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what is the limit to space propulsion systems? why cant a spacecraft continuously accelerate to reach enormous speeds? | the way i understand it, you cant really slow down in space. so i'm wondering why its unfeasible to design a craft that can continuously accelerate (possibly using solar power) throughout its entire journey. if this is possible, shouldn't it be fairly easy to send a spacecraft to other solar systems? | the limit is that you have to carry fuel on board, and the more fuel you take (to reach a higher speed), the more fuel you have to take just to carry that extra fuel. until like, you start getting braked by the [cosmic microwave background.](_url_0_) | 826 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/Physics/comments/4eax55/physics_shower_thoughts_part_ii_cosmic_radiation/",
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition30/tryanny.html",
"http://scitation.aip.org/content/aapt/journal/ajp/63/3/10.1119/1.17958",
"http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19630011050",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_resonant_cavity_thruster",
"http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?paperID=23913",
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition30/tryanny.html",
"https://what-if.xkcd.com/38/",
"http://wiki.kerbalspaceprogram.com/images/math/1/5/4/1542fde84b55f5387bc00f966f9359ac.png"
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if there is little to no friction or gravity in outer space to slow an object down, how come a space shuttle has a maximum speed? (apparently around 28,000 kilometers per hour). why can’t a spaceship continue to build momentum to reach up to light-speed? | they run out of fuel. you can bring more fuel, but that increases the mass of the shuttle, which means that you get lower acceleration until you've burned that fuel up. if you ignore gravity and the atmosphere and just think about a single rocket with fuel, then it follows the "tsiolkovsky rocket equation", which is change of velocity = (speed of stuff ejected out of engine) x ln (1+(mass of fuel/mass of rest of rocket) ) where ln is the natural log. what this means is that you get diminishing returns as you increase the fuel mass, because the natural log function only increases very slowly. if you increase the fuel mass from 1x of the "dry mass" of the rocket up to 100x (i.e the rocket mass is over 99% fuel), then you've only made the rocket about 6-7 times faster. at some point, it becomes far too expensive to add more fuel to just add a bit more speed, so we end up trying for a good compromise between making a rocket go fast, and having a rocket affordable enough that you can do other missions. of course, you can partially get around this with multi-stage rockets, where you decrease the rocket mass as you go. but you can't do this forever, because you need to have an engine powerful enough to eject gas at a high speed without breaking, and you also need to have some mass for your cargo and passengers and equipment. you can also try to refuel the rocket, but this also has diminishing returns. this fuel is now cargo for another rocket, and this new rocket has to carry this fuel up to a speed that matches the first rocket so it can catch up and hand over the fuel. so you end up spending a huge amount on fuel anyway. so yeah, it's not a situation where a space shuttle can't go beyond a certain speed because it'll break or something. it's just the limit of how efficiently you can accelerate it until you run out of fuel. | 94 | [] | [] | [
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|
why does white-meat turn white when cooked and red-meat turn red / brown when cooked? | well i was thinking that isn't all meat / muscle red-ish when the animal it is a part of is alive? so why does it turn different colours when cooked. this leads me to a few questions 1.) aren't all / most animals' flesh a red / pink colour inside? 2.) then why do different animals' meat turn different colours when cooked? 3.) i know the blackened colour is due to burning, but what is happening behind that? so in other words, what is the bio- / physio- logical explanation behind burning through cooking ? and i think that is it. thank you very much in advance! | it has to do with the concentration of myoglobin in the meat. myoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen to muscle tissue (in fact, it contains a "heme" group to bind oxygen, just like hemoglobin). dark meat has greater concentrations of myoglobin than white meat. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do i have to drink and ingest fluoride? why can't i just buy toothpaste with fluoride in it and rub it on my teeth? why do we have to put it in the drinking water? | is it really necessary to put fluoride in the drinking water if we can just buy toothpaste with fluoride in it and rub it onto our teeth? | there is a difference between topical fluoride found in toothpaste and rinses vs ingested fluoride in water. the object of fluoride treatment is to convert the hydroxyapetite that makes up tooth enamel to fluorapetite, which is less soluble. topical fluoride treatments can convert some of the outermost layer to fluorapetite and consequently a lifetime of treatment with topical products is of benefit in prevention of dental caries. ingested fluoride absorbed into the blood is utilized during growth and development converting a percentage of the entire mass of enamel to fluorapetite rather than just the surface layer as with a topical. this makes for a tooth much more resistant to decay, but it is only of benefit during growth and development. thus once all the permanent dentition enamel has finished developing, i'm guessing at an average age of 12-13 yrs, ingested fluoride is no longer of value for tooth enamel formation. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_fluoridation#Mechanism"
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why do looking at a bright light provoke you to sneeze occasionally? | the condition is called photic sneeze reflex. from what i have read, the jury is still out on the true cause, but the best guess is that the trigeminal nerve (responsible for facial sensation and motor control) and optic nerve run close together in the head. when your optic nerve is overstimulated by the light, some of the signal bleeds over to the trigeminal nerve causing you to sneeze. quick [sciam](_url_0_) article about it. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/looking-at-the-sun-can-trigger-a-sneeze/"
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|
why do humans have little-to-no memories from when we are very young? is the ability to form a memory a skill that must be learned? | long term memory develops throughout childhood and isn't inherent upon birth. explicit memory (memory that you are consciously aware of) is most noticeable past ages 2-3. there's a really good wiki article on this. _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_development",
"http://www.reddit.com/help/faqs/AskScience#CognitionNeurosciencePsychology",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_amnesia",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=memory+baby&restrict_sr=on&sort=relevance",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229703000431"
] | [
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|
if mars does not have active plate tectonics how does it have mountains that vastly overshadow earth's mountains? | olympus mons is a shield volcano thought to be produced by a hot spot which means it is very similar to hawaii. the rest of the mountains have a similar process (however this can be debated). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if earth's mountains are formed by shifting tectonic plates, are mountains on mars formed by the same process? | [here's a great video from a nasa employee](_url_0_) that outlines the various processes that form mountains on mars. in short, no, there is no evidence for plate tectonics on mars. the mountains are caused by impact events, and occasionally by volcanism--which can occur without a plate tectonic system, similar to hawaii or yellowstone (hotspots). like /u/gila_monster mentioned, olympus mons is a huge volcano. | 774 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/4563-the-mountains-of-mars-video.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanism",
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/4563-the-mountains-of-mars-video.htm",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2wOogk2LSSw&list=TL66cqRqs8WHn_iKQTzPBRCXI-36LSJv2D"
] | [
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|
is a star visible from an infinite number of positions? if so does that mean it's emitting an infinite number of photons? this doesn't seem possible. | a finite number of photons are emitted, and a star is visible from all directions, just not at every point in time. for a small photon detector it is possible to watch a small section of a star's surface and count photons are they enter one at a time, with some time periods having no photons entering as one was not emitted in that direction at a given point in time. or for stars very far away even even observing the whole star the photon rate is small. this is why hubble uses very long exposure times to find the furthest stars. [link](_url_0_) | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2004/07/"
] | [
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|
why do humans not grow facial hair until puberty? | this question can be answered at multiple levels. there are proximate and ultimate answers. the hair follicles of the face, armpits and genital regions are sensitive to sex hormones which change at the onset of puberty. that's the proximate answer; they respond to hormonal changes. the ultimate answers are much more complicated and potentially interesting. why, in the sense of what is the function or reason that they do this at all and is this adaptive and the product of natural selection? the prevailing hypotheses have to do with social signaling. that is, the appearance and yes even smells associated with hair in these regions signal sexual maturity which other members of our species interpret and then use to distinguish potential mates and judge attractiveness. it should be noted that these hypotheses are generally all rooted in historical settings. that is our current environment, including the prevalence of shaving, has not exerted significant selection to change the process and pattern underlying the way this evolved in our past. so there is necessarily a lot of speculation about what was going on when these features evolved in the past because it is almost impossible to test. and rejecting the conservative hypothesis that these are not adaptations, but simply artifacts and byproducts of other processes associated with puberty is very difficult to reject. | 42 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does facial hair start growing during/after puberty yet eyebrows and eyelashes etc. are there from the start? | why does puberty have any effect on hair growth at all? | it is a different type of hair called [androgenic hair](_url_0_) which doesn't start growing until puberty. it is distinct from vellus hair (the fine hair all over your body) and head hair/eyebrow hair/eyelashes. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgenic_hair",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_selection",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_sex_characteristic"
] | [
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] |
why, if we get a new set of skin every 80 days or so, does skin ever become wrinkled and old? | cells replace each other, so why does skin age if they are new cells? | collagen and elastase degradation in the skin matrix. these proteins give skin its flexible nature. over time the protein is no longer secreted as readily by fibroblasts and the existing matrix begin to degrade, resulting in looser skin. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do blind since born people dream? if so , what do they dream about since they have not seen any real shapes and colors before? | they do dream, but their dreams tend to involve experiences similar to their waking lives, with sounds, smells, and physical sensations but no visual information. by contrast, people who were sighted but lost it during their lives often have full sight in their dreams, since they are familiar with that sensory experience. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
if the universe is expanding at an accelerated rate then why will andromeda collide with the milky way? | the expansion is only happening on scales well above that of the local galaxy cluster. in our local region of space, attractive gravity dominates and things behave just like you'd expect in a non-expanding universe. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does bread becoming soggy when heated in a microwave and crispy when toasted in an oven? | i would think its because bread is relatively moist, and microwaves are particularly efficient at heating water. toasting it heats the water out of it, microwaving heats the water in it. | 48 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does toasted bread (like pizza or toast) get soft and soggy-like when heated in a microwave? | i've seen this question 6 times this week, check: _url_0_ _url_1_ edit: didn't mean that to sound dinkish, i just thought it was strange that this question keeps showing up so regularly. people really love toast. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1kbpf0/i_toast_bread_it_gets_hard_i_put_that_bread_in/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1k7k2n/why_does_frying_most_foods_in_oil_cause_them_to/"
] | [
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|
if the big bang originated from a point, how is it that we see the universe grow younger when we look at it from many different points around the globe? shouldn't we expect to see the universe simply "cut off" at the line marking where the universe still hasn't had time to expand into? | something never quite made sense about this because if to originated from a super dense point shouldn't the origin if the universe actually be a point we would have to aim at in order to view the universe near the origin? | i'm a layman, although i frequent /r/askscience so i've picked up on a few common pitfalls. what you've heard is a simplification. the thing is, the explanation of a super dense point is an easy way of expressing how densely packed matter was in the early stage of the universe, but the universe itself was still as infinite as it is today. it was never concentrated into a single point, it was just very very dense. the "explosion" or the big bang then refers to the rapid expansion of space itself, which is still happening today albeit at a far slower pace. this expansion of space happens everywhere. as such, there isn't a center, and there never was. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when we look out at the sky, why do we see so little stars? | if we're in a solar system, in a galaxy, in a cluster, in a supercluster, then why do we see a [relatively] very little amount of stars? why doesn't the sky look something like [this](_url_0_) (a supercluster) even without light pollution? | signal to noise ratio. if the light from a city shining off the atmosphere directs 100 brightness units toward your eye from the direction of the star, and the star directs 1 brightness unit towards your eye, you cannot distinguish that the star is there. it is same reason you cannot see anything if someone shines a flashlight into your eye, it overwhelms all the signal that you normally receive. | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.es-static.us/upl/2014/09/supercluster-galaxies-filaments-honeycomb-e1409913753903.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox"
] | [
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what causes carbonated drinks to explode when shaken up? | when an unopened, carbonated drink has been left to sit, the gas and liquid achieve a phase separation. gas at the top, liquid at the bottom. with the whole bottle being under pressure, there is a larger than normal amount of gas dissolved into the liquid. pressure can be between 1.5-3 bar(gauge) depending on bottle/can type and given temperature. when you shake the bottle up, the separated gas physically disperses among the liquid within the bottle as bubbles of varying sizes. the large ones rush to to top (you can see them as the foam in the bottle neck). small bubbles are also formed, but they travel much less quickly through towards the surface. if you shake the bottle vigourously and remove the cap these small bubbles will undergo rapid expansion due to the drop in pressure (boyle's law/ideal gas laws). due to the overwhelming number of these bubbles that suddenly expand, and their position under the surface and through the entirety of the liquid, and the strength of the walls of the bottle the only way for the force to be released is upwards through the opening. which is why if you leave it to sit long enough after shaking, and these small bubbles have dissipated, an unopened beverage will be unaffected. tl;dr - shaking makes lots of littles bubbles that expand when the cap is opened. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why can women orgasm multiple times and in multiple ways ? | women can climax multiple times and in multiple ways. men on the other hand can basically climax just one time in just one way. why did women evolved such a extensive mechanism and men not ? | the clitoris and the vagina stimulate two separate pathways. therefore the orgasms they have are both different. plus these pathways have a short refractory time, so that's why they can have multiple orgasms. if you think of sex from an evolutionary stand point this makes more sense. when a man climaxes he ejaculates, releasing sperm and fluids. these have to build up again before another orgasm can take place. and in terms of woman, when they orgasm, the muscles in the vagina contract, pushing the sperm closer and closer to the egg. hope this helped as a basic run through :) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do women have multiple and longer orgasms than men? | the reason(s) for the female orgasm in humans are not yet confidently known. taking into consideration women sexuality and the phenomena itself, i'm sure it's not just a simple "carrot" as stated in one of the answers above. in other mammals such as pigs, sexual arousal before an artificial insemination has been shown to increase litter size and chances of impregnation. regarding women: 1. there is a visible "upsuck" like contraction motion in the cervix during orgasm (and generally gut spasms that look like their trying to help impregnation). 2. there is significant oxitocin secretions during female orgasm (+ many women report feeling much more attached to the partner after an orgasm) i think currently the best guess for the function of the female orgasm is this: secondary purpose - increase chances of impregnation from attractive partner by helping the semen move up the cervix. main purpose - bond the women to the an attractive partner in order to increase the chances of him later reciprocating during pregnancy and child upbringing | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the maximum mass/size a star can reach? | if there is no limit to the answer of this question, how can stars have a limit on the amount of light they produce but not the mass they can be made of? would this mean a smaller star can produce more light than a bigger one at the peak of their light emitting life? | the weird thing is that observation and math disagree on this. the math says that anything bigger than about 150 solar masses can't exist because outward fusion pressure would blow off the outer layers before they could coalesce. observation says that there are stars bigger than that, and margin of error doesn't cover it. so either the math is missing something that allows for bigger stars to exist, or the observations are wrong. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do we hear several seconds of thunder noise after seeing a lightning? | after seeing a lightning, usually there is a 4-10 seconds of noise, despite the lightning takes only a fragment of second. what causes that long noise? | tl;dr: **because lightning creates sound all along its length at the same time, and sound travels at a roughly constant speed, so parts of the lightning bolt that are further away from you will take longer for the sound to reach you.** say a lightning bolt strikes the ground 1 miles (1.6 km) away from you. the sound from that point on the lightning bolt will take about 5 seconds to reach you. that lightning bolt stretches from high up in the cloud down to the ground, meaning the furthest point away from you might be 3 miles (5 km) or more away from you: that sound will take 15 or more seconds to reach you. and lightning more often than not has some pretty extreme zigs and zags and branches that go off in different directions, so the sound will be of varying intensity that whole time as more or less of the sound is reaching you at the same time. [this article has a diagram that might help visualize what i'm talking about](_url_0_). unless the entire path of the lightning just happens to be an equal distance away from you, the sound from different parts of the bolt is going to take a different amount of time to reach you. and even then, thunder can echo off the ground and back to you from a long distance away, especially in hilly areas. | 25 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/wxfacts/Why-Thunder-Rumbles.htm"
] | [
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why does it take several minutes for our eyes to adjust to the dark, when our pupils shrink so quickly? | it's not just the pupil that helps us adjust to bright & dark situations. there is a chemical called rhodopsin that detects when photons (light) hits it. the light breaks down the rhodopsin, and it takes a while for it to reform/replenish. so when it's bright and you go into the dark (or stop looking at a bright light when it's dark around you), the time it takes for you to adjust, is just the time that it takes for the rhodopsin to replenish. | 30 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there any scientific data that supports the idea that stress causes one's hair to turn grey? | long ago i seem to recall reading an article that completely blew this idea out of the water, that grey hair was purely a product of genetic predisposition, not tied in any way to external factors. still, today, i hear lots of my well-educated friends treat the stress-causes-grey-hair idea like it's well-accepted. so, what's up? | "there is evidence that local expression of stress hormones mediate the signals instructing melanocytes to deliver melanin to keratinocytes," notes jennifer lin, a dermatologist who conducts molecular biology research at the dana-farber / harvard cancer center in boston. "conceivably, if that signal is disrupted, melanin will not deliver pigment to your hair." [link to scientific american article] (_url_0_) | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-stress-causes-gray-hair",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/n1muz/can_stress_or_intense_fear_actually_cause_your/"
] | [
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why is it that when you stare and concentrate at a star at night it seems to "blink" and flicker? | no i dont mean my eyelids blinking before me. | _url_0_ its because of turbulence in the upper atmosphere of the earth. variations in air pressure make the air behave as a lens. it distorts the light which shines through it, and as the pressure changes due to air movement, the distortion changes, causing flickering. planets don't flicker as much because they are much less of a point source. the path of light from a planet (say venus) to your eyes is large enough to smooth out the distortion caused by the atmosphere. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_seeing"
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how do seals, or other aquatic mammals, smell underwater? | i just watched a [video](_url_0_) of some divers interacting with seal pups, and in many shots the seals bring their snouts very close to the divers and the cameras. when a dog does this, we assume it's smelling us, but i also understand "smell" to involving inhaling, which is presumably troublesome for a mammal underwater. is the seal smelling the diver in some way? how? do any mammals smell underwater? | mammals cannot smell underwater, because the act of smelling does involve inhaling. however, seals and other pinnipeds have extremely sensitive whiskers, which they use to gather tactile information about their surroundings. this is most likely what they are doing when "nuzzling" the divers. | 2 | [] | [
"http://grist.org/list/we-cant-get-enough-of-this-video-of-young-seals-acting-like-puppies/"
] | [] | [
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can gill-bearing animals somehow "smell" underwater? | they certainly can! it’s a really important sense for many fishes and it allows them to do things such as find food, avoid predators, locate familiar territory, and identify fish of the same species. although fish do not use their gills to smell, instead they use olfactory receptors located within pits (nares) on their snout. smells are carried to these receptors via the flow of water, where it comes into contact with the olfactory rosette (consisting of epithelial folds and lamellae), and upon contact a neural response is triggered in the olfactory lobe of the brain. the shape of the olfactory rosette and the number of lamellae determine how strong the sense of smell is for each type of fish. seahorses have no lamellae and some eels can have as many as 90. [more info](_url_0_) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264977119_The_Olfactory_System_in_Fish_Structure_Function_and_Role_in_Behavior"
] | [
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|
why do you get an itch? | they just seem to appear out of nowhere, what's the science behind it? | there are [many causes](_url_1_) of itching. an itch "out of nowhere" may be related to a cause of which the subject isn't aware. seemingly random itching usually has some physical cause, unless it is the result of psychological pathology. from [here](_url_0_): > when the stimuli lands on your skin, it may not bother you at first, but soon it will begin to rub back and forth across your skin. once the hair or dust scratches your skin's surface layer, receptors in the dermis of the skin will become irritated. in a split second, these receptors send a signal through fibers in the skin to your spinal cord and then up to the cerebral cortex in your brain. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://health.howstuffworks.com/skin-care/information/anatomy/question600.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itch#Causes"
] | [
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] |
since atoms are made up of mostly empty space and the universe is as well, how big would the "universe" be if it were a completely condensed mass? | the concept that atoms are largely empty is also not well established, as its unclear if there is such a thing as "empty space". this is compounded by the principles of quantum field theory which suggest quantum fields pervade all of spacetime anyway. we also have good reason to believe that all the matter and radiation in the universe can be squashed up into a single point (being the big bang starting point) if you suck out all the "empty space" (taking empty space as that between particles) . | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if the universe was confined to a finite space (like a box), would all matter eventually form into a gigantic mass, or would it keep forming stars and smaller planets? | basically, would there be an end of the universe, or would it keep going forever? | there's this concept called [schwarzchild radius](_url_1_). if you cram too much matter into too small a space (smaller than the schwarzchild radius for that mass) then the gravity would be too strong for even light to escape. we call the resulting object a black hole. cramming the entire universe into a box would result in a mondo black hole. there is also a lower limit to the mass a star can have and still shine; anything below 75 times the mass of jupiter has insufficient pressure to fuse hydrogen. i am sorry, but there is no way to realize your dream of having a pet universe in your living room. the best you could get would be a [rough computer simulation](_url_0_) - which is still fairly impressive. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/galform/virgo/millennium/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzschild_radius"
] | [
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how does light have momentum but no mass? | i got in a debate with a friend about light and how light acts as both a particle and a wave. he kept saying that light does have mass but i kept trying to explain wave-particle duality to him. we eventually gave up talking about it but i kept looking things up. i've found that light has momentum and that it cannot escape the gravitational pull of a black hole. i have also seen light bending from magnets under certain conditions. so how does light have momentum but no mass? | the full relativistic equation for energy is e^2 = m^2 c^4 + p^2 c^2. for massive particles at rest (p=0), we get the familiar e = m c^2. for massless particles (like light) we get e = pc. so massless particles have momentum proportional to their energy. also, wave-particle duality is not a special property of massless things. all particles exhibit this behaviour. | 44 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can light carry momentum if it has no mass? | the notion that only massive objects carry momentum stems from classical, newtonian, mechanics, which has been shown to just be an approximation for the more complete theory of relativity. in newtonian physics, momentum is given by the expression p = m * v, which would imply that massless objects have no momentum. but this expression is only a good approximation when velocities are low (with respect to the speed of light). since light travels at the speed of light, this condition is obviously not met. from relativity, the following expression can be obtained: e^2 = (m c^(2))^2 + (p c)^2 where e is the energy of the particle/object, m is the mass, p the momentum and c the speed of light. for objects that have non-zero mass that are at rest (so zero momentum), this reduces to: e = m c^2 for objects that have zero mass, such as photons, this expression reduces to the expression for momentum of photons: e = p c | 169 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can there be 'terrestrial-sized planets' around this 11.2 byo star? | i thought that heavier elements derived from old/expired stars were needed to form planets but [this article](_url_0_) says they've found some terrestrial sized planets formed near the beginning of the universe. now they definitely avoid calling them 'terrestrial' but if they don't think there's a chance that they are then i don't see why it is even interesting. | elements to form rocky planets, such as silicon, could have been formed in stars that died in a supernova explosion. these stars live a very short amount of time since the more massive a star is during its main-sequence life, the greater its luminosity, the faster it burns through its fuel, and the shorter they live, which can be on the order of a few million years for the most massive stars. so, there could have already been a few generations of star formation to provide material for terrestrial planets by then. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-01/uos-ass012715.php"
] | [] | [
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how bright does the sun appear from space, in orbit around the earth? | i assume the atmosphere scatters the light a lot - does that mean that the sun looks like a really bright point source? | it depends totally on atmospheric conditions, and where on the earth you are, and you elevation, and so on. at the equator, during clear weather, if the sun is at a 45 degree angle, only about 70% of its photons are reaching your eye. so it would, conversely, be about 40% brighter if you were in space. edit: this only accounts for visible photons. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what, from an evolutionary standpoint, does a mosquito have to gain from its bite stinging? | from the midwest and the mosquitos are killer this year. edit. itching not stinging. | nothing. musquito saliva contains proteins that block coagulations and vaso-constriction, and some other molecules, which makes it easier to feed. the immune system mounts a response to these proteins in the area of the sting, which causes inflammation - which causes the itching. everything that happens biologically doesn't have to have an evolutionary benefit. the itching is just a by-product. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to the iris when our eyes dilate? | what is the chemical/physiological/whatever it is change in the iris. what happens to the colored parts when the pupil becomes larger or smaller? | it's the same way anything in our body moves: muscles! humans have two sets of muscles that control the size of the pupil. the dilator muscles are spoke-like around the rim of the iris, so when they contract, the pupil gets larger. the constrictor muscles run in a circular pattern around the iris and act like a sphincter, so when they contract, the pupil gets smaller. [image](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Course%20Materials/Physiology%20101/Chapter%20Notes/Fall%202007/figure_10_28_labeled.jpg"
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when our pupils dilate, what's the iris doing? where does the colour "go"? | the easiest way to explain it is to refer to this diagram on this page: [_url_3_](_url_3_) also, look at this scan of a before and after image of the iris. [_url_0_](_url_0_) look at the diagram of the iris. the pupil is the hole in the middle, the sphincter is a circular muscle, and the dilator muscles radiate outward. as with all other muscles, when the iris muscles work they contract (or get smaller). when your pupil dilates, the radial muscles constrict, and the sphincter muscles relax. this makes the iris pigmented surface that we see sort of fold like an accordion, the inner part of the iris moves outward towards the outer part, and the pupil gets larger as a result. & #x200b; the opposite happens when the pupil constricts. the sphincter constricts, the radial muscles relax, the the pupil (the hole) gets smaller. & #x200b; so to answer "where does the colour "go"? it folds up and moves outward toward the outer edges of the iris. & #x200b; edit: found a scan that demonstrates that the iris isn't "flat" and can bunch up or huddle up when it dilates. i havne't found any "before and after" pictures unfortunately. [_url_2_](_url_1_) & #x200b; edit again: found a "before and after" picture! added it to main body of text. bear in mind it is a cross section view. [_url_0_](_url_0_) | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reviewofoptometry.com/CMSImagesContent/2009/10/f3%201009%202,3.jpg",
"http://www.ijo.in/articles/2015/63/8/images/IndianJOphthalmol_2015_63_8_630_169787_f1.jpg",
"http://www.ijo.in/articles/2015/63/8/images/IndianJOphthalmol\\_2015\\_63\\_8\\_630\\_169787\\_f1.jpg",
"http://mammothmemory.net/biology/organs-and-systems/the-eye/antagonistic-muscles.html"
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|
why do eggs solidify with the application of heat? | eggs are liquid right? and if that's true, then it should change into a gas once enough heat is applied. how is it that eggs become solid and delicious instead? | while the [egg whites](_url_2_) are mostly water, the liquid contains quite a few different proteins. [egg yolks](_url_1_) also contain quite a bit of protein as well. these proteins undergo a process called [denaturation](_url_0_) when excessive heat is applied. proteins are created by chains of amino acids in certain lengths, orders, and arrangements. the heat will ruin these arrangements permanently, creating the solid hard boiled egg (or some middle ground like over easy deliciousness). in any case you can't return the egg to its liquid form after its boiled or fried. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denaturation_\\(biochemistry\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_yolk",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_white"
] | [
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] |
why do eggs harden with heat? what is the chemistry behind that? | some people (namely, a biophysicist i know) would say it's more of a physical process, actually. it's pretty cool. as the egg heats up, the proteins inside of it basically go from being aligned to being all tangled up, so it's hard for everything to move around. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://periodicvideos.com",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBrYtOa8LD8",
"periodicvideos.com"
] | [
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|
why does moon appear bigger near the horizon? is it really an illusion? or is there something else to it? | and would it be true in other planets as well? | i forget he name of the optical illusion, but it's due to our brain compensating for perceived distance. things are smaller when they are far away, so if our brain thinks something is far away due to distance clues (such as discoloration, blurriness or objects between for reference) we assume it is large. when the moon is overhead, we have nothing to judge its distance by, so it looks small. however, when it is at the horizon, you can see a vast expanse of ground between you and it (as well as blurriness and discoloration due to the atmosphere), which your brain correctly interprets as the moon being very far away, so you perceive it as being very large (also correct). so it's really not that it looks bigger on the horizon, but smaller when its overhead because we can't judge how far away it is. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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carbon vs. silicone in transistor construction... which is better? | hey /r/askscience! i'm doing a little bit of research on the properties of carbon and silicon, and i've become a bit curious as to which one would be better for cpu construction. i watched a video describing cpus as a perfect si lattice that works nicely due to silicon's semiconductor properties. that being said, it seems that silicon doesn't have the natural tendency to bond with itself... si-si bonds are much weaker than, say, a c-c bond would be, and occur much less often [\[source\]](_url_0_). however, carbon isn't a natural semiconductor like silicon is. so... is there a trade-off? which one would be better for transistor construction and for use in cpu manufacturing? edit: silicone to silicon. whoops. thanks /u/coniform | just to clarify, *silicone* is different from **silicon**. cpus are mostly made of silicon, they don't have silicone in them. one key advantage rests on the fact that si-si bonds are weaker. it means that the si lattice can more easily accommodate foreign dopant atoms compared to its carbon analogue. as a result, it is possible to vary the electrical properties of si with relative ease. not so with diamond, say. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.thelivingcosmos.com/TheNatureofLife/SiliconVsCarbon_12May06.html"
] | [] | [
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is our solar system in a group of other stars of approximately the same age? | since our sun and solar system was formed from a massive cloud of swirling dust and gas, are we aware of other stellar 'cousins' (relatively) in our same part of the milky way. have astronomers been able to identify a batch of stars born about when our sun was. it seems most of the 'goldilocks' planets are locates quite far away. is these any reason there couldn't be an earth 2.0 in our local region of space? | short answer - we have "cousins", but they're not likely to be near us anymore, and not particularly good candidates for earth-like planets. a molecular cloud might form hundreds of stars all in one spot. as the radiation from the stars dissipates the cloud, you're left with an "open star cluster". however, the cloud was turbulent, and that means that the stars that formed inside it all have random velocities. blowing away the gas also means there's less gravity in the cloud, and the cloud was pretty loosely bound to start with. so an open star cluster isn't really bound together by its own gravity - the random motions "win", and it'll start to drift apart over time. it'll downgrade into a "moving group", and eventually it'll just mix into the rest of the star in the milky way. our sun has been around for about 5 billion years, and it takes about 200 million years to orbit the milky way. so we've gone around the milky way enough times that things are pretty well mixed. our "cousin" stars are likely all spread out around the milky way. some people have tried to spot stars that could have come form the same "stellar nursery" as our sun, based on their age and chemical composition. there's been at least one decent candidate, but it's really hard to tell, because all stars of the same age and mass are pretty similar. however, there's no reason why we should particularly expect earth-like planets around these stars. our "cousin" stars would have all sorts of random masses, so you'll have a few big blue stars that burned quickly and went supernova billions of years ago, a large number of tiny red dwarfs slowly burning away, and some stars like our sun in the middle. this is true any time we get star formation, so any other cloud is pretty much just as likely as our own originating molecular cloud to produce stars with earth-like planets. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[mathematics] if euclid derived a formula for finding a prime higher than all the other primes, why is us discovering a new prime so important? | for example... euclid said there are infinitely many primes because you can multiply all the primes you know together, add one, and that number will also be prime. so can't we just use that method to get more primes easily? | you've misunderstood the proof; given the first n primes, it is not, in general, true that multiplying them together and adding 1 will give you a prime number. for example, the first six prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, and 13. if you multiply those together and add 1, you get (2\*3\*5\*7\*11\*13) + 1 = 30031, which isn't prime since 30031 = 59\*509. what euclid's proof really says is that *either* that number is prime *or* there is a prime, call it p, that divides it. however, p can't be any of the primes you started with, because that would imply that it divides 1 (take the number above and subtract the product of the primes). thus, there is a prime not on the list. note also that if you take some arbitrary collection of primes, you can't even guarantee that the "new prime" you get will be bigger than all of the ones with which you started. | 71 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid's_theorem#Euclid.27s_proof"
] | [
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are there many stars in the universe that are not part of any galaxy? | at some point, stars would have formed and, coming together, formed galaxies (is this even right?). do all stars now form within galaxies, or do some form outside of them? if not, is there a way for, say, a collision between two galaxies to somehow free some stars from the pull of those galaxies? | [here is an article](_url_0_) of a star being ejected from its galaxy to live out its existence as rogue star. [here is a release](_url_1_) about stellar outcasts. edit: updated link | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.discovery.com/space/hubble-spies-trailblazing-star-ripped-from-stellar-nursery.html",
"http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/1997/02"
] | [
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since plants in greenhouses grow faster if provided extra co2, will we see increasing rates of plant growth globally over the coming century? | i think the short answer is 'yes'. the long answer is 'it's complicated'. **not all plants do grow more quickly under elevated co2 conditions.** a number of important food crops are co2 concentrators. they actively concentrate co2 in their tissues at present ambient levels. they have a limited capacity to increase this concentration any further, so they will be unable to benefit hugely from higher atmospheric co2 levels. plants that do this include grasses like wheat, sugar, corn, sorghum, but also many trees. to throw another spanner in the works, not all plants even respond favourably to higher co2 levels. some will slow or completely halt photosynthesis entirely. **but yes, those plants that do not concentrate co2 in their tissues do indeed tend to fix carbon much faster in co2-enriched environments and hence 'grow faster'.** this isn't necessarily a good thing though. rainforests will probably change substantially as different plants respond differently to the increase in carbon availability. vines will benefit hugely, whereas the trees will not. vines can be bad for the trees for a number of reasons, so we can't predict what will happen. **faster growth comes at a cost.** fixing carbon faster ultimately results in new tissues that are of an inferior quality in other respects and it can have profound impacts on other metabolic processes in the plant, and broader ecological consequences. plants grown under higher co2 conditions tend to have leaves that are lower in proteins and higher in carbohydrates, since they can fix more carbon, but the rate of uptake of other nutrients from the soil remains relatively static. nitrogen fixation is also important for plant growth. nitrogen comes from the soil and is necessary for the production of proteins. many plants are severely limited by soil nutrient availability and will not benefit from higher co2. additionally, the lower protein-per-fresh-weight of the leaves means that the leaves are less nutritious to animals. higher carbohydrate and lower protein means, for example, that phytophagous (plant eating) insects need to eat a *lot* more leaf material in order to meet their protein requirements for normal growth. bear in mind that phytophagous insects constitute the vast majority of all animal species alive. theoretically, this would result in larger insects. in practice, the higher co2 will increase global temperatures and insect growth rate is heavily temperature-dependent and they end up developing earlier with lower protein stores. then there are the birds that eat them, who need to catch and eat more insects in order to meet *their* protein requirements. the birds are also getting smaller. this also means for us, that some of our food crops will be of a lower nutritional quality, higher in carbohydrates, lower in protein. **higher temperatures will mean water stress will probably increase globally.** when it gets too hot, plants have to reduce their photosynthetic activity to prevent loss of water by transpiration. others are forced to stop because the photosynthetic machinery actually stops working at high temperatures. in a greenhouse, temperature can be controlled and water can be supplied whenever it is needed, but that is not true of the general environment. water is a limiting resource for many plants' rates of growth already around the world. climate change modelling actually paints a grim picture for water dynamics for huge portions of the world, which could easily mean water-limited growth and drought-related death in some regions. the interplay between all the various elements of the co2 cycle, temperature, water, and plant physiology are all tightly connected. but the temperature will be the killer. *please feel free to point out errors. my undergraduate degree was in plant science and zoology, then i went on to graduate studies in entomology. now in the social "sciences".* | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do we know that pi is irrational? | if you're into the maths, [wikipedia](_url_0_) has a nice little article on proofs of pi's irrationality. they're beyond me, but one of the approaches taken is that certain formulas pump out answers that we know to be false if we assume that pi is *rational* (answers such as 'an integer exists that is greater than 0 but less than 1'). this method is called proof by contradiction. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_that_%CF%80_is_irrational"
] | [
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|
how do companies put such specific expiration dates on products that sometimes go years into the future? | expiration dates are almost always estimates that are added starting from date of production. a lot of foods can last longer than expiration dates and some things can even last indefinitely past expiration dates, but have them ("best by") to ensure quality. like for example a lot of baking products like flour can last indefinitely as long as it's kept in an air tight container and is checked before use for things like bugs. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if diseases brought over from europe managed to wipe out so many native americans, why didn't any american diseases wipe out the european explorers? | iirc americans had fewer epidemic diseases mostly due to lower population density and fewer domesticated animals. this is one of several discrepancies between the societies covered in guns, germs, and steel if you want to read more. edit: moustachoid_t-rex has pointed out the effects of trade and the total population of the eurasian continent. as i have heard it explained, the combination of these factors with population density are required for epidemic diseases since they need to be able to spread quickly from person to person and have a large enough population to access that there are always fresh victims (by the time they "return" to an original village they have sufficiently mutated, or the population is sufficiently removed from the selective pressure that the disease can spread again). i think this may be a distinct argument from t-rex's, so you can read his post for his explanation. to be professional, i should also make clear that this is not my field, and i claim no personal expertise. | 294 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/1491-Revelations-Americas-Before-Columbus/dp/1400032059/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1330329505&sr=8-2",
"http://www.amazon.com/Comanche-Empire-Lamar-Western-History/dp/0300151179/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1330329758&sr=1-1"
] | [
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|
how are continental plates formed? | i understand how oceanic plates are formed...at divergent zones, where two plates are moving away from each other. but where are continental plates being formed?...or are these the "remnants" of pangea/gondwana that broke up? | we legitimately do not know or agree on when or how earth got it's continental crust. if i showed you a plot of % of president crust vs time you would see that every corner of parameter space is covered by some model. i will tell you what i think is the best explanation (though this is by no means universally accepted). the model that i think is correct was that advocated by armstrong (first proposed in the 60s) and that is earth got its continental crust early and fast. the reason why i think this is likely correct is 1) we know the rate of continental crust formation (arc magmatism) and destruction (subduction) and they are equivalent so we are not adding to the crust volume. the estimates have changed over the last 50 years and have gotten larger but always together. 2) we have zircons from 4.4 billion years ago (150 million years after earth formed) and they include other minerals including things you would commonly see in a granite (continental crust for our purpose is all granite) and the argument that was made based on those inclusions and some thermal modeling is that they formed in a subduction like environment. basically the first crust of earth was much closer to oceanic crust and then it was remelted to form continental crust. 3) we want core formation to happen early and fast (within 100myrs) and want other bodies like asteroids to differentiate early and fast (within millions of years in some cases) after formation. there is no reason why continental crust should be magically delayed. the continental crust we see today is largely the same crust we've had for billions of years and it keeps being rearranged by plate tectonics. some of it does get subducted and arc magmatism (from subduction zones) does produce new crust but these rates are the same so the net input is 0. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what differentiates oceanic plates from continental plates? | and i mean, other than the obvious fact that the continental plates rise above sea-level. (as a secondary question: if an earth-like exo-planet were *entirely* covered under a deep ocean of water, would we still expect there to be plate tectonics? and would we still expect there to be a difference between 'ocean' plates and 'continental' plates?) | there's no such thing as a ocean or continental plate. however, oceanic crust and continental crust differ in many ways. compositionally, continental crust contains more silicon, aluminum, sodium, potassium and other incompatible elements. oceanic crust contains more magnesium, iron, titanium and other moderately incompatible and compatible elements. the reason for this has to do with how oceanic and continental crust is generated on earth. the geochemical and tectonic mechanisms for forming the two kind of crusts is very different. oceanic crust is thinner (due to different mechanisms of crust production) and denser (due to the above chemical differences) than continental crust. therefore, on earth where there is oceanic crust there is a basin, and where there is continental crust there is a highland. the basins fill with the oceans, which is why oceans seem to have different crust than continents. to answer your second question: why earth has plate tectonics is not straightforward. earth is the only known planetary body to have plate tectonics. why a planet would have plate tectonics or not is not completely clear. however, water seems to play a major role, so its possible that plate tectonics could exist under a global ocean. if plate tectonics exists then continental crust could exist because subduction likely plays a major role in generating continental crust. however my answer is highly speculative due to many uncertainties inherent without more constraint and understanding of how plate tectonics works. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is a quasi-prime number and how are they used? | i can't find a good definition for this online anywhere. for some reason i get a lot of alien conspiracy sites when i try to google it. | a quasi-prime number is a positive integer n such that all prime factors of n are greater than a bound p(n). this bound grows much slower than n. for example, the function p(n) = n^(1/lnln(n))^2. for more, see the [encyclopedia of math](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Quasi-prime_number"
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how dangerous, if at all, is radiation from microwaves, cellphones, and other electronic devices? | most research i try to do on google leads sites with no sourcing etc. whats the scoop here? | well, i've said it before, but.. ok, well first you need to know that while the term "radiation" or "electromagnetic radiation" has negative connotations in the public mind, it's an entirely neutral term in the relevant sciences. x-rays, uv, visible light, ir radiation (heat), microwaves, radio waves, and so forth are all radiation, but only x-rays and to a lesser extent uv, can be said to always cause harm. i listed the kinds of em radiation in descending order of how much energy they have. the reason the most energetic kinds of radiation are harmful is because, when absorbed, they cause pretty violent stuff to happen. x-rays (ionizing radiation) and uv are the most harmful, because they have sufficient energy to break chemical bonds, and so alter or destroy your molecules (including dna molecules, where that damage can end up giving you cancer) now, microwaves are very low in energy; they have much less energy than visible light. they do not have nearly enough energy to destroy chemical bonds when absorbed. so for that reason, it's simply not physically/chemically possible for microwave radiation to be harmful in the same manner that x-rays and uv is. when you hear about 'radiation causing cancer', it's x-rays and uv they're talking about, so that's _not_ a reason to leap to the conclusion or even hypothesis that the same thing is valid for microwave radiation. it's hard to blame people, since they don't know the science here, but they're apples and oranges, physically. but while you can rule out the idea that microwave radiation would be harmful in the way x-rays/uv is, it doesn't necessarily mean you can completely rule out that it's harmful. but let's get to what _does_ happen when microwave radiation is absorbed. some molecules (e.g. water) are polar, and some (e.g. oils) are not. "polar" means they have a slight difference or unevenness in how the electrical charge of their negatively-charged electrons is distributed around their positively-charged atomic nuclei. they're like little magnets (except with electrical rather than magnetic 'charge'). now, light has an electrical field that goes back and forth like a wave (the wave-length being what determines the type of radiation, more energetic radiation like x-rays have short wave lengths, radio waves have very long ones). what happens with microwaves is that the polar molecules change their positions to try to align themselves with the electromagnetic field of the microwave - they move about. this does not happen with more energetic radiation because there, the waves are so short that the molecules have no time to react to them. nor does it happen with radio waves, because the waves are so long the molecule adjusts so slowly to them that it doesn't gain any energy. that's how a microwave oven works; by causing the polar molecules - in particular water (since that's the most common polar molecule in food) to move about, which means they're gaining kinetic energy and so heat from the waves. (that heat is then conducted around to everything else) so to a large extent, the effect of microwaves on molecules isn't very different from the effect of heating them. one difference being that microwaves penetrate matter much better than ordinary heat radiation (which corresponds to the infrared, except for things which are hot enough to be glowing-hot), which is why microwave ovens cook things much faster, as the food is being heated evenly from the inside out. there's a lot of reason to assume that microwave radiation, in particular at the low power levels involved in cellphones and wireless devices (about 1/1000th of a microwave oven, and in the oven they're bouncing around in an enclosed space), doesn't cause much harm. _but_, we cannot _totally_ dismiss the idea, because there are _some_ molecules it does break. your body has proteins (among other big molecules), which are big molecules which have a relatively delicate 'folded' structure required for their function. microwave radiation can cause them to move about enough that it disrupts their structure and breaks them. that much is known. it's at least _plausible_ that this could be bad for you. _however_, it's not quite as bad as it sounds, because you have to keep in mind that proteins "break" or mis-fold ('denaturate' is the technical term) _all the time_ in your body (in fact, a substantial portion of your proteins get mis-folded right from the start when your body produces them). ordinary heat _also_ causes proteins to denaturate (which, btw, is what happens when you fry an egg and the whites turn from runny transparent stuff into solid white stuff - the heat denaturates the proteins and causes them to lump together). anyway, so your cells are entirely equipped to destroy mis-folded proteins and make new ones, they do that all the time. so there's no reason to assume (and no strong evidence i know of) to believe that microwave radiation from electronics cause this to an extent that might be harmful. now, empirically, there's of course been lots and lots of studies on potential harmful effects of cell phones and such. i think it's fair to say the consensus is that there either aren't any, or that we don't know for sure, because if they exist, they're too small to be measured with great statistical significance in the studies they've done. **summary**: so the science is basically that there aren't any very strong theories to suggest why it _would_ be harmful, nor any strong empirical indication that it is. (after all, _billions_ of people have now been using cell phones for _years_. if there was some _strong_ risk associated with them, you'd really expect to find a clear and incontrovertible spike in _some_ statistic) to be frank, i think the whole _suspicion_ and controversy stems not so much from solid scientific reasoning, but more from the public (mis)understanding of the implication of the word 'radiation' here, in conjunction with a general superstition about new technology and invisible forces. scientifically, you really need either empirical evidence or a theoretical mechanism to have a cause to think or worry about something. you can't just appeal to ignorance and say that we must be careful merely because we don't know. because we can _never_ 'prove' something is non-harmful, you have to start from some reason why it _would_ be harmful. and from what we know about how radiation interacts with matter (and we do know a great deal about such things), there's not a lot of reason to be concerned. | 35 | [] | [] | [
"http://xkcd.com/radiation/"
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given a powerful enough telescope, is it possible to pick up 14 billion year old photons and watch the big bang unfold? | as /u/das_mime pointed out, we can't do it with light, but we can do it (indirectly) with gravitational waves. that's the importance of the recent bicep2 result. if correct (it probably is), it will let us watch the inflationary epoch (about 10^(-34) sec after the bb) unfold. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do flames always burn upwards? | when we burn something, why does it always burn upwards? what causes the fire to take a particular shape? | matter that is heated expands, causing its density to decrease. due to gravity heated (less dense) matter rises above cooler matter. with flames you see that typical shape because the heated air causes convection currents that pull the flame along. it doesn't always happen this way though - flames with pressure behind them like from a gas soldering torch will keep going in the direction the gas was emitted, and flames in zero-gravity will form balls. check out veritasium's video with a lighter on the vomit comet - _url_0_ | 198 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/xdJwG_9kF8s",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion"
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] |
why are bubbles always spherical when blown? | whenever bubbles are blown, they appear to always be in a spherical shape of different sizes. why not cubes or other shapes? | there are primarily two forces to consider: pressure and surface tension. there is an outward force due to the difference in pressure between the inside and outside of the bubble, and there is an inward force due to surface tension. the force due to the pressure gradient is trying to increase the volume but the force of surface tension is trying to decrease the surface area. these forces reach equilibrium at the shape which minimizes the surface area for a given volume: the sphere. | 31 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why doesn't the water in alcoholic beverages freeze? | say you've got a bottle of vodka in the freezer. i understand why the ethanol won't freeze, but there's still plenty of regular h20 in there. why doesn't it freeze? | colligative properties, my friend. the mixture of a solvent (here, water) and a solute (ethanol) will make a solution that has a freezing point below the solvent alone. the more solute there is, the more the freezing point is depressed, so beer will freeze before wine which will freeze before vodka, ignoring other solutes. if you had low-proof booze and got it cold enough, the solution would freeze. but the water would freeze out first, leaving behind a solution with a higher concentration of alcohol. ta-da! you've fortified the booze without a still! the same phenomena is why you put antifreeze + water mix in your car radiator, put salt on the roads in the winter, and use rock salt (cacl2) instead of table salt (nacl) mixed with ice to make ice cream. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does vodka freeze only when more water is added to the drink even though water is already a main ingredient? | this is a property of mixtures. if subtance a freezes at some temperature t1, and substance b at another t2, then the freezing temperature of their mixture varies from t1 to t2 as you add more substance b. in essence this property comes from gibbs free energy considerations. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is infinity? | this comment section is gonna be a blood bath... mathematicians, philosophers, physicists, etc, have all battled over the years to define what infinity actually is. the simplest mathematical description of infinity is something that is not countable. if you lined up an infinite number of apples on a fence, you could start counting them but you would never finish. it gets much more complicated after this... in addition to that definition you also have something called "classes of infinity" based on the way you derive them. if you dive into the world of infinite ordinals you get "larger infinities." an example is that the set of all natural numbers is a smaller infinity then the set of all real number because for every natural number, there are uncountably infinite real numbers... only to add to this chaos are the multiple areas of mathematics such as algebra, geometry, calculus, and topology which all treat infinity slightly differently. physicists jump into the madness with their theories of relativity, string theory, etc. i bet everyone else will have much more to say but i hope that gives some perspective on the matter. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would happen if jupiter suddenly ignited, and became a star? | i have heard before (can't remember where) that jupiter is on the threshold of becoming a star, and it had gained a bit more mass during its formation it would have been able to ignite and been born a star. so my question is; what would happen it our solar system of jupiter were to suddenly ignite and become a second star in our solar system? | [you heard wrong](_url_0_). the very lowest-mass brown dwarfs, that barely produce any heat at all and can only fuse deuterium, would theoretically be no less than 13 times as massive as jupiter. and these ultra-low-mass stars would cool to the point that they can not fuse anything on the order of a few million years, many many times younger than our solar system. the lowest mass true stars ([red dwarfs](_url_1_) which fuse normal hydrogen) are about 75 times the mass of jupiter. | 71 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_dwarf#Low-mass_brown_dwarfs_vs._high-mass_planets",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_dwarf",
"https://gyazo.com/7f91668632822d7f6de830bd25ba0fba",
"https://gyazo.com/ecab7cfcea213578fd099298db68db7c",
"https://gyazo.com/9923bc29aac4a90cf2a34086d7de3296",
"https://gyazo.com/3ef0a9fe41d3530f4a18bbc9f6fdcab0",
"https://gyazo.com/2675377bd2170fdaac2377091c0d7933",
"https://gyazo.com/2340ac3189f50d9e11fd71bfa8f19a6e",
"https://gyazo.com/b1618630f496505b445fee5eb7f2dcfb"
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why is it so difficult to make a car that doesn't run on gasoline or diesel? | or perhaps it would be more precise to ask why can't we mass/cheaply produce cars that don't run those fuels. | i'm not sure the answer is as scientific as you might think. i'm pretty sure oil companies would rather you depend on them, than you be able to just plug in every time you park your car. give it a few years, and the infrastructure might be there in enough places to justify the masses purchasing electric only vehicles. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i just rinse my fruit and vegetables before eating them, does it actually do anything to clean it of pesticides and chemicals? | people always say wash your fruit and veggies before eating them. i usually take that to mean quickly rinsing it under the tap for a few seconds, maybe rub it a bit if it's an apple or something then consume. if i eat a lot of fruit this way am i taking in a lot of unwanted pesticides and chemicals? or am i actually washing the stuff off? | while pesticides/agrochemicals are generally much more soluble in organic solvents, rinsing with water and rubbing the vegetables will still help quite a bit. this is because most of the pesticides will be absorbed by the dirt/dust on the outside of the vegetable, and if you get this physically removable material off the outside of the plant the majority of the pesticides will go with it. in addition, many pesticides are somewhat water soluble, so rinsing will help directly as well. as to whether or not you are taking in a lot of pesticides, the answer is more up in the air than you think. i do work with sample preparation of fruits and vegetables for pesticide analysis, and it is very hit and miss. 99% of the real world samples tested have no pesticide residue, but the few that do have *a lot* of pesticide. there is a reason i purchase organic fruits and vegetables. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are europe and asia considered separate continents? | historical reasons. there isn't a strict definition of what constitutes a continent. edit: it should also be mentioned that in some places, europe+asia are considered one continent, and in other places north+south america are considered one continent. | 96 | [] | [] | [
"http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-DMA3Z61TVzg/Tbv4zSu1eEI/AAAAAAAAAF8/yC8xAxKsBcg/s1600/ural.gif"
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|
why do amnesia patients lose their identity, but not motor functions? such as their ability to walk, talk, ect.. | isn't the ability to walk recalled on by memory? and most other things for that matter? i suppose this goes for anyone with the same sort of subject. i apologize if this question has been broached. | the brain is not one homogenous structure. there are [different parts that have different roles](_url_8_). there are parts dedicated to [senses](_url_3_) (pain, temperature, touch, proprioception etc.), parts dedicated to motor (including gross motor, posture, fine movements), and then parts controlling thoughts, including memory. think about a stroke patient. a patient with a stroke may have deficits to motor functions (including [walking](_url_4_) and [talking](_url_5_)) but no affect on memory. similarly, you can have damage to the [basal ganglia](_url_7_) that can cause abnormal movement disorders such as [parkinson's disease](_url_6_) or [chorea](_url_2_). people with bilateral damage to the [hippocampus](_url_9_) will have [anterograde amnesia](_url_1_), but no damage to motor or sensation. it's all about localization. as for your specific questions about walking: walking is a unique case. in fact, it has been shown that walking can be accomplished [without any connection to the brain](_url_0_) (the proverbial chicken-with-its-head-cut-off). however, most of the time our body is constantly receiving sensory and proprioceptive feedback and adjusting. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_pattern_generator#Locomotion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorea",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_motor_neuron_syndrome",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia#Causes",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia#Function",
"http://imgur.com/umSEf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus"
] | [
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] |
how is hubble able to see galaxies through all the stars? | our milky way can be imagined like a plate, with us sitting about 2/3 away from the galactic center. looking towards the center the density of stars is high (although we do know some galaxies in that direction as well). these stars in the plane form the band of the milky way that you can see during dark nights outside of cities. perpendicular to the galaxy the number of stars along a line of sight is much less and there's no problem at all to look outside. also, do not forget that the density of stars is very low and that even our milky way is very empty - in practice it is dust and gas between stars that is more of a problem for looking far than stars themselves. a good model for the stellar density in our neighborhood is if you shrink the sun to the size of a typical apple. if our sun was in manhattan, the next star, i.e., the next apple, would be in denver. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does it make sense to wash dishes with the bubbles because "that's where the soap is?" | i'm man enough to admit there's no 6-year old behind this question, just me. i just won't admit it in the title. < ahem > | this is outside of my panel expertise, but i spent a summer working for a major consumer products company in their soap areas. the primary reason that consumer soap lathers (makes bubbles) is because consumers are conditioned to believe that if the soap doesn't lather, then it isn't cleaning anything. there are many commercial soaps that do not lather, like dishwasher soap, which is why you're always told to never put your sink dish soap in the dishwasher. the bubbles do serve the helpful purpose of letting you know where you haven't properly rinsed yet, and what parts of the dish you have cleaned. and yes, for dish washing soap you're intended to use by hand, bubbles are indicative of a higher local concentration of soap which by their very nature will tend to be at the surface of the water. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are soap bubbles necessary when cleaning dishes? | let's say i put some hot water in my sink and submerge a dirty dish in the water. if i add some detergent in the stationary water, will the detergent start working on the fats? or do i really need to stir (add oxygen?) in the water and create soap bubbles? **are the soap bubbles actually doing anything, or are they just a side effect of the soap?** p.s.: sorry for my english, i'm not a native speaker. | no, soap bubbles are not necessary. as long as you have soap in water, it will do its job on dishes. however, bubbles are a helpful indicator that you have enough soap in your water, or that all the detergent molecules are not "busy" encapsulating grease. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why have mosquitos not evolved methods to suck our blood without leaving an itch? | is it because only humans can make the connection between the bite and the itch and thus only we are all the more eager to kill them, or because they would need to do it all at the same time (and make it known to us) in order to increase their survivability? i fucking hate mosquitos! | while i share your disdain, what selection pressure has been applied to their population? they don't itch until after they've flown away, so it's not like we stop the one that bit us from reproducing. and we haven't applied consistent measures against the several species over long enough times to have such a selection pressure. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do these galaxies all appear different colors? | [this is a zoomed in picture from the hubble ultra deep field.](_url_0_) why do these galaxies glow with a yellow, blue and red tint? | newer stars are generally hotter and therefore look blue, while older stars are generally cooler and look red. these all exist on a spectrum from the bluest, youngest stars and galaxies to the oldest, reddest ones. in short, it is basically a proxy for how recent large-scale star formation was in that galaxy/age of the galaxy. | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/hu/db/images/hs-2004-07-h-web.jpg"
] | [] | [
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why does venus spin backwards? is it upside down? | so venus spins in the opposite direction of all the other planets and it spins very slowly. i've also seen some claims that it's tilt is 180 degrees, ie it's on its head. presumably this is related. how big would an impact have to be to either knock it completely over or reverse it's spin? is that even possible? or is it a complex gravity interaction like with uranus? | there are a couple theories for this so far. the simplest is basically that something crashed into it, and changed its spin the other way. we can't see the surface well enough to see any craters or such, so we can't confirm nor deny. edit: as pointed out below, we can see the surface. my bad. another theory is that due to the density and mass of venus's clouds, gravity may have caused a lot of rotational energy to be dissipated through tidal friction. this would have slowed down the planet and then the continued gravitational effects would have taken it to the equilibrium we see today. this theory is based on the fact that the length of 3 venusian days and 3 earth years have almost the same length, leading to a possible case of 3:2 tidal resonance. the moon and the earth are (i believe, please correct me if i'm wrong) 1:1 tidal resonance, which means 1 moon day = 1 earth month. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it so much easier to balance on a bicycle when moving than sitting still? | i can't believe all the confusion surrounding bicycle dynamics. to my ~~chagrin~~ dismay, it has even been the subject of at least one phd dissertation. the reason for this confusion seems to happen when the rider's active steering input is neglected as a causative factor. jeez. to clarify the forces involved, let's do a thought-experiment: consider a bicycle going around a corner or around in a circle: as you may know, such turns are always accompanied by a tilted *leaning* toward the inside of the turn. at the same time, there is centrifugal force that pulls the opposite way; toward the *outside* of the turn. to answer your question, the forward momentum is the source that powers centrifugal force when it is needed, by going into a turn. while you turn, the bike resists because its mass wants to continue forward instead. (newton's 2nd law of motion) the rider's job, whether she's conscious of it or not, is to balance (a) the right amount of leaning with ... (b) the right amount of centrifugal force. all this in the context of the forward velocity. because greater forward velocity has an increasing effect on the amount of centrifugal force that comes from a given turn radius the rider is applying. this is accomplished by "steering into the turn" until the turn is sharp enough to counteract the falling tendency with outward-directed centrifugal force. the two forces are almost never in perfect balance for long, causing the rider to travel in a wavy path. i hope this helps. edit to add: gyroscopic effects are *not* what hold the bike up. get rid of that idea now. all the gyroscopic effects do is to help the bicycle (feebly) steer itself into a turn a bit when the bike is in the *process of falling over*. you can see this happen by launching a pilotless bicycle and watching it turn into its fall as it falls over, every single time. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does water start to "roar" just prior to boiling? | i've noticed that when you boil water in either a kettle or a pot, the water will start to make a low roar just prior to an actual boil, when small bubbles start to nucleate on the bottom surface of the vessel. is there a particular reason for this? | the bubbles that form rise into the slightly cooler water above them and quickly condense, collapsing with a 'click'. this happens many times a second with many collapsing water vapour bubbles, producing the roaring noise. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does water hiss when it is about to boil, while water already at a rolling boil does not? | whenever i heat water for cooking it begins to hiss loudly as it gets close to the boiling point. yet when the water comes to a rolling boil, it's almost completely quiet. why? does the water being aerated by the tap have anything to do with it? | this is a result of a phenomenon called cavitation. what happens is that the water that is in direct contact with the heating surface tends to become vapour (steam) and form little steam bubbles. but the moment these tiny bubbles are formed, being less dense than the water around them, they begin to rise in the water column. very quickly they come into contact with water that is substantially cooler than 100 °c, and as a result the steam changes back into water and the bubble collapses, making a very tiny little bang. when many of tiny bubbles are doing this every second, we hear it as a kind of hiss or roar. once the water is boiling, the sound stops because the entire water column is at 100 °c and so the bubbles can make it all the way to the surface and actually escape as steam. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can the distance between two distant galaxies be increasing at a rate greater than the speed of light? | so, hubble's law tells us that the distance between two distant galaxies is increasing at a rate linearly proportional to their current separation. this means that the speed of recession just keeps increasing at a pretty much constant rate, with no upper bounds. meaning this speed of recession can increase far beyond the speed of light. the explanation i have heard from some colleges is that the galaxies are not actually moving apart, but it is the space between that is expanding. i have done some reading into this, but i just can't wrap my head around it. can anyone offer an explanation for this? how is it that empty space can expand, and how can the resulting apparent movement of distant objects appear to exceed the speed of light? | it's the speed *through* space which is limited by 'c', not the speed of light itself. imagine you're at an airport. the maximum speed that you can move with your heavy suitcase is 10 mph. now, you get onto the moving walkway... you can walk at 20 mph, with the aid of the belt. are you exceeding the 10 mph limit? no, because you're only *walking* at 10 mph... it's the ground that's carrying you along, and making your walking speed look faster than it is. this is how it is; moving walkway = expansion of the universe. the universe is just the floor that the galaxies move around on, but the floor moves. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do your fingernails grow laterally along your nailbed while seeming so securely attached? | i understand that your nails grow distally away from their base, and that as growth of the nail occurs the older keratin is moved distally and newer keratin 'comes in behind it'. how does the nail plate grow along the nail bed while at the same time being attached? | the nail plate is generated by proliferating cells at the proximal end of the plate called the matrix (sort of under the cuticle). as the new nail is added it is pushed out towards the tip of your finder. it is attached to the nail bed - which is like the epidermis under the nail plate. the nail bed cells also migrate out towards the finger tip along with the nail. at the end of the nail bed is the hyponychium that seals the free edge of the nail plate to prevent stuff from getting shoved under the nail plate. so basically the growing tissue, in multiple layers, is continually being produced and moves out. the only "attachment" is where the progenitor cells sit on a basement membrane over the dermis - all the movement is in differentiated cells in the newly generated tissue. edit: [diagrams and gross pics](_url_0_) | 464 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.drvanbeek.com/assets/technique_information/hand_microsurgery/fingernail_injury/nailbed_injuries.html"
] | [
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how are fingernails able to slide along the nailbed as they grow, yet also remain firmly attached to it? | [deleted] | the answer is that they don't slide, rather the whole nail bed and nail grows out together. in the same way that the skin of your inner ear (all the way to the outer ear canal) grows outward, but it's not as though it's "sliding" anywhere. if you could look at a slice of your finger and recognize individual cell types, you'd see that the cells of the nail bed grow up, and out. the whole process is naturally carried forward, but as a unit, not with a sliding motion. does that make sense? | 104 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in a brown or white cow(a scoop or two of ice cream in a cup that is then filled with soda), why do the carbonated bubbles remain for so long? | oh, an ice cream float!! the dissolved milky fat in the ice cream increases the surface tension in the bubbles, which means they don't pop as easily/quickly. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how much heat does earth receive from the stars? | i'm sure it is a very small amount, but since light from distance stars reach us, shouldn't it provide some heat? has anyone calculated the amount? | the closest major star to earth is [alpha centauri a](_url_1_), which has a luminosity of 5.83 x 10^26 watts. the power received per square meter from a star is a [simple inverse-square relation (ppt presentation)](_url_0_): ( (s₀ = l / (4 * pi * r^2 ), where l is the luminosity of the star and r is the distance. alpha centauri a is 4.37 light years away (4.13 * 10^16 m), which means that **we receive 3 * 10^-8 w/m^2 of power from it**. this means that if you somehow managed to capture *all* the energy from this star with a 1 m^2 solar panel, and used it to heat 1 kg of water (about 1/3 of a gallon), it would take you **four thousand years** to heat that water by 1 degree celcius (1.8 f). **tl;dr: essentially zero** edit: i've done the actual blackbody calculations for earth: this is actually quite easy since ideally the temperature of a planet is proportional to the 4th root of the incoming radiation (as described in the powerpoint presentation i linked above). the difference between the predicted temperature for earth heated just by the sun and earth heated by the sun and alpha centauri a is approximately 3 millikelvin (0.002 c, 0.003 f) (corrected from my original estimate; i took the temperature to the 4th power instead of the 4th root). this is an incredibly small amount. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/%7Ejfk4/Abiol_574/Lectures/Lecture%205_Blackbody%20Radiation_Energy%20Balance.ppt",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Centauri"
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how much is the earth heated by distant stars? | **short answer:** the earth receives negligible energy from distant stars, but the earth receives enough energy to keep it at exactly 2.7 kelvin from the background radiation left over the big bang. **long answer:** the universe, to a first order approximation, is basically just photons and neutrinos. if you want to include atomic matter, then there's only about 1 proton per cubic meter of space. think about how *not* dense that is. your body, which has a volume of 1/10th of a cubic meter, contains upwards of 10^27 atoms. i don't even have a cutesy analogy to explain just big a difference in scales this is. anyway, stars produce relatively few photons. how little? well, *every single star in the universe, shining towards the earth, gives us less light than the smallest sliver of moonlight on a dark night.* as a completely random aside, why isn't the entire night sky bright? if the universe is infinite, then statistically, every line of sight should end at a star, so the entire sky be lit up like staring at the sun, right? of course, this is wrong, and is part of the way we know the universe has a finite age, and is called [olber's paradox.](_url_2_) as is tradition, this question is asked somewhat frequently, but there is no faq answer for it. some threads [here](_url_0_) calculate the energy the earth receives from distant stars, and finds it to be nearly zero. but what if the sun poofed out, and the earth's core went cold. what temperature would the earth be? in reality, the bulk of the photons in the universe were emitted about 300,000 years after the big bang. when the universe was about 300,000 years old, it was expanding, and so it was cooling. there were no stars yet. rather, the universe was filled with this really dense foggy plasma of protons, electrons, and photons, and the photons couldn't travel very far without hitting the matter particles (think foggy plasma, like inside the sun... but *everywhere*). so as the universe expanded, it cooled to the point that eventually the protons and electrons could bind and form *atoms*, and the universe very quickly became transparent to all this light. the temperature this happens is about 3000 k, which corresponds to a peak radiation with a wavelength of about 1 micron (or about 10^-6 meters), and would be radiating like an incandescent lightbulb. as the universe has continued to expand, we can still see this radiation today, but at a much longer wavelength, by a factor of about 1000. this is today viewed as the [cosmic microwave background](_url_1_), with microwave wavelengths in the millimeters to centimeters. this radiation is everywhere, and is basically the single biggest source of photons in the universe and is also the single best data set that we have about the origins of the universe. you know how looking at more distant objects means you're looking further back in time? well the cmb is basically a shell around the observable universe, 45 billion light years away. in fact, you've probably seen a little bit of it. old black-and-white tv received a little bit of static from the microwave background. if you've ever sat and stared at the black-and-white fuzzies, about 1% of that signal is due to the radiation left over from the big bang. anyway... as i said, this is the single largest source of photons in the universe. i worked it out a few months ago, and i think there are approximately 400-500 of these photons per cubic centimeter. they have a temperature of about 2.7 kelvin, so if you're absorbing them steadily, you'll be at 2.7 k too. so if the sun were to go out, and the earth's core were to suddenly go cold, we would be fucked, but at least this microwave background would keep us warm. [at least if you consider liquid helium to be warm.](_url_3_) | 47 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=heat+stars&restrict_sr=on&sort=relevance&t=all",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_%28temperature%29"
] | [
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|
are there any effects of returning transplanted organs to living donors? | for example, a person decides to donate his kidney to another, but after a few months, the donor develops kidney failure in his remaining kidney. as luck/bad luck would have it, the recipient dies from an unrelated accident but leaves the kidney relatively unharmed. would transplanting the donor's kidney from the recipient back to the donor be feasible? would there be any organ rejection or any ill effects? would the donor have to take anti rejection drugs, albeit at a lower dosage? | feasible - yes. in practice its never done because the removal will lead to some ischemic damage, living donors are specifically selected for their ability to live a healthy life with only one kidney, and the risk of adverse events during implantation is significant. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why can't you hear anything for a short time while yawning? | i can't hear anything while yawning, why is this? | this is a rather quirky characteristic of [the anatomy of our inner ear](_url_0_). the auditory ossicles (small bones that connect the ear drum to the cochlea) vibrate in response to vibrations of the ear drum. this vibration is conveyed to the cochlea where hair cells are bent and depolarized, transducing the vibratory signal into an electrical signal carried by the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain where the electrical signals are interpreted as sounds. now, the reason why this is important is that the auditory ossicles are also connected to a small muscle called the tensor tympani. the normal function of this muscle is to tense when loud sounds happen to prevent overly huge vibrations from rupturing the ear drum by stiffening the bones connected to it. however, yawning also causes the tensor tympani to tense, which paralyzes the ossicles and prevents the vibratory signals from being transmitted to the cochlea and perceived as sound. [this](_url_1_) is an incredibly old paper detailing the case of a man who could voluntarily contract his tensor tympani. while there are many extraneous details, the take away point is that altering the tension of the tensor tympani has auditory effects because of its relationship to the ossicles and, thereby, the cochlea. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/710/flashcards/1732710/jpg/tympanic_membrane-13E7B37C373594B8EF8.jpg",
"http://archotol.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=574181"
] | [
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does gasoline expand when colder? | someone(not a credible source) told me to fill up your car with gas when it's **not** hot out because you'll get more. this barely registered with me, but got me thinking nonetheless. a.) water expands when it's cold. does gasoline? b.) even if gasoline did expand, it shouldn't mean there is more volume, right? c.) why does water expand anyways in colder temperatures? i mean aren't the atoms slowing down, so shouldn't they be more likely to be closer together versus rapid jiggling of atoms(heat). | no, it's the opposite. as temperature increases, the molecules in a liquid push against each other more and more, slightly increasing the volume. it's not huge, but you get the best value in gasoline if you buy early in the morning. when water freezes, it expands. this is because water is shaped like /'\ . what it's a liquid, all those v shapes jumble about randomly. when it freezes, they form neat /'\ \,/ shapes, with each end of the v hooking into each other. these crystalline structures take up a bit more space than v's jammed into each other, so volume increases. however, if water freezes at much lower temperatures or higher pressures, it can form less compact forms of ice that don't take up as much space. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does gas actually get cooler when it expands in vacuum? | for example if i puncture a gas tank, it cools down since escaping the gas is working against the pressure of the environment and the energy is taken away from the internal energy of the gas. the work done by gas is taken away from the internal energy of the gas -- > t drops. however if i take the tank to interstellar space where there is nothing for the escaping gas to push against, then the work done by expanding gas (pressure times change in volume) is 0 too and the temperature of the gas stays the same. is it actually so? | what your basically describing is the [joule-thomson effect](_url_1_), where gas expands through a small hole to a larger volume. it is irreversible, but not quite the same as free expansion (i.e. if you instantly increased the volume of the container holding the gas). you are right that an ideal gas won't decrease in temperature. for a real gas, read below. if you expand an ideal gas reversibly in a piston, it cools because the gas does work on the piston, lowering the internal energy. an ideal gas stores all internal energy as kinetic energy, so if you lower the total internal energy, you lower the average kinetic energy per particle and therefore lower the temperature. in a joule-thomson process, the gas expands irreversibly and does no work. as we said, an ideal gas therefore doesn't change temperature. but a real gas might. why? because in a real gas some internal energy is stored as potential energy. potential energy is stored in the van der waals potential (approximated by the [lennard-jones potential](_url_0_)). if you change this average potential energy, you can change the average kinetic energy and change the temperature. here is where it gets weird: a real gas can either heat up or cool down as it expands in through a hole. after all, if the gas is farther apart on average then you tend to raise the potential energy (the long range part of the lennard-jones potential). but if the gas is colliding less frequently, you lose the high potential energy spikes in the lennard-jones potential at close range. in practice, this leads to an inversion temperature. start off with a hot gas, and expanding it makes it hotter. start off with a cold gas, expanding it makes it colder. every gas has its own inversion temperature that divides these two regimes. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennard-Jones_potential",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule%E2%80%93Thomson_effect"
] | [
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do planets still orbit stars that are densely-packed near the galactic core? | as /u/w00ster said, this is hard to observe. we rely a lot more on computer simulations or theoretical predictions. from this we infer that in those dense regions the orbits of planets are not stable, most of them would get ejected after a hundred million years (for comparison, the solar system is 50 times older). i don't have specific sources about the galactic core, but [this paper](_url_0_) describes the stability of planets in globular clusters, which are supposed to be the cores of ancient galaxies that were later merged into the milky way. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1086/186615"
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|
[physics] if matter can't move faster than light, how did the inflationary epoch of the big bang make the universe much bigger than one lightsecond in radius in one second? | matter can't move through the coordinates of spacetime with a velocity of c, but that speed limit does not apply to the changing geometry of spacetime itself. inflation is not the spreading of matter through space, rather it's the early expansion of spacetime itself. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do foods get stale, and at different rates and in different ways? | going stale is a process of the starch molecules in a food going from amorphous to a more crystalline structure. it happens at different rate because this depends on surface area, ingredients, environment, and any number of other factors. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what chemical reaction causes food to go stale? | in the case of bread, it's starch crystallization as /u/steinbergergppro mentioned. in the case of fats (which go rancid), it's oxidation by air. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
because there is "virtually" no friction in space, wouldn't you be able to reach the speed of light and surpass it eventually if you keep accelerating? | whilst friction slows down your acceleration, you do intrinsically need energy to move in the first place, even with no friction, based on how much mass you have and how fast you're going. special relativity states that the amount of energy you need increases exponentially to infinity as you approach the speed of light - unless you have no mass (like light itself!), in which case you can only travel at the speed of light. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the only speed-limit in space the speed of light? since there is no resistance, couldn't we continuously accelerate to travel at extreme speeds? | or is the barrier fuel-related? | the barrier is mostly fuel related (and limited by c), i [did the math not too long ago here](_url_0_). but it works out that to keep accelerating for a long period of time you absolutely have to have an engine that is able to convert over 50% of matter straight into thrust. even the best existing nuclear designs and ion engines today only hit a tiny fraction of a percent. to get to a high c speed with even an ion engine, as they are theoretically designed, you'd need more fuel than mass in the universe to get to near c speeds. and even the best theoretical nuclear engines (as in the stuff sci-fi novels use), would need a planetary mass lump of nuclear fuel to hit those speeds. using conventional rockets (hydrogen), you're not getting into relativistic speeds, there simply isn't enough matter in the universe for that (never mind that said rocket would be so big it would collapse into a black hole). of course, the fuel numbers go way down (to the point it's not much of an issue) if you simply store the fuel elsewhere (like an earth mounted laser blasting energy to your rocket). you're still limited by c, but time dilation helps you, after about 1 year of 1g acceleration you're going so fast you can fly many many light years on one (shipboard) lifetime. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2mzwo5/how_long_would_it_take_for_a_spaceship_to_reach/cma965m"
] | [
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] |
how big is the largest known planet with a density similar to that of earth? what would be the largest a planet could theoretically be? | what is the upper size limit of a non-gaseous planet? what about gaseous? i imagine gravity would be the limiting factor, but i know very little about planet formation. | if you go to [_url_1_](http://_url_1_/plot/), there are applets you can use to make plots of the properties of various extrasolar planets. [here](_url_0_) is a scatter plot of density (x-axis) against mass (y-axis). terrestrial planets have densities around 5 g/cm^3 and the biggest in the plot has a mass of around 0.02-0.03 jupiter masses, or about 50 earth masses. there are also objects of high density at masses bigger than 10 jupiter masses, but those are gassy brown dwarfs, not rocky planets. i'd imagine that the main limiting factor for the mass of a rocky planet is that, if its mass becomes sufficiently large, it captures a lot of gas and becomes a gas giant. i believe this is the currently popular explanation for how jupiter formed. so to make a massive, rocky planet, you have to avoid letting the planet capture a lot of mass in gas. that condition will depend upon the conditions in the proto-planetary nebula, which will vary from system to system. perhaps if you form the rocky planet after the star has ejected most of the gas in the proto-planetary disk, you could arrange to form a massive rocky planet without a lot of gas. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/v7JtH",
"exoplanets.org",
"http://exoplanets.org/plot/"
] | [
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] |
is it possible to build an optical telescope that could give you clear images of exoplanets? | is it a limitation of how big you can build the telescope or a more fundamental limit of light? | this would require interferometry on a massive scale that we don't yet have the technology to implement (but it's not impossible). to see in the the optical band with 1000 km resolution from 100 lightyears away (just spitballing parameters here), you'd need a telescope about 5000 km wide. this is not feasible, but an array of telescopes could do the job (the very long baseline array already does this for radio astronomy). this array of telescopes could either span the surface of the earth (while being close enough to point at the same thing), or could be in space. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/resources/1015/"
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are there seasons on the moon or on the other planets in our solar system? | is there autumn/winter/summer on the moon? how about on different planets? | yes. every planet has seasons to some extent. for mars, see here: _url_0_ the moon is almost perfectly lined up in its orbit, the tilt is less than two degrees. coupled with the lack of atmosphere, the moon doesn't have seasons that mean anything. there needs to be an atmosphere for even larger tilts to have meaning, which is limiting for some planets. on the extreme end, uranus has a tilt of 98 degrees. so it has seasons that are far more extreme than anywhere else, with 42 years of sun at a pole, dark on the other. google can get you details on this. most planets can be said to have four seasons, but its important to note that we humans picked four points to call seasons for biological reasons, not cosmological ones. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.universetoday.com/14719/does-mars-have-seasons/"
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what causes involuntary twitching/jerking movements when falling asleep? | occasionally when falling asleep my leg or arm will involuntarily twitch and wake me up. is this the body's way of telling me not to fall asleep...or is it caused by something else? | it's called a hypnic jerk. the exact cause is unknown. the consensus among researchers is that as you drift off and your muscles relax your brain misinterprets this as falling. your brain then sends signals to arm and leg muscles to regain balance. this would also explain the falling sensation some people experience just as they drift off. hypnic jerks fall under the broad category of myoclonic jerks. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do planet orbits lie on the same plane? | solar system models show the planets orbiting on the same [two dimensional plane](_url_0_). i was wondering if they have orbits that aren't on the same plane and we just model the solar system like that for simplicity. | the eight remaining planets (sorry pluto) orbit in *approximately* the same plane. the reason being that they formed from the [protoplanetary disc](_url_0_) that formed around the young sun billions of years ago. in general, clouds of gas collapsing under gravity tend to form discs, because of conservation of momentum/angular momentum. pluto was always the odd man out, being offset from the earth's orbit by about 17 degrees, and this was actually a contributing factor in its reclassification. | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.esimg.org/upl/2011/02/solar_system.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk",
"http://www.solarevents.com/wp-content/uploads/2006/10/solar-system-diagram-2.gif",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/plq0g/why_do_the_planets_orbit_the_sun_on_a_flat_plane/"
] | [
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] |
how does candle wax evaporate and is this safe? | candle wax is usually paraffin. paraffin is a mixture of c20-c40 alkanes. it doesn't really evaporate at room temperature, but some may sublime (evaporation of a solid instead of a liquid). the process is very slow and is safe. people have eaten paraffin with no ill effects so a miniscule amount of sublimation is harmless. other components of a candle may evaporate though. things like volatile aromatics. they also should be of no concern in general | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
my math teacher in 5th grade told us this formula to find out if a number is prime. i still use it today, but never found it mentioned/proved in mainstream books. anyone know if it works for all prime numbers? | the formula is: if (x^2 -1)/24 is a whole number, x is prime for x > =5 | this doesn't work, but it's interesting to examine why it appears to work for a few cases more closely. x^2 - 1 = (x + 1)(x - 1) if x is prime, and x does not equal 2, then (x + 1) and (x - 1) are both even numbers. let (x - 1) = 2k, then the test is that if k(k+1)/6 is a whole number, then x=2k+1 is prime. obviously, either k or k+1 is an even number, but k cannot be odd, as then 2k+1 would be an even number and therefore not prime. then k is an even number, and k+1 is odd. let k=2j. then the test becomes: if j(2j+1)/3 is a whole number, then 4j +1 is prime. obviously, exactly one of (x-1)=4j, x=4j+1, (x+1)=4j+2 is divisible by 3, and (x-1) and (x+1) are both even. so what the test actually shows is that if (x^2 - 1)/24 is a whole number, then x is not divisible by 2 or 3. i doubt that it is coincidental that this tests the first two primes, so i assume that somewhere along the line someone misunderstood a method of methodically checking divisibility by 2,3,5,7,11,... to see if a number was prime. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any predispositions to alzheimer's? is it genetic? would a genetic basis mean that the diseases is also hereditary? | there are a number of genes that have been found to be associated with increased risk of developing alzheimer's disease. the first one discovered was the apoe4 allele, which increases risk by between 10 and 30 times. others have recently been discovered which increase risk by smaller magnitudes, such as presenilin-1 and -2 and amyloid precursor protein (app). mostly these are associated with early-onset or familial forms of alzheimers. apart from the very rare familial form, it's not hereditary in the classical sense of the word - one of your parents having ad does not mean that you're going to get it. quite frankly, we still don't know what causes it. it's therefore not entirely possible to determine whether or not it's genetic. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.centerwatch.com/news-online/article/3682/prevention-trial-studies-population-100-genetically-predisposed-to-early-onset-alzheimers#sthash.URTQUPiT.dpbs"
] | [
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|
why can high frequency (x-rays) and low frequency (radio waves) both travel through materials even though visible light cannot? | one way to understand how this can be possible: visible light can travel through solid materials as well (such as windows). | 98 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1isok0/can_somebody_explain_why_radio_waves_can_go/"
] | [
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|
what makes ocean water bright blue in some parts of the world, but dark green in others? | my aunt who surfs all around the world tried to explain it, but she couldn't remember. it seemed like it had something to do with the depth of the water, or it's proximity to the equator? | there are different types of water throughout the earth. for instance, the great lakes are a type ii water. this means it's has 3 particular color producing agents (cpas). these are chlorophyll (providing blue and green colors) , dissolved organic matter (providing dark yellow/tan/brown color), and suspended minerals/sediment (providing a red to deep brown color depending on the sediment type). so, you will get water color based on the individual concentration of each of these cpas. for ocean waters there may be different levels or types of cpa, but i know in coastal regions of the oceans the three i mentioned are common, esp chlorophyll. on mobile so i can't get sources, however i am a freshwater remote sensing professional. edit: here is a book on remote sensing of coastal waters _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=FVpVENnqfLUC&pg=PA169&lpg=PA169&dq=color+producing+agents+remote+sensing+bukata&source=bl&ots=k3edwmQM-U&sig=_eS2ttdq-ZZXR5srr0VWUfleEXQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H4QjVPbzEcWU8QG3n4G4BQ&ved=0CDoQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=color%20producing%20agents%20remote%20sensing%20bukata&f=false"
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do some planets have a tilted rotation around their star such that one hemisphere always has "summer" and the other always has "winter"? | let's try building your theoretical planet! first option: tidally locking your planet to the central star. that gives you one side that's always warmer than the other, but doesn't give you traditional seasons. in fact, it gives you powerful, constant winds produced by the temperature difference between hot and cold sides (assuming you have an atmosphere to work with) , and no day and night. probably not what you had in mind. second option: the way you're suggesting i believe, is to have a planet that rotates around a tilted axis, which itself rotates around the vertical to the plane of the solar system with the same period as the rotation of the planet about the host sun. if that were possible, you'd have a planet much like ours, days and nights and years, with one hemisphere always summer and the other winter. unfortunately for the thought experiment, it goes against our understanding of the gyroscopic principle. the rotational axis will always tend to stabilise (exactly as a gyroscope) and in this case would probably average out the tilt with the final axis pointing somewhere near the vertical to the plane of the system, ironically removing any seasons at all. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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