illness to escape the dullness of military life, only to fall in love with his nurse, Aurora, and finding out that his unrequited affection is much more unbearable. Toward the end of the book, Aurora, having rejected his advances, is shown making passionate love to a street-smart Rom recruit. As noted by Lovinescu, both Bacalaureatul lui Puiu and Dragoste cu termen redus were complicit to the point of being "vulgar", and overdone: "Comedic situations are exploited mercilessly, persistently, gleefully, amplified and unchecked. For something that Gh. Brăescu will obtain on one page, [Crevedia] uses ten."
The political novel and memoir Buruieni de dragoste depicts Sanda Marinescu, a thinly disguised version of Marta Rădulescu; Revista Mea becomes Revista Revistelor, and "Justus" is Professor Barbu Marinescu, a Freemason. The journalist Trestieru, standing in for Crevedia, slowly discovered that Sanda's political prose is actually the work of her father, and also that the latter has commonplace political opinions, dictated by sociology, democracy, and Fordism. Reviewing the work in 1937, folklorist Iosif Bâtiu argued: "The nationalist youth will easily recognize in the novel's characters, admirably contoured as they are, many pioneers of the nationalist movement, as well as its detractors, the latter viewed in all their spiritual emptiness." This opinion was contrasted by that of Pagini Literare columnist Romulus Demetrescu, who suggested that Crevedia wrote a "lampoon [...] against Marta Rădulescu 's family", "doing away with all discretion and delicacy". He found especially "upsetting" and indecent that Crevedia had disguised other known characters under transparent pseudonyms, suggesting that the author was suffering from megalomania.
Another traditionalist reviewer, Grigore Bugarin, argued that Buruieni de dragoste was written in "masterly Romanian, with unexpected charm. [...] The protagonists come alive. As soon as you close the book, you may close your eyes and hear them speak, watch them gesticulate." The novel, Bugarin claimed, "is a lifelike expression of today's Romanian bourgeoisie." Agreeing with Crevedia's politics, but also with his ideal of the "intellectual woman", Bâtiu concluded: "In this literary era of ours, when so many indecent and pornographic books are shamelessly published by authors of dubious origins, these Love Weeds settle in as a gentle breeze". On the modernist side, Lovinescu also argued that Buruieni de dragoste was Crevedia's most accomplished work. "Poorly structured" and "embarrassing for those familiar with literary life", it was nonetheless more analytical, and had "a poetic note and vigorous expression".
Notes
References
Lucian Boia, Capcanele istoriei. Elita intelectuală românească între 1930 și 1950. Bucharest: Humanitas, 2012.
George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1986.
Nicolae Crevedia, "De la seceră la baionetă", in România Eroică, Vol. XX, Issue 1, 2018, pp. 26–31.
Ovid Crohmălniceanu,
Literatura română între cele două războaie mondiale, Vol. I. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1972.
Amintiri deghizate. Bucharest: Editura Nemira, 1994.
Niculae Gheran, Arta de a fi păgubaș. 3: Îndărătul cortinei. Bucharest: Editura Biblioteca Bucureștilor, 2012.
Radu Ioanid, "Extracts from Characteristics of Rumanian Fascism", in Roger Griffin, Matthew Feldman (eds.), Fascism (Critical Concepts in Political Science). Vol. IV, pp. 119–141. London & New York City: Routledge, 2004.
Eugen Lovinescu, Istoria literaturii române contemporane. Chișinău: Editura Litera, 1998.
Z. Ornea, Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească. Bucharest: Editura Fundației Culturale Române, 1995.
Neagu Rădulescu, Turnul Babel. Bucharest: Cugetarea-Georgescu Delafras, 1944.
Florin Rotaru (ed.), "Cronici literare" and "Studii literare", in Serghei Esenin, Zaharia Stancu, Moscova cârciumăreasă. Ediție bibliofilă, pp. 267–338. Bucharest: Editura Biblioteca Bucureștilor, 1999.
Katherine Verdery, National Ideology under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceaușescu's Romania. Berkeley etc.: University of California Press, 1995.
1902 births
1978 deaths
Romanian male poets
20th-century Romanian poets
Gândirea
Romanian epigrammatists
Romanian novelists
Romanian humorists
Romanian travel writers
Romanian anthologists
20th-century memoirists
Romanian memoirists
20th-century translators
Romanian translators
Translators to Romanian
Translators from Bulgarian
Romanian magazine editors
Romanian newspaper editors
Romanian activist journalists
Romanian agrarianists
Romanian fascists
Romanian civil servants
Romanian public relations people
Romanian propagandists
Romanian diplomats
People from Giurgiu County
Members of the Romanian Orthodox Church
Romanian military personnel of World War I
Saint Sava National College alumni
Romanian expatriates in Bulgaria
Romanian people of World War II
People involved in plagiarism controversies
Censorship in Romania
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Arnon Nampa (; , also spelt Anon Numpa; born 18 August 1984) is a Thai human rights lawyer and activist. He is renowned in Thailand for openly criticizing the monarchy of Thailand, breaking the country's taboo. He was initially regarded as a prominent human rights defender during his tenure as a human rights lawyer and later accumulated multiple criminal charges due to his active involvement in pro-democracy activism. He is considered to be one of the leading figures of the 2020–2021 Thai protests, co-leading reforms to the monarchy reform movement by non-elite people for first time in Thai history.
He was detained without trial in 2020 for 24 days but after Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-o-cha declared to use all laws including Lèse-majesté to the protesters in November 2020, he had been detained for 110 days in first round of remanding. After he received bail just 2 months from June 2021, he had been imprisoned again from 9 August 2021 to 27 February 2022, without trial for 203 days. His total imprisonment time between 2020 and 2022 is 337 days.
Early life
Rot Et: 1984–2003
Arnon Nampa was born on 18 August 1984 in Thung Khao Luang, former Thawat Buri in a family background rich in agriculture in Roi Et Province. His parents were rice farmers. He studied for secondary education at a top provincial school, Roi Et Wittayalai, gained the nickname "The Little Communist" for his rebellious actions. He wrote a poem, papered all over the school's walls to rebuke and criticize teachers and friends that cooperated tutoring on extra private classes. He protested and collected a list of students that disagreed with class-time change because it would make rural students miss commuting back to their houses.
At that time, the first three-year at his school did not accept female students, but he promised to the students to change that, made him elected as a student council president in 2002. In his presidential year, he presented the 6 October 1976 massacre content on a school board and started 'Sports event: women school - Roi Et school'. He also won the first place in the northeast region for the law questionnaire student competition in that year. Chamlong Daoruang, Roi Et Wittayalai alumni and Free Thai Movement member, was his influencer in his early years.
Arriving in Bangkok: 2003–2007
Having interest in a poetry, he chose the Thai language program in the Faculty of Education of Mahasarakham University in 2003, but the environment did not induce him enough, so he did not enroll. Reading a lot of history of Thammasat University, he sought to be in the Faculty of Sociology and Anthropology Thammasat University, but after two months he decided to leave and studied a law at Ramkhamhaeng University instead.
In 2005, Arnon and most student activists supported People's Alliance for Democracy in 2005–2006 Thai political crisis at the beginning, anti-authoritarian of Thaksin Shinawatra. During 2006 Thai coup d'état, he turned to be anti-coup activist and joined Sombat Bunngam-anong's 19 September Network against Coup d'Etat group as reciting poetry role. He also joined the 'black shirt' protest led by Giles Ji Ungpakorn.
After Arnon graduated with a law degree in 2006, he was conscripted to military for one year by catching a red lottery. In 2007, he passed an exam for a lawyer license before his service ended. He won the first case at Military courts of Thailand which his first client was a drafted military colleague.
Human rights lawyer
Red shirts lawyer: 2007–2010
Arnon started lawyer internship in 2007 at EnLAW Thai Foundation by Surachai Trongngam, practicing human rights defend cases such as Sahaviriya steel mill project protests in Bang Saphan District, police crackdown on Thai-Malay gas pipeline project protest, and Charoen Wat-akson assassination-related Bo-Nok and Ban-Krut coal power plant protest, gained him an awareness of problems over human rights violation to people. In 2008, his internship ended and he went out on a trial by himself. He received a barrister degree from the Thai Bar Association in 2009.
Amid the Centre for Resolution of Emergency Situation, army group that took over the country after the 2010 red shirts crackdown occurring, Arnon became Sombat Bunngam-anong's the Red Sunday Group's lawyer, named by some media as 'Red Sunday lawyer'. His ability in handling the court cases earned him the nickname of 'lawyer for the Red Shirts'. He became a lawyer of the monarchy defamation cases because of the political crisis, red shirt activists who disagreed with the 2010 coup were charged with lèse-majesté. His early help on the cases were Chotisak Onsoong case, Suwicha Thakor case.
Ratsadornprasong Law Office: 2011–2014
In 2011, Arnon started his pro bono law practice, the 'Ratsadornprasong Law Office', with other two lawyers to help red-shirts protesters for almost 100 cases, and people who had been charged with lèse-majesté from a political conflict. The firm notable cases and works were the burning of the Mukdahan Provincial Offices case with over twenty defendants, charges were dismissed leter in 2019. His firm also helped poor defendant families' welfares and a reparation on other detained red shirts defendants. He helped in the 'Uncle SMS' Ampon Tangnoppakul case, Thantawut or 'Noom Rednont', Joe Gordon on a translation of The King Never Smiles book. The firm helped operating the People's Information Center: The April-May 2010 Crackdowns (PIC) and involved in 'Nuamthong' movie
The firm ended in 2013 because the political crisis was unfolding before the 2014 Thai coup d'état occurred. It became 'Ratsadornprasong fund' to bail out political activists from strict military regime prosecution and it has been helped political activists until today.
Two days after the 2014 Thai coup d'état, Arnon and lawyer friends found Thai Lawyers for Human Rights (TLHR) to tackle with arrested, summoned, detained by the military junta, including cases in military court. He positioned himself to be a freelance lawyer and receiving cases from TLHR. Later, he pursued a career as a human rights lawyer and went onto to defend court cases on behalf of prominent high-profile activists, including Aekachai Hongkangwan, Phai Dao-din.
Early activism
Resistant Citizen: 2014–2017
Arnon co-founded the Resistant Citizen group in January 2015 after he organized many experiment protests and the 'Coup Down People Rise 2015' party, a symbolic event at the Democracy Monument on 31 December 2014. The group released a couple of YouTube parodies and performance arts about the coup, in which he played the main role in 'Chub Yei Chan-O-Cha' (Kiss to mock the moon O-Cha). The moon in Thai is 'Chan', he dressed Prayut Chan-o-cha military uniform in the parody music video.
The Resistant Citizen group set up the 'Election that We (Love) was Stolen' event at Bangkok Art and Culture Centre on Valentine's Day, 14 February. They wanted to create a space where people can speak their minds after the National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO), the military junta came to silence Thai people for almost a year. They staged a mock election to recall the 2 Feb 2014 election which was rescinded, attracting about 300 people. Arnon, Siravich Sereethiwat, Punsak Srithep, and Wannakiat Chusuwan were arrested and charged by Army Col Burin Thongprapai with violating the military junta order prohibiting an assembly of more than five people. He was bailed out after being detained one night at Phayathai police station. He gained a lot of attention from the news, "Many months have passed, half of my friends in a jail, other half fled to other countries." when asking about the pressure he got after an arrest. He was also charged under a computer crime laws for Facebook messages he posted.
His group organized another event in March 2015, 'I Walk Therefore, I Am'. Arnon and another 3 defendants walked 3 days from Bangbuathong to Patumwan police station to protest that civilians should not face military court. It was called the landmark case from the Human Right Watch that could shake strict military rule.
Arnon was arrested a second time in 2015, on the train traveling from Bangkok Noi to Rajabhakti Park, led by Siravich of the Democracy Studies Group. The campaign "Taking a train to Rajabhakti Park to throw light on graft techniques" is to look into alleged corruption during park construction. Army troops intercepted a train carrying student activists and disconnected their carriage from the train at Ban Pong Station, Ratchaburi. He and other 37 activists were taken to the National Office of Buddhism in Phutthamonthon park, later in the night, they were released. He was detained in Bangkok Remand Prison on 25 April 2016 by the court prosecution of a military judge advocate, Col.Burin Thongprapai, complainant, and later released by bail. At the end of 2019, the court withdrew an accusation.
On 31 October 2015, he was charged under Public Assembly Act for using an amplifier without permission during the activity to recognize the death of Nuamthong Praiwan. He was fined for 200 baht by Pol Col Attawit Saisueb, Deputy Chief of Metropolitan Police Division One.
On 19 and 27 April 2016, he and the Resistan Citizen group invited people to stand, literally, at the Victory Monument to protest military harassment against activists. He and other 15 activists were arrested for a Protesting Act violation on both days. In 2019, the court ordered fining him 1,000 baht.
Aside from activism, he took on a lot of lese majeste cases that spiking in the year after the coup, such as '30 years in jail' for posting insulting to the monarchy. He was also a lawyer of Thanakorn Siripaiboon who was charged with infamous lese majeste related to the King's dog, 'Tongdaeng', and Siravich's mother, who was charged 15 years in prison for 'Ja' Facebook message reply. Thanet Anantawong, the Dao Din group, and Jatupat Boonpattararaksa were also his clients.
In late 2017, continuing working as a human rights activist, he communicated human rights stories on his Facebook account and eventually criticized the court for punishing his particular group of clients by restricting them from seeing each other. He said that the court had no right to order that. On 5 December, he was charged with violating the Computer Crime Act and contempt of court by Lt.Col.Supharat Kam-in. He denied all charges and believed it was politically motivated against exercising rights to freedom of expression. Human rights NGOs demanded military junta to stop a strategic litigation against public participation (SLAPPs). Front Line Defenders condemned the military junta on judicial harassment of him, strongly believed it was linked to his human rights lawyer duty, and demanded junta drop all charges against him.
Demanding an election: 2018–2019
On 27 January 2018, a group of activists demanding a general election, Arnon, Sirawit Seritiwat, Nutta Mahattana, Rangsiman Rome, Netiwit Chotiphatphaisal, Ekachai Hongkangwan, and Sukrid Peansuwan were charged at Pratumwan Skywalk with political gatherings more than four and committed acts of incitement against the state by the same person who charged him in 2015, Col.Burin Thongprapai.
On 10 February 2018, Arnon, Sirivich, and Rangsiman led 200-500 protesters at the Democracy Monument to demand a general election within the year 2018 and to criticize Prayut and Prawit Wongsuwan. The police charged him and 6 individuals that the authorities are seen as the leader and had informed sedition accusation under the order of the head of NCPO no.3/2015. On 23 July 2019, the charge was drop.
He and activists organized a political rally of the people who want an election at the army headquarter and the UN Building on 24 March and 22 May 2018, the authorities also informed sedition accusation to him. Later in October, he was charged again on the Computer Crime Act for sharing Rajaphakti plan and pressing the like button to Tongdeang the King's dog parody case in Facebook.
On 6 January 2019, he led a demonstration calling to stop postponing a general election at the Victory Monument. After 2019 Thai general election ended, he protested every day for a week to Office of Election Commission of Thailand which prosecuting critics that criticized counting process and confused initial results by just standing. Unofficial results, which typically would be known by the same night and announced the next morning, were repeatedly delayed for 44 days.
Reforms to the monarchy: 2019–2020
Prologue
On 30 September 2019, King Maha Vajiralongkorn ordered an emergency decree as a result two infantry regiments were removed from the Royal Thai Army's chain of command and placed under the Royal Security Command to consolidate his personal authority. All personnel, assets, and operating budgets were likewise transferred to the agency. On 14 October, Arnon posted an open letter to the House of Representatives on Facebook, urged to open a discussion and vote on disapproval of it. He explained it was contrary to Article 172 of the Constitution because it is not an urgent matter and it is an extension of the military power of the monarchy that would break the democratic system, which normally military power should be under the cabinet executive to be able to check and balance by the National Assembly of Thailand and the Judiciary of Thailand. Later, an emergency decree passed but 70 representatives from Future Forward Party which later dissolved by the Constitutional Court led by Piyabutr Saengkanokkul voted against it.
On 16 June 2020, after he was accused of Computer Crime violation again by an unknown person, posting about the monarchy budget on Facebook. He filed a letter to Prayuth Chan-O-Cha, demanded to explain and investigate the monarchy budget, and urged to distribute a fraction of it to the COVID-19 pandemic crisis.
On 24 June, Arnon and the DRG organized a pre-dawn protest at the Democracy Monument across the nation, to commemorate the 1932 revolt which ended the absolute monarchy and started democracy system. These events were trending number 1 on a Twitter platform but later they were charged with several minor violations.
On 18 July, the student group Free Youth Movement organized a public demonstration that drew more than 2,000 protesters at the Democracy Monument. He reminded protesters to support prisoners convicted under the lèse-majesté law, and Tiwagorn Withiton who posted a picture of himself wearing the viral "I lost faith in the monarchy" t-shirt then was forcibly admitted to a psychiatric hospital. He called for the dissolution of parliament because of an unfair election and dissolving of the Future Forward Party, for officials to stop threatening citizens, and drafting a new constitution that appointing 250 junta senators to vote for himself to be prime minister. Later on 20 July, he addressed in front of the Royal Thai Army, demanded the army to stop harassing activists, repeal the junta senate, and stop a coup amnesty.
Breaking the taboo
In mid-2020, despite openly criticizing the monarchy and protesting on social media was active, such as Tiwagorn case, but no one had tried in public speaking. Eventually, on Monday evening of 3 August 2020, Arnon Nampa openly criticized the monarchy in front of 200 protesters dressed as a wizard for a Harry Potter-themed protest at the Democracy Monument. It was regarded as the first time in Thai history, calling for the monarchy powers to be curbed in unusually frank public speech. Only Somsak Jeamteerasakul had done it but in closed academic seminars and public articles, other case is Daranee Charnchoengsilpakul comments against the monarchy during a speech at the United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship political rally in 2008 Thai political crisis.
He stressed that he wanted to reform the constitutional monarchy, not overthrow, and focusing on the asset transfer from the Crown Property Bureau to the personal belonging of the King. He also questioned the King's decision to transfer two military units to his command which was not a democratic, constitutional monarchy. He accused King Maha Vajiralongkorn of creating unprecedented changes in the constitution. He told the media that he spoke candidly, to honor his integrity, the integrity of the audience, and out of respect for the monarchy.
On 5 August, Apiwat Kanthong, the lawyer of Prayuth Chan-O-Cha, filed a complaint for the crime of lèse-majesté and removing him from a member of the Lawyers Council. On 7 August, the Samranrat Police arrested him and Panupong Jadnok with sedition after the 18 July, Free Youth protest. Later that day Arnon and Panupong were dragged by police officers from the Criminal Court to a police vehicle and taken to the Huai Khwang Police Station. He and Panupong were released by bail on the evening of 8 August by the Criminal Court order. On the next day, he continued giving out speech again in the Chiang Mai protest.
He gave an interview later that the students wanted to do this before but they asked him to start the movement. He told that a reaction from the protesters and the police were thrilled, silent, and worried about him. Some media deleted live streaming of his speech.
Revolutionary rally
A week later from the historic speech from Arnon, on 10 August 2020, there was a revolutionary rally at Thammasat University, regarding by BBC analyst, Rangsit campus in Pathum Thani Province named "ธรรมศาสตร์จะไม่ทน." (lit. Thammasat will not tolerate.). Penguin or Parit Chiwarak wrote the revolutionary 10 monarchy reform manifestos, adapted from Somsak Jeamteerasakul writing and let Panusaya Sithijirawattanakul readout, without fear from abduction and murder. In front of more than 1,000 protesters, Arnon also repeatedly gave out a monarchy reform speech again.
Despite monarchy reforms demand protest earlier, 7 days later in the biggest anti-government protest on 17 August by the Free Youth group was different. They demanded only the government to resign, to dissolve the parliament and to hold a new general election under a revised constitution. Drawing more than 20,000 people at the Democracy Monument, Arnon said about "the biggest dream of seeing the monarchy stay alongside Thai society", rather than unattached above it.
He was arrested again on 19 August at night for sedition, Assembly Act, Computer Crime Act on Harry Potter-themed speech. He spent a night in Chanasongkram Police Station, was released on bail in the morning. The police searched his house to find illegal evidence but found nothing. On 25 August, he was arrested again for sedition over his speech on 10 August and was released on bail. Later 1 September, he reported that the state official harassed him by visiting his grandmother house.
On 3 September 2020, the court revoked the bail appeal of Arnon and Panupong Jadnok, and they were remanded until further notice. The court ruled that both of them had breached their bail terms by taking part in protests. Arnon was immediately re-detained, the court justified this on the theory "in order to prevent the offender to cause other harms." Being detained for 5 days, on September 7, the police withdrew the request. He and Panupong were released. The Clooney Foundation for Justice called it an unlawful bail condition.
Eventually, Arnon, Panupong, Panusaya, Parit, and prominent activists such as Pai Dao Din, organized 19-20 September protest at front of the Grand Palace's Sanam Luang drawing around 18,000 - 50,000 protesters, established main goal of 2020-2021 Thai protests, to curbing the palace's powers. He was regarded as one of the leaders since then. He repeated his monarchy reform goal "Unless the monarchy is under the constitution, we will never achieve true democracy," and "the country belongs to the people, not the monarchy". The leaders placed a commemorative brass plaque, 'second Khana Ratsadon plaque', to remind the 1932 revolution that ended absolute monarchy. They have been called 'Ratsadon' by media.
Ratsadon
On Wednesday 14 October, the 47th anniversary of a major student-led 1973 Thai popular uprising, Arnon and other Ratsadon leaders organized a marching protest to the Government House, drawing around 8,000 protesters. It was a general strike planned by them. He led a mass on the truck from the Democracy Monument. Later on the morning of 15 October, he was forcibly taken by a special commando unit without a lawyer to the Chiang Mai Police Station, facing sedition charges by Apiwat Kanthong, Prayuth Chan-O-Cha's lawyer, complaining to Pol. Col. Phuwanat Duangdee for a speech on stage about the monarchy in Chiang Mai and Pathum Thani.
On 16 October, he wrote on a plain paper to the court that a judicial process, order, judging are unfair. He had believed in Thai judicial before, so he decided to study law. But in his experiences, he found that a judicial process is a part of a dictatorship. He believes that someday the court will rethink about it and get back to stand with Thai society. The protest escalated on 16 October when the police fired a water cannon at a large crowd at the Pathumwan intersection.
He had been detained at Chiang Mai Central Prison until 27 October, he was released by 200,000 baht bail but Pol Lt Col Chok-amnuay Wongboonrit, Chana Songkhram police, arrested him straight away for sedition and ruining archaeological site in '19-20 September protest'. He was then taken to the Bangkok Remand Prison. In the evening, the Criminal Court denied bail for him on the grounds that he might cause unrest.
Being in prison for 19 days since 15 October, he was released on the midnight 2 November along with political activists, Somyot Prueksakasemsuk, and Ekkachai Hongkangwan, making him a jail time total 24 days this year without the court verdict.
On 17 November, Arnon and Rasadon group led the protesters to the Sappaya-Sapasathan parliament, to pressure on parliament to accept the constitution amendment bill sponsored by civil group iLaw. The police used the water cannon to fire a teargas liquid, causing many protesters injured. At the end, the police ran back and let the mass gather in front of the parliament. He called demonstrators to gather at Ratchaprasong Intersection on 18 November, he said to fight face to face to the monarchy. That day, the protesters sprayed a paint around the police headquarter, insulting the monarchy.
Lèse-majesté strikes
On 19 November, Prayuth Chan-o-cha promised to use 'all laws' against the protesters, including Lèse-majesté law or Article 112, but the protests had taken place almost every day from October to November. Arnon was also received a summons for lese majeste in addition to other charges. Clooney Foundation for Justice Initiative called on the Thai government to dismiss these charges against him and others to stop sanctions on free speech and peaceful assembly.
Arnon and the Ratsadon led the protesters to protest at SCB banking company owned by Vajiralongkorn on 25 November, Bangkok army barrack on 29 November. All venues were related to reforms to the monarchy. On 3 December, he still spoke directly to the king that he should stay in 'the King can do no wrong' idea. He stated to take a break during New Year's holidays and will continue the rally in 2021 with more escalation.
On 14 January 2021, Arnon was recognized by the South Korea's May 18 Memorial Foundation by winning the 2021 Gwangju Prize for Human Rights from his human rights legal contribution, anti-authoritarian activisms and his call for the monarchy reform. He is the third person from Thailand after Angkhana Neelaphaijit and Pai Dao Din.
Imprisonment without trial: 2021–2022
Bangkok Remand Prison: February–June 2021
Nevertheless, on 9 February 2021, Arnon and the Ratsadon group Parit, Patipan Luecha, and Somyot were arrested and detained again, charges of lese majeste and 10 other offenses, including sedition, over 19-20 September protest by Pol Lt Col Chok-amnuay Wongboonrit, Chana Songkhram police. The court denied them bail, remanded them in the Bangkok Remand Prison. US National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan expressed concern. United Nations human rights experts condemned on rising lese-majeste cases. After the Court of Appeal, The court rejected a request and cited their disrespect for the monarchy and they posed a flight risk. In front of Bangkok Remand Prison, Prachak Kongkirati, Yukti Mukdawichit, Boonlert Wisetpreecha from Thammasat University and Puangthong Pawakrapan from Chulalongkorn University claiming to represent 255 lecturers at 31 universities and educations read out a statement calling for their release. Human Rights Watch said that the country may returns to the dark days by abusing the law and demanded the Thai government to conform with Thailand's international human rights law obligations.
His lawyers tried to appeal many occasions but all were denied with the same reason by the court. By the time, he was jailed awaiting trial. He was prosecuted for 21 cases, 11 of lese majeste cases.
On 15 March, Arnon wrote the petition, fear of death threat, to the Criminal Court while he was temporarily released to perform his lawyer duty, that prison officials tried four times to take Jatupat and Panupong out to test COVID-19 at night which was an unusual time. Arnon found it suspicious and there was rumours that they will be sent to hurt or kill.
On 8 April, Arnon, Jatupat and Somyot signed a letter expressing their intention to withdraw their lawyer from the trial because he cited lack of due fairness in the court so was therefore no longer required to defend them. While Patipan was released by bail, Parit and Panusaya had committed hunger strike until he get a bail.
Arnon infected with the coronavirus in custody and sent to the prison hospital on 6 May.
110 days after being detained without the court verdict, on 6 June, he was given bail 200,000 baht on conditions that include refraining from defaming the monarchy and inciting non-peaceful event along with Panupong. He was immediately treated in hospital after he had infected the coronavirus.
He resumed activism on 24 June event by reading 'Prakat Khana Ratsadon', a declaration on the Siamese revolution of 1932.
Bangkok Remand Prison: August 2021–February 2022
On 3 August, Arnon Nampa gave a critical speech once again on the front of Bangkok Art and Culture Centre to commemorate 'Harry Potter themed' last year. This time he demanded a revoke of Article 112 law and transferring of public asset from the King back to the previous status. He was imprisoned on 9 August for lese majeste charges.
On 10 November, the Constitutional Court ruled that Arnon's speech, calling for reforms of the monarchy in 'Thammasat will not tolerate' rally on 10 August 2020, aimed to overthrow the state and the monarchy in their speeches. The court ordered him and other protest groups to end all monarchy reform movements, as Arnon never had a chance to prove the wrongdoing in the court because he had been in the jail.
On 28 February 2022, Arnon received bails from all courts after he had been detained for 203 days. His total imprisonment time between 2020 and 2022 is 337 days.
Personality and personal life
Born in a rice field, he often recalled a natural and rural feeling of a rice field and agriculture. He convinced himself to be 'Arnon' in Caravan 'phleng phuea chiwit' album 'Arnon' (1988), Sai Sima character in Seni Saowaphong novel Pisat (1994), characters in Komtuan Khantanu and Naowarat Pongpaiboon's books. His Facebook profile photo was Chit Phumisak.
Poetry & art works
In 2011, he wrote a poetry collection book, 'Mute and blind, at the end of the line', about the 2010 red shirts massacre. His book was nominated to S.E.A. Write Award in 2013.
He performed Khlui (Thai Flute) in Thai activist band Faiyen's 'Farmer' song. Khlui was his instrument for his student activism.
Awards and honors
Jarupong Thongsin for Democracy Award, Thailand (2020)
Gwangju Prize for Human Rights , Korea (2021)
See also
2020–2021 Thai protests
Human rights in Thailand
Lèse-majesté in Thailand
Panusaya Sithijirawattanakul
References
External links
1984 births
Arnon Nampa
Living people
Arnon Nampa
Arnon Nampa
Arnon Nampa
Political prisoners
Arnon Nampa
Arnon Nampa
Arnon Nampa
Arnon Nampa
Arnon Nampa
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The Shenzhen Metro () is the rapid transit system for the city of Shenzhen in Guangdong province, China. Extensions opened on 28 October 2020 put the network at of trackage, operating on 11 lines with 283 stations.
Shenzhen Metro is the 4th longest metro system in China and 8th longest in the world as of that date despite having only opened on 28 December 2004. By 2030 the network is planned to comprise 8 express and 24 non-express lines totaling 1,142 kilometers of trackage.
Current system
Currently the network has of route, operating on 11 lines with 283 stations. Line 1 and Line 4 run to the border crossings between the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region at Luohu/Lo Wu and Futian Checkpoint/Lok Ma Chau, where riders can transfer to Hong Kong's MTR East Rail line for travel onwards to Hong Kong.
Line 1
Line 1 formerly known as the Luobao line runs westward from Luohu to Airport East. Trains operate every 2 minutes during peak hours and every 4 minutes at other times. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 1's color is green.
28 December 2004: Luohu – Window of the World
28 September 2009: Window of the World – Shenzhen University
15 June 2011: Shenzhen University – Airport East
Line 2
Line 2 formerly known as the Shekou line runs from Chiwan to Liantang. Line 2 is connect with Line 8 at Liantang station. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 2's color is orange.
28 December 2010: Chiwan – Window of the World
28 June 2011: Window of the World – Xinxiu
28 October 2020: Xinxiu – Liantang
Line 3
Line 3 formerly known as the Longgang line runs from Futian Bonded Area to Shuanlong in Longgang, in the north-east part of the city. Construction began on 26 December 2005. The line is operated by Shenzhen Metro Line 3 Operations, which has been a subsidiary of SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group) since 11 April 2011 when an 80% stake was transferred to SZMC. Line 3's color is blue.
28 December 2010: Caopu – Shuanglong
28 June 2011: Yitian – Caopu
28 October 2020: Futian Bonded Area – Yitian
Line 4
Line 4 formerly known as the Longhua line runs northward from Futian Checkpoint to Niuhu. Trains operate every 2.5 minutes at peak hours and every 6 minutes during off-peak hours. Stations from Futian Checkpoint to Shangmeilin Station are underground. The line has been operated by MTR Corporation (Shenzhen), a subsidiary of MTR Corporation, since 1 July 2010. Line 4's color is red.
28 December 2004: Fumin – Children's Palace
28 June 2007: Futian Checkpoint – Fumin
16 June 2011: Children's Palace – Qinghu
28 October 2020: Qinghu – Niuhu
Line 5
Line 5 formerly known as the Huanzhong line runs from Chiwan in the west to Huangbeiling in the east. Construction began in May 2009 and the line opened on 22 June 2011. Line 5 required a total investment of 20.6 billion RMB. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 5's color is purple.
22 June 2011: Qianhaiwan – Huangbeiling
28 September 2019: Qianhaiwan – Chiwan
Line 6
Line 6 formerly known as the Guangming line runs from Songgang in the north to Science Museum in the south, with a length of 49.4 km and a total of 27 stations. Construction began in August 2015 and the line opened on 18 August 2020. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 6's color is teal.
18 August 2020: Science Museum – Songgang
Line 7
Line 7 formerly known as the Xili line of the Shenzhen Metro opened on 28 October 2016, with a length of 30.173 km and a total of 27 stations. It connects the Xili Lake to Tai'an. The line travels East–West across Shenzhen in a "V" shape. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 7's color is dark blue.
28 October 2016: Xili Lake – Tai'an
Line 8
Line 8 formerly known as the Yantian line of the Shenzhen Metro opened on 28 October 2020, with a length of 12.367 km and a total of 7 stations. It connects the eastern suburbs of Liantang to Yantian Road. Line 8 connects with and becomes Line 2 at Liantang station. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 8's color is orange.
28 October 2020: Liantang – Yantian Road
Line 9
Line 9 formerly known as the Meilin line or Neihuan line of the Shenzhen Metro opened on 28 October 2016. The line runs eastward from to . It has 10 transfer stations. The line is 36.18 km long, running through the districts of Nanshan, Futian and Luohu. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 9's color is grey.
28 October 2016: –
8 December 2019: –
Line 10
Line 10 formerly known as the Bantian line runs from Futian Checkpoint in the south to Shuangyong Street in the north, with a length of 29.3 km and a total of 24 stations. Construction began in September 2015 and the line opened on 18 August 2020. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 10's color is light pink.
18 August 2020: Futian Checkpoint – Shuangyong Street
Line 11
Line 11, also known as the Airport Express, runs from Bitou in the north-east to Futian in the city centre via Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport. Construction began in April 2012 and the line opened on 28 June 2016. Line 11 runs at a higher speed of 120 km/h. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 11's color is maroon.
28 June 2016: Bitou – Futian
Line 20
Line 20 formerly known as the Fuyong line runs from Airport North in the north-west to Convention & Exhibition City near Shenzhen World. Construction began in September 2016 and the line opened on 28 December 2021. Line 20 runs at the same top speed as line 11, at 120 km/h, however, the current line speed is limited to 80 km/h. The line is operated by SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). Line 20's color is cyan.
28 December 2021: Airport North – Convention & Exhibition City
History
Early planning
In late 1983, Party Secretary of Shenzhen Mayor Liang Xiang led a team to Singapore to study its mass transit system. Upon returning it was decided that 30 meters on each side of Shennan Avenue should be protected as a green belt, and to set aside a 16-meter wide median reserved for a light rail or light metro line. In 1984, the "Shenzhen Special Economic Zone Master Plan (1985–2000)" pointed out that, with the growing population and traffic in Shenzhen, a light metro system would not have sufficient capacity to meet future demand. Instead the report proposed a heavy rail subway line to be built along Shennan Avenue. The project was finally approved by the Central Planning Department in 1992.
In August 1992, during and re-feasibility and rail network planning, The Shenzhen Municipal Government decided to move from building a light metro line to a heavy rail subway line. The rapid growth of Shenzhen City made a lower capacity light metro line impractical. In 1994, Shenzhen organized the preparation of the "Shenzhen urban rail network master plan" to be incorporated into the "Shenzhen City Master Plan (1996–2010)". The city's vision for an urban rail network would consists of nine lines. Of the nine transit lines, three of them would be commuter rail lines upgraded from existing national mainline railways. The total length of the proposed network would be about 270 km. The three upgraded commuter rail lines would overlap the Guangzhou–Shenzhen railway, Pinghu–Nanshan railway and Pingyan railway. This plan established the basic framework for the Shenzhen Metro network.
Construction suspended and restarted
In December 1995, the State Council issued the "moratorium on approval of urban rapid transit projects" to suspend approval of rail transit projects in all Chinese cities except Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. The Shenzhen Metro project was postponed. In 1996, prior to the handover of Hong Kong, authorities attempted to restart construction by renaming the project "The Luohu, Huanggang / Lok Ma Chau border crossing passenger rail connection project", stressing that the project is designed to meet the potential growing demand for cross-border passenger traffic after the handover.
In 1997, Shenzhen reapplied its Subway plans to the State Planning Commission, and received approval in May 1998. The project was renamed the "Shenzhen Metro first phase". In July 1998, SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group). was formally established. By April 1999, the subway project feasibility study report has been approved by the state.
Phase I (1998–2004)
Construction of the first sections of Line 1 and Line 4 began in 1999. The grand opening of the Shenzhen Metro system occurred at 5:00pm on Tuesday, December 28, 2004. This made Shenzhen the seventh city in mainland China to have a subway after Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Dalian and Wuhan.
Initially the trains operated at 15-minute frequencies and consisted of Line 1 services between Luohu and Shijie Zhi Chuang (now Window of the World) and the Line 4 services between Fumin and Shaonian Gong (now Children's Palace). Initially the English names of the stations were rendered in Hanyu Pinyin, but some of the names were changed to English translation with American spelling in mid-2011.
The Futian Checkpoint station opened on 28 June 2007 using the name Huanggang.
Name changes
On April 23, 2008, Shenzhen Municipal Planning Bureau announced that it would change the nomenclature of Shenzhen's subway lines according to the "2007 Urban Rail Transit Plan Scheme". Instead of using numbers as the lines official designation, as typically used in other mainland Chinese metro systems, lines would be given Chinese names more akin to the Hong Kong MTR. In 2010, the Scheme was reviewed and adjusted with new routes and names in addition to newly proposed lines. On 23 October 2013, the SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group) decided that current operational lines will have their number and names combined, while future lines will only be numbered. Due to the change in the construction order of several lines, some numerical names have been reviewed in order to prevent big jump between numbers. By 2016, only numerical names are used.
Lines currently in operation:
Lines under construction:
Phase II (2007–2011)
From 2004 to 2007, there was a lack of official government interest and attention to expanding the subway after completion of Phase 1 with little or no active projects. Subway construction speed was ridiculed as "earthworm speed". On 17 January 2007 Shenzhen won the right to host the 2011 Universiade. In the bid Shenzhen committed to complete 155 km of subway lines before the games. The mayor of Shenzhen at the time, Xu Zongheng, sharply criticized the speed and efficiency of Shenzhen's subway construction procedures and calls for reform. Subsequently, the Shenzhen municipal government and various departments signed a liability form, requiring Phase II subway expansion to be completed in time for the Universiade. Shenzhen Metro increased to over a hundred operating metro stations in June 2011, just before the Shenzhen Universiade games. In the span of two weeks, the network expanded from 64 km to 177 km. This expansion increased rail transit's share of total public transit trips from 6% to 29% in 2014.
Phase III (2012–2020)
In 2010, the Shenzhen Urban Planning and Land Resources Committee proposed a building program (Phase III) between 2011 and 2020. In 2011 this plan was approved by the NDRC. Phase III formally commenced in May 2011 with an expected cost of 125.6 billion yuan. It will cover Lines 6, 7, 8, 9, and 11 and will extend the length of the Shenzhen Metro to 348 kilometres and 10 lines. In June 2011, the Shenzhen Urban Planning and Land Resources Commission started gather public input on Phase III station names. On June 28, 2016 Line 11 opened being the first subway line in Shenzhen with 8 car trains and 120 km/h maximum service speed and the first in China with a First Class service. Lines 7 and 9 followed on October 28, 2016. South extension of Line 5 opened on 28 September 2019 and west extension of Line 9 opened on 8 December 2019. Line 6 and Line 10 opened on 18 August 2020 bringing the length of the Shenzhen Metro to 382.1 km and the fourth longest in China. Second east extension of Line 2, second south extension of Line 3, second north extension of Line 4 and phase 1 of Line 8 opened on 28 October 2020 bringing the length of the Shenzhen Metro to 411 km.
Phase IV revised expansion (2020-)
The first phase of Line 20 was fast tracked from Phase IV to provide a shuttle between Line 11 and a new International Convention Center, now called Convention & Exhibition City. The construction started in September 2016, but as for early 2019, the construction is paused because the Development and Reform Commission did not approve the project. The Phase IV revised plan approved by the NDRC on March 26, 2020 approved the first Phase of Line 20 allowing for construction to continue. The line eventually opened in 28 December 2021.
Future expansion
Phase IV (2017–2025)
With the shortening of the Phase III implementation period, a number of lines (Lines 16 and 12) planned in 2007's Phase III moved into the next phase. By 2016, it was determined that Phase IV will have an implementation period between 2017 and 2022 and consist of 274 km of new subway. Lines 13 and 14 which originally had a long term 2030 completion deadline were moved into Phase IV expansion. In addition, a branch line of Line 6 will connect with the neighboring Dongguan Rail Transit system. Lines 12, 13, 14, and 16 and branch of Line 6 started construction in January 2018. Line 12, 13, 14, 16, and the branch of Line 6 was approved by the NDRC in July 2017.
Phase IV expansion
Line 12, 13, 14, 16, and the branch of Line 6 was approved by the NDRC in July 2017.
Phase IV Revised Expansion
The Phase IV revised plan approved by the NDRC on March 26, 2020 added a number of extension projects.
Long-term plan
In the Shenzhen Metro 2007 masterplan proposed four more lines (Lines 13, 14, 15 and 16) which have a planned completion target of 2030. In 2016, all aforementioned lines but Line 15 were designated as part of the Phase IV expansion, moving the completion date forward from 2030 to 2022. In 2012, four further lines Qiannan (Line 17), Pinghu (Line 18), Pingshan (Line 19) and Fuyong (Line 20) where unveiled, making the total planned length of the Shenzhen Metro to 720 km spread out over 20 lines. The first phase of Line 20 was fast-tracked and included in the Phase III revised expansion with a completion date of 2018. This leaves Line 15, 17-19 and the rest of Line 20 available for the next phase (Phase V) of subway expansion. Aside from the set masterplan, at the 12th Guangdong Provincial People's Congress in January 2014, it was proposed to extend Line 4 beyond the planned Phase III terminus at the Songyuan Bus Terminal in Guanlan. The proposal wanted to further extend this line to reach the future planned Dongguan Metro Line 4 at Tangxia station. This proposal aims to shorten the distance between the two cities in residents' minds, boost tourism industries in both cities and expand housing options. It would also allow for direct connection between Hong Kong and Dongguan. As the area in the proposed area is less developed, the cost in building the line is expected to be lower, with a feasibility study yet to be conducted. In addition to metro lines, 5 Pearl River Delta Rapid Transit lines connecting neighboring urban centers in the Pearl River Delta such as Dongguan, Huizhou, Foshan and Guangzhou, totaling 146 km, have also been revealed. In 2016, an even more ambitious masterplan, expanding the previously planned 20 lines to 32, was unveiled. The new plan envisions a 1142 km subway network to be completed by 2030. This will allow for travel between the central and suburban districts to be shortened to 45 minutes and for public transit to make up more than 70% of all motorized trips in Shenzhen.
Ridership
Since the opening of the first phase in 2004, there has been a steady growth in passenger traffic. In 2009 and 2010, passenger traffic soared with major openings of new phase 2 lines, with a three-fold increase in passenger traffic in 2010. On 12 July 2019 it set a new record for its peak ridership at 6.63 million.
July is the busiest month of the year for the Shenzhen Metro, accounting for 9.3% of annual passenger traffic, while January is the least busy month, accounting for only 6.7%. This is caused by Shenzhen's large migrant worker population.
Fares and tickets
Metro rides are priced according to distance travelled, and fares vary from 2 RMB to 14 RMB. Since December 2010 fares are based on a usage fee (2 RMB) + a distance fee. The distance fee is 1 RMB for each 4 km from 4 km to 12 km; after that 1 RMB for each 6 km from 12 km to 24 km and finally 1 RMB for every 8 km over 24 km distance. For passengers who wish to ride on business coach in line 11, they have to pay 3 times the amount of price that calculated by the regulations above.
Children under the height of 120 cm or aged below 6 may ride for free when accompanied by an adult. The metro also offers free rides to senior citizens over the age of 65, the physically disabled and military personnel. Tickets for children between 120 cm and 150 cm, or aged between 6 and 14 years, or middle school students, are half priced.
Metro fares can be paid for with single-ride tokens, multiple-ride Shenzhen Tong cards or 1- day passes.
Tokens
When using cash, a RFID token (NXP Mifare Classic) is purchased and used for a single, non-returnable journey. There are two different types of tokens, with green tokens for Standard Class, and yellow tokens used for Business Class which is only available on Line 11. All ticket vending machines offer both English and Chinese interface. The purchaser touches a station name to calculate the fare. After payment, a green token is dispensed, which must be scanned at the entrance station and deposited at the exit station. A penalty applies should a token be lost. Purchasers of green tokens cannot ride Business Class on Line 11 directly. Instead, they must get off at any transfer stations with Line 11 and purchase a separate yellow token.
Note that as of 2015, many machines accept only 5 or 10 RMB notes. The token(s) are only valid at the station where issued. Passengers are unable to buy an extra token for return journey prior to departure. Baggage X-Ray machines are located at each station, and may be manned during peak hours.
Shenzhen Tong cards
Shenzhen Tong is a pre-paid currency card similar to Oyster Card system in London and the Octopus card system used in Hong Kong. The multiple fare card stores credit purchased at stations. The card can be used by waving it in front of the card reader located at all entrances and exits to the subway system. Riders who pay for metro fare with a card receive a 5% discount. Since March 1, 2008, riders who pay for a bus fare with a card and then a subway fare within 90 minutes receive an additional 0.4 RMB discount on the subway fare. Card users pay a distance based fare.
Since June 30, 2011, cards containing both a Shenzhen Tong and Hong Kong Octopus chip have been available in both Shenzhen and Hong Kong. There are plans to further integrate the two systems, and for a new card which will be accepted all over Guangdong province and China's two SARs.
Unlike Hong Kong Octopus Cards, Shenzhen Tong cards cannot be sold back to the stations or have faults dealt with by SZMC. Instead, the customer must go to the offices of Shenzhen Tong. Students studying in Shenzhen can use the Shenzhen Tong to receive a 50% discount.
Note that all sorts of discounts will not applicable for people who wish to ride business coach in line 11.
Metro cards can also be used on Shenzhen's public bus system.
Metro 1-day passes
Metro 1-day pass is a smart card that allowed the card holder have unlimited access of the metro system in 24 continuous hours. Passengers can purchase a 1-day pass for RMB 25 in the service center in any metro station. The pass will be activated and the passenger will have 24 continuous hour for unlimited access after the first entrance. When the pass expired, the pass is no longer available for entering a station but able to exiting a station and finish a journey in 27.5 hours. The 1-day passes are not applicable for business coach in line 11.
Station facilities, amenities and services
Some stations have toilets (free of charge), and public telephones. SZMC also operates luggage storage facilities in the concourse above Luohu Station. Mobile phone service is available throughout the system provided by China Mobile, China Telecom, and China Unicom.
Like the Hong Kong MTR, Guangzhou, and Foshan metros, station announcements are in Mandarin, Cantonese and English. Some announcements, such as train arrival, are in Mandarin and English only. Cantonese, an important local language, is chosen for the local Cantonese population as well as Cantonese speakers in Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau.
The stations of line 6 and line 10 are the first metro stations in China to have 5G coverage.
Equipment
Rolling stock
Line 1
22 Bombardier Transportation Movia 456 6-car sets (101–122)
4 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type A 6-car sets, traction units by Bombardier Transportation (123–126)
26 Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works Type A 6-car sets, traction units by Siemens (127–152)
33 Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works Type A 6-car sets, traction units by CSR Times Electric. (153–185)
Line 2
35 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type A 6-car sets, traction units by Bombardier Transportation (201–235)
17 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type A 6-car sets, traction units by Bombardier Transportation (236–239、241–252), by CRRC Qingdao Sifang (240).
5 Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works Type A 6-car sets, traction units by CRRC Times Electric (253–257)
Line 3
43 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type B 6-car sets, traction units by Hyundai Rotem (301–343)
33 Nanjing Puzhen Rolling Stock Works Type B 6-car sets, traction units by Hyundai Rotem (344–376)
Line 4
52 Nanjing Puzhen Rolling Stock Works Type A 6-car sets (401-452)
Line 5
22 Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works Type A 6-car sets, traction units by Siemens (501–522)
8 Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works Type A 6-car sets, traction units by CSR Times Electric (523–530)
21 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type A 6-car sets, traction units by Bombardier Transportation (531–551).
6 Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works Type A 6-car sets, traction units by CRRC Times Electric (552–557)
Line 6
51 Nanjing Puzhen Rolling Stock Works Type A 6-car sets (601–651)
Line 7
41 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type A 6-car sets, traction units by Bombardier Transportation (701–741)
Line 8
24 Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works Type A 6-car sets, traction units by CRRC Times Electric (258–281[801–824])
Line 9
29 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type A 6-car sets, traction units by CRRC Times Electric (901–929).
22 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type A 6-car sets, traction units by INVT (930–951).
Line 10
35 Changchun Railway Vehicles Type A 8-car sets (1001–1035)
Line 11
33 Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works Type A 8-car sets (1101–1133)
Signalling system
On Line 1 and Line 4, Siemens supplied 7 (Phase 1) and 6 (Phase 2) LZB 700 M continuous automatic control systems; 7 (Phase 1) and 6 (Phase 2) electronic Sicas ESTT interlockings; the Vicos OC 501 operations control system with 2 operations control centers, fall-back level with Vicos OC 101 and RTU (FEP), 230 (Phase 1) and 240 (Phase 2) FTG S track vacancy detection units.
Line 2 and Line 5 use Casco CBTC system with 2.4 GHz frequencies, and so the system has suffered frequent problems with interference from consumer Wi-Fi equipment. By the end of November 2012, CASCO solved the problem on Lines 2 and 5 by switching to their standard solution with frequency diversity on 2 different channels.
Accidents and incidents
4 April 2011 – One worker was killed and four others injured on April 4 when a manually controlled chain hoist broke loose in a Line 5 tunnel in Longgang district. A preliminary investigation by district safety authorities found mechanical failure was to blame.
5 September 2012 – Service was suspended on Line 4 for several hours due to power outage.
9 September 2013 – Three passengers abandoned in Line 1 tunnel after train door opens.
17 February 2014 – Passenger passes out at Shuiwan station on Line 2 and dies after no help or CPR is provided for 50 minutes.
25 June 2015 – Worker killed during tunnel collapse in Line 7 construction.
19 April 2017 – Scaffolding for a metro station collapsed during the construction of the Line 8 on Yantian Rd, killing a worker and injuring three.
11 May 2017 – During the construction of the extension of Line 3 heavy rains caused a partial cave in at an excavation pit for a station on the southern extension of Line 3, killing 2 workers and injuring another.
30 October 2017 – A section of Line 9 tunnel near Shenzhen Bay Park station was damaged by unauthorized community drilling works above ground. While the damage was soon repaired, the line continued to operate at a lowered safety speed of 45 km/h for a week.
6 December 2017 – Unauthorized drilling works for an adjacent bouldering site damaged the tunnel between Houhai and Hongshuwan South station of Line 11, causing sections of tunnel to make contact with a train and the driver to sustain minor injuries. The service of the line was disrupted for 12 hours while the line operated on modified routes, until the damage was fully repaired.
23 December 2017 – A Line 11 train killed a suicidal man lying on the rails between Bihaiwan and Airport, disrupting the service for 80 minutes.
5–7 July 2018 – Over a span of three days, at least seven incidents occurred, where power cables were accidentally cut at various construction sites of Shenzhen Metro, causing blackouts in large areas.
10 July 2018 – During the construction of Line 10, workers accidentally dug up the pipes of Shenzhen Buji Water Supply Co., Ltd., disrupting water distribution system. The Shenzhen Economic and Information Commission warned and penalized the contractor responsible.
Since 9 February 2020 – Service between Futian and Xinxiu on Line 2 was suspended due to geographic movement caused by the construction of Line 14.
Network Map
See also
List of Shenzhen Metro stations
List of rapid transit systems
Dongguan Rail Transit
Foshan Metro
Guangzhou Metro
Hong Kong MTR
References
External links
SZMC (Shenzhen Metro Group) official website (in English)
MTR Corporation (Shenzhen) official website (Chinese only)
Rapid transit in China
Siemens Mobility projects
2004 establishments in China
Railway lines opened in 2004
Projects established in 1983
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Béla III (, , ; 114823 April 1196) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1172 and 1196. He was the second son of King Géza II and Géza's wife, Euphrosyne of Kiev. Around 1161, Géza granted Béla a duchy, which included Croatia, central Dalmatia and possibly Sirmium. In accordance with a peace treaty between his elder brother, Stephen III, who succeeded their father in 1162, and the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, Béla moved to Constantinople in 1163. He was renamed to Alexios, and the emperor granted him the newly created senior court title of despotes. He was betrothed to the Emperor's daughter, Maria. Béla's patrimony caused armed conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary between 1164 and 1167, because Stephen III attempted to hinder the Byzantines from taking control of Croatia, Dalmatia and Sirmium. Béla-Alexios, who was designated as Emperor Manuel's heir in 1165, took part in three Byzantine campaigns against Hungary. His betrothal to the emperor's daughter was dissolved after her brother, Alexios, was born in 1169. The emperor deprived Béla of his high title, granting him the inferior rank of kaisar.
Stephen III died on 4 March 1172, and Béla decided to return to Hungary. Before his departure, he pledged that he would never make war against the Byzantine Empire. Although the Hungarian prelates and lords unanimously proclaimed Béla king, Lucas, Archbishop of Esztergom opposed his coronation because of Béla's alleged simony. Finally, the Archbishop of Kalocsa crowned him king on 18 January 1173, with Pope Alexander III's approval. Béla fought with his younger brother, Géza, whom he held in captivity for more than a decade. Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Byzantine Empire after Emperor Manuel's death, Béla reoccupied Croatia, Dalmatia and Sirmium between 1180 and 1181. He occupied the Principality of Halych in 1188, but it was lost within two years.
Béla promoted the use of written records during his reign. Hungarian chronicles from the 14th century even state that he was responsible for the establishment of the Royal Chancery. The royal palace built in Esztergom during his reign was the first example of Gothic architecture in Central Europe. He was the wealthiest European monarch of his time, according to a list of his revenues, but the reliability of the list is questioned.
Early life
Childhood ( 1148–1163)
Béla was the second son of Géza II of Hungary and Géza's wife, Euphrosyne of Kiev. The date of his birth was not recorded. Studies of his bones show that Béla died in 1196 at around 49 years old, so he must have been born around 1148.
The contemporaneous John Kinnamos's reference to "the territory which his father, while still alive, had apportioned" to Béla shows that Géza II granted a distinct territory as an appanage to his younger son. Béla's patrimony certainly included the central parts of Dalmatia, (which included Šibenik, Split, and Trogir, which had accepted the suzerainty of the Kings of Hungary for decades), because Kinnamos mentioned the province "as Béla's heritage". Historians Ferenc Makk and Gyula Moravcsik agree that Béla also received Croatia from his father. Whether Syrmium was also part of Béla's patrimony, or if he only acquired it after his father's death is subject to scholarly debates. According to historian Warren Treadgold, Béla's patrimony also included Bosnia. The exact date of Géza II's grant cannot be determined, but according to Makk, Béla seems to have received his duchy around 1161.
Géza II, who died on 31 May 1162, was succeeded by his first-born son, Stephen III. Stephen III seems to have confirmed Béla's possession of the duchy, because Kinnamos referred to the land which was "long before granted" to Béla by Géza and Stephen. Shortly after his ascension to the throne, Stephen III was expelled by his uncles, Ladislaus II and Stephen IV. The Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, supported the uncles' takeover, but Stephen III returned to Hungary and regained his crown by force in the middle of 1163. Béla probably remained neutral during his brother's conflict with their uncles, because there is no report of Béla's activities in 1162 and 1163.
In 1163, Emperor Manuel signed a peace treaty with Stephen III, in which he renounced his support of Stephen's opponents. In exchange, Stephen III agreed to send Béla to Constantinople, and to allow the Byzantines to take possession of Béla's duchy. The Emperor also promised that he would betroth his daughter, Maria, to Béla.
Despotes Alexios (1163–1169)
Emperor Manuel dispatched sebastos George Palaiologos to escort Béla to the Byzantine Empire. Béla arrived in Constantinople around the end of 1163. He was renamed to Alexios, and received the title of despotes ("lord"), which only emperors had used before that time. Béla's betrothal to the emperor's daughter was also officially announced.
Stephen III invaded Syrmium in the summer of 1164. Emperor Manuel led his armies against Stephen, stating that he arrived "not to wage war on the Hungarians but to recover his land for Béla", according to Kinnamos. Béla-Alexiosalong with his uncle, Stephen IV, and their distant relative, Stephanos Kalamanosaccompanied the emperor during the campaign. Before long, a new peace treaty was signed, once again forcing Stephen III to renounce Béla's duchy. A Byzantine army occupied Syrmium, which was organized into a Byzantine theme, or district.
Stephen III launched a new invasion against Syrmium in the spring of 1165. Emperor Manuel directed the counter-attack, and Béla accompanied him again. After the imperial army recaptured Zimony (now Zemun in Serbia), Béla persuaded the emperor to prohibit the execution of the Hungarian soldiers who were captured in the fortress. A Byzantine army also occupied Dalmatia. A new peace treaty between Stephen III and Emperor Manuel followed, which confirmed the emperor's suzerainty in Béla's former duchy. Dalmatia and Bosnia were soon converted into Byzantine themes.
Emperor Manuel ceremoniously made his daughter and Béla-Alexios his heirs, and forced the Byzantine notables to swear an oath of fidelity to them in the autumn of 1165. Only the emperor's cousin, Andronikos Komnenos, dared to condemn this act, asking, "What madness is this of the emperor to deem every Roman male unworthy of his daughter's nuptial bed, to choose before all others this foreigner and interloper to be an emperor of the Romans and to sit above all as master?", according to the nearly contemporaneous Niketas Choniates. Béla-Alexios participated in the 1166 Council of Blachernae, together with Emperor Manuel and the Ecumenical Patriarch Luke Chrysoberges. In the spring of 1166, Béla-Alexios accompanied protostrator Alexios Axouch, who led a Byzantine army against Hungary in retaliation for a new Hungarian invasion of Syrmium. On 11 April 1166, although Béla-Alexios and his bride were related to each other, Emperor Manuel confirmed a decision of the Ecumenical Patriarch, which stated that marriages between kin to the seventh degree were void. Manuel even proposed a marriage between his daughter (Béla-Alexios's fiancée) and the new King of Sicily, William II, in the autumn of 1166.
A new war broke out between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire in 1167, because Béla-Alexios "claimed the kingdom" of his brother, according to the contemporaneous Rahewin. Henry of Mügeln also wrote that many Hungarians joined and served the army of Béla-Alexios, stating that "the Kingdom of Hungary belonged to him [Béla-Alexios] by right". On 8 July 1167, the Byzantine army annihilated the Hungarian troops in the Battle of Sirmium. A peace treaty was signed, which put an end to the period of wars between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire, and confirmed the dominion of the Byzantine Empire over central Dalmatia, Bosnia and Syrmium.
Kaisar Alexios (1169–1172)
Emperor Manuel's wife, Maria of Antioch, gave birth to a son named Alexios on 14 September 1169. The emperor dissolved his daughter's betrothal to Béla-Alexios. The emperor also removed Béla-Alexios's title of despotes, but granted him the inferior rank of kaisar. In the spring of 1170, Béla-Alexios married the emperor's sister-in-law, Agnes of Antioch. The couple went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In Jerusalem, they donated 10,000 bezants to the Knights Hospitaller in compensation for their hospitality. In the charter of grant, Béla-Alexios styled himself "Lord A., Duke of Hungary, Dalmatia and Croatia", ignoring the title that the emperor had recently bestowed upon him.
Reign
Coronation (1172–1173)
Béla's brother, Stephen III, died on 4 March 1172. Arnold of Lübeck, who was staying in Esztergom, recorded a rumor suggesting that Stephen had been poisoned by Béla's supporters, but no other source verifies this hearsay. Stephen III's widow, Agnes, left Hungary, although she was pregnant when her husband died. A Hungarian delegation visited Emperor Manuel and Béla in Sardica (now Sophia in Bulgaria). They demanded that "Béla be dispatched to them as king", because "the principle of justice looked toward him" after his brother's death, according to Kinnamos. Kinnamos also said that Emperor Manuel made Béla king after Béla "promised an oath to observe for the whole course of his life whatever would be beneficial" to the emperor and the Byzantines. A letter written by the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos in 1196 says that on the same occasion, Béla pledged that he would never support the Serbians if they fought against the Byzantine Empire.
Béla and his wife arrived in Székesfehérvár in late April or early May. Béla was unanimously elected king by the "dignitaries of the Hungarian kingdom", according to a letter written by Pope Alexander III in 1179. However, Béla's coronation was delayed, because Lucas, Archbishop of Esztergom, refused to perform it. The archbishop accused the king of simony, because Béla had given a precious cloak to his delegate. According to a scholarly theory, Archbishop Lucas also feared that the influence of "schismatics" would increase under Béla's rule. Nevertheless, the majority of the barons and prelates remained loyal to Béla. Béla sought the assistance of the Holy See against the Archbishop Lucas. Upon Béla's request, Pope Alexander III authorized the Archbishop of Kalocsa to anoint Béla king and "place the crown on his head". Béla's coronation took place on 18 January 1173. He issued a charter confirming the right of the archbishops of Esztergom to crown the Hungarian monarchs. The unification of the so-called "Greek" and "Latin" crowns into the Holy Crown of Hungary seems to have occurred during his reign.
Conflicts (1173–1178)
Archbishop Lucas fell out of favor with Béla, and was ignored by him in the first years of his reign. Instead of Lucas, the Archbishop of Kalocsa baptized Béla's first-born son, Emeric, in 1174. However, administering sacraments to members of the royal family had always been the archbishops of Esztergom's job. According to a Bohemian chronicle (Continuatio Gerlaci abbatis Milovicensis), Béla imprisoned his younger brother, Géza, but Géza escaped from prison and fled to Austria in 1174 or 1175. Stephen III's judge royal, Lawrence, accompanied Géza. When Henry Jasomirgott, Duke of Austria, refused to extradite Géza, Béla launched plundering raids into Austria, together with Soběslav II, Duke of Bohemia. Meanwhile, Béla sent reinforcements to Emperor Manuel to help him fight against the Seljuks, but their united forces suffered defeat in the Battle of Myriokephalon on 17 September 1176.
Géza tried to persuade Soběslav II of Bohemia to help him meet Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, but Soběslav seized Géza and handed him over to Béla in 1177. Béla once again imprisoned his brother, and he also put their mother, Euphrosyne, in confinement. In retaliation for Soběslav's role in Géza's capture, Emperor Frederick dethroned Soběslav and appointed another member of the Přemyslid dynasty, Frederick, to the position of duke. The Holy Roman Emperor ordered the new Duke of Austria, Leopold V, to storm Bohemia. Béla soon intervened, threatening Leopold V with an invasion, which forced Leopold to leave Bohemia.
Expansion and reforms (1178–1194)
Béla's long-time favorite, Andrew, Archbishop of Kalocsa, insulted him around 1178. Béla soon deprived him and his supporter, the Provost of Székesfehérvár Chapter, of their offices and seized the Archbishop's revenues. Pope Alexander III punished Béla with ecclesiastic sanctions, but Béla reconciled with Archbishop Lucas of Esztergom, who absolved him and excommunicated Andrew of Kalocsa. The conflict ended with a compromise mediated by the Holy See: Andrew asked Béla to pardon him, and Béla restored him to his position of archbishop.
Upon Béla's invitation, Cistercian monks came from France and set up new Cistercian abbeys at Egres, Zirc, Szentgotthárd and Pilis between 1179 and 1184. In the 1180s, Béla initiated the building of a lofty royal castle and a new cathedral in Esztergom. Nevertheless, he was almost always wandering around the country. According to an inscription on a brick found in Bulkeszi (now Maglić in Serbia), Béla sponsored the baptism of a German "guest settler" in that village.
In the imperial court of Constantinople, Béla learnt the importance of a well-organized administration. According to the Illuminated Chronicle, Béla "introduced the same form of addressing petitions as was customary in the Roman and imperial court", which suggests that the Royal Chancery began functioning as a separate office during his reign. He emphasized the importance of written records, ordering in 1181 that a charter was to be issued for all transactions proceeding in his presence.
Emperor Manuel I died on 24 September 1180. Within six months, Béla had restored his suzerainty in Dalmatia, but no detailed contemporaneous accounts of the events exist. The citizens of Split "returned to Hungarian lordship" soon after Manuel's death, according to the 13th-century Thomas the Archdeacon. Zadar also accepted Béla's suzerainty in early 1181. Historian John V. A. Fine writes that Béla retook suzerainty of Dalmatia "seemingly without bloodshed and with imperial consent", because the Byzantine authorities preferred that Béla rule the province rather than the Republic of Venice.
The details of the reconquest of Syrmium are also obscure. Andronikos Komnenos accused the mother of the young Byzantine Emperor, Alexios II, of inciting Bélaher brother-in-lawto ravage the region of Belgrade and Barancs (now Braničevo in Serbia) in May 1182, implying that Béla had by that time occupied Syrmium. In the same month, Andronikos Komnenos captured the Dowager Empress and had her murdered by the end of the year. Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy in the Byzantine Empire, Béla advanced as far as Niš and Serdica in the first half of 1183. In Sardica, he seized the casket containing the relics of Saint Ivan of Rila, and ordered it "to be transported with great honors to his land and to be laid down with honor in the church" of Esztergom, according to the saint's Life from the Sofia Prologue. Makk writes that Béla withdrew from the regions south of the Danube, but historian Paul Stephenson says that Béla preserved these lands.
Andronikos Komnenos murdered Emperor Alexios II in late 1183. The contemporaneous Eustathius of Thessalonica writes that Andronikos's opponents sent letters to many monarchs, including Béla III, urging them to attack Andronikos. According to Ansbert and other Western European chroniclers, Béla invaded the Byzantine Empire in early 1185. After Andronikos I fell in September, Béla signed a peace treaty with the new emperor, Isaac II Angelos. Isaac married Béla's daughter, Margaret, and Béla granted the region of Niš and Barancs to Isaac as his daughter's dowry. The relics of Saint Ivan of Rila were also returned to Sardica on this occasion. Béla married Margaret of France, a sister of Philip II of France, in the summer of 1186.
Orio Mastropiero, Doge of Venice, laid siege to Zadar in 1187, but the Venetian fleet could not seize the well-fortified town. Vladimir Yaroslavich, Prince of Halych, fled to Hungary at the end of 1188, because his boyars had rebelled. Roman Mstyslavych, Prince of Vladimir-in-Volhynia, soon occupied Halych, but Béla invaded the principality and expelled him. Instead of restoring Vladimir Yaroslavich to his former position, Béla imprisoned him and granted control of Halych to Andrew, who was Béla's younger son. As a token of his conquest, Béla styled himself as King of Galicia. .
In the summer of 1189, German crusaders marched through Hungary under the command of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Béla welcomed Frederick, and dispatched a troop to escort the crusaders across the Balkan Peninsula. At Frederick's request, Béla released his imprisoned brother, Géza, who joined the crusaders and left Hungary. Béla mediated a peace treaty between Frederick I and Isaac II, whose mutual distrust had almost caused war between the German crusaders and the Byzantines.
Vladimir Yaroslavich escaped from captivity in early 1189 or 1190. With the assistance of Casimir II of Poland, he expelled Andrew from Halych, and regained control of the principality. In 1191, Béla met his son-in-law, Isaac II, in Philippopolis (now Plovdiv in Bulgaria) and Syrmium, but the results of their negotiations remained unknown. Upon Béla's request, the Holy See approved the canonization of Ladislaus I of Hungary in 1192. Béla invaded Serbia at the beginning of 1193. Isaac II demanded the withdrawal of his troops, and threatened Béla with war. At the same time, Doge Enrico Dandolo attempted to occupy Zadar, but failed. In 1193, Béla granted Modruš County in Croatia to Bartholomew of Krk, a member of the Frankopan family. This is the earliest certain example of an office being granted as a hereditary dignity in the Kingdom of Hungary.
Last years (1194–1196)
In 1194, Béla appointed his eldest son, Emeric, who had already been crowned as the future king, to administer Croatia and Dalmatia. After a united Bulgarian, Cumanian and Vlach army defeated the Byzantines in the Battle of Arcadiopolis in 1194, Béla was willing to assist the Byzantine Empire. However, his campaign was cancelled, because Béla's son-in-law, Emperor Isaac II, was dethroned by Alexios III Angelos in April 1195. Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, was planning to launch a campaign against the Byzantine Empire on behalf of the dethroned emperor, but Béla prohibited his subjects from joining Henry.
Béla took the cross as a token of his desire to lead a crusade to the Holy Land. However, he could not fulfill his oath, because he fell ill and died on 23 April 1196. He was buried in the Székesfehérvár Cathedral. His remains were confidently identified by archeologists during 19th-century excavations, because a contemporaneous sourceRichard of Londonwrote of Béla's exceptional height. Béla's skeleton shows that he was tall. Béla's remains were reinterred at the Matthias Church in Budapest. The DNA from skeletal remains of Béla and of another presumed member of the Árpád dynasty, scholars propose that the dynasty belonged to Y-haplogroup R1a subclade R-SUR51 > R-ARP.
Family
Béla's first wife, Agnes, was the daughter of Raynald of Châtillon, Prince of Antioch, and Raynald's wife, Constance of Antioch. Agnes was born around 1149 and died around 1184. At the time of her marriage in 1170, she was renamed Anna in Constantinople.
Béla's and Agnes-Anna's first child, Emeric, was born in 1174. Emeric's sister, Margaret, who was renamed Maria in Constantinople, was born in 1175. At the age of nine or ten, she was given in marriage to the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos, who was about 30 at the time. Maria's husband died in 1204, before the Sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. Margaret–Maria married one of the leaders of the Crusade, Boniface of Montferrat, who seized Thessaloniki after the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Historian Makk writes that in about 1210, Maria married Nicholas I of Saint Omer after the death of Boniface, but scholar Peter Lock says that Saint Omer's wife and Margaret–Maria were not identical.
The second son of Béla and Agnes-Anna, Andrew, was born around 1177. His two younger brothers, Solomon and Stephen, did not survive infancy. Their younger sister, Constance, married King Ottokar I of Bohemia in about 1198. A third daughter of Béla and Agnes-Anna, whose name is unknown, died in infancy.
After the death of Agnes-Anna, Béla proposed to Theodora, a granddaughter of Emperor Manuel I's sister, Theodora Komnene. However, a synod of the Byzantine Church forbade the marriage in 1185, because Theodora had entered a nunnery. In late 1185 or at the beginning of 1186, Béla asked for the hand of Matilda of Saxony, a daughter of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, but Henry II of England, Matilda's grandfather, hindered this marriage. Finally, Béla married Henry II's widowed daughter-in-law, Margaret of France, in the summer of 1186. She was the daughter of Louis VII of France. Queen Margaret outlived Béla, and moved to the Holy Land after his death.
Legacy
Béla was one of the most eminent medieval monarchs of Hungary. His "rule not only represented the apogee of the kingdom of the Árpádians, but also marked the end of an epoch", according to historian Pál Engel. His establishment of the Royal Chancery contributed to the "expansion of written records" in Hungary; the first charters issued by barons appeared in the 1190s. According to a contemporaneous list of Béla's revenues, his yearly income amounted to almost 170,000 marks (about 23 tonnes of pure silver). If the list is reliable, his income surpassed the revenues of the contemporaneous Kings of France and England, but the reliability of the list has been questioned by many historians, including Pál Engel.
In about 1190, after a fire destroyed Esztergom, Béla invited French masons to rebuild the royal palace and the cathedral. The masons introduced new architectural forms; the new royal palace and cathedral were the earliest examples of Gothic architecture in Central Europe. Coins depicting a two-barred cross, which was primarily used in the Church of the Byzantine Empire, were minted from around 1190, suggesting that the so-called "double cross" became part of the Hungarian royal heraldry under Béla III.
Notes
Sources
Primary sources
Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (Latin text by Olga Perić, edited, translated and annotated by Damir Karbić, Mirjana Matijević Sokol and James Ross Sweeney) (2006). CEU Press. .
Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus by John Kinnamos (Translated by Charles M. Brand) (1976). Columbia University Press. .
"Life of John of Rila from the Stishen (Sofia) Prologue". In Petkov, Kiril (2008). The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. Brill. pp. 265–268. .
O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs (Translated by Harry J. Magoulias) (1984). Wayne State University Press. .
The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa by Otto of Freising and his Continuator, Rahewin (Translated and annotated with an introduction by Charles Christopher Mierow with the collaboration of Richard Emery) (2004). Columbia University Press. .
The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. .
Secondary sources
Further reading
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1140s births
1196 deaths
Hungarian people of Serbian descent
House of Árpád
Kings of Hungary
Kings of Croatia
Despots (court title)
Burials at the Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Manuel I Komnenos
12th-century Hungarian people
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Joshua Reuben Clark Jr. (September 1, 1871 – October 6, 1961) was an American attorney, civil servant, and a prominent leader in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Born in Grantsville, Utah Territory, Clark was a prominent attorney in the Department of State, and Undersecretary of State for U.S. President Calvin Coolidge. In 1930, Clark was appointed United States Ambassador to Mexico.
Clark received a bachelor's degree from the University of Utah, where he was valedictorian and student-body president. Clark received a law degree from Columbia University, where he also became a member of Phi Delta Phi, a prominent international legal fraternity in which he remained active throughout his life.
Clark later became an associate professor at George Washington University. Both the J. Reuben Clark Law Society and the J. Reuben Clark Law School at Brigham Young University (BYU) are named in his honor.
Early life
Clark was the first of ten children born to Joshua R. and Mary Louisa Woolley Clark. He was born and raised in Grantsville, Utah, 33 miles southwest of Salt Lake City in Tooele Valley. At the time, it was a four-hour trip by buggy and train from Grantsville to Salt Lake City. The LDS Church members who settled the area were industrious and community-oriented.
As a break from farmwork, Clark participated in dramatic productions from his youth. He displayed a talent for public speaking, comedy, and humor at a young age. Clark also participated in the childhood diversions available on the frontier, sledding in the winter and swimming in the summer.
Clark's grandfather had been a minister in the Dunker Faith (Church of the Brethren). Clark's father, Joshua, had worked his way west through Utah as a trapper and freighter and felt drawn to the LDS Church after attending his first Sunday service, being baptized a month afterward. Education and culture were important in the Mormon communities in Utah Territory. Clark's father, although accustomed to hard physical labor, was also reputed to be a knowledgeable, culturally-oriented man. He was hired soon after his baptism to teach school in Grantsville.
Shortly after moving there from Salt Lake City, Clark's father married Mary Louisa Woolley, who was born on the plains as her parents made their way west with the Mormon pioneers. Clark's father was the sort of man who, while doing business in Salt Lake City, would sleep in a hay loft to afford to see a Shakespearean play, and he would make great sacrifices to afford to buy a good book. The small library in the Clark home was made up of history books, classics, an encyclopedia, the Bible, plus other religious works of the LDS Church. Although the younger Clark's education was spotty in his youth because of the demands of farm life and meager family resources, he was able to take music lessons and to play with various bands. He played the piccolo and then the flute.
Clark's father became the clerk, then superintendent, of the Grantsville educational co-operative, was elected the Tooele County Superintendent of Schools in 1878, became president of the Tooele County Education Association, and by 1879 was assessor and tax collector, with his two eldest sons helped with the accounting and record-keeping.
When his father later taught at a local private school, Clark was able to be formally educated for the first time. He was ten years old and had been schooled by his mother. Clark was not at school every term; sometimes, financial difficulties and farm work kept him at home. His father once related that Clark would "rather miss his meals than to miss a day from school." After completing the eighth grade, the highest grade offered at the Grantsville school, Clark repeated it two more times.
College education and early career
In 1890, at age 19 and with his father’s consent, Clark was taken to Salt Lake City to enter Latter-day Saints' University. Clark lived at the home of an aunt to save money, and he earned extremely high grades. The principal of the school was James E. Talmage, the foremost scholar and scientist in the LDS Church. Talmage hired Clark to be the assistant curator (and later, curator) for the Deseret Museum. It was a paid position and helped immensely to support Clark during his higher education. The curator position was also considered a mission and relieved Clark of being called to serve a formal full-time mission for the LDS Church. When Talmage was released as principal and called to create a new college for the LDS Church, he brought Clark with him as his chemistry lab assistant and clerk. While Clark would still curate at the museum, this helped Clark with his financial support and enabled him to finish six years of advanced schooling in four. Two of the years were intended to finish his unmet high school requirements. It was Talmage who called Clark "the greatest mind ever to leave Utah" and who encouraged him to attend an eastern university.
In 1894, Clark entered the University of Utah. Clark lived frugally and was even able to partially support his father, who had been called to serve as a missionary in the church's Northern States Mission, then as the mission president.
Talmage later became the president of the University of Utah and was also the first recipient of the recently endowed Deseret Professorship of Geology. Clark graduated in 1898 as valedictorian of his graduating class, while still serving as clerk to Talmage and on the faculty of the university. He had met Luacine ("Lute") Annetta Savage, the youngest daughter of Charles Roscoe Savage of Salt Lake City, in 1894, but he could not afford to marry her. She taught kindergarten and then worked at her father's store while dating Clark for four years. They married on September 14, 1898, in the Salt Lake Temple.
Talmage performed the sealing, the first that he performed. The couple had a modest reception by Lute's choice, owing to Clark's small means, but she came from a prosperous family. A few days later, Clark left for Heber, Utah, to find a place for them to live and start his first career position as a teacher and principal of the new Heber City High School.
The next year, Clark signed on as a teacher at Latter-day Saints' University, but he resigned in February to teach at Salt Lake Business College. Joseph Nelson headed the college and became an important benefactor to Clark. In the fall of 1900, Clark went to Cedar City, Utah, to become the principal of the Branch Normal School. The following year, Clark was an instructor in Commercial Law, Principal of the Shorthand Department, and Secretary of the Faculty at Salt Lake Business College. In 1903, Nelson was named cashier of the Utah National Bank, and Clark assumed most of his duties at the college. That year, Nelson offered to pay for law school for Clark, and Clark applied to Columbia University. He was accepted, and he received his entire education in law at Columbia.
Columbia
In the beginning of Clark's second year of law school at Columbia, he was elected to the editorial board of the Columbia Law Review. He was the oldest on the board, the only one married, and the only Latter-day Saint in the law school. In 1905, at the end of his second year of law school, he was admitted to the New York bar. He was granted a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1906. Clark had worked with James Brown Scott on the 772-page book Cases on Quasi Contracts (1905) during his schooling. Scott recommended him as Assistant Solicitor of the Department of State, and Clark received the appointment on September 5, 1906.
Government service and law career
Clark began his government service in 1906, when he was appointed Assistant Solicitor to the State Department. During his tenure in Washington, the Clark family (consisting of Clark, his wife and four children) was in the wake of the controversy over the Reed Smoot hearings in the US Senate.
In his position as Assistant Solicitor and then as Solicitor in the State Department, Clark was often confronted with critical issues of international consequence. For example, when the Mexican Revolution erupted in 1911, he was called upon to make crucial decisions and recommend courses of action to the secretary of state and Howard Taft. Of particular concern to Clark was the plight of the Latter-day Saints who lived in the Mexican colonies and were often caught in the middle of the conflict and whose presence in Mexico was resented by the revolutionaries.
After resigning from the State Department in 1913, after the election of Woodrow Wilson, Clark turned his attention to the practice of law. His family returned to Utah, and he opened law offices in Washington, DC; New York City; and Salt Lake City, specializing in international and corporate law. One of his first major clients was the Japanese government, which enlisted his services to combat anti-Japanese discrimination in California. Officials in the Japanese government extended an offer for him to become their permanent counsel in Tokyo and to reside in the Imperial Palace. Clark declined the offer, partly on the advice of Joseph F. Smith.
When the United States entered World War I, Clark was commissioned as a major in the Judge Advocate General Officer Reserve Corps (Army) and later asked to become Special Counsel to the Judge Advocate General. Also during World War I, Clark worked in the U.S. Attorney General's office. He also participated in creating the regulations for the Selective Service.
In 1926, Clark was called back into government service as tensions with Mexico flared. His past experience in Mexican affairs as solicitor and his experience in diplomacy were called upon as the US President appointed him to the Mexican and American Mixed Claims Commission. The Commission, established by treaty in 1924 to settle monetary disputes between the two countries, was thought to be the best means of avoiding war with Mexico. Other positions of national prominence followed, such as appointments to Special Counsel for the United States before the American-British Claim Arbitration and then Agent for the United States on the US-Mexico General and Special Claims commissions. Later, Clark took a position as personal legal adviser to the US Ambassador to Mexico, Dwight Morrow, who had been impressed with Clark's work in the State Department.
In 1928, as Under-Secretary of State to Secretary of State Frank Kellogg in the Calvin Coolidge administration, Clark wrote the "Clark Memorandum on the Monroe Doctrine", which repudiated the idea that the United States could arbitrarily use military force in Latin America. The Memorandum was a 238-page treatise exploring every nuance of the US's philosophy of hemispherical guardianship. It was published as an official State Department document and partially reprinted in textbooks for years.
When Morrow resigned as ambassador to serve in the U.S Senate, Clark was recommended as his replacement. Herbert Hoover appointed Clark as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the United States to Mexico on October 3, 1930. That was a key post in US foreign relations and earned him instant prestige. Clark served as US ambassador to Mexico from 1930–1933.
Later, while Clark was serving in the LDS Church's First Presidency, he was summoned to the White House by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who asked him to be a delegate to the Pan-American Conference at Montevideo, Uruguay. Again, in 1933, Roosevelt tapped Clark, this time to serve on the newly-formed Foreign Bondholders Protective Council.
LDS Church service
In June 1925, Clark was appointed to the LDS Church's board of the Young Men's Mutual Improvement Association. In April 1933, Clark was called to serve Second Counselor in the church's First Presidency to Heber J. Grant. Grant held the position in the First Presidency vacant for over a year until Clark was able to resign from his ambassadorship and resolve necessary government matters.
Clark was sustained as Second Counselor to Grant on April 6, 1933. He replaced Charles W. Nibley, who had died in December 1931. The call was unusual not only for the delay between Nibley's death and Clark's call, but also because counselors were generally selected from within the church's general authorities.
Clark had also never been a stake president or bishop in the church. He immediately set out to relieve Grant of some of the administrative duties he placed upon himself that became a source of fatigue.
Grant had been active in business throughout his life and encouraged his new second counselor to continue to take advantage of business and governmental opportunities whenever possible. Grant believed the interests of the LDS Church would be best served by Clark continuing to be involved in leadership endeavors outside the church. A week after joining the First Presidency, Clark was asked to fill a position on the board of directors of the Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States, headquartered in New York. Soon afterward came the appointment as a delegate to the Pan-American Conference. Grant gave his approval to both proposals, and Clark felt duty-bound to again serve.
Following the church's October 1933 General Conference, Roosevelt again asked Clark to serve on the Foreign Bondholders' Protective Council. As the Great Depression ravaged the world's economies, a billion dollars in US citizen-owned foreign bonds had fallen into default. Clark was asked to lead the Council's effort in recovering money on the defaulted bonds, first as General Counsel and then as Council President.
In 1933, Clark began urging change in the LDS Church's welfare policy, which directed members to seek assistance from the government before the church, to adopt many of the innovative techniques instituted by Harold B. Lee of the Salt Lake Pioneer Stake to aid church members, such as employment co-ordination, operation of a farm and cannery, and the organization of jobs for stake members to refurbish and sell a Utah company's unsold, defective products.
Apostleship
In September 1934, Grant's First Counselor, Anthony W. Ivins, died. In October 1934, Clark was ordained an apostle and member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles for purposes of seniority. Immediately thereafter, he was set apart as Grant's First Counselor, with David O. McKay as the Second Counselor.
In 1935, Grant presented a new "Church Security" program, renamed the "Welfare Plan" in 1938, which encouraged industry and personal responsibility and enabled the members to turn to the church instead of relying on the "demoralizing system" of government dependence. The Welfare Plan would centralize the church's efforts and grow to include a "Beautification Program," church farms, Deseret Industries, and a Bishop's Central Storehouse. In a special meeting of stake presidents on October 2, 1936, Clark would capture the goal of church welfare: "The real long term objective of the Welfare Plan is the building of character in the members of the Church, givers and receivers, rescuing all that is finest deep down inside of them, and bring to flower and fruitage the latent richness of the spirit which after all is the mission and purpose and reason for being of this Church." Clark's counsel remains the guiding principle of LDS Church welfare.
In 1940, Clark initiated a project to transmit sessions of general conference to additional assembly halls via closed circuit radio. In February 1940, Grant suffered a stroke that left the left side of his body paralyzed and eventually led to his virtual incapacitation. Soon afterward, McKay fell seriously ill, and by necessity, Clark took hold of the reins of LDS Church administration, but he always kept the other members of the First Presidency apprised and consulted with them prior to making any major decision.
After Grant's death, Clark and McKay were also first and second counselors, respectively, to George Albert Smith. However, when Smith died and McKay became church president, he surprised some by choosing Clark as his Second Counselor, with Stephen L Richards as First Counselor. McKay cited Richards's longer tenure as an apostle as the only reason for not making Clark his first counselor, and Clark's leadership style clashed with McKay's way of doing things. It was upon being sustained as second counselor in a general conference that Clark famously remarked, "In the service of the Lord, it is not where you serve but how. In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, one takes the place to which one is duly called, which place one neither seeks nor declines." Clark was returned to the position of First Counselor after Richards died in 1959. Although he served in that capacity until his death on October 6, 1961, McKay excluded Clark from much of the decision-making.
In the 1950s, while serving as Second Counselor in the First Presidency, Clark was able to see two major religious works he had been working on for several years published. In 1954, Our Lord of the Gospels a deep study of the life of Jesus Christ was brought to publication, with Thomas S. Monson serving as the representative of Deseret Book in the publishing project. In 1956, Clark's work Why the King James Version, advocating continued use of the King James Bible by the church, was published.
Clark was closely involved with most of the administrative innovations of the church while he was in the First Presidency. He was involved especially in advocating for regional priesthood councils.
Death
Clark died on October 6, 1961, at his residence, 80 D Street, Salt Lake City, Utah, at ninety years of age. Clark served in the First Presidency for over 28 years, longer than any other man who has not been church president. He was buried at Salt Lake City Cemetery.
Racism and anti-Semitism
As noted in D. Michael Quinn's 2002 biography, Clark's life spanned a period that saw "enormous changes in the attitudes and conduct of Western society, the United States, and the LDS Church toward the races and ethnic peoples of the world." As a young man, writes Quinn, Clark possessed "the full endowment of racism characteristic of late nineteenth-century America." Clark's nativist views were evident in his 1898 valedictory speech at the University of Utah in which he declared, "America must cease to be the cess-pool into which shall drain the foul sewage of Europe." Clark eventually changed some of his racial and ethnic views but maintained others to the end of his life.
Speaking to a church audience in 1956 about his service as U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, Clark admitted that he had gone to Mexico "with a great prejudice against the Mexican people." However, as he learned the people's history and lived among them, he came to develop a great affection for them.
Clark's views of the Japanese softened after he performed legal work on behalf of the Japanese embassy in 1913. Although his son-in-law, Mervyn S. Bennion, was killed during the attack on Pearl Harbor, Clark "neither felt nor manifested any bitterness toward the Japanese," according to Quinn. Clark wrote to an LDS serviceman on August 3, 1945, "I have nothing but kindness for the [Japanese] race."
During Clark's lifetime, Utah had de facto segregation policies, and males of African descent were excluded from the LDS priesthood. As a church leader, Clark resisted the social integration of whites and blacks and strongly opposed interracial marriage, explaining in a 1949 letter: "Since they are not entitled to the Priesthood, the Church discourages social intercourse with the negro race, because such intercourse leads to marriage, and the offspring possess negro blood and is therefore subject to the inhibition set out in our Scripture."
Clark nevertheless expressed support for Brown v. Board of Education, stating that "the Latter-day Saints willingly accord to [blacks] in civil matters all the rights, privileges, liberties, and protection guaranteed them... in all their social, economic, and political activities."
Quinn notes that "there was one ethnic group, however, for whom Reuben expressed lifelong dislike and distrust—the Jewish people." According to Quinn, Clark kept several copies of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in his personal library and shared it and other anti-Semitic publications with colleagues and acquaintances. He expressed anti-Semitic attitudes in "code words publicly and in specifics privately" and used his church position to obstruct what he perceived as "Jewish influence." After Nazi Germany's annexation of Austria, Clark denied desperate pleas by Austrian Mormon converts from Judaism who sought the church's help in emigrating to safety.
Clark's anti-Semitism seems to have derived at least in part from his ardent anti-Communism. Quinn notes that "although not all American anti-Communists were anti-Semitic, the more intense tended to be. Reuben's own fusion of anti-Communism and anti-Semitism was representative of this tendency."
Clark's views put him at odds with LDS Church president David O. McKay, whose "positive attitudes toward the Jews, Zionism, and the State of Israel were more representative of Mormons generally than were President Clark's anti-Semitic attitudes and administrative actions."
Career timeline
1900–01 President of the Branch Normal School (Southern Utah University)
1906–10 Assistant Solicitor for the United States Department of State
1907–08 Assistant Professor of Law, George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
1910–13 Solicitor for the United States Department of State
1913 Appointed Counsel for the United States before Tribunal of Arbitration under Special Agreement of August 18, 1910, between the US and Great Britain — $5 million in claims.
1914 Counsel in charge of US Agency, American-British Claims Arbitration
1918 Author, Emergency Legislation and War Powers of the President
1919–20 Active in the League of Nations controversy
1922 Utah Republican nominee for US Senate, also in 1928
1926 Agent of the United States, General Claims Commission, US and Mexico.
1927–28 Legal Adviser to Ambassador Dwight W. Morrow, Mexico
1928 Author, Memorandum on the Monroe Doctrine
1930–33 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the United States to Mexico
1933 Sustained as Second Counselor in the First Presidency of the LDS Church, 6 April, Heber J. Grant, President
1933 Named member, board of trustees of Brigham Young University
1933 Delegate of the United States to the Seventh International Conference of American States (Pan-American Conference), Montevideo, Uruguay
1933 Elected Director, Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States, New York City
1934 Sustained as Apostle and as First Counselor in the First Presidency, 6 October, Heber J. Grant, President
1934–53 President, Director of KSL Radio Station; Vice-President and Director of Zions Cooperative Mercantile Institution (ZCMI)
1936 United States representative on Committee for the Study of International Loan Contracts (League of Nations)
1944 Elected Director, Western Pacific Railroad, San Francisco, California
1945 Sustained as First Counselor to President George Albert Smith, 21 May, LDS Church
1949 Elected Vice-President, First National Bank, 11 January
1949 Elected Vice-President, Utah Hotel Company, 23 February
1950 Elected member, board of trustees, the Roosevelt Memorial Association, 27 October
1951 Sustained as Second Counselor in the First Presidency of the LDS Church, 9 April, David O. McKay, President
1952 Elected Vice-President, Zion's Savings Bank and Trust Company, 8 January
1952 Elected Vice-President, Utah-Idaho Sugar Company, 20 April
1959 Designated First Counselor in the First Presidency of the LDS Church, 12 June, David O. McKay, President
1962 In 1963, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum for his contribution as a farmer, cattleman, and politician.
Published works
Quotes
"There has not been another such group of men in all our history that even challenged the supremacy of this group. It is the union of independence and dependence of these branches—legislative, executive and judicial—and of the governmental functions possessed by each of them, that constitutes the marvelous genius of this unrivaled document. ... It was here that divine inspiration came. It was truly a miracle."
Notes
References
Notes
Sources
, MSS 1715 (archival collection), L. Tom Perry Special Collections Library, Brigham Young University.
External links
Grampa Bill's General Authority Pages
J. Reuben Clark Law School
Biography on the J. Reuben Clark Law Society website
Making of the J. Reuben Clark Law School
J. Reuben Clark Law Society Attorney Chapters
J. Reuben Clark Law School Annual Conferences
J. Reuben Clark Law School Women in the Law Committee
Inspiring Lives: J. Reuben Clark, BYU TV video
J. Reuben Clark.co
Reuben Clark papers, MSS 1715 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
1871 births
1961 deaths
American cattlemen
American general authorities (LDS Church)
Apostles (LDS Church)
Columbia Law School alumni
Counselors in the First Presidency (LDS Church)
George Washington University faculty
Writers from Salt Lake City
People from Grantsville, Utah
United States Under Secretaries of State
Ambassadors of the United States to Mexico
University of Utah alumni
Burials at Salt Lake City Cemetery
Ensign College alumni
Latter Day Saints from Utah
Latter Day Saints from New York (state)
Latter Day Saints from Washington, D.C.
American anti-communists
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